Name :

Roll No. :

Topic :
Mohammed Ph : 9391326657,
Asif 64606657

HEAT TRANSFER
1. Heat can be transmitted from one place to another by three different
methods.
a) Conduction b) Convection c) Radiation

I. > CONDUCTION: - Due to temp. difference between different parts of a body,

the transfer of heat
takes place from the particle at higher temperature to that at lowest
temperature.

Hence heat is transmitted by molecules of an object due to limited

motion about the equilibrium position. This is called heat conduction.

In conduction, molecules do not leave their position. The molecule

transfer energy to the neighboring molecules due to mutual contact between
them.

The heat Conduction (i.e.) transmission of heat in this mode occurs in

solids and Hg.
E.g: - If one end of a metal bar is heated, then heat flows from the
hot end to the colder one by conduction.

a) STEADY – STATE: - In conduction, we define steady state which means that

temperature of
different sections becomes constant in this state. This does not implies that
temperature of all
section is same, they are different but are constant.

Theory of conduction is valid only at steady state.

b) ISOTHERMAL – SURFACE: - If we consider a metallic rod in which heat flows

from one end to
the other so that after sometime, a steady state is reached.

In this state temperature of every transverse section of rod is same

on the whole area of section. So this transverse section of the rod behaves as a
isothermal surface.

Flat No.301, Rukkus & Yellus Arcade, Fever Hospital Road, Barkathpura, Hyd-500065.
Ph: 040 – 64606657, 9391326657. www.asifiitphysics.vriti.com 1
 At isothermal surface, the temp
of all the molecules is same these
surface never intersect each other the
θ1 θ2
shape of isothermal surface depends on
the shape of conductor and nature of I s o t h e r mθ1 > θa2 l
flow of heat. It can be 1D, 2D or 3D s u r f a c e
heat flow….
The direction of heat flow is always normal to the isothermal surface.

C) TEMPERATURE GRADIENT: - The rate of change of temperature with

distance along the direction of flow of heat is called temperature gradient.

If we consider a metallic rod having θ and θ − ∆θ as the temperature of

two isothermal surface which are being at a distance of ∆x from each other, then

∆θ −dθ θ θ− ∆θ
Temp . gradient = = θ2
∆x dx
The negative sign indicates that θ1
temperature decreases with distance in the
direction of heat flow. x ∆x θ1>θ 2
Unit: - o C per meter (i.e) o C / M

→ LAW OF HEAT – TRANSFER THROUGH CONDUCTION: -

 dQ 
In steady state, the rate of flow of heat   through the cross –
 dt 
section of the conductor is
i) Directly proportional to the area A of Surface
dQ
αA
dt
 −∆θ 
ii) Directly proportional to the temperature gradient  
 ∆x 
dQ  −dθ 
(i.e) α 
dt  dx 
On comb ruing the above two forms, we get
dQ  −dθ 
αA 
dt  dx 
dQ  dθ 
=−k A   K = Coefficient of thermal conductivity of the
dt  dx 
material
Unit of k – J / M – sec – k
Now if dH is the amount of heat transfer in time interval dt, then
dQ dH
=
dt dt
dH K A ∆ θ
∴ = = rate of heat flow.
dt ∆x
If heat enters from one end such that temp decreases with distance in the
direction of heat flow, then
dH K A dθ
=
Flat No.301, Rukkus & Yellus Arcade, Fever Hospital Road, Barkathpura, Hyd-500065.
dt dx040 – 64606657, 9391326657. www.asifiitphysics.vriti.com 2
Ph:
→ HEAT – CONDUCTION THROUGH STRAIGHT ROD: -

Consider a metallic rod in which heat is flowing from one end to the
other. We assume two isothermal surface at a distance x and x + dx having
temperatures θ and θ − ∆θ.

∆θ
temp gradient = θ θ−∆θ
Ax
θ1
dH  dθ  θ2
Now = k A  −  → ( 1)
dt  dx 
If we consider whole length of the rod, then
x
to calculate rate of flow of heat, we x + d x θ1>θ 2
integrate the above expression. l

θ2 l
1 dH
∫ ( −dθ ) = ∫ K A .
θ1 o
dt
dx.

l
1 dH
KA dt ∫o
= . x No remove – ve sign

1 dH
( θ 1 − θ2 ) = . .l θ1 − θ2 not θ2 − θ1
KA dt
θ −θ 1 dH
∴ 1 2= . → ( 2)
l KA dt
Comparing (2) with (1) we get
dθ θ1 − θ2
− =
dx l
This implies that temp. gradient for straight homogeneous rod
remains same throughout its length.

For homogeneous straight rod, temp varies linearly.

Thermal Resistance of a straight rod is given by θ
l θ1
R Th =
KA
dH ( θ1 − θ2 ) Temp.difference θ2
Heat current = =
dt l
KA ( )
Thermal Resistan ce
l

Q) Calculate the amount of heat flowing through the rod when coefficient of
a
thermal conductivity is given by k = .
x

Flat No.301, Rukkus & Yellus Arcade, Fever Hospital Road, Barkathpura, Hyd-500065.
Ph: 040 – 64606657, 9391326657. www.asifiitphysics.vriti.com 3
 dH  dθ 
Sol: - = kA  − 
dt  dx 
dH a  dθ 
= . A − 
dt x  dx 

dH
x. dx = aA.dθ
dt
On integrating the above expression we
get θ θ − ∆θ
l θ2
dH
dt ∫0
x.dx = a A ∫ dθ θ1 θ2
θ1

dH  x2  l
dt
(
 2  o = a A θ1 − θ2
 
)
x d x
dH l2 l
dt
.
2
(
= a A θ 1 − θ2 )

dH 2aA θ1 − θ2
=
( )
dt l2

→ COMBINATION OF A STRAIGHT – RODS: -

1) SERIES – COMBINATION: - Suppose we have two rods of same cross

sectional area A. Length
of the rods are l 1 and l 2 and coefficient of thermal conductivity are k 1 and k 2
respectively.
Ends of the composite rod are maintained at A ( θ1 ) B ( θ) C ( θ2 )
temperature θ1 and θ2 .
Let θ be the common temp of the junction.
In steady state, any heat that goes through l1 l2
first rod also through the section rod. So same
heat current passer through the two rods.
k 1 A ( θ1 − θ )
Heat current in first rod = → ( 1)
l1
k 2 A ( θ − θ2 )
Heat current in second rod =
l2
In steady state
(
k 1A/ θ1 − θ ) =
(
/ θ − θ2
k2A )
l1 l2
k 1 l 2 ( θ 1 − θ ) = k 2 l 1 ( θ − θ2 )
k 1 l 2 θ 1 − k 1 l 2 θ1 = k 2 l 1 θ − k 2 l 1 θ

k 1 l 2 θ1 + k 2 l 1 θ2
θ=
k1 l 2 + k2 l 1

Flat No.301, Rukkus & Yellus Arcade, Fever Hospital Road, Barkathpura, Hyd-500065.
Ph: 040 – 64606657, 9391326657. www.asifiitphysics.vriti.com 4
 Put the value of θ in equation (1), we get
dH k 1A  k 1 l 2 θ 1 + k 2 l 1 θ2 
= θ1 − 
dt l 1  k 1 l 2 + k 2 l 1 
k 1 A  k 2 l 1 ( θ1 − θ2 ) 
=  
l1  k 1 l 2 + k 2 l 1 
dH k 1 A  k 2 l 1 ( θ1 − θ2 ) 
=  
dt l1  k 1 l 2 + k 2 l 1 

=
(
dH A θ1 − θ2 ) =
θ1 − θ2
→ ( 2)
dt l2 l l2 l1
+ 1 +
k2 k1 Ak 2 Ak 1

dH θ1 − θ2
=  l1 l 
∴ dt R equ → (3) R equ = R 1 + R 2 = + 2  → ( 4)
 Ak 1 Ak 2 
If k equ is the equivalent coefficient of thermal conductivity of the
combination of rods, then thermal resistance of the combination becomes
l +l
R = 1 2 → ( 5)
Ak equ
Comparing equations (4) and (5) we get
l2 l l +l
+ 1 = 1 2
Ak 2 Ak 1 Ak equ
l 2 l 1 l 1+l 2
+ =
k2 k1 k equ
For 2 slabs of equal length
l +l
k equ = 1 2 2l 2 l/
l1 l2 k equ = =
+ 1 l 1 l 
k1 k2 +
k1 k2 l k + k 
 1 2

∴ 2k 1 k 2
k equ =
k1 + k2

→ PARALLEL - COMBINATION: - Suppose we have two rods of same length ‘l’

and area of cross – sections A 1 and A 2 .

The coefficient of thermal conductivity be A 1

k 1 and k 2 respectively. The ends of the rod are
θ1 θ2
maintained at temperature θ1 and θ2 . The same temp
difference is maintained between the ends of each A 2

rod. l
dH 1 dH 2
Let and be the heat conducted in first
dt dt
Flat No.301, Rukkus & Yellus Arcade, Fever Hospital Road, Barkathpura, Hyd-500065.
Ph: 040 – 64606657, 9391326657. www.asifiitphysics.vriti.com 5
and
dH
second rod. Resultant of these is assumed to be
dt
dH dH 1 dH 2
= +
dt dt dt

=
(
k 1 A 1 θ 1 − θ2 ) +
(
k 2 A 2 θ 1 − θ2 )
dt dt
dH  1 1 k A k A 2 
 ( θ1 − θ2 ) → ( 1)
2
= +
dt  l l 
→ If R equ is the equivalent thermal resistance of combination, then
dH θ1 − θ2
= → ( 2)
dt R equ
Equating (1) and (2), we get
1 k 1 A1 k2 A2
= +
R equ l l
1 1 1
= + → (3)
R equ R 1 R 2
→ If K equ is the equivalent coefficient of thermal conductivity of parallel
combination, then
l
R equ =
k equ ( A 1 = A 2 )
Using (3) for R equ
1 1 l
+ =
R 1 R 2 k equ ( A 1 + A 2 )
l l
×
R1R2 l k A k 2 A2 l
= ⇒ 1 1 =
R1+ R2 k equ ( A 1 + A 2 ) l
+
l k equ ( A 1 + A 2 )
k 1A 1 k 2 A 2
l l
=
k 1A 1 + k 2 A 2 k equ ( A 1 + A 2 )
k 1 A1 + k 2 A2
∴ k equ =
A1 + A2
For 2 slabs of equal area

k1 +k2
k equ =
2

→ 2 – D HEAT – CONDUCTION: -
(RADIAL – THERMAL – CONDUCTION IN CYLINDER)

Flat No.301, Rukkus & Yellus Arcade, Fever Hospital Road, Barkathpura, Hyd-500065.
Ph: 040 – 64606657, 9391326657. www.asifiitphysics.vriti.com 6
Consider a uniform cylindrical shell having θ2
radius ‘a’ and outer radius ‘b’ which are θ1

maintained at uniform temperature θ1 and θ2 . a b

Let length of the shell be ‘l’ and r
d r
coefficient of thermal conductivity of material
of shell be k.
The cylindrical shell is assumed to be
made of coaxial cylindrical shells.
If the uniform temp at radius r and r + dr be θ and θ − dθ respectively, then
radial rate of flow in steady state is
dH dθ
= k 2 π r l  − 
( ) Here area of cylinder = 2 π r l ( )
dt  dr 
dθ dH 1
− = ×
dr dt k 2π r l ( )
dH 1
−dθ = × .dr
dt k 2π r l
Integrating the above expression, we get
dH 1
θ=− × .logr + c
dt (
2 πk l )
At r = a, θ = θ1
dH 1
θ1 = − × . log a + c → ( 2)
dt 2π k l
At r = b, θ = θ2
dH 1
θ2 = − × . log b + c → ( 3)
dt 2π k l
Solving equations (2) and (3), we get
dH 1 b
θ 1 − θ2 = × . log
dt 2π k l a
dH 2π kl ( θ1 − θ2 )
∴ =
dt log b/ a

Thermal Resistance of the cylinder, log b/ a

R =
2π k l
→ 3 – D HEAT – CONDUCTION

Consider a sphere having inner radius a and outer radius b. The

temperature of inner is θ1 and that of outer sphere be θ2 θ1 > θ2 . ( )
Assume a concentric sphere of
radius r having thickness dr, so that
radial flew of heat is given by
dH dθ
= K ( 4πr 2 )  − 
dt  dr 

Flat No.301, Rukkus & Yellus Arcade, Fever Hospital Road, Barkathpura, Hyd-500065.
Ph: 040 – 64606657, 9391326657. www.asifiitphysics.vriti.com 7
Here area of sphere = 4 πr
2 θ2
1 dH
( θ − dθ)
− dθ = . × dr
k ( 4πr ) dt
2
θ
θ1
Integrating the above expression, we a
get
r
b
d r
θ1 b
1 dH
∫ dθ =
θ2
∫ k 4π r
a
2
.
dt
.dr

b
dH 1  1
θ 1 − θ2 = . −
dt 4πk  r  a
dH 1  1 1
θ 1 − θ2 = × −
dt 4πk  a b
(
dH 4πk θ1 − θ2
=
)
dt  1 − 1
 
 a b
b− a
Thermal Resistance of the sphere ⇒ R =
4πkab

→ NOTE: - In numericals we may have the situation where the amount of

heat traveling to the other end may be required to do some other work. Eg: - it
may be required to mew the given amount of ice in that case, we have to equalld
Q = ML.

kA ( θ1 − θ2 ) t
∴ ML =
l

→ WIEDMANN – FRANZ – LAW: -

At a given temperature T, the ratio of thermal conducting to electrical

conductivity (a) is Constant.
k
( i.e) = Const
aT
(i. e) a substance which is a good conductor of heat (Eg: - Silver) is also a
good conductor of Electricity.
Mica is an expectation to this law

→ THERMOMETRIC – CONDUCTIVITY (OR) DIFFSIVITY (D): - It is a

measure of rate of change of temperature (with time) when the body is not in
steady state (i.e. invariable state)
It is defined as the ratio of the coefficient of thermal conductivity to the
thermal capacity per unit volume of the material.

Flat No.301, Rukkus & Yellus Arcade, Fever Hospital Road, Barkathpura, Hyd-500065.
Ph: 040 – 64606657, 9391326657. www.asifiitphysics.vriti.com 8
 MC
Thermal capacity per unit volume = = ρC
V
k
D=
ρC

→ ELECTRICAL – ANALOGY FOR THERMAL CONDUCTION: -

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION THERMAL CONDUCTION

dq dQ
a) i = a) H =
dt dt
v −v θ −θ
b) i = 1 2 b) H = 1 2
R R
ρl l l
c) R = = c) R =
A αA KA

→ GROWTH OF ICE ON LAKE: - When the temperature of the air is less

0
than 0 C , the cold air near the surface of the pond takes heat from the
water which freezes in the forms of layers.

Consequently, the thickness of the ice layer −T 0C

keeps increasing with time.
Let x be the thickness of the ice
I c t x
layer at a certain time.
If the thickness is increased by
dx in time dt, then the amount of heat d x

flowing through the slab in time dt is w a t e 0 Cr 0

given by

kA ]0 − ( − T ) dt kA T dt
Q= =
→ ( 1)
x x
Where A = area of the layer of ice at −T 0C is the temp of the surrounding
air
If dm = mass of water frozen into ice, then
Q = dm X L But dm = Aρ .dx ρ = density of ice
∴ Q = A ρ dx.L → ( 2 )
Equating (1) and (2)
KAT .dt
A ρ L . dx =
x
ρL
dt = .x.dx
KT
Integrating, we have
t
ρ L x2
∫o dt = KT x∫ x.dx
1
x
ρL  x2  2
t=
KT  2  x1

Flat No.301, Rukkus & Yellus Arcade, Fever Hospital Road, Barkathpura, Hyd-500065.
Ph: 040 – 64606657, 9391326657. www.asifiitphysics.vriti.com 9
 ρL
t=  x22 − x12 
2KT 

PROBLEMS

1) Few rods of material x and y are connected

as shown in figure. The cross – sectional area C
x xx x
of all the rods are same. If the end A is x x x x x xx xx
x x x x x
x x y x xx
maintained at 800C and the end F is L x
x x
x x
x xx
x
E y
x x x x x x x x
F
L x xx xx x xx xx x x x x x x x
maintained at 100C. Calculate the end x
A x B L
temperatures of junction B and E in steady x
state. Given that thermal conductivity of D
material x is double that of Y.
Ans: - TB = 60.52 C, TE = 19.74 C
0 0

2) The space between two thin concentric metallic spherical shells of radii a
and b is filled with a thermal conducting medium of conductivity k. The
inner shell is maintained at temperature T1 and outer is maintained at a
lower temperature T2 . Calculate the rate of flow of heat in radialy outward
direction through the medium.
dθ 4π kab( T1 − T2 )
Ans: - =
dt b− a

3) A slab of stone of area 3600 cm2 and thickness 10 cm is exposed on the

lower surface to steam at 1000 C. A block of ice at 0 0 C rests on the upper
surface of the slab. If in one hour 4.8 kg of ice melted, calculate the thermal
conductivity of the stone.
−1 −1 −1 −1 −1
Ans: - k = 1.24wm k ( or ) 1.24 Js m oC

4) Three rods AB, BC, and BD having thermal D T 3

conductivities in the ratio 1: 2: 3 and lengths in the
ratio 2: 1: 1 are joined as shown. The ends A, C and D T 2
are at temperatures T1 ,T2 and T3 respectively. Find the B
C
temperature of the junction B. Assume steady state.
1
Ans: - T = ( T1 + 4T2 + 6T3 ) A T 1
11

5) Twelve indentical rods each of length l and cross

– sectional area S made of material having
thermal conductivity K are arranged as shown.
Flat No.301, Rukkus & Yellus Arcade, Fever Hospital Road, Barkathpura, Hyd-500065.
Ph: 040 – 64606657, 9391326657. www.asifiitphysics.vriti.com 10
 The thermal resistance between A and B is____
4l 2l 3l 2l
1) 2) 3) 4) A B
5K S KS 4K S 3K S

6) The figure shows two different metal rods ( P )

– one straight and bent twice at right

angles (P) and the other semi circular (Q). R
If heat currents drawn by P and Q be the
same, then what is the ratio of their T 1 C T 2

thermal conductivities?
Ans: - 4 : π ( Q )

7) AB, BC and CD are three metal rods identical in

shapes and sizes joined end to end as shown.
With thermal conductivities k, 2k, and 3k K
A B
respectively. If end A and D are maintained at
temperatures 2T and T, find the temperatures of B 2 K
and C. Also determine the thermal current
through any of the three rods. (Assume S and l as C D
area and length of each rod.) 3 K
5 2 6k sT
Ans: - 1 T ; 1 T ;
11 11 11l

8) Seven rods, each having length l and area A are

arranged as shown in fig. Their respective thermal k
conductivities are shown in the figure itself. The T 1 2 k
free ends are maintained at temperatures 2 k 4 k
T1 and T2 . Determine the thermal current through
the system? 3 k
T 3 k
60kA
( )
2
Ans: - T1 : T2
97 l

Flat No.301, Rukkus & Yellus Arcade, Fever Hospital Road, Barkathpura, Hyd-500065.
Ph: 040 – 64606657, 9391326657. www.asifiitphysics.vriti.com 11
 SOLUTIONS
4) If T is required temp of junction B and assuming T1 > T > T2 ,T3 wehave
 ∆Q  =  ∆Q  +  ∆Q 
     
 ∆t  AB  ∆t  BC  ∆t  BD
(
kA T1 − T ) =
2kA T − T2 ( ) +
(
3kA T − T3 )
2L L L
T1 − T
2
(
= 2 T − T2 + 3 T − T3 ) ( )
1
T =
11
(
T1 + 4T2 + 6T3 )
l
5) Thermal Resistance of each rod r = k s

Thermal resistance between C & D

r ( 2r )
= r+ +r
r + ( 2r )
8r
=
3
( 1i - 3
i)
i1 i1
i3 i3
A B
i2 i2
i3 i3 c o l d
h o ti
1 i1
( 1i - 3 i)

Flat No.301, Rukkus & Yellus Arcade, Fever Hospital Road, Barkathpura, Hyd-500065.
Ph: 040 – 64606657, 9391326657. www.asifiitphysics.vriti.com 12
 r r r
C D
r r

r r
A B

r r
E F
r r r
∴ Eff . thermal resistan ce
R will be
1 3 1 3
= + +
R 8r 2r 8r
5
=
4r
4r 4 l 4l
R = = × =
5 5 ks 5ks

→ CONVECTION
Mode of transfer of heat by means of migration of material particles
of medium is called convection. It is of two types
a) Natural convection b) Forced convection

A) NATURAL – CONVECTION: - This arise due to difference of densities at

two places and is a consequence of gravity because on account of gravity
the hot light particles arise up and cold heavy particles try setting down. It
is mostly occurs on heating a liquid fluid.

B) FORCED – CONVECTION: - If a fluid is forced to move to take up heat

from a hot body then
the convection process is called forced convection

In this case Newton’s law of cooling bolds good.

According to which rate of loss of heat from a hot body due
to moving fluid is directly proportional to the surface area of
body and excess temperature of body over its surroundings
(i.e)

Q
t
(
∝ A T − T0 ) Where h = Constant called convection coefficient
Q
t
(
hA T − T0 ) T = temp of body
T0 = temp of surrounding.
h → depends on properties of fluids such as Density, Viscosity, Specific heat
and thermal
conductivity.

Flat No.301, Rukkus & Yellus Arcade, Fever Hospital Road, Barkathpura, Hyd-500065.
Ph: 040 – 64606657, 9391326657. www.asifiitphysics.vriti.com 13
 → Natural convection takes places from bottom to top while forced convection
in any direction.

→ RADIATION : - / INFRA – RED – RADIATION

The process of the transfer of heat from one place to another place
without heating the intervening medium is called radiation.

Precisely it is electromagnetic – Energy transfer in the form of E.M.W

through any medium. It is possible even in vacuum.

Eg: - The heat from the sun reaches the earth through radiation. The
wavelength of thermal radiation ranges from 7.8 X 10-7 m to 4 X 10-4 m.
They belong to infra – red region of the E.m Spec hum. That is why thermal
radiations are also called infra – red – radiations.

→ PREVOST – THEORY: -
In early ages it was assumed that only hot body emits radiation but
later a theory of heat radiation was given by PREVOST that every body
which is at temperature above
O k temp radiate thermal energy in the form of E.M.W of several
wavelengths. Simultaneously the body also absorbs thermal radiation from
its surroundings.
1
The speed is equal to that of light (C = 3 X 108 m/s) I ∝ 2 .
d
Just as light waves, they follow laws of Reflection, Refraction,
interference, diffraction and palarisation .

When these radiations falls on a surface then exert pressure m that

surface which is known as Radiation pressure.

Spec hum of these radiations cannot be obtained with help of glass

prism because it absorbs heat radiations. It is obtained by QUARTZ (or)
Flat No.301, Rukkus & Yellus Arcade, Fever Hospital Road, Barkathpura, Hyd-500065.
Ph: 040 – 64606657, 9391326657. www.asifiitphysics.vriti.com 14
 ROCK – SALT PRISM, because these materials do net have free electrons
and interatonic vibrational frequency is greater than the radiation
frequency, hence they do not absorb heat radiation. These travels just like
photons.

→ DIATHERMANOUS - MEDIUM: - A medium which allows heat radiations to

pass through it without absorbing then is called diathermanous medium.

Thus the temp of a diathermanous medium does not increase

irrespective of the amount of the amount of the thermal radiations passing
through it.
Eg: - Dry air, So2 , Rock salt (Nacl)

→ ATHERMANOUS - MEDIUM: - A medium which party absorbs heat rays is

called a athermanous medium.

As a result temp of an athermanous medium increases when heat

radiations pass through it.
Eg: - Wood, metal, moist air, simple glass, human flesh…….etc

→ COLOUR OF HEATED OBJECT: - When a body is heated, all radiations

having wavelengths from zero to infinity are emitted.

a) Radiations of longer wavelengths are predominant at lower temperature.

b) The wavelength corresponding to maximum emission of radiations shifts
from longer wavelength to shorter wavelength as the temperature
increases. Due to this the colour of a body appears to be changed.
c) A blue flame is at higher temp than a yellow flame.

Flat No.301, Rukkus & Yellus Arcade, Fever Hospital Road, Barkathpura, Hyd-500065.
Ph: 040 – 64606657, 9391326657. www.asifiitphysics.vriti.com 15