Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
5, 667±679
G . R . M c D OW E L L a n d M . D. B O LTO N
This paper presents a study of the micromecha- Cet expose preÂsente une eÂtude du comportement
nical behaviour of crushable soils. For a single micro meÂcanique des sols concassables. Pour un
grain loaded diametrically between ¯at platens, seul grain charge de manieÁre diameÂtrale entre
data are presented for the tensile strengths of des platines plates, nous preÂsentons les donneÂes
particles of different size and mineralogy. These de reÂsistance aÁ la rupture des particules de
data are shown to be consistent with Weibull diffeÂrentes dimensions et mineÂralogies. Nous
statistics of brittle fracture. Triaxial tests on montrons que ces donneÂes correspondent aux
different soils of equal relative density show that statistiques de Weibull sur la rupture de fragi-
the dilatational component of internal angle of liteÂ. Les essais triaxiaux sur divers sols de meÃme
friction reduces logarithmically with mean effec- densite relative montrent que le composant de
tive stress normalized by grain tensile strength. dilatation de l'angle interne de friction baisse de
The tensile strength of grains is also shown to manieÁre logarithmique en meÃme temps que la
govern normal compression. For a sample of contrainte effective moyenne normaliseÂe par la
uniform grains under uniaxial compression, the reÂsistance aÁ la rupture du grain. Nous montrons
yield stress is related to the average grain tensile aussi que la reÂsistance aÁ la rupture des grains
strength. If particles fracture such that the gouverne la compression normale. Pour un
smallest particles are in geometrically self-simi- eÂchantillon de grains uniformes sous compres-
lar con®gurations under increasing macroscopic sion uniaxiale, la limite eÂlastique est lieÂe aÁ la
stress, with a constant probability of fracture, a rupture moyenne des grains. Si la rupture des
fractal geometry evolves with the successive particules est telle que les plus petites particules
fracture of the smallest grains, in agreement sont dans des con®gurations aÁ similitude geÂomeÂ-
with the available data. A new work equation trique intrinseÁque sous un effort macroscopique
predicts that the evolution of a fractal geometry de plus en plus grand, avec probabilite constante
gives rise to a linear compression line when de rupture, une geÂomeÂtrie fractale apparaõÃt avec
voids ratio is plotted against the logarithm of la rupture successive des grains les plus ®ns, en
macroscopic stress, in agreement with published accord avec les donneÂes disponibles. Une nou-
data. velle eÂquation de travail preÂdit que l'eÂvolution
de la geÂometrie fractale provoque l'apparition
d'une ligne de compression lineÂaire quand le
taux de pores est repreÂsente sous forme de
courbe par rapport au logarithme de l'effort
KEYWORDS: compressibility; constitutive relations; macroscopique, en accord avec les donneÂes pub-
plasticity; sands; statistical analysis. lieÂes.
667
668 McDOWELL AND BOLTON
50
b 5 20.357 Mean and
mean 62s
20
b 5 20.420
10
5
σf : MPa
1 b 5 20.343
Oolitic limestone
0.5
Carboniferous limestone
1.2
m 5 10
0.8
m55
Increasing variability
Ps(V0)
in strength
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
σ /σ0
maximum rate at which samples of volume V0 where ó is the characteristic tensile stress induced
fracture as the applied tensile stress increases oc- in the particle given by equation (1), and ó 0 is
curs at around ó ó 0 . A more rigorous analysis now the value of F=d 2 at which 37% of the tested
shows that dPs =dó is a minimum (i.e. dPf =dó is a particles survive, and is approximately equal to
maximum, where Pf is the fracture probability) at (and is proportional to) the mean tensile strength
a value of stress given by of particles of size d 0 . It is evident from equations
1= m (8) and (9) that the average tensile strength of
mÿ1 grains scales with particle size according to the
ó ó0 (7)
m relation
It is evident, then, that ó 0 is a signi®cant and ó 0 / d ÿ3= m (10)
useful parameter in describing the strength of cera-
mic materials. For a block of material of volume which is equivalent to equation (3). Apparently,
V1 under tension, equation (4) gives the 37% values of m in the range 5±10 cover Lee's data for
strength ó 01 as rock grains in Fig. 3.
The above analysis concludes that the mean
1= m
V0 value of F=d 2 at fracture for grains compressed
ó 01 ó 0 (8) diametrically between ¯at platens is a proper statis-
V1
tical measure of the tensile strength of ceramic
and the mean strengths scale in the same way. particles.
It is now necessary to examine the applicability
of Weibull to the data presented by Lee in Fig. 3.
If particles are approximately geometrically similar,
and have the same number and distribution of
INFLUENCE OF GRAIN STRENGTH ON ANGLE OF
contacts, the size of the zones of tensile stress
INTERNAL FRICTION
induced within them must scale with their volume.
Bolton (1986) proposed an empirical relation for
In this case, Weibull applies. The survival prob-
the extra component of internal angle of friction
ability of a particle size d under diametral com-
Äö due to dilatancy above the critical state
pression is therefore given by
" # strength ö9crit , as a function of the mean effective
d 3 ó m stress p9 and the initial relative density I D :
Ps (d) exp ÿ (9)
d0 ó0 Äö ö9max ÿ ö9crit AI R 8 (11)
MICROMECHANICS OF CRUSHABLE AGGREGATES 671
where A 3 for triaxial strain and A 5 in plane strength of grains should govern the dilatant beha-
strain conditions, and viour of crushable soils. More micromechanical
insight can therefore be achieved if equation (12)
I R I D (Q ÿ ln p9) ÿ 1 (12) is rewritten as
where p9 is in kilopascals. The parameter Q relates
Bó 0
to the mean effective stress required to suppress I R I D ln ÿ1 (13)
p9
dilatancy, and takes a value of 10 for the quartz
and feldspar sands discussed by Bolton. Bolton where B is a scalar multiplier. As Bolton (1986)
(1986) noted that triaxial tests by Billam (1972) remarked, this expression is applicable for I R > 0,
had shown that reducing the crushing strength of and should not be taken to apply as p9 approaches
the grains reduced the critical mean effective stress Bó 0 . The onset of contraction is the subject of the
required to suppress dilatancy, implying that the next section.
value of Q in equation (12) should be reduced for
soils of weaker grains. Bolton suggested values for
Q of 8 for limestone, 7 for anthracite and 5´5 for
chalk. However, since the average grain strength as ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSION
measured by Lee (1992) has now been shown to There now follows a study of the micromecha-
be a proper statistical measure of tensile strength, nics of one-dimensional compression. In particular,
it seems likely that the dilatational component of the aim is to determine the role of grain fracture in
the internal angle of friction Äö should be a func- the uniaxial compression of crushable soils. Fig. 6
tion of the mean effective stress normalised by the (Golightly, 1990) shows typical plots of voids ratio
average grain tensile strength ó 0 for soils of equal against the logarithm of vertical effective stress for
relative density. samples of carbonate and silica sands which have
Figure 5 shows results of triaxial tests performed been compressed in an oedometer. Plots for loose
by Lee (1992) on samples of Leighton Buzzard and dense silica sand are shown for comparison.
sand and oolitic limestone at the same initial Consider the compression of dense silica sand. A
relative density. The results include two different geotechnical engineer might describe the form of
particle size gradings for each soil: samples con- the curve by the relationship
tained approximately uniformly sized particles, but e f (ó 9v ) (14)
the size of the grains, varied by a factor of about
10 between the two gradings. The ®gure shows the which is dimensionally inconsistent: the vertical
dilatational component of angle of friction Äö effective stress ought to be normalized by some
plotted against p9=ó 0 on a logarithmic scale. It is material parameter with the dimensions of stress.
clear that Äö reduces linearly with log( p9=ó 0 ), Bolton & McDowell (1996) suggested that for the
thus con®rming the hypothesis that the tensile small deformations in region 1, the normalizing
20
7/14 52/100 7/14 52/100
LBS LBS OLS OLS
10
0
0.001 0.01 0.1 0.5
p′/σ0
is given by
N (L . d) Ad ÿ D (18) 104
ds
where A is a constant of proportionality and D is
the fractal dimension. The fractal dimension D is 102
often about 2´5 for materials subjected to pure D
crushingÐfor example Turcotte (1986) gives bro-
ken coal a value of D 2:50; granite fragments 1 d0
from an underground nuclear explosion have D 1025 1024 1023 1022 1021 1
2:50; and basalt fragments from projectile impact d /d0
have D 2:56. The materials which exhibit fractal
dimensions signi®cantly different from 2´5 are Fig. 7. A limited fractal of dimension D. The smallest
usually not the result of pure crushing, and have particle size reduces under increasing stress
674 McDOWELL AND BOLTON
There will be a `largest' particle of size d 0 corre- cles the largest particles are always the most likely
sponding to the original population, and a smallest to fracture. This would lead to the evolution of a
particle of size d s which will generally reduce as uniform matrix of ®ne particles from the compres-
stress increases. This is of uttermost importance in sion of an aggregate of coarse grains, behaviour
understanding the micromechanics of normal com- which is not evident in the geotechnical literature.
pression. If the size distribution in Fig. 7 were However, although the smallest particles are the
strictly a fractal without limit, the aggregate would strongest, they also have the fewest contacts. There
have a voids ratio uniquely de®ned by the fractal are two opposing effects on particle survival, size
dimension D: scale invariance would demand it and coordination number. If coordination number
and make the process of normal compression im- dominates over particle size in the evolution of the
possible. The model for `plastic' or `clastic' irre- aggregate, then the smallest particles always have
coverable compression which will now be the highest probability of fracture. In this case, the
presented is wholly dependent on the reduction of compression of an aggregate of uniform grains
the smallest particle size d s by successive splitting, would lead to a disparity in particle sizes, in which
so that voids ratio reduces as the broken fragments a proportion of the original grains is retained under
®ll pre-existing voids. the protection of a uniform compressive boundary
stress created by its many neighbours. This type of
behaviour is evident in Fig. 8, which shows the
FRACTAL CRUSHING particle size distribution curve which evolves for
The probability of fracture of a particle is Ottawa sand. McDowell et al. (1996) have shown,
determined (McDowell et al., 1996) by the applied using a simple numerical model, that when coordi-
macroscopic stress, the size of the particle and the nation number dominates over particle size in
coordination number (number of contacts with determining the fracture probability of a particle, a
neighbouring particles). The fracture probability fractal distribution of particle sizes evolves.
Pf (d) must increase with any increase in macro- Suppose that it is the smallest particles which
scopic stress ó , but reduce with a decrease in continue to fracture under increasing macroscopic
particle size, or an increase in the coordination stress, and that the probability of fracture of the
number (since an increase in the number of con- smallest particles is a constant p, and that the
tacts must reduce the induced tensile stresses number of fragments produced when a particle
(Jaeger, 1967)). For an aggregate with particle size splits is a constant n. The scale-invariant para-
disparity, the largest grains will have very high- meters p and n will be shown to de®ne a fragment
coordination numbers, since they will be sur- size distribution which is a fractal. Consider a
rounded by many smaller particles. The smallest hierarchy of splitting grains such that the largest
particles in the aggregate must have the minimum particles are size d 0 , and that subsequent `orders'
coordination. of particle size are d 1 , d 2 , . . ., d s , where d s is the
It might be anticipated, at ®rst sight, that be- smallest particle size which decreases under in-
cause small particles are stronger than large parti- creasing macroscopic stress. If there were origin-
100
80
100 MPa
Per cent finer by weight
60 55 MPa
35 MPa
40
7 MPa
20
0
0.01 0.1 1
Grain size: mm
σ 5 100 MPa
the relationship 60
e f (ó =G p , ö, ó =ó 0s ) (41)
where ó 0s is the tensile strength of the smallest 40
particles.
The derivation of the eÿlog ó relationship in
this paper has been for disordered materials in 20 Initial
which the average size of a critical ¯aw is propor- grading
evolves (Bard, 1993; Biarez & Hicher, 1994). It is M(L , d) volume of particles ®ner than size d
clear that the evolution of the linear portion of the n number of fragments produced when a
curve in Fig. 9(a) is consistent with the evolution particle splits
N (L . d) number of particles larger than size d
of a fractal distribution of particle sizes in Fig.
p fractal probability of fracture
9(b) as the uniformity coef®cient tends to some p9 mean effective stress
constant value. The change in curvature of the plot Pf (d) fracture probability for a particle of size d
at low voids ratios must be due to the comminu- Ps (d) survival probability for a particle of size d
tion limit (Kendall, 1978) for petroleum cokeÐ Ps (V ) survival probability for a volume V
Fig. 9(b) (Bard, 1993) shows that at high stresses q deviatoric stress
there is signi®cant breakage of the larger grains, Q Bolton constant
since the smallest particles are so small that they S surface area
yield before fracture. However, the data clearly S(L . d) total surface area of particles larger than
support the hypothesis that the micromechanical size d
V volume
origin of normal compression lies in the evolution V0 reference volume
of a fractal geometry. It seems that `normal com- Vs volume of solids
pression' would be better termed `fractal compres- âs surface shape factor
sion'. âv volume shape factor
åq triaxial shear strain
åv volumetric strain
å uniaxial macroscopic compressive strain
CONCLUSIONS ö angle of friction
The tensile strengths of soil grains compressed à surface energy
between ¯at platens satisfy the Weibull statistics of ë compressibility index
fracture of brittle ceramics, which permits a useful ì frictional constant for one-dimensional
and consistent de®nition of grain strength. This normal compression
grain strength governs the strength and dilatancy of M critical state frictional dissipation constant
crushable soils, so that at a given relative density ó characteristic tensile stress induced in a
particle
the dilatational component of the angle of internal
ó f Lee tensile strength of a particle
friction is proportional to the logarithm of mean ó 0 Weibull 37% tensile strength
effective stress normalized by grain tensile ó 9 effective stress
strength. For an aggregate under one-dimensional ó 9v vertical effective stress
normal compression, the yield stress is proportional ó uniaxial macroscopic compressive stress
to the grain tensile strength. The successive frac- ó 0 clastic yield stress
ture of the smallest particles under increasing
macroscopic stress to form a limited fractal geome-
try provides a micromechanical insight into the
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