Chapter 3 H OLE P ROBLEMS

INTRODUCTION

Problems are what drilling personnel are about! As a junior engineer, it didn't take me long to
recognize that if I could eliminate the drilling problems peculiar to a given area, I could reduce
the cost. Pursuant to that logic, I would draw the anticipated performance curves without
consideration for potential problems. To my dismay, it became apparent that in most cases the
problems could not be eliminated! However, it was equally apparent that the effect of the
problems could be minimized by properly describing the problem, understanding fundamental
causes and determining the most expeditious and economical solution.

Some of the most common problems associated with rotary drilling operations are as follows:

1. Lost Circulation

2. Differential Pressure Sticking

3. Key Seating

4. Boulders

5. Salt

6. Hole Instability

7. Deviation

8. Pressure Control

9. Hole Cleaning

This chapter will discuss the first six as the latter are covered by complete chapters later in the
book.

LOST CIRCULATION

Lost circulation occurs when the effective hydrostatic becomes greater than the formation pore
pressure plus the resistance to flow of the fluid through the formation. The effective hydrostatic
(also known as the equivalent circulating density or ECD) is the hydrostatic added to the
frictional pressure loss in the annulus plus the effect of cuttings accumulation.

Mathematically:

Phe = Ph + Pfa + Pca Equation 3-1

The formation resistance is:

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Drilling Practices
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Fr = Pφ + f (φ, kh ) + f (M )
Equation 3-2

To properly understand lost circulation, it is necessary to have a fundamental understanding of

rock characteristics. Reservoirs are described by their porosity ( φ ) and permeability ( k ).
Porosity is defined as the ratio of void space volume divided by the bulk or total volume and
expressed as a percentage. Figure 3-1 illustrates matrix or primary porosity. As illustrated, the
primary porosity can be as high as 47.6% for spherical particles stacked on top of each other.
In hydrocarbon reservoirs, primary porosities generally range from lows of approximately 8
percent in deep reservoirs to highs of approximately 30 percent in the shallow, prolific
reservoirs. In addition to primary or matrix porosity, sedimentary strata may contain secondary
porosity. Secondary porosity includes fractures, caverns, vugs, oolites and alterations in
mineral composition. The magnitude of the secondary porosity can be as high as 100% in the
case of cavernous porosity. Chalk, for example, contains no interconnected primary porosity,
but may contain significant secondary fracture porosity. Many older limestones contain very
small (3-6% or less) ineffective primary porosity with meaningful secondary fracture porosity.
Dolomite is an example of secondary porosity caused by the mineral substitution of the Mg ++
ion for the Ca ++ ion in the rock matrix causing additional porosity due to the reduced size of the
magnesium ion. "Vugular" and "oolite" porosity are terms associated with reef type limestone
deposits and are caused by the death and decay of the marine creatures living in the reef.

Figure 3-1. Unit Cells and Groups of Uniform Spheres for Cubic Rhombohedral Packing

Permeability is a measure of the resistance to flow of a fluid thru a rock. The units of
permeability are darcys (D) or millidarcys (md = D/1,000). Permeability may also be thought of
as a measure of the degree to which the pore spaces are interconnected. Values of
permeability in productive reservoirs range from 0.1 md in deep, hard rocks to as high as 10
darcys in prolific reservoirs. Other examples are given in Table 3-1.

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Table 3-1. Typical Values of Porosity and Permeability in Productive Reservoirs

φ k

Pennsylvanian Morrow - Mid-continent US 12% 1-10 md

Frio - US Gulf coast 12-20% 100-300 md

Ghawar Field - Arabia 20-30% 1-12 darcys

Shale 20-30% 10-5 md

Cement 0.01-0.1 md

Lost circulation will be divided into surface hole and intervals with high matrix porosity and
permeability, deeper zones with low primary and high secondary porosity, and lost circulation in
the presence of potential hydrocarbon production.

LOST CIRCULATION IN THE SURFACE HOLE OR INTERVALS WITH HIGH PRIMARY POROSITY AND
PERMEABILITY
The surface hole interval is characterized by high productive capacity (combination of porosity
and permeability). Only in this geologic environment is it possible to lose whole mud into
primary porosity. In more normal environments, the mud solids which range in size from 2-200
microns are too large to pass into the matrix porosity and are deposited on the formation face
forming an impermeable filter cake and preventing further losses. Any solution to lost circulation
problems must be in response to Equations 3-1 and 3-2.

Under these circumstances, whether shallow or deep, lost circulation is most often combated by
thickening the mud in order to reduce its ability to pass thru the matrix porosity. Thickening is
most commonly accomplished by adding lime (Ca(OH)2) to mixtures of benetonite (gel) and
water. It must be remembered that the Ca++ ion is a contaminant which reduces the yield of
bentonite. Commonly, sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) is added to fresh water prior to the
addition of bentonite to remove any excess calcium in the make up water and maximize the
bentonite yield. Therefore, if an intentionally contaminated system is to be used, it is imperative
that the bentonite be premixed in fresh water and then contaminated and flocculated with lime.
Remember, water plus bentonite plus lime yields thick mud; whereas water plus lime and
bentonite yields only contaminated water.

If the thick mud fails to solve the lost circulation problem, the most common alternative is to drill
without returns to the surface which is commonly referred to as "dry drilling." Dry drilling should
only be considered when hydrocarbon production is not anticipated. Many operators are
reluctant to drill without returns to the surface due to potential stuck pipe problems. Such
problems are caused by insufficient annular velocities or sloughing of the formations above the
lost circulation zone. To combat sloughing conditions, experienced operators use a "mud cap"
which involves pumping viscous and sometimes weighted mud down the annulus while drilling
with water accompanied by viscous sweeps as dictated by torque and drag. The most common
mistake is insufficient annular velocities. Some field personnel feel obligated to reduce the

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pump strokes and conserve drilling fluids. It must be remembered that the same annular
velocities are needed to carry the cuttings to the zone of lost circulation as to carry them to the
surface. Don't slow down the pump! In reality, if water is substituted for mud, higher pump
rates may be required to compensate for the reduction of viscosity.

Further, in soft formations, high penetration rates can contribute to mud weight while frictional
pressure losses in large holes are generally negligible. Consider the following example.

Example 3-1
Given: Hole Size 17½ inches

Mud weight 9 ppg

Pump rate 400 gpm

Drilling rate 15 feet per minute

Specific Gravity of drilled solids = 2.5

Determine: The equivalent circulating density ( Phe )

Solution: From Equation 3-1

Phe = Ph + Pfa + Pca

Pfa = Negligible

Phe = Ph + Pca

Per minute basis:

Volume of Mud = 400 gpm = 400 gallons/min

Weight of Mud = 400 gpm x 9 ppg = 3,600 lbs/min

Weight of Cuttings = Area × drilling rate × specific gravity × density of water

⎛ π / 4(17.5 )2 ⎞
=⎜ ⎟(15 )(2.5 )(62.4 ) = 3,909lbs/min
⎜ 144 ⎟
⎝ ⎠

Weight of Cuttings
Volume of Cuttings =
Density of Cuttings

3,909 lbs/min
Volume of Cuttings =
(2.5)(8.33lbs/gal)
Volume of Cuttings = 188 gpm

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Total Weight
Phe =
Total Volume

Weight of Mud + Weight of Cuttings

Phe =
Volume of Mud + Volume of Cuttings

3,600 + 3,909
Phe = = 12.81 lbs/gal
400 + 188

Therefore, the equivalent circulating density ( Phe ) is 12.8 ppg or an increase of 3.8 ppg due to
the accumulation of cuttings in the annulus. Since the frictional pressure losses are negligible,
the equivalent hydrostatic could be reduced by increasing the pump rate. If the pump rate is
increased to 1,000 gpm in the same example, the equivalent circulating density is reduced as
follows:

9,000 + 3,909
Phe = = 10.9 ppg
1,000 + 188

or the equivalent circulating density is reduced by 2 ppg.

As drilling people, we must respond according to the existing conditions. In the previous
examples, the problem may be solved be thickening the mud or increasing pump rate. As we
shall see, in a 6½ inch hole at 23,000 feet, the solution would be to thin the mud and slow the
pump rate.

LOST CIRCULATION IN DEEPER INTERVALS - HARD ROCKS

Under these conditions, it is unlikely that the primary porosity is sufficient to permit the loss of
whole mud. Most commonly, circulation is being lost into secondary porosity such as fractures.
Since stuck pipe is often associated with lost circulation, it is important to keep the pipe moving
through these intervals. A good alternative is to drill ahead without returns to the surface
following the guidelines in the previous section.

In the event dry drilling is unacceptable, lost circulation material (LCM) is generally the next
alternative. A brief look at lost circulation material is appropriate. Lost circulation material
should be the cheapest, most readily available bulk material. It may be cottonseed hulls in
farming areas, sawdust in mountainous or wooded areas, ground sea shells in coastal areas or
some manufacturing residue in industrial areas. There is no definitive work which suggests that
one lost circulation material or any combination of lost circulation materials is more effective
than another. Lost circulation material is a shallow additive. The best information suggests that
a lost circulation bridge can increase the formation strength by approximately 300 psi. Consider
the following example.

Example 3-2
Given: Fracture Gradient = 0.5 psi/ft

Determine: The permissible mud weight at 1,000, 5,000, 10,000 and 20,000 feet if
lost circulation material is added.

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Solution:

TOTAL
FRAC FRAC EQUIVALENT
DEPTH PRESSURE ∆P PRESSURE MUD WEIGHT

(feet) (psi) (psi) (psi) (ppg)

1,000 500 300 800 15.4

5,000 2,500 300 2,800 10.8

10,000 5,000 300 5,300 10.2

20,000 10,000 300 10,300 9.9

Where equivalent mud weight is given by

Total Fracture Pressure

ρ em =
Depth *(0.052 ) Equation 3-3

It can be clearly seen from Example 3-2 that lost circulation material may improve the fracture
pressure from 9.6 to 15.4 ppg at 1,000 feet yielding a 60% increase. However, at 10,000 feet,
the improvement is only 0.6 ppg or an increase of less than 10% in the available mud weight.
Further, as will be seen in deep, small holes frictional pressure losses may be responsible for
the lost circulation problems. Mud rheology is measured only after lost circulation material has
been removed. Limited research indicates conclusively that LCM contributes to viscosity and
increases frictional pressure losses. Further, due to its low specific gravity, the use of LCM
should be discouraged in weighted mud systems. (The use of fine mica to prevent seepage of
weighted muds is an exception.) Plainly, LCM is not a reasonable alternative in a 23,000 foot
well with a 6 inch hole, 2⅞ inch drill pipe and 16.8 ppg pore pressure combined with 17.0 ppg
fracture gradient.

If LCM is to be used, it is common practice to pull a few stands off bottom to avoid the pipe
sticking problems while mixing LCM in the suction pit. LCM concentrations to 30 lbs/bbl are not
unusual and can be pumped thru nozzles in the bit provided the LCM is properly dispersed
throughout the system. Once the suction pit is ready, drilling can be resumed without returns
until returns are regained, the fractured zone is penetrated or until the mud losses preclude
further drilling. It is imperative that the lost circulation zone be completely penetrated prior to
attempting more drastic alternatives since sealing only half of the interval will cease to be
effective once additional interval is penetrated. If this technique is not successful, the drill pipe
may be run open ended to utilize larger concentrations of LCM.

In examining Equations 3-1 and 3-2, it is apparent that hydrostatic reductions using air, foam or
air assist are a reasonable alternative. These procedures are discussed in more detail in the
chapter on "Air Drilling."

The alternative, most commonly following the failure of LCM, involve the use of solids squeezes
such as "gunk", thixotropic cements, diacel and plastics. For many years, the "gunk" squeeze

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was the most popular procedure to control lost circulation. "Gunk" was first made by adding
250-300 lbs bentonite to one barrel of diesel oil and was called diesel oil-bentonite (DOB).
Later, cement was added to the bentonite (50:50 by weight) and the mixture was called "gunk."
"Gunk" was very successful and popular as a treatment for lost circulation primarily because
water activates the slurry and most lost circulation zones are aquifers.

By the late 1970's, the price of diesel had made the "gunk" squeeze very expensive. In
addition, in some countries such as Canada, it had become a violation of regulations to use a
valuable resource in this manner. As a result, the thixotropic or high calcium cements replaced
the "gunk" in popularity and, with experience, in success. The thixotropic cements have been
very successful under the most adverse circumstances. In one case history involving
cavernous conditions, more than ten thousand sacks of cement was being considered, which
would have limited the project. Abandonment of the project was considered. The zone was
squeezed with 300 sacks of thixotropic cement and full returns were obtained for several
months. At regular intervals of 2-3 months thereafter, returns would be lost and the procedure
successfully repeated until the project was completed. In another instance, a hole in the surface
pipe with only soft shallow zones exposed could not be repaired by ordinary means. Again, the
thixotropic cement solved the problem and the project was finished without incident.

Diacel or diatameous earth is a clay having extremely high initial gel strengths. Diacel is
successfully used around the world for lost circulation into both primary and secondary porosity.
Diacel plugs are temperature sensitive and may deteriorate with time necessitating additional
applications.

Plastics and resins were popular during the mid 1960's. However, they were not very
successful. They were expensive and, therefore, used in small quantities. To further
complicate matters, the activator had to be pumped separately, and in many instances, the two
never made contact in the wellbore.

In long sections of open hole, locating the zone of loss can be the most difficult problem in
determining where to spot the plugging material. Temperature surveys and radioactive tracer
surveys are the most common and reliable methods. The temperature survey is more reliable
and involves locating a cool anomaly. The normal geothermal gradient in sedimentary rocks is
illustrated in Figure 3-2 (A) and varies from 1 to 3°F/100 feet. Routine drilling operations shift
the gradient as further illustrated in Figure 3-2 (A). A loss of significant quantities of drilling mud
will cool the entire wellbore. However, only that portion of the hole containing the larger
volumes of lost mud will remain cool for long periods of time. The temperature in the remainder
of the hole will move toward the geothermal gradient leaving a "bulge" at the zone of loss
(Figure 3-2 B). Temperature surveys are generally run at two hour intervals in an attempt to
expedite the process.

The radioactive surveys are faster, but generally, not as reliable. Modern tools consist of an
emitter and two detectors as illustrated in Figure 3-3. Weak radioactive materials with a short
half life are used to avoid formation contamination which would effect the Gamma-Ray
correlation log. Depending on the service company, more than a dozen individual "pills" can be
emitted with one trip in the hole. A pump rate is established that will provide an identifiable
velocity. Then, the tracer tool is set at positions in the hole and the detector response is noted
as the passing or failure to pass of the "pill." The tracer tool is simply moved around until the
zone of loss is located by the failure of the "pill" to go up or down, but out into the lost circulation
zone.

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Figure 3-2. (A) Temperature Survey while Drilling Figure 3-3. Radioactive Survey Tool
(B) Temperature Surveys with Lost Circulation

LOST CIRCULATION IN THE PRESENCE OF POTENTIAL PRODUCTION

Lost circulation in the presence of production represents one of the dangerous situations in
drilling. Some of the most catastrophic blowouts in the history of the industry have resulted in
this situation. The best solution is to avoid the hazard through effective casing seat testing.

Casing seat testing should always be performed when hydrocarbon production is anticipated.
Testing procedures vary with need and geologic environment. The most common procedure is
to drill a minimal distance (20 feet) below the shoe and test. In some areas, the first sand below
the shoe is drilled prior to testing. In overthrust areas, sedimentary rocks below hundreds or
even thousands of feet of granite are penetrated and tested. The purpose of the test is to
determine the maximum permissible mud weight, to insure the integrity of the cement job or to
insure that the required mud weight will not exceed the fracture gradient at the casing shoe. A

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typical casing seat test is illustrated in Figure 3-4. In this

figure, part (A) illustrates the normal test for sandstone.
Point "A" in the figure represents the mud weight
required for known reservoirs. Point "B" represents the
deviation from linearity and is defined as "leak off." Point
"C" is defined as "break down" and point "D" is defined
as "pump in." If sufficient data are available to determine
that the equivalent mud gradient represented by point "A"
is adequate for drilling below the shoe, it is pointless to
test beyond point "A". For example, if it is known in a
particular field that 15 ppg is sufficient to finish the well
and point "A" represents 15 ppg equivalent mud weight,
there is no reason to pressure beyond point "A".

All wells of uncertain pore pressure should be tested at

least to "leak off." It is more often preferable to test to
"pump in." In general, these equivalent mud weights
should not be exceeded. It has become common
practice in the industry to retest or merely mud up slowly
if higher weights are required in hope that formation
damage has increased the equivalent mud weight at
"pump in" which is, in fact, often the case. However, this
procedure is not without risk because a surge may
exceed the breakdown pressure and reduce the integrity
of the open hole section to the pump-in pressure ("D")
which is unaltered by formation damage. The difference
between points "C" and "D" is the pressure required to
initiate the fracture and could be catastrophic if that
equivalent mud weight is less than required to control the
pore pressure.

Figure 3-4 (B) and (C) represent typical tests for shales
and older limestones, respectively. Most shales do not
break down, but merely balloon while older limestones
may fracture suddenly. When the formation ruputures,
some tests in shale and sand can also look like those
shown in the figure.

The test is usually accomplished with a triplex pump

since low rates are required in order to identify "leak off" Figure 3-4. Plot of Typical Casing Seat
and "pump in." The volume required is a function of Tests for (A) Sandstone, (B) Shales,
depth, length of open hole interval, hole size and drill (C) Limestones
pipe size. Thin fluids are better because gel strengths
absorb pressure. Too much open hole can confuse the results. Consider the following
example:

Example 3-3
Given: Well depth = 10,000 feet

Mud weight = 9.6 ppg = 0.5 psi/ft

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Equivalent weight required = 15 ppg = 0.78 psi/ft

Determine: The surface pressure required to test the shoe at 10,000 feet to 15 ppg.

Solution: Hydrostatic at the shoe at 10,000 feet

Ph10,000 = (0.5 psi / ft )(10,000ft ) = 5,000 psi

Required hydrostatic equivalent to 15 ppg

Phe10,000 = (0.78 psi / ft )(10,000ft ) = 7,800 psi

Required surface pressure

Psurf = (7,800 psi − 5,000 psi ) = 2,800 psi

Example 3-4 shows how the pressures within the wellbore react when the well is again tested to
an equivalent mud of 15 ppg after being drilled to 15,000 feet.

Example 3-4
Given: The data are similar those given in Example 3-3

Well depth = 15,000 feet

Determine: 1. The required surface pressure to test 15,000 feet to 15 ppg.

2. The equivalent mud weight at the casing shoe at 10,000 feet.

Solution: 1. Hydrostatic at 15,000 feet

Ph15,000 = (0.5 psi / ft )(15,000ft ) = 7,500 psi

Required hydrostatic for 15 ppg equivalent at 15,000 ft.

Phe15,000 = (0.78 psi / ft )(15,000ft ) = 11,700 psi

Required surface pressure

Psurf = (11,700 psi −7,500 psi ) = 4,200 psi

2. Hydrostatic at 10,000 ft

Ph10,000 = (0.5 psi / ft )(10,000ft ) = 5,000 psi

Total effective hydrostatic at 10,000 ft

Phe10,000 = Hydrostatic + surface pressure

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 Drilling Practices
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Phe10,000 = (5,000 psi + 4,200 psi ) = 9,200 psi

Equivalent mud weight at 10,000 feet

9,200 psi
ρ em10,000 = = 17.7 ppg
(10,000ft )(0.052)

As illustrated in Example 3-3 and Example 3-4, when the zone at 15,000 feet is tested to 15
ppg, the casing shoe is tested to 17.7 ppg. The remainder of the open hole interval between
10,000 ft and 15,000 ft is tested to equivalents above 15 ppg and below 17.7 ppg. Therefore,
should leak off or break down occur at or below 4,200 psi (15 ppg Equivalent), the break down
could have occurred at any point in the open hole section and the test results are inconclusive.

Pressure control expertise becomes of the utmost importance when lost circulation occurs in the
presence of hydrocarbon production. Every consideration must be given to the possibility of a
sudden, uncontrollable flow. This particular problem is discussed in the chapter on Pressure
Control.

STUCK PIPE INCIDENTS, PREVENTION AND REMEDIAL MEASURES

Pipe getting stuck in a wellbore is a huge menace in drilling. Several operators around the
world have reported the perils of stuck pipe. It is considered one of the costliest unscheduled
events during drilling operations.1 In the Netherlands, the stuck equipment incidents resulted in
5% of the drilling capital expenditure in 1993.2 Shell reported stuck pipe in 70% of its wells
causing 80% of the lost time while drilling in Nigeria.3 Stuck pipe incidents cost over one billion
dollars per year through losses in rig time, production and drilling operation, tools and
equipment, and through expenses for fishing or side-tracking operations.Error! Bookmark not
defined. The cost is ever increasing as more and more deviated and horizontal wells are
drilled.

Though drilling has been done for over 100 years, stuck pipe problems are not inevitable.4 The
problem can’t go away completely, but can be made to stay away more frequently. It is believed
to be more cost-effective to prevent stuck pipe incidents than to develop new tools for freeing
stuck pipe.5 More than 65% of stuck pipe occurrences can be avoided with better planning and
drilling crew training. There is a need for better awareness of the problem and continued
emphasis on prevention measures to achieve minimal stuck pipe incidents. There is also a
need to develop better detection systems to forewarn against stuck pipe problems. The warning
can prepare the crew to take corrective actions and prevent serious sticking incidents. These
measures have helped to reduce the stuck pipe costs by over 70% at several locations.3,4

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE STICKING

Differential pressure sticking occurs when pipe becomes stuck in the filter cake on a porous,
permeable zone. As illustrated in Figure 3-5, during the normal course of drilling, mud and
filtrate are lost into permeable formations when the effective hydrostatic, Phe, is greater than the
formation pore pressure, Pφ. As the filtrate is lost, the solids in the mud are deposited on the
formation face as filter cake. The characteristics of the filter cake are a function of the solids in
the mud. Generally, a mud with high native solids content leaves a thick, sticky filter cake while

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a mud with bentonite produces a slick, thin filter cake. These conditions must be present for
differential pressure sticking to occur; therefore, it is not possible to be differentially stuck in a
long shale interval. Since the drill collars have the largest outside diameter and are usually
slick, differential pressure sticking almost always occurs in the collars.

The symptoms of differential pressure sticking are as follows:

1. Always occurs opposite a porous permeable zone.

2. Occurs when pipe is not moving.
3. May occur anywhere in the hole.
4. Can continue to circulate freely.

The mechanics of differential pressure sticking are well known to the industry. Annis6 and
others reported that the sticking force is described by the following equation:

Fs = fAf ∆P Equation 3-4

Hole Drill Collar

Phe

Af
Filter Cake

Thin Filter Cake

Hole Drill Collar

φ, k, Pφ

Af
Filter Cake

Thick Filter Cake

Figure 3-5. Diagram Showing Differential Pressure Sticking Mechanism

Annis wrote extensively concerning the sticking coefficient. Two observations are particularly
significant to field operations. It was observed that ordinary emulsified crude oil reduced the
sticking coefficient to minimal values. Commonly used surfactants were helpful with certain oils,
but ineffective with others, the maximum reduction being about 30%. Common additives such
as CMC and lignosulfonate had no effect on the sticking coefficient. Bentonite solids resulted in
the lowest coefficients for any solids. Of perhaps more significance was the behavior of the
sticking coefficient with time. The sticking coefficient increased by a factor of four in 20 minutes

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and by a factor of six in 2 hours. The significance is that efforts to pull the pipe free are more
likely to be successful early.

Efforts to free the pipe must be within the concept of the aforementioned equation. The first
effort should be to pull to the rated capacity of the weakest link of the hoisting system thereby
taking advantage of the low values of the sticking coefficient. The often used practice of pulling
only some small amount over the string weight should be abandoned in this instance.
Depending upon depth, it may be possible to apply more weight to the stuck point while
applying torque. Do not apply torque and pull to the maximum tensile load of the pipe. If the
pipe remains stuck after the initial effort to pull free, it is pointless to continue to work the pipe or
otherwise "rodeo" the rig. In fact, other remedial efforts should be commenced as soon as
possible. Otherwise, hole conditions might deteriorate.

The most common method of freeing differentially stuck pipe has been to spot oil. This
technique reduces the sticking coefficient and also thins the filter cake thereby reducing the
contact area. In some areas it may be environmentally unacceptable to spot oil and
environmentally acceptable products may be used. The technique is generally successful within
6 hours. If no success is experienced within 24 hours, an alternate is usually considered.

Working on the "∆P" component of the sticking force has become more popular in recent years.
The availability of nitrogen within the continental United States has made pumping nitrogen
bubbles very popular as well as successful. In some areas the hydrostatic is lowered by merely
pumping a lighter fluid into either the drill pipe or the annulus. The well is then permitted to back
flow reducing the effective hydrostatic and "∆P". Lowering the mud weight or spotting a pill of
lighter mud has been effective in reducing the
hydrostatic enough to free the pipe. In the
past, drill stem test packers have been
successfully used to free pipe. Any effort
affecting the "∆P" component should be done
with caution as some famous blowouts have
resulted from these circumstances.

Spiral drill collars reduce the contact area;

however, they are not always successful in
eliminating differential pressure sticking.
Shorter drill collar strings and more heavy
weight drill pipe have reduced the problem.
Fewer native solids and more fresh bentonite
have reduced instances of stuck pipe. Oil
muds reduce, but do not always eliminate
differential sticking.

KEY SEATING
Keyseating occurs when the combination of
dogleg severity and string tension causes the
pipe to drill into the side of the hole. As
illustrated in Figure 3-6, the rotation of the drill
pipe causes the pipe to drill into the side of the
hole producing the illustrated hole condition.
Depending on geometry, it is clear that the drill
Figure 3-6. Schematic of Keyseating Problem

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pipe can pass thru the key seating interval; however, the drill collars are too large to enter the
smaller hole and may become lodged. Note that the tool joints of the drill pipe actually cut the
keyseat. If the collars are larger than the drill pipe tool joints, they can become lodged in the
keyseat.

The symptoms of the keyseat are as follows:

Upper
1. Usually high in the hole since a significant tensile
force is required to produce sufficient lateral force Body OD
causing the drill pipe to wear into the side of the hole.
2. Can occur in any formation. However, softer
Wiper OD
formations wear faster.
at blades
3. Encountered while pipe is moving on a trip. You
must pull the drill collars into a keyseat.
4. Can go down, but not up provided the initial contact
is not so dramatic as to cause the pipe to become
stuck. Sleeve ID
5. Can continue to circulate.

The keyseat is the most vocal of all drilling problems. It will

usually manifest itself as a tight spot on a trip well in Lower
advance of any significant problems. If the tight spot occurs
Body OD
at the same place on subsequent trips, it may be a keyseat
forming.

Should the symptom persist or in a known problem area,

preventive measures should be taken. In areas with a
history of keyseating problems, stiff bottom hole assemblies
will usually eliminate the doglegs and keyseating problems.
Once the problem appears, a keyseat wiper is in order. The Figure 3-7. Diagram of Key Seat Wiper
keyseat wiper illustrated in Figure 3-7 consists of a mandrel
on a sub and is added above the drill collars. The mandrel has about one foot of free travel and
is coated with tungsten carbide on the outside. The sub is free to rotate inside the mandrel until
the key slot is engaged. In the locked position, the keyseat wiper can be used to back ream
through the keyseat interval.

In the higher portion of the hole where keyseats most often occur, rig loads are minimal and trip
speeds are at their highest. Therefore, the sudden encounter of a keyseat can cause the string
to become stuck in the keyseat. The most common solution is to drive the string down using the
full weight of the pipe or surface drivers (at depths of generally less than 4,000 feet). Failing
these efforts, the pipe is backed off and fishing jars run to drive the stuck pipe down out of the
keyseat. Extreme caution should be used in backing off keyseated pipe. If the back off point is
in the keyseated interval, it is often impossible to screw into or otherwise get over the top of the
fish. A careful study of an offset caliper log should be made and an interval of gauge hole
chosen for the back off. Failing all else, wash pipe will free the fish provided the fish can be
located. If wash pipe is to be used, it is not uncommon to back off inside the casing string and
use the free pipe as a guide for the wash pipe. In instances where the top of the fish cannot be
located, an attempt to merely drill past the fish is often successful. In many instances, the fish is

3-14 Copyright © 2006 OGCI/PetroSkills. All rights reserved

 Drilling Practices
Hole Problems

successfully passed and the hole entered below the fish. The fear that the fish will later fall in
and stick the string or otherwise cause problems, is unsupported by experience.

BOULDERS

"Boulders" are the presence of pieces of formation too large to be removed by the carrying
capacity of the mud. Boulders are caused by extraordinary feature and stress patterns within
the formations or the presence of glacial till. This author has witnessed two extraordinary
instances of the presence of boulders. One occurred in the Cody shale in the Bighorn Basin of
north central Wyoming. An overshot was run to retrieve 6" collars inside a 7⅞" hole. After
several unsuccessful attempts to get over the fish, the overshot was pulled. Lodged inside the
overshot was a piece of Cody shale approximately 6½ inches in diameter. The other instance
occurred in central Colorado. A reverse circulating junk basket recovered three large pieces of
limestone with the largest measuring approximately 6 by 8 inches.

The symptoms of a boulder problem are as follows:

1. Severe torque while drilling. Sometimes the table is stopped and the string stuck.

2. Difficulty in pulling off bottom or in pulling the first few stands.

3. No difficulty in circulating.

4. Free movement down with difficulty in moving up.

5. The tight spot is not in the same place, but rather moves around.

Boulder problems seldom result in fishing jobs. The problems almost always end after the
troublesome formation has been penetrated and the stresses are relieved. Therefore, in many
instances, time and a gentle hand on the brake are the only solutions. Most often a good driller
can gently work by the boulders without getting stuck. Viscous sweeps can be successful,
provided the boulders are not too large. In one operation, viscous sweeps were pumped every
time the erratic behavior of the torque gauge indicated the accumulation of boulders. The
boulders would pass over the shale shaker and the symptoms would disappear for 8-10 hours.

In the event the pipe does become stuck and cannot be freed, caution should be observed in
backing off the collars to insure that the fish can be screwed into. It is usually a simple matter to
jar the fish loose.

SALT

Salt is most often a problem after the well has been completed. The salt will begin to flow and
subject the casing to geostatic overburden pressures of 1 psi/ft. Sodium chloride is not the
culprit. It is rather the mixed salts that cause the problems. When the salts are present in long
intervals, the problems are inevitable.

The solution is simple, but any deviation can be catastrophic. The salts should be drilled with
saturated brine to prevent hole enlargement. The casing in the salt interval should be designed
to withstand at least 1 psi/ft in collapse. Finally, the salt interval should be cemented with salt

Copyright © 2006 OGCI/PetroSkills. All rights reserved. 3-15

Drilling Practices
Chapter 3

saturated cement. There are few reported instances of failure when this procedure is followed.
However, there are still a few reported instances of failure.

Salt creeping into the wellbore can be a problem while drilling. In some cases, the salt will
restrict the diameter of the hole making it difficult to pull the bottomhole assembly or causing the
well to become tight while drilling. The easiest way to alleviate this problem is to pump fresh
water and spot it across the salt water zone. The fresh water will dissolve some of the salt and
enlarge the hole.

SLOUGHING SHALE

Troublesome shales are perhaps the most universal problem in all of drilling. The biggest
problem is that operators tend to over react to the slightest problem and to respond with the
typical oil field philosophy that money will solve any problem. The common denominator to all
shale problems is the presence of a liquid. Other contributing factors to problematic shales are:

1. The presence of sodium montmorillinite or other water sensitive clays.

2. Abnormal pressures.

3. Tectonic stresses.

4. Any combination of the above.

It is generally true that shales cause problems because they get "wet." However, it must be
understood that API Water Loss is not related to shale stability! In more than 60 years of drilling
experience, the industry has not produced any evidence linking shale stability to API Fluid Loss.
There is not one major oil company research facility or one major mud company that even
suggests that a relationship exists between the API Fluid Loss and Shale Stability.

WATER SENSITIVE CLAYS

All shales have an affinity for water. When the bonding forces are less than the hydrating
forces, the shales will slough. It must be remembered that the hydrating forces are
perpendicular to the bedding planes. That shale will "swell" and reduce holes size is a myth.
Chenevert was among the first to recognize that water moved into the shale when the salinity of
the formation water exceeded that of the mud. In the alternative, water moved out of the shale
when the salinity of water in mud exceeded that of the water in the shale. The process by which
the water moves is osmosis and the pressures approach 50,000 psi. Further, it makes no
difference if the water is free water or inversely emulsified in an oil base mud. In truly water
sensitive shales the hydrating of the shales can be inhibited with various salts such as
potassium chloride or chemicals such as lignosulfonates. Inhibition has been a part of the
business since the 1920's and is nothing more than that, "inhibition."

The Gumbo shales common to geologically young environments in coastal areas around the
world are an excellent example of water sensitive shales. Gumbo is merely young shale
containing high percentages of sodium montmorillinite commonly known as bentonite or gel.
The name describes the physical state of the clay when the affinity for water is not completely
satisfied. The State of Wyoming is a source of bentonite. This author has experienced such an
accumulation of bentonite after a rain on auto tires that the tires would no longer turn. The

3-16 Copyright © 2006 OGCI/PetroSkills. All rights reserved

 Drilling Practices
Hole Problems

same thing happens in the hole while drilling. If the affinity of the clay for water is unsatisfied,
the clay will accumulate or "gum up" on the drilling assembly hence, the name "Gumbo."
Sometimes strong dispersants such as SAPP are used. However, the most common solution is
an abundance of water in order to satisfy the clay's affinity for water. Gumbo shales are more
problematic when weighted muds are required because the shales contribute to viscosity. The
decanting centrifuge is very cost effective under such circumstances. Some operators use
highly dispersed lignosulfonate muds while others prefer potassium inhibited polymer muds. In
some instances, oil muds are used. Under some circumstances, the highly dispersed fresh
water mud combined with good solids control offers the most economical solution.

In the truly water sensitive environment, cost must be the final measure of success. The
inhibited systems have experienced limited success in controlling hole size while an inverted oil
mud may be even more successful in controlling hole size. However, all costs considered the
water system usually is more economical.

PRESSURED SHALES
The term "pressured shale" has been overworked in recent years. Certainly, pressured shales
do exist and are almost always accompanied by abnormally pressured production. Since the
shales are the source beds for the hydrocarbon accumulation, it is basically geologically
impossible to encounter abnormally pressured shales on either side of a normally pressured
hydrocarbon reservoir unless the reservoir has been depleted.

Abnormally pressured shales are characterized by an abundance of slivers which are 2 inches
long by ¼ inch wide and paper thin. The slivers may appear smaller at the surface due to
breakup as they are being circulated out of the hole. Figure 3-8 illustrates sloughing from
abnormally pressured shale. It is interesting to note that these slivers must come from a flat
surface parallel to the bedding plane and not from the wall
of the hole as is often thought. These shales usually
slough when in the presence of a liquid of lower density
than the pressure in the shale. It is interesting to note that
the presence of a liquid is a must. When shales are drilled
with air, no such phenomenon is observed; however, the
introduction of a liquid phase will produce the previously
described sloughing.

Certainly shale problems can be caused by any

combination of the factors listed. However, in the truly
pressured shales, mud density is the only solution to
control hole size. Under these circumstances, the use of
inhibited muds is illogical. Again economics must be the
final measure. The cost of the larger hole drilled with the
lesser mud must be compared with the cost of the gauge
hole with the more expensive system. Generally, hole
enlargement is not detrimental to drilling, cementing, or Figure 3-8. Abnormally Pressured Shales
completion operations.

TECTONIC STRESSES
Tectonic stresses are the forces associated with the movement of the earth's crust. These
stresses are the most common contributor to hole instability in shale sloughing. Most often

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Drilling Practices
Chapter 3

these shales are located in or around mountains or

mountain fronts. Or they are associated with complex
subsurface geology. They are generally geologically
older and almost never water sensitive. Some shales
are in more subtle geologic environments. However,
when hundreds to thousands of feet of shale are
present with intervals to gauge and intervals enlarged,
stress is the obvious culprit.
Caliper 1
If the shale sloughs due to tectonic stresses, the hole
will generally have an elliptical shape as illustrated in
Caliper 2 Figure 3-9. The term is often called “wellbore
breakout.” Sloughing is related to the large
differences between the minimum and maximum
horizontal stress. When the stresses are sufficiently
different, breakout occurs perpendicular to the
maximum stress. Fortunately, sloughing will stop
when the hole achieves a predetermined shape. If the
formations are also water sensitive, hole enlargement
may not stop and hole cleaning becomes a problem.

Stress related sloughing can be reduced by increasing

the mud weight. If the value of the minimum and
maximum horizontal stress is known, the mud weight
required to prevent sloughing can be calculated. The
Figure 3-9. Elliptical Hole Due to Stress
minimum stress can be calculated by inducing a
Related Sloughing hydraulic fracture, but the maximum stress can not be
measured directly. The maximum stress can be
interpreted from logs and from core testing. Increasing the mud weight will also slow down
penetration rate and increase mud costs.

The solution to the problem is simple and was pioneered by the operators of Western Canada in
the early 1950's -"Clean the Hole." The Canadians increased the carrying capacity by
flocculating the mud (which causes the API water-loss to be high) and cleaning the hole. Other
operators pump viscous sweeps at regular intervals while in the most serious cases, weighted
viscous sweeps are used. Remember! Clean the hole!

A good example is the Waltman shale of central Wyoming. The Waltman was diagnosed by a
major service company as being abnormally pressured and water sensitive. The mud density
was routinely increased to 14.9 ppg and API water loss was reduced to below 6 cc's/30
minutes. Mud costs just to drill the Waltman could easily be in excess of $100,000. Trip time
could be from a day to a week. The Waltman was successfully drilled with a 9.0 ppg flocculated
system with a 35 cc's fluid loss. The mud costs were less than 10% of that for the weighted
muds while penetration rates were so improved that total cost for the interval excluding the
savings in mud was 30% of the best previous effort. Caliper logs indicated that the hole was
essentially in gauge.

In summary, be very critical of shale problems. The worn out "Raise the weight and lower the
water loss" should be abandoned forever as should the routine use of KCl or oil systems. Study
the shale problem and attack the problem. Let science and technology conquer fear and
superstition!

3-18 Copyright © 2006 OGCI/PetroSkills. All rights reserved

 Drilling Practices
Hole Problems

NOMENCLATURE

Af = Area of pipe in contact with the filter cake, in2

Depth = Formation Depth, ft
f = Sticking coefficient
Fr = Formation resistance to lost circulation

Fs = Sticking force, lbs

Pca = Hydrostatic due to cuttings in the annulus

Pfa = Frictional pressure losses in the annulus

Ph = Hydrostatic of the mud

Phe = Effective hydrostatic or equivalent circulating density

Pφ = Formation pore pressure

∆P = Pressure differential (between effective hydrostatic and pore pressure), psi

f (φ,kh ) = Function of reservoir characteristics

f (M ) = Function of mud and mud solids

ρ em = Equivalent mud weight, ppg

SI UNITS

The equations given in the chapter are converted below into SI units.

Total Fracture Pressure

Equation 3-3: ρ em = Equation 3-5
Depth *(0.0098 )

fAf ∆P
Equation 3-4: Fs = Equation 3-6
98

NOMENCLATURE FOR SI UNITS EQUATIONS

Af = Area of pipe in contact with the filter cake, cm2

Depth = Formation depth

o Sticking coefficient
f

Copyright © 2006 OGCI/PetroSkills. All rights reserved. 3-19

Drilling Practices
Chapter 3

Fs = Sticking force, kgf

Pca = Hydrostatic due to cuttings in the annulus, Kpa

Pfa = Frictional pressure losses in the annulus, Kpa

Ph = Hydrostatic of the mud, Kpa

Phe = Effective hydrostatic or equivalent circulating density, Kpa

Pφ = Formation pore pressure, Kpa

= Pressure differential (between effective hydrostatic and pore pressure),

∆P
Kpa
ρ em = Equivalent mud weight, kg/m3

Reference
1
Watson, B. and Smith, R.; “Training Reduces Stuck Pipe Costs and Incidents,” Oil and Gas
Journal, (19 September 1994) 44-47.
2
Hopkins, C.J. and Leicksenring, R.A.; “Reducing the Risk of Stuck Pipe in the Netherlands,”
paper SPE/IADC 29422 presented at the 1995 SPE/IADC Drilling Conference, Amsterdam, 28
February-2 March 1995.
3
Magaji, M.A., Amoo, O.A., and Owoeye, O.O.; “An Innovative Approach to Stuck Pipe
Reduction in the Niger Delta,” paper IADC/SPE 74523 presented at the IADC/SPE Drilling
Conference, Dallas, TX, 26-28 February 2002.
4
Bradley, W.B., Jarman, D., Auflick, R.A., Plott, R.S., Wood, R.D., Schofield, T.R., and Cocking,
D.; “Task Force Reduces Stuck-pipe Costs,” Oil and Gas Journal, (27 May 1991) 84-89.
5
Bradley, W.B., Jarman, D., Plott, R.S., Wood, R.D., Schofield, T.R., Auflick, R.A., and Cocking,
D.; “A Task Force Approach to Reducing Stuck Pipe Costs,” paper SPE 21999 presented at
the 1991 SPE/IADC Drilling Conference, Amsterdam, 11-14 March 1991.
6
Annis, M. R. and Monaghan, P. H.; "Differential Pressure Sticking-Laboratory Studies of
Friction Between Steel and Mud Filter Cake," SPE 151, May, 1962.

3-20 Copyright © 2006 OGCI/PetroSkills. All rights reserved