Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t
Article history: The regular grid discretization is prevalent in the inverse modeling for gravity and magnetic data.
Received 6 June 2014 However, this subdivision strategy performs lower precision to represent the rugged observation surface.
Received in revised form To deal with this problem, we evaluate a non-structured discretization method in which the subsurface
23 November 2014
with rolling terrain is divided into numbers of Delaunay triangular cells and each mesh has the uniform
Accepted 26 November 2014
physical property distributions. The gravity and magnetic anomalies of a complex-shaped anomalous
Available online 29 November 2014
body are represented as the summaries of the single anomaly produced by each triangle field source.
Keywords: When inverting for the potential field data, we specify a minimization objective function composed of
Gravity and magnetic anomalies data constraints and then use the preconditioned conjugate gradient algorithm to iteratively solve the
Inverse modeling
matrix minimization equations, where the preconditioner is determined by the distances between tri-
Constrained Delaunay triangulation
angular cells and surface observers. We test our method using synthetic data; all tests return favorable
Rugged topography
Deep resources results. In the case studies involving the gravity and magnetic anomalies of the Mengku and Pobei de-
posits in Xinjiang, northwest China, the inferred magnetite orebodies and ultrabasic rocks distributions
are verified by the additional drilling and geological information. The discretization of constrained De-
launay triangulation provides an useful approach of computing and inverting the potential field data on
the situations of undulate topography and complicated objects.
& 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cageo.2014.11.010
0098-3004/& 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Liu et al. / Computers & Geosciences 76 (2015) 18–30 19
Fig. 1. Four discretization approaches: (a) regular division; (b) octree-mesh discretization; (c) Cartesian gird and (d) triangulation.
2.2. Forward modeling for gravity and magnetic fields gravity anomaly caused by the ith edge of the triangle, G is the
gravity constant, Δσ is the residual density, ( ξi, ζi) is the coordinate
There are many available methods for building 2D/3D geolo- of the ith triangle corner. Adding the gravity anomalies caused by
gical models by gravity and magnetic field data. For example, all triangle cells, the gravity anomalies (i.e., Δg) of the 2D arbitrary
Talwani (1965) approximated real sources by sets of stacked la- shape model are written as
mina for magnetic data and Plouff (1976) developed a closed-form NT
equation for the gravity anomaly of a finite-thickness horizontal Δg = ∑ Δgj ,
plate, which is useful for terrain corrections. Okabe (1979) devel- j=1 (4)
oped forward modeling techniques for gravity and magnetic
anomalies due to homogeneous polyhedral bodies. Jessell (2001) where NT is the number of the triangular cells. Similarly, as for the
reviewed different ways potential-field modeling systems to re- triangle ΔABC (Fig. 3) with effective magnetization intensity Ms
present the 3D structure of the Earth's crust. Tontini et al. (2009) and magnetization inclination is, the magnetic anomaly at ob-
showed a set of forward model equations in the Fourier domain for servation point O is given by (Zhang and Pan, 2004)
calculating the 3D gravity and magnetic anomalies of a given 3D ⎧ H = 2(M Q ′ − M P′)
a, j x z
distribution of density or magnetization. Pignatelli et al. (2011) ⎪
⎪
presented a MATLAB-based geopotential field generator called ⎨ Za . j = 2(MxQ + MzP) ,
⎪
GamField that constructed and visualized subsurface sources in 3D ⎪
⎩ j
ΔT = H cos I cos A + Z sin I
a, j a, j (5)
space and computes their gravity and magnetic effects. Tontini
(2012) implemented a MATLAB function for calculating magnetic where Ha,j, Za,j and ΔTj are the horizontal components, vertical
anomalies from a 3D distribution of magnetization and the for- components and total field anomalies, respectively, I and A are the
ward calculation engine is based on a 3D Fast Fourier Transform inclination of Earth's magnetic field and the magnetic azimuth of
computation, that gives accurate results in a very short computing the profile, and
time, making the use of this program particularly suitable for 3D
Mx = Ms cos is , Mz = Ms sin is ,
interactive modeling of observed magnetic anomalies. Jeshvaghani
and Darijani (2014) presented a fast and accurate adaptive finite
⎧ ⎫
element algorithm for forward modeling of 2D geomagnetic ⎪
(ζ − ζ )(ξ
− i +1 i i +1 i
− ξ)
⎪ (ζi + 1 − ζi)2 + (ξi + 1 − ξi)2
3 ( ξ ξ
tan−1 ζi − tan−1 ζi + 1
i i +1
)⎪⎪
structures based on numerical solution of the Laplace equation. Q = ∑⎨ ⎬,
Zhang and Hao (2006) carried out the 2D irregular gravity mod- ⎪
i=1 + 1 (ζi + 1 − ζi) 2 ξi2+ 1 + ζi2+ 1
ln 2 2 ⎪
⎪
⎩ 2 (ζi + 1 − ζi)2 + (ξi + 1 − ξi)2 ξi + ζi ⎪
⎭
eling and assumed that the internal density in each triangle is
linearly distributed. In our work, when forward modeling the
⎧ (ξi + 1 − ξi) 2 ⎫
gravity and magnetic anomalies based on the triangular dis-
cretization, the physical properties for each triangular cell are as-
⎪
⎪ (ζi + 1 − ζi)2 + (ξi + 1 − ξi)2
3 ( ξ
i
ξ
tan−1 ζi − tan−1 ζi + 1
i +1
)⎪⎪⎬
P = ∑⎨ ,
sumed to be homogeneous. So its expressions for gravity and ⎪ 1 (ζi + 1 − ζi)(ξ i + 1 − ξi) ξi2+ 1 + ζi2+ 1 ⎪
i=1 −
⎪ ln 2 2 ⎪
magnetic fields are derived from the fields of a 2D N-sided polygon ⎩ 2 (ζi + 1 − ζi)2 + (ξi + 1 − ξi)2 ξi + ζi ⎭
when N ¼3 (Fig. 3) (Blakely, 1996; Zhang and Pan, 2004; Roy,
2007). Therefore, the gravity anomaly of triangle ΔABC (Fig. 3) at ⎧ (ζi + 1 − ζi) 2 ⎫
observation point O is expressed as ⎪ (
⎪ (ζi + 1 − ζi)2 + (ξi + 1 − ξi)2
3
ξ
i
ξ
tan−1 ζi − tan−1 ζi + 1
i +1
)⎪⎪⎬
Q′ = ∑ ⎨ ,
i = 1 ⎪ + 1 (ζi + 1 − ζi)(ξi + 1 − ξi) ⎪
3 3 ξi2+ 1 + ζi2+ 1
ξiζi + 1 − ξi + 1ζi ⎪ ln 2 2 ⎪
Δgj = ∑ δgi = 2GΔσ ∑ ⎩ 2 (ζi + 1 − ζi)2 + (ξi + 1 − ξi)2 ξi + ζi ⎭
i=1 i=1 (ζi + 1 − ζi)2 + (ξi + 1 − ξi)2
⎡ ⎛ ζ ⎞ ⎧ (ζi + 1 − ζi)(ξi + 1 − ξi) ⎫
⎢⎣ ⎝
ζ
⎢(ξi + 1 − ξi)⎜tan−1 i − tan−1 i + 1 ⎟
ξi ξi + 1 ⎠
3 ⎪ (
⎪ (ζi + 1 − ζi)2 + (ξi + 1 − ξi)2
ξ
i
ξ
tan−1 ζi − tan−1 ζi + 1
i +1
)⎪⎪
P′ = ∑ ⎨ ⎬,
i = 1 ⎪+ 1 ⎪
2 ξ 2 + ζ2
ξ 2 + ζi2+ 1 ⎤
(ξi +1 − ξi)
1 ⎪ ln i +21 i2+ 1 ⎪
+ (ζi + 1 − ζi)ln i +21 ⎥, ⎩ 2 (ζi + 1 − ζi)2 + (ξi + 1 − ξi)2 ξi + ζi ⎭
2 ξi + ζi2 ⎥⎦ (3) where (ξi, ζi) is the coordinate of the ith triangle corner.
where Δgj is the gravity anomaly of the jth triangle cell, δgi is the Adding the magnetic anomalies caused by all triangle cells, the
S. Liu et al. / Computers & Geosciences 76 (2015) 18–30 21
Fig. 4. Constrained Delaunay triangulation for rectangular model on rugged surface (a) and its gravity and magnetic anomalies (Δs ¼ 1g/cm3, MS ¼ 100A/m, Is ¼ 45°) (b).
magnetic anomalies of the 2D arbitrary shape model at point O are observed data and divided mesh cells, respectively. The objective
expressed as function of potential data inversion is given by
NT
ϕ = (d − Gm)T W(d − Gm), (8)
ΔT = ∑ ΔTj.
j=1 (6)
{ }
where W = diag 1/σ12, 1/σ22, … , 1/σm2 and σi is the standard de-
Fig. 4a is a CDT result for a rectangular prism model on the viation of the ith datum (Li and Oldenburg, 1996, 1998). Minimiz-
rugged surface. The cross-section is divided into 2192 triangula- ing the objective function ϕ , let (∂ϕ/∂m) = 0 and then obtain
tion cells and the rectangular area is cut into 100 triangles. The
CDT realizes the discretization of irregular terrain and complicated GT WGm = GT Wd. (9)
objects. The areas near the surface are cut smaller than in deep
The coefficient matrix in Eq. (9) has a large condition number
region. If the residual density of the rectangular prism is 1 g/cm3;
and it impairs the computational efficiency. To improve the rate of
the effective magnetization intensity is 100 A/m and the effective
magnetization inclination is 45°, the computed gravity (i.e., Δg) convergence, Pilkington (1997) used a preconditioner to reduce
and magnetic (i.e., ΔT) anomalies on the south-northern profile the condition number by premultiplying a matrix P at both sides
using Eqs. (3)–(6) are shown in Fig. 4b. of Eq. (9). Hence, Eq. (9) is written as
2.3. Inverse modeling for gravity and magnetic field data PGT WGm = PGT Wd, (10)
Fig. 6. Recovered susceptibility distributions for the four synthetic models: (a) single rectangular prism; (b) parallel vertical dike prism; (c) parallel inclined dike prism and
(d) synclinal prism.
Fig. 7. The observed and predicted total field anomalies for the four synthetic models: (a) single rectangular prism; (b) parallel vertical dike prism; (c) parallel inclined dike
prism and (d) synclinal prism.
4.2. Inversion for Lines 135 and 143 with the self-demagnetization effect of high susceptibility bodies
that distorts the internal magnetization intensity and direction
We select the magnetic anomalies (no-smoothed) of Lines 135 and we neglect its influence in the real examples. There are several
and 143 to test the method. Our method currently cannot deal drillholes to infer the depths and shapes of the magnetite
24 S. Liu et al. / Computers & Geosciences 76 (2015) 18–30
Fig. 8. Geological map (a) (adapted from Xu et al. (2007)) and total field anomaly contour map (b) of the Mengku iron-deposit, Xinjiang, northwest China (1 – Lower
Devonian upper Kangbutiebao formation (tuffaceous sandstone, leucogranulitite), 2 – Lower Devonian lower Kangbutiebao formation (hornblende eptynites, gneiss), 3 –
Upper Silurian Songkemu formation (schist, gneiss), 4 – late hercynian granites, 5 – early hercynian granites, 6 – faults, 7 – ore bodies, 8 – Quaternary, 9 – iron-ore areas.
Table 1
Statistics (geometric means) of the magnetic properties of rock and ore samples of the Mengku iron-ore deposit in Xinjiang, northwest China. The magnetite ores have a
stronger magnetism than the surrounding rocks; the surrounding rocks show weak remanent magnetization.
Rocks and ores Samples number Susceptibility κ (4π 10 6 SI) Induced magnetization Mi ¼κT0 Remanent magnetization Mr (10 3 A/
(10 3 A/m) m)
Fig. 9. Constrained Delaunay triangulations for cross-sections 135 (a) and 143 (b) of the Mengku iron-deposit, Xinjiang, northwest China.
Fig. 10. Recovered susceptibility distributions of the Lines 135 (a) and 143 (b) of the Mengku iron-deposit, Xinjiang, northwest China.
orebodies. The terrains of Lines 135 and 143 are sharply undulated shallow areas are divided smaller than the deep ranges. As shown
with maximal elevation differences exceeding 100 m. For accu- in Fig. 9, the areas from 0 to 600 m distance and from surface to
rately representing the fluctuations of the observation surfaces 600 m elevation of Lines 135 and 143 are divided into 1579 and
and because the resolution of the gravity and magnetic anomalies 1598 triangle cells composed of 888 and 898 nodes using CDT,
are declined with the increase of the depths of field sources, the respectively. There are 120 magnetic observation points in Lines
26 S. Liu et al. / Computers & Geosciences 76 (2015) 18–30
Fig. 11. Geological map of the Poshi deposits, Xinjiang, northwest China. Adapted from Sun et al. (2009) and Yang et al. (2002).
S. Liu et al. / Computers & Geosciences 76 (2015) 18–30 27
granite (i.e., 2.61 g/cm3) have the lowest density (i.e., o2.7 g/cm3). Table 4
In the processes of density measurements, in addition, we found Statistics of the magnetic property of the rock samples of the Poshi deposit, Xin-
jiang, northwest China.
that the density of gabbro samples concentrates about 2.9 g/cm3
and there are only 3 pieces of samples of which the density is less Rocks Range of sus- Mean of sus- Range of re- Mean of re-
than 2.8 g/cm3. Whereas, the number of peridotite samples' ceptibility κ ceptibility κ manence Mr manence Mr
density o 2.8 g/cm3 reaches to 16, occupying 23%. The density (4π 10 6 SI) (4π 10 6 SI) (10 3 A/m) (10 3 A/m)
measurements for drilling core samples indicate that the density
Granite 139–750 399 190–2000 650
of peridotite at 10–243 m depth is lower than 2.8 g/cm3 and the Diorite 40–5902 1180 70–1250 370
norite, pyroxenite, gabbro under 350 m is 42.9 g/cm3 in ZK0-1 Gabbro – 1429 – 830
(Table 3). As for ZK0-2, the peridotite's density varies 2.59–2.8 g/ Diabase 1730–2220 1923 290–620 410
Gneiss 950–2230 1460 3400–7058 5590
cm3 from 121 to 283 m depth; ore-bearing hornblende pyroxenite,
Marble 49–1910 259 70–6000 470
norite, gabbro below 385 m have lager density (about 3.0 g/cm3). Schist 29–430 250 40–9660 1000
Overall, the density measurements indicate that the density of Sandstone 64–3301 883 780–4160 1890
ultrabasic rocks (i.e., 2.6–2.8 g/cm3) is lower 0.1–0.5 g/cm3 than Ultrabasic 20–40,200 3505 20–54,600 1892
the gabbro, ore-bearing basic–ultrabasic rocks, garnet skarn and Dacite 10–10,000 347 10–10,000 189
Tuff 60–1520 1628 40–920 795
serpentine (i.e., 2.9–3.1 g/cm3). Therefore, on the background of Skarn – 17,000 – 3800
intermediate-basic rocks, certain scale peridotite rocks will pro-
duce lower amplitude of residual gravity anomalies and the con-
tact zones between the bottom of ultrabasic rocks and surround- and higher magnetic anomalies in the areas where there are ul-
ing rocks are the favorable positions for ore formation. trabasic rocks outcropped. The TEM sounding profile has 1200 m
Besides, the statistics for magnetic properties demonstrate that length and the contour map of the changing rate of electro-
the ultrabasic rocks have strong and variable magnetism with magnetic induction (i.e., DBz/Dt) shows lower resistivity in ultra-
mean susceptibility larger than 3000 (4π 10 6 SI) and remanent basic-hosting areas (Fig. 12c). Before we invert the gravity and
magnetization about 2000 (10 3 A/m). While the intermediate magnetic anomalies, the cross-section is divided into 2756 triangle
and basic rocks (e.g., gabbro, dacite, diorite) are moderately cells using constrained Delaunay triangulation and the prospect-
magnetic (i.e., 2000 4π 10 6 SI) (Table 4). The acid granite, ing depth is around 1000 m (Fig. 12a).
diorite and metamorphic marble are weakly magnetized and We use the preconditioned conjugate gradient method to re-
compose the background fields of the Poshi deposits. In addition, cover the density and susceptibility distributions. The inversion is
the gabbro samples show higher polarizability (i.e., 0.04–1.49%) converged after 10 times of iterations. The predicted gravity and
and higher resistivity (i.e., 4 2000 Ω m), while the polarizability magnetic anomalies accurately fit the observation anomalies ac-
of ultrabasic is lower than 1% and its resistivity varies 323– curately (Fig. 12f) and the density and susceptibility distribution
978 Ω m (Table 5). Therefore, the ultrabasic has apparent contract inversion results are shown in Fig. 12b and d, respectively.
of magnetic and electrical properties. The gravity, magnetic and electrical inversion results yield good
In summary, compared with the intermediate-basic rocks (i.e., approximations with the geological and drilling information. The
gabbro), the ultrabasic rocks have the physical properties factures cross-sections are divided into six lithologic zones (i.e., marked A–
of lower density, higher susceptibility, lower resistivity and po- F zones) comprehensively based on the inversion results and
larizability. Geophysical prospecting including the gravity, mag- geological information (Fig. 12b–e). The most northwest area (i.e.,
netic and electrical methods play important roles in investigating A zone) with the lowest density (residual density reaches to
the spatial distributions of ultrabasic rocks and looking for favor- 0.4 g/cm3) and weak susceptibility is inferred to be the acid
able positions of ore formation. In Poshi deposit, the surface granite. The geological maps of Figs. 11 and 12e confirm that there
gravity, magnetic and transient electromagnetic method (TEM) remains large scale granite rocks in the northwest of the Poshi
were carried out. We investigate the 2D distributions of ultrabasic deposits and the physical properties measurements for granite
rocks at Line 0. samples show low density and weak magnetics. Besides, we de-
duce that the both B and D zones are the basic rocks of gabbro and
5.2. Inversion for Line 0 C zone hosts the ultrabasic peridotite. The C zone has the features
of lower density, higher susceptibility and lower resistivity, so they
Line 0 locates at the center of the Poshi deposits and crosses the are the responses of ultrabasic peridotite. The residual density
ultrabasic rocks (Fig. 11). In this profile, the gravity, magnetic and varies 0.1 to 0.2 g/cm3 and companies with 0.02–0.06 SI sus-
TEM methods are implemented. The point spacing of gravity and ceptibility contract, which coincide with the physical properties
magnetic surveys is 40 m and there are 60 observation points in statistics in Tables 2–4. The B and C zones are deduced to be the
total. The residual gravity anomaly and magnetic anomaly (no- gabbro basic rocks due to their higher density, lower susceptibility
smoothed) are shown in Fig. 12f. It is appeared that lower gravity and high resistivity. However, it is noticeable that the B and D
Table 3
Density measurements of the rock samples collected in boreholes of the Poshi deposit, Xinjiang, northwest China.
Boreholes Rocks Samples number Range s (g/cm3) Mean s (g/cm3) Depth (m)
Table 5
Statistics of the electrical property of the rock samples of the Poshi deposit, Xinjiang, northwest China.
Rocks Samples number Range of resistivity ρs (Ω m) Mean of resistivity ρs (Ω m) Range of polarizability ηs (%) Mean of polarizability ηs (%)
zones rocks show lower density, but the B zone's density is larger them. In conclusion, the gravity and magnetic inversion results
0.2 g/cm3 than that of D zone. It is derived that the B and D zones indicates that there are six lithologies in Line 0: A – granite (low
are the earlier and latter basic instruction, respectively. Moreover, density and moderate magnetism), B – earlier gabbro (high den-
the D zone is covered by the metamorphic rocks labeled as E zone. sity, weak magnetism, high resistivity), C – peridotite (ultrabasic
The metamorphic rocks main include the marble and schist of rocks, low density, strong magnetism, low resistivity), D – latter
ChB1 and ChB2 showing weak residual density and susceptibility. gabbro (high density, weak magnetism, high resistivity), E – me-
Finally, the geological surveys reveal that there are diorite intru- tamorphic rocks (i.e., ChB1 and ChB2, schist and marble, moderate
sions distributed at the southeast of the profile (i.e., F zone). density and magnetism), F – diorite (moderate density and mag-
However, they do not have apparent density and magnetic dif- netism) (Table 6). This results are verified by the results of physical
ferences compared with the metamorphic rocks, and so the E and properties measurements and geological surveys.
F do not have clear physical properties boundary to distinguish
Fig. 12. The gravity, magnetic and electrical inversion results for Line 0 of the Poshi deposits, Xinjiang, northwest China: (a) triangular discretization; (b) residual density
distributions for gravity data inversion; (c) DBz/Dt contour map for TEM; (d) relative susceptibility distributions for magnetic data inversion; (e) geological profile;
(f) observed and predicted gravity and magnetic anomalies. The gravity, magnetic and electrical inversion results divide the cross-section into six lithologies: A – granite, B –
earlier gabbro, C – peridotite, D – latter gabbro, E – schist and marble, F – diorite.
S. Liu et al. / Computers & Geosciences 76 (2015) 18–30 29
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Science Foundation of China (No. 41274077, 41474055), the Geo- by a successive approximation procedure. Chin. J. Geophys. 50, 1551–1557.
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