6.1.

1 Heat exchanger

6.1.1.1 Shell and tube heat exchanger design

Shell and tube heat exchanger is designed by trial and error calculations
(Edwards, J.E., 2008). The main steps of design are summarized as
follow:

Step #1 Define the hot (low pressure steam 138°C, 340 kPa, numeral 4.5)
and cold fluid (wastewater)

Step#2 Select the fluids for tube and the shell side

The routing of the shell side and tube side fluids has considerable effects
on the heat exchanger design. The fluid with more tendencies to foul is
selected for the tube side (wastewater) and for the shell the steam.

Step#3 Determine the required thermo-physical properties of hot and cold

fluids. Calculate these properties at the caloric temperature if the variation
of viscosity with temperature is large.

Step#4 Calculate of the sensible heat required to increase the temperature

of cold fluid (equation 2.2.3.2)

Step#5 Calculate the heat exchanger area using equations 2.2.3.4 –

2.2.3.12. The value of overall heat transfer coefficient should be assumed
(Uassum) with respect to the process hot and cold fluids from literature.
Decide tentative number of shell and tube passes (np) for the calculation of
the Correction factor FT. Correction factor FT normally should be greater
than 0.75 for the steady operation of the exchangers. Otherwise it is
required to increase the number of passes to obtain higher FT values. The
number of passes is chosen to get the required tube side fluid velocity to
obtain greater heat transfer coefficient and also to reduce scale formation.
The tube passes vary from 1 to 16. The tube passes of 1, 2 and 4 are
common in application.

1
Step #6 Calculate the mass of steam required with the equation 2.2.14

Step #7 Select the tube material, decide the tube diameter (di), its wall
thickness and tube length (L).

Typical values for do are 19 – 40 mm. The most efficient condition for heat
transfer is to have the maximum number of tubes in the shell to increase
turbulence. The tube thickness should be enough to withstand the internal
pressure along with the adequate corrosion allowance. The tube length of
2 - 10 m is preferably used. Longer tube reduces shell diameter at the
expense of higher shell pressure drop. Finned tubes are also used when
fluid with low heat transfer coefficient flows in the shell side.

Step #8 Calculate the number of tubes (nt) required to provide the heat
transfer area (A).

A
nt = (6.1.2.1.1)
π∙d0 ∙L

Step #9 Calculate tube side fluid velocity

np
4∙ṁ∙( n )
t
v= 2 (6.1.2.1.2)
π∙di ∙ρl

If v < 1 𝑚/𝑠 fix np

Step #10 Calculate the Reynolds number

np
𝑣∗𝜌𝑙 ∗𝑑𝑖 4∙ṁ∙( n )
t
Re = = (6.1.2.1.3)
𝜇𝑙 π∙di ∙μl

Where,

A is the heat transfer area required (m2)

do is the outside diameter of tube (m)

L is the length of the tube (m)

nt is the number of tubes (-)

2
np is the number of passes (-)

v is the superficial velocity of wastewater fluid (m/s)

dI is the inside diameter of tube (m)

𝜌𝑙 is the density liquid wastewater (kg/m3)

𝜇𝑙 is the viscosity of fluid wastewater (Pa-s)

Re is the Reynolds number (-)

Step #11 Decide the type of shell and tube exchanger (fixed tube sheet,
U-tube etc.). Select the tube pitch (PT) and calculate the tube clearance
(C).

Fixed tube-sheet exchanger (non-removable tube bundle) is the simplest

and cheapest type of shell and tube exchanger. In this type of exchangers
the tube sheet is welded to the shell and no relative movement between
the shell and tube bundle is possible.

In the removable tube bundle, the tube bundle may be removed for ease
of cleaning and replacement.

The lower distance between the axes of two adjacent tubes is the Pitch
(PT). The pitch configuration can be triangular or square. Triangular pattern
provides a more robust tube sheet construction. Square pattern simplifies
cleaning and has a lower shell side pressure drop. The recommended
Pitch value is PT=1,25*do. However, in case of high shell pressure drop it
could be increased. The shortest distance between two adjacent holes is
the clearance (C) (figure 22).

𝐶 = 𝑃𝑇 − 𝑑𝑜 (6.1.2.1.4)

3
 Figure 1 Triangular and square Pitch and clearance

Step #12 Select the type of baffle (segmental, doughnut etc.), its size (i.e.
percentage cut, 25% baffles are widely used). Calculate the tube bundle
diameter (Db). Determine inside shell diameter (Ds) that can accommodate
the calculated number of tubes (nt), spacing (B) usually chosen to be
within 0,2*Ds to Ds.

Baffles function in two ways, during assembly they function as tube

guides, in operation they prevent vibration from flow induced eddies, last
but most importantly they direct shell-side fluids across the bundle
increasing velocity and turbulence effectively increasing the rate of heat
transfer.

The tube bundle diameter (Db) is calculated with the parameters shown in
table 11 and the following equation:

𝑛 1/𝑛𝑙
𝐷𝑏 = 𝑑𝑜 ∗ (𝐾𝑡 ) (6.1.2.1.5)
𝑏

Table 1 Parameters Kb and nl for equation 6.1.2.1.5 tube bundle diameter

(Db).

Triangular Pitch PT=1,25*do

No. Passes 1 2 4 6 8
Kb 0,319 0,249 0,175 0,0743 0,0365
Nl 2,142 2,207 2,285 2,499 2,675
Square Pitch PT=1,25*do
No. Passes 1 2 4 6 8
Kb 0,215 0,156 0,158 0,0402 0,0331
Nl 2,207 2,291 2,263 2,617 2,643

The inside shell diameter (Ds) is calculated with the equation bellow:

𝐷𝑠 = 𝐷𝑏 + 𝐶 (6.1.2.1.6)

Step #13 Calculate the shell side cross flow area (𝑎𝑠 )

𝐶∗𝐵∗𝐷𝑆
𝑎𝑠 = (6.1.2.1.7)
𝑃𝑇

4
Step #14 Calculate the gas velocity (𝐺𝑆 )

𝑚̇𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚
𝐺𝑆 = (6.1.2.1.8)
𝑎𝑠

Step #15 Calculate the equivalent diameter for the shell side, square pitch:

𝜋
4(𝑃𝑇2 − 𝑑02 )
4
𝐷𝑒 = (6.1.2.1.9)
𝜋𝑑𝑜

Or the equivalent diameter for the shell side for triangular pitch:

𝜋
4(0,43∗𝑃𝑇2 − 8 𝑑02 )
𝐷𝑒 = 𝜋 (6.1.2.1.10)
𝑑
2 𝑜

The equivalent diameter (De ) must be calculated due to the baffles

influence which increases the heat transfer coefficient in the shell side.

And finally the Reynolds number in terms of equivalent diameter for the
shell side

𝐷𝑒 ∗𝐺𝑠
𝑅𝑒 = (6.1.2.1.11)
𝜇𝑔

Step #16 Determine the tube side film heat transfer coefficient (hi) using
the suitable form of equation in laminar and turbulent flow regimes.
Estimate the shell-side film heat transfer coefficient (ho). There are many
models used to calculate these parameters according to the flow in
laminar or sensible regime and the change in phase or Sensible Heat
Transfer. The Kern Method is described below:

1/3
𝑘𝑔 𝐷𝑒 ∗𝐺𝑠 𝐶𝑝𝑔 ∗𝜇𝑔
ℎ𝑜 = 𝑗𝐻 ∗ ∗( )( ) (6.1.2.1.12)
𝐷𝑒 𝜇𝑔 𝑘𝑔

5
 Figure 2 Shell side heat transfer factor (jH) for several segmental baffles
(Sinnott, R. K., 2005)

𝑘𝑙 𝑑𝑖 ∗𝑣 𝐶𝑝𝑙 ∗𝜇𝑙 1/3

ℎ𝑖 = 𝑗𝐻 ∗ ∗( )( ) (6.1.2.1.13)
𝑑𝑖 𝜇𝑙 𝑘𝑙

Figure 3 Tube side heat transfer factor (jH) (Sinnott, R. K., 2005)
6
The heat transfer factor (jH) is defined using the figure 24 and 25 for shell
and tube side according to the Reynolds number.

Step #17 Select the outside tube (shell side) resistance due to fouling in
the steam flow (Ro) and inside tube (tube side) resistance due to fouling in
the wastewater (Ri) from literature or take the value from the plant.

Step #18 Calculate overall heat transfer coefficient (Ucal) with equation
2.2.3.13.

𝑈𝑐𝑎𝑙 −𝑈𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚
Step #19 If 0 < < 30% then go the next step#20. Otherwise
𝑈𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚

go to step #5, calculate heat transfer area (A) required using Ucal, and
repeat the calculations.

If the calculated shell side heat transfer coefficient (ho) is too low, assume
closer baffle spacing (B) close to 0.2*Ds and recalculate shell side heat
transfer coefficient. However, this is subject to allowable pressure drop
across the heat exchanger.

Step #20 Calculate % overdesign. Overdesign represents extra surface

area provided beyond that required to compensate for fouling. Typical
value of 10% or less is acceptable.

𝐴−𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑
% 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 = ∗ 100 (6.1.2.1.14)
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑

Step #21 Calculate the tube-side pressure drop (PT): pressure drop in the
straight section of the tube (frictional loss) (Pt)

Frictional pressure drop

𝐿∗𝑛𝑝 𝜌𝑙
∆𝑃𝑡 = (4 ∗ 𝑓𝑎 ∗ )∗ ∗ 𝑣𝑡 2 (6.1.2.1.15)
𝑑𝑖 2

Step #22 Calculate shell side pressure drop (PS): pressure drop for flow
across the tube bundle (frictional loss) (Ps)

7
Shell side frictional pressure drop
𝐿
𝑓𝑎∗𝑮𝟐𝒔 ∗𝑫𝒔 ∗( +1)
𝐵
∆𝑃𝑠 = (6.1.2.1.16)
𝟐∗𝝆𝒈 ∗ 𝑫𝒆

The Fanning Friction Factor (fa) is obtained using the Moody diagram
(figure 26) for the equivalent Reynolds number in tube and shell, assuming
smooth relative roughness (McCabe, W., Smith, J. and Harriott, P., (2004).

Figure 4 Moody diagram used to determine the fanning friction factor (fa)

The table 13 shows the parameters assumed for the shell and tube heat
exchanger design. The physic-chemical properties of the streams are
assumed to do not vary significantly in the range of the operational
temperature. Additionally the variation of the parameters with the total
solid content and ions dissolved is not considered for this initial design.

8
APPENDIX 1

List of symbols

A Heat transfer area (m2)

as Shell side cross flow area (m2)
B Baffles spacing (m)
𝑏𝐵 Molality of the solution calculated using the van 't Hoff factor (mol/l)
𝐵𝑖𝑚 Bottom-most impeller location (m)
𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 Molality of the solute (mol/l)
C Tube clearance (m)
𝐶𝑃 Specific heat
𝐶𝑝𝑔 Specific heat steam (heating medium) (kJ/kg*K)
𝐶𝑝𝑙 Specific heat liquid wastewater (kJ/kg*K)
Cpp Specific heat solid particle (kJ/kg*K)
𝑑 Downstream or after the flash process
De Equivalent diameter shell side (m)
DT Diameter ph adjustment tank (m)
di Internal diameter of heat exchanger tube (m)
dim Impeller diameter ph adjustment tank (m)
do External diameter of heat exchanger tube (m)
Db Bundle of tubes diameter of heat exchanger (m)
Ds Inside shell diameter of heat exchanger (m)
𝐸 Evaporation ratio (-)
𝐹̇ Feed volume flow of wastewater (m3/h)
𝐹𝑇 Correction factor ∆TLM (-)
𝑓 Frequency of contacting particles (s-1)
𝑓𝑎 Fanning Friction Factor (-)
G Growth rate of the Struvite crystals (µm/h)
Gs Gas velocity shell side (kg/m2*s)
Hb Length of the fluidized bed (not the column) (m)
hi Heat transfer coefficient heat exchanger tubes (KJ/s*m²*K)
9
ho Heat transfer coefficient heat exchanger shell (KJ/s*m²*K)
HT Height ph adjustment tank (m)
HuL Upstream liquid enthalpy at upstream temperature and pressure,
(kJ/kg)
HdL Residual liquid enthalpy at downstream pressure and
corresponding saturation temperature
HdV Flashed vapor enthalpy at downstream pressure and corresponding
saturation temperature (kJ/kg)
Hv Liquid heat of vaporization at downstream pressure and
corresponding saturation temperature, (kJ/kg)
i Number of individual particles (typically ions) formed by a
compound in solution
𝐼 Ionic strength of the wastewater (mol/l)
jH Shell and tube side heat transfer factor (-)
𝐾 Growth rate struvite crystals (µm/h)
𝐾𝑏 Ebullioscopic constant (°C·kg/mol)
𝑘𝑔 Thermal conductivity steam (heating medium) (kJ/s*m*K)
𝑘𝑏 Parameter used for the tube bundle diameter calculation (Db) (-)
kl Thermal conductivity liquid wastewater (kJ/s*m*K)
kp Thermal conductivity solid particle (kJ/s*m*K)
kw Thermal conductivity material heat exchanger tube (stainless steel)
(kJ/s*m*K)
𝐿 Length tubes heat exchanger (m)
𝑚̇ Mass flow
𝑚̇𝑐 Concentrated brine mass flow flash drum (kg/h)
𝑚̇𝐷 Deposition mass flow rates per unit area of surface (kg/m2*s)
𝑚̇𝑓 Feed mass flow wastewater (kg/h)
𝑚̇ 𝑙 Mass flow liquid flash drum (kg/h)
𝑚̇𝑅 Removal mass flow rates per unit area of surface (kg/m 2*s)
𝑚̇𝑟𝑒 Recirculation liquid mass flow flash drum (kg/h)
𝑚̇𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 Steam mass flow required in the heat exchanger as heating
medium (kg/h)
𝑚̇𝑣 Mass flow target vapor flash drum (kg/h)

10
MW Molecular weight
n Growth order struvite crystallization (-)
Ni Rotational speed of the stirrer (s-1)
nim Number of impellers ph adjustment tank (-)
nl Parameter used for the tube bundle diameter calculation (Db) (-)
np Number of passes shell and tube side heat exchanger (-)
Np Power number for calculation of Power required by the stirred ph
adjustment tank (-)
nt Number of tubes heat exchanger (-)
Ṗ Concentrated liquid volume flow (m3/h)
P Operational pressure (kPa)
Pm Power required by the stirred ph adjustment tank (kW)
Ps−sample Solubility product of the wastewater (-)
Ps−equilibrium Solubility product in equilibrium under the same conditions
(pH, conductivity and temperature) of the wastewater (-)
PT Pitch number of the heat exchanger tubes (m)
Q̇ Heat exchanger duty required (kW)
R Parameter used in the calculation of Logarithmic mean temperature
difference (∆TLM ) (-)
Re Reynolds number shell and tube side (-)
𝑅𝑖 Tube side resistance due to fouling in the wastewater flow
(s*m²*K/kJ)
𝑅𝑂 Shell side resistance due to fouling in the steam flow (s*m²*K/kJ)
S Parameter used in the calculation of Logarithmic mean temperature
difference (∆TLM ) (-)
Sim Spacing impeller of the stirred ph adjustment tank (m)
SSR Supersaturation ratio (-)
Sr Supersaturation (-)
𝑇𝑐𝑖 Inlet temperature cold fluid (°C)
𝑇𝑐𝑜 Outlet temperature cold fluid (°C)
t clog Time required for the struvite to clog the pipe (min)
tR Residence time (h)
𝑇𝑡 Thickness heat exchanger tube (m)

11
Tu Upstream liquid temperature (°C)
Td Liquid saturation temperature corresponding to the downstream
pressure (°C)
𝑢 Upstream or previous to the flash process
𝑈𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚 Overall heat transfer coefficient assumed for the design of heat
exchanger (kJ/s*m²*K)
Ucal Overall heat transfer coefficient calculated (kJ/s*m²*K)
Umf Minimum fluidized velocity (m/s)
v̇ Volume flow wastewater (m3/h)
VT Volume ph adjustment tank (m3)
wim Width impeller of the stirred ph adjustment tank (m)
X Weight ratio of vaporized / remaining liquid (-)
𝑧 Ionic charge of ion (-)

𝜌 Density (kg/m3)
ρg Density steam (heating medium) (kg/m3)
ρl Density liquid wastewater (kg/m3)
ρp Density solid particle (kg/m3)
µ Viscosity (Pas)
µg Viscosity steam (heating medium) (Pas)
µl Viscosity liquid wastewater (Pas)
γ Activity coefficient of ion (-)
ε Fluidized bed voidage (-)
εSB Static bed voidage (-)
ΔHv Heat of evaporation steam (kJ/kg)
∆TLM Logarithmic mean temperature difference (ºC)
∆𝑇𝑏 Boiling-point elevation (°C)
∆P Pressure drop (kPa)

12
References

1. Schweitzer, P. (1997). Handbook of separation techniques for

chemical engineers. United States of America: McGraw-Hill.

2. Perry, R., and Green, D. (1997). Perry´s chemical engineerings’

Handbook. United States of America: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-
049841-5.

3. Sattler, K., and Feindt, J. H. (1995). Thermal separation

processes: Principles and design. United States of America: VCH
publishers. ISBN 3-527-28622-5.

4. Ulbricht, M., Schneider J., Stasiak, M., and Sengupta, A.. (2013).
Ammonia recovery from industrial wastewater by
transmembranechemisoprtion. Chemie Ingenieur technik 85, N°
8, 1259-1262.

5. Bott, T.R. (1995) Fouling of heat exchangers. School of chemical

engineering, University of Birmingham, UK.

6. Edwards, J.E. (2008). Design and rating shell and tube heat
exchangers. P & I Design Ltd, Teesside, UK

7. McCabe, W., Smith, J. and Harriott, P. (2004). Unit Operations of

Chemical Engineering (7th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
pp. 98–119. ISBN 978-0072848236.

13
LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Characterization starch wastewater, Hermann Kröner GmbH ............ Error!

Bookmark not defined.
Table 2 Operational conditions and dimensions of pre-acidification and
methanation reactor, Hermann Kröner GmbH .............. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 3 Comparison of operational parameter between year 1988 and 2015,
Hermann Kröner GmbH.................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 4 Parameters starch wastewater, Hermann Kröner GmbH .. Error! Bookmark
not defined.
Table 5 Parameters measured in the laboratory of the Hochschule Bremerhaven
.............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 6 Characterization of the evaporation process streams, laboratory
Hochschule Bremerhaven ................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 7 Requirements for water quality to be recycled in the starch plant ...... Error!
Bookmark not defined.
Table 8 Viscosity and the selection of the evaporation technology Error! Bookmark
not defined.
Table 9 Theoretical calculation of struvite precipitation in the wastewater...... Error!
Bookmark not defined.
Table 10 Typical values for solid particles in fluidized bed evaporator ............ Error!
Bookmark not defined.
Table 11 Stirred tank dimensions used to adjust the wastewater ph ............... Error!
Bookmark not defined.
Table 12 Parameters Kb and nl for equation 6.1.2.1.5 tube bundle diameter (Db).
............................................................................................................................................. 4
Table 13 Parameters shell and tube heat exchanger design .... Error! Bookmark not
defined.
Table 14 Results shell and tube heat exchanger design ........... Error! Bookmark not
defined.
Table 15 Results shell and tube heat exchanger design ........... Error! Bookmark not
defined.
Table 16 Parameters of fluidized bed heat exchanger design .. Error! Bookmark not
defined.
Table 17 Parameters of flash drum design ................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 18 Parameters of steam ejector design .............. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 19 Operational parameters and energy consumption Terrawater
technology .......................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 20 Fluidized bed heat exchanger proposed by Klaren International .... Error!
Bookmark not defined.
Table 21 Economic evaluation scenario 1 and 2 .......... Error! Bookmark not defined.

14
LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 Falling film evaporator ....................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Figure 2 Falling film short path evaporator .................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 3 Plate evaporator ................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 4 Rising film tubular evaporator .......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 5 Suppressed-boiling evaporation or flash evaporation . Error! Bookmark not
defined.
Figure 6 Fluidized bed evaporator or self-cleaning ...... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 7 Wiped Film evaporation .................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 8 Mechanical vapor recompression ................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 9 Mollier—enthalpy/entropy diagram ................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 10 Thermal vapor compression .......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 11 Variation in steam pressure as function of location along the ejector
.............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 12 Multi-effect evaporation .................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 13 logarithmic mean temperature difference ∆TLMparameters for parallel
and counter flow ................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 14 Overall heat transfer coefficient..................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 15 Transmembrane chemisorption principle ..... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 16 General sketch of the transmembrane chemisorption process and the
required parameters. ......................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 17 Flow diagram Starch production plant and wastewater system in
Hermann Kröner GmbH, Ibbenbüren, Germany........... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 18 Schematic diagram of the wastewater treatment plant of wheat starch
industry, Hermann Kröner GmbH ................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 19 Starch wastewater digestion reactor, Hermann Kröner GmbH ....... Error!
Bookmark not defined.
Figure 20 Preliminary sketch layout of selected evaporation technology ........ Error!
Bookmark not defined.
15
Figure 21 Fluidized bed evaporator (Self-cleaning) ..... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 22 Pressure drop ∆P as a function of the superficial velocity ............... Error!
Bookmark not defined.
Figure 23 Dimensions of a typical stirred tank .............. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 24 Triangular and square Pitch and clearance ................................................ 4
Figure 25 Shell side heat transfer factor (jH) for several segmental baffles
(Sinnott, R. K., 2005) ....................................................................................................... 6
Figure 26 Tube side heat transfer factor (jH) (Sinnott, R. K., 2005) .......................... 6
Figure 27 Moody diagram used to determine the fanning friction factor (fa) .......... 8
Figure 28 Flash drum ........................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 29 Working principle of a seam jet ejector and the pressure differences
over the flow path .............................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 30 Isocorrosion curves hydrochloric acid .......... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 31 Preliminary evaporation plant sketch, Klaren International, Netherlands.
.............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

16