Bagian 1: Astrie

Bagian 2: Arif
Bagian 3: Yuliani
Bagian 4: Ayu
Bagian 5: Bg Rizam
Bagian 6: Dian

1. Numerical Introduction to Limits

Objectives: In this tutorial, we introduce an "intuitive" definition of a limit. After working

through these materials, the student should be able

 to obtain numerical evidence for the calculation of limits;

 to determine what appears to be the limit from the numerical evidence; and
 to become aware of some of the problems in using numerical evidence for the
calculation of limits.

Modules:

Intuitive Definition. Let y = f(x) be a function. Suppose that a and L are numbers
such that

o whenever x is close to a but not equal to a, f(x) is close to L;

o as x gets closer and closer to a but not equal to a, f(x) gets closer and
closer to L; and
o suppose that f(x) can be made as close as we want to L by making x close
to a but not equal to a.

Then we say that the limit of f(x) as x approaches a is L and we write

Problem:
Explore the limit

Visualization:
Using javascript, the first table below explores the right-hand limit at x = 5 in which x
approaches 5 from the right-hand side. The second table explores the left-hand limit at
x = 5 in which x approaches 5 from the left-hand side.

N x f(x) N x f(x)
0 6 3 0 4 -3
1 5.1 3.0000000000002878 1 4.9 -2.999999999999222
 2 5.01 2.9999999999501417 2 4.99 -3.000000000056723
3 5.001 3.0000000037872496 3 4.999 -2.999999998458179
4 5.0001 2.9999998758824593 4 4.9999 -2.9999998758824593
5 5.00001 3.0000265214801534 5 4.99999 -3.0000265214801534
6 5.000001 3.002534391874937 6 4.999999 -2.997206021408321

We see that the right hand limit appears to be 3 and the left hand limit appears to be -3.
In this case, when the right hand limit does not equal the left hand limit, then the
limit

does not exist.

We have chosen x to be 5 plus some power of 1/10 in the left table and have chosen x to
be 5 minus some power of 1/10 in the right table. N indicates this power.

Problem:
Explore numerically the following limits

1.

2.

3.

Visualization:
Each of these limits gives the incorrect answer when we use the techniques developed so
far.

Example 1.

Note, from the table, that when x = 0.000001, the value in the next column for the
quotient is 0. This is not true.

The problem is that when a real number is used in the program, only 16 digits of the
number are stored. So, when x = 0.000001 is stored in x3 + 8, the value which should be
8.000000000000000001 is stored as 8.000000000000000. Consequently, the expression
becomes 0 instead of the correct value which is close to 1/12.
 Most graphing calculators store numbers correct up to 8 or 9 digits only.

Example 2.

If you look at only the first ten values in the table for this limit then you would probably
assert that the limit is 0. However, looking at the eleventh to the fifteenth values, the
answer appears to be 7.0e-10 (in scientific notation).

It is easy to modify this example, to come up with an example that would need several
hundred values to detect what appears to be the correct answer. What this example
shows is that we cannot completely rely on numerical techniques to evaluate limits.

Example 3.

Since most of the values in the second coumn of the table are very small (remember that
most of these are expressed using scientific notation). You might expect that the limit is
0. In fact, if you evaluate these numbers exactly then the numbers are almost all 0. The
difficulty is that the numbers chosen for x are powers of 1/2. Look at what happens, if
we choose numbers for x that are powers of 1/10.

From this table, it appears that the limit does not exist which, in fact, is the case.

We will develop techniques to come up with the exact answers for each of these limits.

2. Graphical Introduction to Limits

Objectives: In this tutorial, we recall the definition of distance in the real line. We relate
certain inequalities involving distance with open intervals. We start with the intuitive
definition of a limit and express it in terms of distances. Combining these concepts together
we obtain a geometrical interpretation of limits. After working through these materials, the
student should be able

 to recognize geometrically whether a limit exists or not; and

 using technology, to find geometrically the  when a specific  is given.
Modules:

Intuitive Definition. Let y = f(x) be a function. Suppose that a and L are numbers
such that

o whenever x is close to a but not equal to a, f(x) is close to L;

o as x gets closer and closer to a but not equal to a, f(x) gets closer and
closer to L; and
o suppose that f(x) can be made as close as we want to L by making x close
to a but not equal to a.

Then we say that the limit of f(x) as x approaches a is L and we write

 We refine this as follows:

Definition. The limit of f(x) as x approaches a is L provided that

o choosing  > 0, indicating that we want the distance between f(x) and L to
be less than 
o we can find 
o so that if the distance from x to a is less than  but not equal to 0
o then the distance from f(x) to L will be less than .

 Discussion of distance in the real line and the relationship between certain inequalities
and open intervals.

 Motivation for the definition of limits using the intuitive definition and geometrical
interpretation of limits.

 Examples in finding geometrically  when given a specific .

Problem:
Find a  that satisfies the definition of the limit of
f(x) = 3x + 4

as x approaches a = 2 for various values of epsilon starting with  = 0.5.

Examples using a graphing calculator to find geometrically  when given a specific .

An alternative way to use a graphing calculator to find geometrically  when given a specific
.

Examples that illustrate limits that do not exist.

Problem: Explore the limit

Visualization:
Using javascript, the first table below explores the right-hand limit at x = 5 in which x
approaches 5 from the right-hand side. The second table explores the left-hand limit at
x = 5 in which x approaches 5 from the left-hand side.

N X f(x) N X f(x)
0 6 3 0 4 -3
1 5.1 3.0000000000002878 1 4.9 -2.999999999999222
2 5.01 2.9999999999501417 2 4.99 -3.000000000056723
3 5.001 3.0000000037872496 3 4.999 -2.999999998458179
4 5.0001 2.9999998758824593 4 4.9999 -2.9999998758824593
5 5.00001 3.0000265214801534 5 4.99999 -3.0000265214801534
6 5.000001 3.002534391874937 6 4.999999 -2.997206021408321

We see that the right hand limit appears to be 3 and the left hand limit appears to be -3. In this
case, when the right hand limit does not equal the left hand limit, then the limit

does not exist.

 We have chosen x to be 5 plus some power of 1/10 in the left table and have chosen x to
be 5 minus some power of 1/10 in the right table. N indicates this power.

An example of a limit that exists but the graphical evidence indicates that the limit
does not exist.

Problem:
Explore numerically the following limits

1.

2.

3.

Visualization:
Each of these limits gives the incorrect answer when we use the techniques developed so
far.
Example 1.

Note, from the table, that when x = 0.000001, the value in the next column for the
quotient is 0. This is not true.

The problem is that when a real number is used in the program, only 16 digits of the
number are stored. So, when x = 0.000001 is stored in x3 + 8, the value which should be
8.000000000000000001 is stored as 8.000000000000000. Consequently, the expression
becomes 0 instead of the correct value which is close to 1/12.

Most graphing calculators store numbers correct up to 8 or 9 digits only.

Example 2.
If you look at only the first ten values in the table for this limit then you would probably
assert that the limit is 0. However, looking at the eleventh to the fifteenth values, the
answer appears to be 7.0e-10 (in scientific notation).

It is easy to modify this example, to come up with an example that would need several
hundred values to detect what appears to be the correct answer. What this example shows
is that we cannot completely rely on numerical techniques to evaluate limits.

Example 3.

Since most of the values in the second coumn of the table are very small (remember that
most of these are expressed using scientific notation). You might expect that the limit is
0. In fact, if you evaluate these numbers exactly then the numbers are almost all 0. The
difficulty is that the numbers chosen for x are powers of 1/2. Look at what happens, if we
choose numbers for x that are powers of 1/10.

From this table, it appears that the limit does not exist which, in fact, is the case.

We will develop techniques to come up with the exact answers for each of these limits.