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In this article we focus on process gain, Kp, and seek to understand what it is, how it is
computed, and what it implies for controller design and tuning. Corresponding articles present
details of the other two FOPDT model parameters: process time constant, Tp; and process dead
time, Өp.

Heat Exchanger Step Test Data

We explore Kp by analyzing step test data from a heat exchanger. The heat exchanger is a
realistic simulation where the measured process variable (PV) is the temperature of hot liquid
exiting the exchanger. To regulate this PV, the controller output (CO) signal moves a valve to
manipulate the flow rate of a cooling liquid into the exchanger.

The step test data below (click for large view) was generated by moving the process from one
steady state to another. As shown, the CO was stepped from 39% up to 42%, causing the
measured PV to decrease from 140 °C down to approximately 138.4 °C.

Computing Process Gain

Kp describes the direction PV moves and how far it travels in response to a change in CO. It is
based on the difference in steady state values. The path or length of time the PV takes to get to
its new steady state does not enter into the Kp calculation.

Thus, Kp is computed:
where ΔPV and ΔCO represent the total change from initial to final steady state.

Aside: the assumptions implicit in the discussion above include that:

the process is properly instrumented as a CO to PV pair,

major disturbances remained reasonably quiet during the test, and

the process itself is self regulating. That is, it naturally seeks to run
at a steady state if left uncontrolled and disturbances remain quiet.
Most, but certainly not all, processes are self regulating. Certain
configurations of something as simple as liquid level in a pumped tank
can be non-self regulating.

Reading numbers off the above plot:

The CO was stepped from 39% up to 42%, so the ΔCO = 3%.

The PV was initially steady at 140 °C and moved down to a new steady
state value of 138.4 °C. Since it decreased, the ΔPV = –1.6 °C.

Using these ΔCO and ΔPV values in the Kp equation above, the process gain for the heat
exchanger is computed:

Practitioner’s Note: Real plant data is rarely as clean as that shown in

the plot above and we should be cautious not to try and extract more
information from our data than it actually contains. When used in tuning
correlations, rounding the Kp value to –0.5 °C/% will provide virtually
 the same performance.

Kp Impacts Control
Process gain, Kp, is the “how far” variable because it describes how far the PV will travel for a
given change in CO. It is sometimes called the sensitivity of the process.

If a process has a large Kp, then a small change in the CO will cause the PV to move a large
amount. If a process has a small Kp, the same CO change will move the PV a small amount.

As a thought experiment, let’s suppose a disturbance moves our measured PV away from set
point (SP). If the process has a large Kp, then the PV is very sensitive to CO changes and the
controller should make small CO moves to correct the error. Conversely, if the process has a
small Kp, then the controller needs to make large CO actions to correct the same error.

This is the same as saying that a process with a large process gain, Kp, should have a controller
with a small controller gain, Kc (and vice versa).

Looking ahead to the PI tuning correlations we will use in our case studies:

Where:
Kc = controller gain, a tuning parameter
Ti = reset time, a tuning parameter

Notice that in the Kc correlation, a large Kp in the denominator will yield a small Kc value (that
is, Kc is inversely proportional to Kp). Thus, the tuning correlation tells us the same thing as our
thought experiment above.

Sign of Kp Tells Direction

The sign of Kp tells us the direction the PV moves relative to the CO change. The negative value
found above means that as the CO goes up, the PV goes down. We see this “up-down”
relationship in the plot. For a process where a CO increase causes the PV to move up, the Kp
would be positive and this would be an “up-up” process.

When implementing a controller, we need to know if our process is up-up or up-down. If we tell
the controller the wrong relationship between CO actions and the direction of the PV responses,
our mistake may prove costly. Rather than correcting for errors, the controller will quickly
amplify them as it drives the CO signal, and thus the valve, pump or other final control element
(FCE), to the maximum or minimum value.
Units of Kp
If we are computing Kp and want the results to be meaningful for control, then we must be
analyzing wire out to wire in CO to PV data as used by the controller.

The heat exchanger data plot indicates that the data arriving on the PV wire into the controller
has been scaled (or is being scaled in the controller) into units of temperature. And this means
the the controller gain, Kc, needs to reflect the units of temperature as well.

This may be confusing, at least initially, since most commercial controllers do not require that
units be entered. The good news is that, as long as our computations use the same “wire out to
wire in” data as collected and displayed by our controller, the units will be consistent and we
need not dwell on this issue.

Aside: for the Kc tuning correlation above, the units of time (dead time
and time constants) cancel out. Hence, the controller gain, Kc, will have
the reciprocal or inverse units of Kp. For the heat exchanger, this means
Kc has units of %/°C.With modern computer control systems, scaling for
unit conversions is becoming more common in the controller signal path.
Sometimes a display has been scaled but the signal in the loop path has
not. You must pay attention to this detail and make sure you are using
the correct units in your computations. There is more discussion in this
article.It has been suggested that the gain of some controllers do not
have units since both the CO and PV are in units of %. Actually, the Kc
will have units of “% of CO signal” divided by “% of PV signal,” which
mathematically do not cancel out.

Practitioner’s Note: Step test data is practical in the sense that all model
fitting computations can be performed by reading numbers off of a plot.
However, when dealing with production processes, operations personnel
tend to prefer quick “bumps” rather than complete step tests.Step tests
move the plant from one steady state to another. This takes a long time,
may have safety implications, and can create expensive off-spec
product. Pulse and doublet tests are examples of quick bumps that
returns our plant to desired operating conditions as soon as the process
data shows a clear response to a controller output (CO) signal
change.Getting our plant back to a safe, profitable operation as quickly
as possible is a popular concept at all levels of operation and
management. Using pulse tests requires the use of inexpensive
commercial software to analyze the bump test results, however.