Physics Notes Class 12 Chapter 11 Dual

Nature of Radiation and Matter

Cathode Rays
Cathode rays are the stream of fast moving electrons. These rays are produced in a
discharge
tube at a pressure below 0.01 rom of mercury.

Properties of Cathode Rays

(i) Cathode rays are not electromagnetic rays.
(ii) Cathode rays are deflected by electric field and magnetic field.
(iii) Cathode rays produce heat in metals when they fall on them.
(iv)Cathode rays can pass through thin aluminium or gold foils without puncturing
them.
(v) Cathode rays can produce physical and chemical change.
(vi) Cathode ray travel in straight line with high velocity momentum and energy
and cast
Shadow of objects placed in their path.
(vii) On striking the target of high atomic weight and high melting point, they
produce X-rays.
(viii) Cathode rays produce fluorescence and phosphorescence in certain substance
and hence
affect photographic plate.
(ix) When any charge particle move in a field where magnetic and electric fields
are present,
Without any deviation, then
Magnetic force = Electrostatic force
Bev = Ee or v = E / B
(x) Specific charge of cathode rays means the ratio of charge and mass.
(xi) Specific charge of electron was determined by J J Thomson using
perpendicular magnetic
and electric field applied on a beam of electrons, at the same place.
(xii) Specific charge of electron e / m = E2 / 2VB2
where, E = electric field, B = magnetic field and V = potential difference applied
across ends of
tube.
(xii) The value of specific charge of an electron is 1.7589 * 1011 C / kg.
(xiv) Millikan measured the charge of an electron through his popular oil drop
experiment.
(xv) The charge of the electron as determined by Millikan was found to be 1.602 *
10-19 C.
Positive Rays
Positive rays were discovered by Goldstein. Positive rays are moving positive ions
of gas filled
in the discharge tube. The mass of these particles is nearly equal to the mass of the
atoms of
gas.
(i) These consist of fast moving positively charged particles.
(ii) These rays are deflected in magnetic and electric fields.
(iii) These rays travel in straight line.
(iv) Speed of positive rays is less than that of cathode rays.
(v) These rays can produce fluorescence and phosphorescence.

Electron Emission
It is the phenomenon of emission of electron from the surface of a metal. The
electron emission
can be obtained from the following process
(i) Thermionic
(ii) Photoelectric emission
(iii) Field emission
(iv) Secondary emission

Photon
Photons are the packets of energy emitted by a source of radiation. The energy of
each photon is,
E = hv
Where h is Planck’s constant and v is frequency of radiation.
The rest mass of a photon is zero.
The momentum of a photon p = hv / c = h / λ
Dynamic or kinetic mass 0f photon m = hv / c2 = h / cλ
Where c is speed of light in vacuum and λ is wavelength of radiation. Photons are
electrically Neutral.
A body can radiate or absorb energy in whose number multiples of a quantum hv,
2hv, 3hv …. nhv, where n is positive integer.

Photoelectric Effect
The phenomena of emission of electrons from a metal surface, when radiations of
suitable
Frequency is incident on it, is called photoelectric effect.
Terms Related to Photoelectric Effect

(i) Work Function (φ) the minimum amount of energy required to eject one
electron from a
Metal surface, is called its work function.

(ii) Threshold Frequency (vo) The minimum frequency of light which can eject
photo electron
from a metal surface is called threshold frequency of that metal.

(iii) Threshold Wavelength (λmax) The maximum wavelength rJ light which can
eject photo
electron from a metal surface is called threshold wavelength of that metal.
Relation between work function, threshold frequency and threshold wavelength
φ = hvo = hc / λmax

Laws of Photoelectric Effect

1. For a given metal and frequency of incident light, the photo electric current (the
rate of
emission of photoelectrons) is directly proportional to the intensity of incident
light.
2. For a given metal. there is a certain minimum frequency, called threshold
frequency, below
which there is no emission of photo electrons takes place.
3. Above threshold frequency the maximum kinetic energy of photo electrons
depends upon the
frequency of incident light.
4. The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process.

Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation

The maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons
(Ek)max = hv – φ = h(v – vo)
where v is frequency of incident light and vo is threshold frequency.

Stopping Potential
The minimum negative potential given to anode plate at which photoelectric
current becomes
zero is called stopping potential (Vo).
Maximum kinetic energy of photo electrons
(Ek)max = 1 / 2 mv2
max = eVo
Compton Effect

When a monochromatic beam of X – falls on a target containing free electrons. it is

scattered.
As a result, the electrons recoil and scattered radiation has wavelength longer than
incident one.
This effect is called Compton effect.
(i) λ’ – λ = λ = Compton shift Δλ = h / moc (1 – cos φ) where mo is rest mass of an
electron and
c is the speed of light h / moc Compton shift Δλ is maximum, when φ = 180°

(ii) Kinetic energy of recoil electron

Ek = hc / λ – hc / λ’
(iii) Direction of recoil electron
tan θ = λ sin φ / λ’ – λ cos φ
(iv) Compton wavelength of electron
= h / moc = 0.024 A
(v) Maximum Compton shift
(Δλ)max = 2h / moc 0.0048 A

Matter Waves on de-Broglie Waves

A wave is associated with every moving particle, called matter or de-Broglie wave.
de-Broglie Wavelength
If a particle of mass m is moving with velocity v, then wavelength of de-Broglie
wave
associated with it is given by
λ = h / p = h / mv
de-Broglie wavelength of an electron is given by
λ = h / mv = h / √2me V = 12.27 / √V A.
where, m = mass of electron, e = electronic charge and V = potential difference
with which
electron is accelerated.
Davisson and Germer proves the existence of de-Broglie waves associated with an
electron in
motion.

Davisson-Germer Experiment
The wave nature of the material particles as predicted by de-Broglie was confirmed
by
Davisson and Germer (1927) in united states and by GP Thomson (1928) in
scotland.
This experiment verified the wave nature of electron using Ni crystal.
Davisson and Germer found that the intensity of scattered beam of electrons was
not the same
but different at different angles of scattering. It is maximum for diffracting angle
50° at 54 V
potential difference.

X-rays
When cathode rays strike on a heavy metal of high melting point. then a very small
fraction of
its energy converts in to a new type of waves, called X-rays.

Properties of X-rays
X-rays were discovered by Roentgen.

(i) X-rays are electromagnetic waves of wavelengths ranging from 0.1 A to 100 A
and
frequencies ranging from 1016 Hz to 1018 Hz.
(ii) Soft X-rays have greater wavelength and lower frequency.
(iii) Hard X-rays have lower wavelength and higher frequency.
(iv) X-rays are produced by coolidge tube.
(v) Molybdenum and tungsten provide suitable targets. These elements have large
atomic
number and high melting point for the purpose.
(vi) The intensity of X – rays depends on the heating voltage or filament current.
(vii) The kinetic energy of X-ray photons depends upon the voltage applied across
the ends of
coolidge tube.
(viii) Energy of X-ray photon is given by E = hv = hc / λ
(ix) If total energy of fast moving electron transfer to X-ray photon, then its
energy, eV = hv =
hc / λ
(x) Wavelength of emitted X-rays is given by λ = hc / eV
where, h = Planck’s constant, c = speed of light, e = electronic charge and V =
potential
difference applied across the ends of the tube.
(xi) Absorption of X-rays
I = Ioe- μx, where Io = initial intensity of X-rays, I = final intensity of emergent X-
rays, x =
thickness of material and μ = absorption coefficient.

Diffraction of X-rays
X-rays can be diffracted by crystals following Bragg’s law. According to which
2d sin θ = n λ
where, n = 1, 2, 3, …, and d = spacing of crystal planes, θ = angle of diffraction.
X-rays Spectrum
The energy spectrum of X-. rays is a line spectrum, containing following series :
(i) K – series When electrons of any higher orbit (n = 2,3,4, … ) jump to first orbit
(n = 1) then

K-series of X-rays are produced.

(ii) L – series When electrons of higher orbit (n = 3, 4, 5, … ) jump to second
orbit (n = 2),
then L-series of X-rays are produced.
(iii) M – series When electrons of higher orbit (n = 4,5,6, … )jump to third orbit (n
= 3), then
M-series of X-rays are produced.
First lines of these series are called Kα, Lα, Mα. Second lines of these series are
called Kβ, Lβ,
Mβ

Moseley’s Law
The frequency of X-ray is given by
V = a (Z – b)2
where a and b are constants and Z is atomic number of element.
Frequency of X-rays
v ∝ Z2

Emission of Electrons
At room temperature the free electrons move randomly within the conductor,
but they don’t leave the surface of the conductor due to attraction of positive
charges. Some external energy is required to emit electrons from a metal
surface. Minimum energy is required to emit the electrons which are just on
the surface of the conductor. This minimum energy is called the work
function( W) . The work function is the property of the metallic surface.

The energy required to liberate an electron from metal surface may arise
from various source such as heat, light, electric field etc. Depending on the
nature of source of energy, the following methods are possible.

(i) Thermionic emission: The energy to the free electrons can be given by
heating the metal, the electrons so emitted are known as thermions.
(ii) Field emission: When a conductor is put under strong electric field the
free electrons on it experience an electric force in the opposite direction of
field. Beyond a certain limit electrons start coming out of the metal surface.
Emission from a metal surface by this method is called the field emission.

(iii) Secondary emission: Emission of electrons from a metal surface by the

bombardment of high speed electrons or other particle is known as
secondary emission.

(iv) Photoelectric emission: Emission of free electrons from a metal

surface by falling light (or any other electromagnetic wave which has an
energy greater than the work function of the metal) is called photoelectric
emission. The electrons so emitted are called photoelectrons. This is
explained in detail as under.

Photoelectric Effect
It was observed by Hertz and Lenard around 1880 that when a clean metallic
surface is irradiated by monochromatic light of proper frequency, electrons
are emitted from it. This phenomenon of ejection of the electrons from
metal surface was called as Photoelectric Effect. The electrons thus ejected
were called as photoelectrons. For photoemission to take place, energy of
incident light photons should be greater than or equal to the work
function of the metal.

Or

E≥W
hf ≥ W [Where h is plank’s constant]
Study of photoelectric effect

The given set up (as shown in fig.) is used to study the photoelectric effect
experimentally.

In an evacuated glass tube, two zinc plates C and D are enclosed. Plates C
acts as anode and D acts as photosensitive plate. Two plates are connected
to a battery B and ammeter A. If the radiation is incident on the plate D
through a quartz window W, electrons are ejected out of plate and current
flows in the circuit. The plate C can be maintained at desired potential (+ve
or -ve) with respect to plate D.

Laws of Photoelectric Emission

1. For a light of any given frequency, photoelectric current is directly

proportional to the intensity of light, provided the frequency is above the
threshold frequency.

2. For a given material, there is a certain minimum (energy) frequency,

called threshold frequency, below which the emission of photoelectrons
stops completely, no matter how high is the intensity of incident light.

3. The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is found to increase

with increase in the frequency of incident light, provided the frequency
exceeds the threshold limit. The maximum kinetic energy is independent of
the intensity of light.
4. The photo-emission is an instantaneous process. After the radiation strikes
the metal surface, it just takes 10–9 s for the ejection of photoelectrons.

Factors Affecting
Photoelectric Effect
Effect of Intensity of incident radiation

The electrode C i.e. collecting electrode is made positive with respect to D.

Keeping the frequency of light and the potentials fixed, the intensity (amount
of energy falling per unit area per second) of incident light is varied and the
photoelectric current (i) is measured in ammeter. The photoelectric current is
directly proportional to the intensity of light. The photoelectric current gives
an account of number of photoelectrons ejected per sec.

Effect of p.d. between C & D

Keeping the intensity and frequency of light constant, the positive potential
of C is increased gradually. The photoelectric current increases with increase
in voltage (accelerating voltage) till, for a certain positive potential of plate
C, the current becomes maximum beyond which it does not increase for any
increase in the accelerating voltage. This maximum value of the current is
called as saturation current.
  Make the potential of C as zero and make it increasingly negative.
The photoelectric current decrease as the potential is made
increasingly negative (retarding potential), till for a sharply defined
negative potential Vc of C, the current becomes zero. The retarding
potential for which the photoelectric current becomes zero is called
as cut-off or stopping potential (Vc).

When light of same frequency is used at higher intensity, the value of

saturation current is found to be greater, but the stopping potential remains
the same. Hence the stopping potential is independent of intensity of incident
light of same frequency.

Effect of Frequency on
Photoelectric Effect
 The stopping potential Vc is found to be changing linearly with
frequency of incident light being more negative for high frequency.
An increase in frequency of the incident light increases the kinetic
energy of the emitted electrons, so greater retarding potential is
required to stop them completely. For a given frequency v,
Vc measures the maximum kinetic energy Emax of photoelectrons
that can reach plate C.
Where m is the mass of electron, e is charge of electron and Vmax is
maximum velocity of electron. This means that work done by stopping
potential must just be equal to maximum kinetic energy of an electron.

 The effect of changing incident frequency v can also be studied

from the plot of photoelectric current Vs potential applied across CD,
keeping the intensity of incident radiation same.

From graph, we see that imax is same in all cases.

(for same intensity).

From graph, as v increases, Vc becomes more negative.

 The plot of frequency Vs stopping potential for two different metals

is shown here. It is clear from graph that there is a minimum
frequency f0 and f0′ for two metals for which the stopping potential
is zero (Vc = 0). So for a frequency below f0 and f0‘ for two metals,
there will not be any emission of photoelectrons. This minimum
value of frequency of incident light below which the emission stops,
however large the intensity of light may be, is called as threshold
frequency.
Source of Radiation
If P (in Watts) be the power of the source of radiation and I be the intensity
of light radiation at a distance R from the source (R is the perpendicular
distance of the receiving surface from the source), then:

Determining the
Photoelectric Currecent
Let P be the power of a point source of electromagnetic radiations, then
intensity I at distance r from the source is given by

Bhor Model
BOHR MODEL-1

The main features of Rutherford’s model, viz. the nucleus and the electrons
orbiting it under the action of the Coulomb’s law of electrostatic attraction,
were retained in Bohr’s theory. In addition Bohr introduced the concept of
‘radiation less orbits’ or ‘stationary states’ in which the electron revolves
around the nucleus, but does not radiate contrary to the laws of
electromagnetism. This was a hypothesis, but at least a working one.

Radiation occurred only when an electron made a transition from one

stationary state to another. The difference between the energies of the two
states was radiated as a single photon. Absorption occurred when a
transition occurred from a lower stationary state to a higher stationary state.

The third principle invoked by Bohr was the correspondence principle: i.e. the
spectrum is continuous and the frequency of light emitted equals the
frequency of the electron. In the classical limit.

Using these general arguments and the existing body of knowledge, Bohr
postulated the following:

(i) The electron in an atom has only certain definite stationary states of
motion allowed to it, called as energy levels. Each energy level has a definite
energy associated with it. In each of these energy levels, electrons move in
circular orbit around the positive nucleus. The necessary centripetal force is
provided by the electrostatic attraction of the protons in the nucleus. As one
moves away from the nucleus, the energy of the states increases.

(ii) These states of allowed electronic motion are those in which the angular
momentum of an electron is an integral multiple of h/2π or one can say that
the angular momentum of an electron is quantised.
Angular momentum = m v r = n (h/2π)

Where m is the mass, v is the velocity, r is the radius of the orbit, h is

Planck’s constant and n is a positive integer.

(iii) When an atom is in one of these states, it does not radiate any energy
but whenever there is a transition from one state to other, energy is emitted
or absorbed depending upon the nature of transition.
(iv) When an electron jumps from higher energy state to the lower energy
state, it emits radiations in form of photons or quanta. However, when an
electron moves from lower energy state to a higher state, energy is
absorbed, again in form of photons.

(v) The energy of a photon emitted or absorbed is given by using Planck’s

relation (E = hv). If E1 be the energy of any lower energy state and E2 be the
energy of any higher energy state then the energy of the photon (emitted or
absorbed) is given as triangleE:

DE = E2 – E1 = h v

Where h = Planck’s constant and v = frequency of radiation emitted or

absorbed.

Note: Bohr’s Model is applicable only to one-electron atoms like: He+,

Li++ apart from H-atom.

BOHR MODEL-2

In the following section we will define the radius of orbits around the nucleus
(Bohr’s orbits), the velocity and energy of an electron in various orbits
around the nucleus. We will take

rn : radius of nth orbit

vn : velocity of electron in nth state (orbit)

En : energy of nth state

m : mass of an electron (9.1 x 10–31 Kg)

Z : atomic number (No. of Protons)

K = 1/(4πe0) = constant = 9 x 109 N m2 C–2

h : Planck’s constant (6.67 x 10–34 J-s)

c : velocity of light (3 x 108 m/s)

R : Rydberg constant (1.097 x 107 m–1)

e : Charge on an electron (1.6 x 10–19 C)

v : frequency of the radiation emitted or absorbed

From first postulate

Note: This relation exactly matches with the empirical relation given by
Balmer & Rydberg to account for the spectral lines in H-atom spectra. In fact
the value of Rydberg constant in the empirical relation is approximately the
same as calculated from the above relation (Bohr’s Theory). This was the
main success of Bohr’s Theory i.e. to account for the experimental
observations by postulating a theory.
Energy Levels of Hydrogen
Atom
The spectrum of H-atom studied by Lyman, Balmer, Paschen, Bracken and
Pfund can now be explained on the basis of Bohr’s Model. It is now clear that
when an electron jumps from a higher energy state to a lower energy state,
the radiation is emitted in form of photons. The radiation emitted in such a
transition corresponds to the spectral line in the atomic spectra of H-atom.

Lyman Series

When an electron jumps from any of the higher states to the ground state or
1st state (n = 1), the series of spectral lines emitted lies in ultra-violet
region and are called as Lyman Series. The wavelength (or wave number) of
any line of the series can be given by using the relation:
Paschen Series

When an electron jumps from any of the higher states to the state with n = 3
(IIIrd state), the series of spectral lines emitted lies in near infra-red region
and are called as Paschen Series. The wave number of any spectral line can
be given by using the relation:
 Important Formulas
1. Velocity of electron in nth orbit = vn = 2.165 x 106 Z/n m/s

2. Radius of nth orbit = rn = 0.53 x 10–10 n2/Z m

3. Binding energy of an electron in nth state = En = –13.6 Z2/n2 eV/atom

10. Excitation Energy

The energy taken up by an electron to move from lower energy level to

higher energy level. Generally it defined from ground state.

 Ist excitation energy = transition from n1 = 1 to n2 = 2

 IInd excitation energy = transition from n1 = 1 to n2 = 3
 IIIrd excitation energy = transition from n1 = 1 to n2 =
4 and so on ….
 The energy level n = 2 is also called as Ist excited state.
 The energy level n = 3 is also called as IInd excited state. & so
on …

In general, excitation energy (DE) when an electron is excited from a lower

state n1 to any higher state n2 is given as:
The wavelength (g) of the light emitted an also be determined by using:

Illustration 1: A doubly ionised Lithium atom is hydrogen like with

atomic number 3.

(i) Find the wavelength of radiation required to excite the electron in

Li++ from the first to the third Bohr Orbit. (Ionization energy of the
hydrogen atom equals 13.6 eV).

(ii) How many spectral lines are observed in the emission spectrum
of the above excited system?

Solution:
(ii) From the excited state (E3), coming back to ground state, there can
be 3C2 = 3 possible radiations.

Debroglie Wavelength
In 1925, before the discovery of electron diffraction, de Broglie proposed that
the wavelength (lemda) of waves associated with particles (like Electron,
photons) of momentum ‘p’ is given by.

Illustration 2: A particle of mass m is confined to a narrow tube of

length L. Find

(a) the wavelengths of the de-Broglie wave which will resonate in

the tube,

(b) the corresponding particle momenta, and

(c) the corresponding energies.

Solution:

X-Rays
X-rays were discovered accidentally by Rontgen in 1895. The first Nobel Prize
was awarded to Rontgen in 1901. This highly penetrating electromagnetic
radiation has proved to be a very powerful tool to study the crystal structure,
in material research, in the radiography of metals and in medical sciences.
Laue, Henry and Lawrence Bragg, Barkla, Siegbahn were some of the Nobel
Laureates who have made contribution to these studied. Gamma ray
spectroscopy and electron-spectroscopy were some of the spin-offs of these
studies apart from the discovery of elements.

Experimental production of X-rays and the Bragg spectrometer:

Electrons from a a heated element were accelerated by very high potential

and made to impinge on the target (anode). The X-rays produced are
collimated by parallel plates and are incident on a crystal (LiF, quartz,
diamond, etc.) As the inter-atomic distance is of the same order as the
wavelength of X-rays diffraction is produced and they are detected by
counters or photographic plates.

PROPERTIES OF X-RAYS

(i) Short wavelength (0.1 A° to 1 A°) electromagnetic radiation.

(ii) Are produced when a metal anode is bombarded by very high energy
electrons.

(iii) Are not affected by electric and magnetic field.

(iv) They cause photoelectric emission.

Characteristics equation eV = hvm

e = electron charge;
V = accelerating potential
vm= maximum frequency of X radiation

(v) Intensity of X – rays depends on number of electrons hitting the target.

(vi) Cut off wavelength or minimum wavelength, where v(in volts) is the p.d.
applied t
(ix) Bragg’s Law 2 d sin theta= n lemda

(theta = angle for max intensity)

Note: (a) Binding energy = – [Total Mechanical Energy]

(b) Vel. of electron in nth orbit for hydrogen atom

c = speed of light.

(c) For x – rays

(d) Series limit of series means minimum wave length of that series.

Production of Continuous
Spectrum
The accelerated electrons are suddenly stopped by the target. According to
Maxwell’s theory, wherever a charged particle is accelerated or decelerated,
they emit radiation. This is called Bremsstrahlung or braking radiation.

When the whole of the energy of the electron is converted to radiation, one
gets the maximum energy or wavelength minimum. If V is the potential
difference applied, it is

converted to the
========================================================================