The Ecological Validity of TASIT, A Test of Social Perception

Neuropsychological Rehabilitation
ISSN: 0960-2011 (Print) 1464-0694 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/pnrh20
The ecological validity of TASIT: A test of social

perception
Skye McDonald , Sharon Flanagan , Inge Martin & Clare Saunders
To cite this article: Skye McDonald , Sharon Flanagan , Inge Martin & Clare Saunders (2004)
The ecological validity of TASIT: A test of social perception , Neuropsychological Rehabilitation,
14:3, 285-302, DOI: 10.1080/09602010343000237
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09602010343000237
Published online: 13 May 2010.
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NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL REHABILITATION, 2004, 14 (3), 285–302
The ecological validity of TASIT:

A test of social perception
Skye McDonald, Sharon Flanagan, Inge Martin
and Clare Saunders
Downloaded by [Florida Atlantic University] at 18:18 08 November 2015
School of Psychology, University of NSW, Sydney, Australia
The Awareness of Social Inference Test (TASIT) comprises videoed vignettes in

three parts assessing (1) emotion recognition, (2) the ability to understand when a
conversational inference such as sarcasm is being made, and (3) the ability to
differentiate between different kinds of counterfactual comments (lies and
sarcasm). Many adults with traumatic brain injuries perform poorly on TASIT
relative to normal control subjects. However, the extent to which poor perfor-
mance on TASIT predicts poor social functioning is unknown. In this study 21
adults with chronic traumatic brain injuries were tested on TASIT. The TBI
participants were video-recorded during a spontaneous encounter with a confed-
erate. Their social behaviour was subsequently rated using the Behavioural
Referenced Rating System of Intermediate Social Skills—Revised (BRISS-R).
In addition a relative or carer was asked to complete the Social Performance
Survey Schedule (SPSS). There were significant associations between TASIT
and different aspects of spontaneous social behaviour, in particular, the use of
humour and partner-directed behaviour. No correlation was found between
TASIT performance and the SPSS either Positive or Negative behaviours. These
results confirm that failure to recognise social cues on TASIT translates into
observable and reliable difficulties in spontaneous social situations.
Correspondence should be addressed to A/Prof Skye McDonald, School of Psychology,

University of NSW, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia, Email: s.mcdonald@unsw.edu.au, Fax
+61293853029.
This research was sponsored by a small grant from the Motor Accident Authority of NSW.
The authors also wish to acknowledge a number of people who assisted in the collection of data
and ratings including: Dolores Foley, Jo Speyer, Donna Pellarini, Sally Hopwood, and Tara Stern.
We are indebted to the staff at both Liverpool and Ryde Brain Injury Units who facilitated this
research and finally to the participants of this study and their families who gave willingly of their
time.
Ó 2004 Psychology Press Ltd

http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/pp/09602011.html DOI:10.1080/09602010343000237
286 McDONALD ET AL.
INTRODUCTION
It has become established practice within rehabilitation settings to assess
individuals with brain injury for their neuropsychological deficits and
strengths. Such assessments have enabled rehabilitation to proceed along more
precise and targeted directions than previously possible. Nevertheless, it is
clear to clinicians and researchers that conventional neuropsychological tests
have limited ecological validity in terms of predicting how individuals will
function in everyday settings. On the positive side, there are clear correlations
between performance on standard neuropsychological measures and everyday
functioning. For example, tests of both memory and executive function have
been found to predict occupational and leisure activity in the traumatically
brain injured (TBI) population (Hanks, Rapport, Millis, & Deshpande, 1999;
Kibby, Schmitter-Edgecombe, & Long, 1998; Moriyama et al., 2002; Ready,
Stierman, & Paulsen, 2001; Tate & Broe, 1999). Executive deficits on testing
have also been significantly associated with behavioural deficits as reported
by carers (Burgess et al., 1998). However, such general associations are not
necessarily helpful in determining either specific problems in everyday life
or targets for rehabilitation. The accuracy of predicting functioning on the
basis of test scores increases in accordance with the similarity between the test
requirements and everyday demands (Sbordone, 2001; Wilson, 1993). In
recognition of this, a number of recent neuropsychological assessment pro-
cedures have been designed to map directly onto real life functioning, e.g., the
Rivermead Behavioural Memory Test (Wilson, Cockburn, & Baddeley, 1985)
and the Behavioural Assessment of the Dysexecutive Syndrome (Wilson et al.,
1996).
There are, however, few assessment tools that directly assess neuropsycho-
logical disorders in the social and inter-personal sphere. This is despite clear
evidence that changes in social relationships after brain injury are not only
common, (Ponsford, Olver, & Curran, 1995; Weddell, Oddy, & Jenkins, 1980)
but also one of the most distressing and disabling aspects of the condition
(Brooks et al., 1986; Kinsella, Packer, & Olver, 1991; Oddy, Humphrey, &
Uttley, 1978). Poor social behaviour after brain injury is commonly attributed
to an underlying problem in the regulation of social responses. However,
there are a variety of disorders of social perception that also impact upon
social competence. Such deficits make it difficult to interpret social signals
accurately in order to know when and how to respond, and also interfere with
the ability to monitor one’s own social performance. For example, disorders of
affect processing can seriously disrupt an individual’s ability to make sense
of social situations and the meaning of the behaviour of others. Emotion
recognition deficits have been reported in a variety of clinical conditions
including frontal lobe damage (Hornack, Rolls, & Wade, 1996), right
hemisphere lesions (Blonder, Bowers, & Heilman, 1991; Cicone, Wapner, &
ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY OF TASIT 287
Gardener, 1980) traumatic brain injury (Jackson & Moffat, 1987; Prigatano &
Pribram, 1982) and Parkinson’s disease (Borod et al., 1990; Scott, Caird, &
Williams, 1984).
In the absence of deficits of emotion recognition other neuropsychological
deficits can also impede the processing of social information. For example, it
has been demonstrated that adults with acquired brain injuries following
traumatic brain injury as well as right hemisphere damage have difficulty
understanding and using communication that relies upon inference, such as
ambiguously worded advertisements (Pearce, McDonald, & Coltheart, 1998),
indirectly worded requests (McDonald 1992; McDonald & Pearce, 1998) and
sarcasm (McDonald & Pearce, 1996; Tompkins & Mateer, 1985; Winner et al.,
1998).
Given the importance of social perception to social function, there is a need
for assessment tools that are both sensitive to social perception deficits and
predictive of real world difficulties. The Awareness of Social Inference Test
(TASIT; McDonald, Flanagan, & Rollins, 2002) fills the first of these criteria.
This is an assessment tool that comprises videoed vignettes of everyday situa-
tions enacted by professional actors. TASIT has three parts with alternate forms
for re-testing. Part 1 comprises 28 videoed vignettes of actors engaged in
everyday situations in which they experience one of seven emotional states
(happy, surprised, angry, sad, disgusted, anxious, and neutral). The scripts in all
cases are ambiguous in content. For each vignette test participants are required
to categorise the emotion of the actor. Parts 2 and 3 are designed to assess
whether test participants are (1) sensitive to conversational inferences and can,
therefore, recognise that a person may say one thing and yet mean another and
(2) whether they can make specific judgements about the speakers’ intentions,
feelings, beliefs and, ultimately, the meaning of their utterances. Part 2
comprises sets of vignettes in which two adults are engaged in a conversation
that is either sincere or sarcastic, e.g., “You have been a great help!” enacted
sincerely or in a manner that implies the reverse. Part 3 comprises vignettes in
which the speaker is attempting to either conceal the truth in a diplomatic lie,
e.g., “No of course you’re not fat!” or amplify the truth by giving the same
script a sarcastic twist. The goal of these vignettes is to focus upon the ability of
adults to use contextual information to comprehend social behaviour and
language and to make inferences about the meaning of these.
TASIT was designed to be relatively simple for people with average social
perception skills. Normative testing conducted on 283 adults from a range
of community groups revealed this to be generally true, with the majority of
participants achieving scores of 84% or more on each of the subtests
(McDonald, Flanagan, Rollins, & Kinch, 2003). On the other hand, early
testing has suggested that, in line with expectations, TASIT is selectively
sensitive to social perception deficits. In an initial investigation focusing
upon 12 adults with severe, acute traumatic brain injury (TBI) (McDonald et
288 McDONALD ET AL.
al., 2003) a characteristic pattern of deficit performances on TASIT was

revealed.
First, the group with TBI was found to have difficulty processing emotions,
especially fear and sadness. This result replicated independent studies of TBI in
which deficits in emotional processing, in particular, negative emotions, have
been identified (Hopkins, Dywan, & Segalowitz, 2002; Jackson & Moffat,
1987; Prigatano & Pribram, 1982). Second, since aphasia is uncommon in this
population (Tate, Fenelon, Manning, & Hunter, 1991), it was anticipated that
the TBI group would have little difficulty comprehending the literal meaning of
conversational remarks. Consistent with this, the TBI individuals were found to
be as capable as their non-brain-injured peers when processing and interpreting

everyday conversational exchanges that are meant to be taken literally, i.e.,
sincere comments and lies. Third, consistent with earlier research, it was
expected that they would have significant difficulty understanding conversa-
tional exchanges in which one of the speakers clearly implied something
different to what they had literally stated, i.e., was sarcastic. There a number of
cognitive deficits prevalent after TBI including rigid, inflexible thought and
behaviour, slowed information processing and attentional deficits (Tate et al.,
1991) that may impede the efficiency with which complex information is
processed and lead to difficulties re-interpreting information in light of the
context in which it occurs. Once again, this pattern was confirmed. The group
with TBI was poor at judging the meaning of sarcastic comments. Similarly, the
TBI group was, on average, poor at judging the intentions, beliefs, and feelings
of the conversationalists in the vignettes.
While this pattern of results was true for the group overall, there were
individual differences reflected in a broad range of scores in the clinical group
compared to the normal control subjects. This is consistent with the nature of
traumatic brain injury which is heterogenous in its effects. Not all people who
suffer severe traumatic brain injuries would be expected to have problems with
social perception. Indeed, despite the fact that members of the group were still
in the acute stages of recovery, between four and eight individuals returned
scores in the normal range on each of the measures for which overall scores
were depressed. This pattern attests to the potential sensitivity of TASIT to a
range of competence levels in social perception.
What has not been established, however, is whether performance on TASIT
is predictive of real world abilities. This is an important question that, if
answered in the affirmative, will increase the utility of TASIT for the assess-
ment of clinical groups. The following study was designed to address this
question by examining the association between TASIT performance and
everyday social functioning in people with TBI as measured by (1) sponta-
neous social behaviour videotaped and rated by independent assessors and
(2) a questionnaire concerning social behaviour filled in by a significant
other. Whereas the initial investigation of TASIT performance was conducted
with people with acute TBI, this study focused on people with chronic injuries.
The purpose for this was two-fold. First, this information is useful to verify that
deficits in social perception persist as a long-term disability for people with
TBI. Second, the use of a cohort with chronic injuries provided the opportunity
to examine patterns of social functioning post-injury, an observation that is not
possible with the newly injured. Finally, the participants selected all had
experienced severe brain injuries as defined by conventional criteria. Within
this criteria, the sample was selected to represent a great deal of individual
variability as regards both initial severity and outcome. This heterogeneity is
important in a validity study of this nature so as to ensure sufficient variability
in individual performance for correlational analyses to be representative.
SUBJECTS
Twenty-one adults, 6 females and 15 males aged between 21 and 64 with severe
traumatic brain injuries were recruited from three metropolitan brain injury
units in New South Wales, Australia for this project. In order to be included
participants had to (1) be a fluent English speaker, (2) have suffered a severe
traumatic brain injury, (3) be at least one year post-injury, (4) have been of
normal level intelligence prior to the injury, (5) have no primary language or
perceptual impairment (aphasia or agnosia), and (6) have normal sight and
hearing. Inclusion criteria (4) to (6) were based upon medical and clinical
hospital records. The basic demographic and clinical details of the TBI group
are provided in Table 1.
A severe brain injury is conventionally defined as one in which the length of
post-traumatic amnesia (PTA) is greater than 24 hours (1 day). As can be seen
from Table 1, PTA in this group ranged from 3 days to 240 days indicating that
all members of this group were, indeed, in the severely injured category while
varying significantly along this spectrum. In 16 cases the injuries were the
result of a motor vehicle accident, in three they were due to an assault and in two
they were due to other causes. They were tested one or more years after their
brain injury.
TABLE 1
Basic demographic information for TBI participants
Mean SD Range
Age 39 12 21–64
Education 13 3 9–18
Length of PTA (days) 94 74 4–240
Time since injury (years) 9 9 1–40
290 McDONALD ET AL.
TABLE 2
Proportion of TBI participants in different categories
of employment before and after injury
Pre-injury Post-injury
Employed (total) 21 4
Professional/managerial 5 0
Skilled/semi-skilled 10 1
Unskilled 4 1
Student 2 2
Unemployed 0 17
While a few patients had achieved a good level of recovery, for many, their
traumatic brain injury had left them significantly handicapped and resulted in a
diminished level of social independence. By way of example, their occupa-
tional status both before and after the injury is detailed in Table 2. This clearly
indicates the loss of social standing experienced by the vast majority of TBI
participants in this study.
For comparison purposes, a group of 21 non-brain-injured adults from the
original TASIT database were selected to match on the basis of age, education
and gender. This group comprised 7 females and 14 males, mean age of 38
years (SD = 15.7) and mean years of education of 13.5 (SD = 3.1). There was no
significant difference between the TBI and control group for either of these
variables.
METHOD
Ethical clearance for all aspects of the study was obtained from the partici-
pating brain injury units and the University of NSW prior to the commence-
ment of data collection.
TASIT
Participants were tested on Parts 1, 2 and 3 of Form A of TASIT.
1. PART 1: The Emotion Evaluation Test (EET) comprised 28 vignettes

in which a professional actor portrays one of seven basic emotional states
(happy, sad, fearful, disgusted, surprised, angry, neutral). In each vignette the
actor is either engaged in an interaction without dialogue (e.g., listening on the
phone with the occasional “Uh Huh”) or with dialogue using a script that is
ambiguous and can therefore be interpreted in a number of ways. All actors
were professionals, trained in the “method” school of acting, i.e., they induced
the required emotional state in themselves before enacting the script. Using this
technique, the vignettes are a close approximation to normal spontaneous
emotional expression. This contrasts with the stimuli normally used to test
emotion that are often either photographs of posed actors or drawings. The
ability to correctly recognise emotional expression was assessed by asking
subjects to decide which of the basic seven categories (happy, sad, anxious,
surprised, fearful, revolted, neutral) each emotional expression represents. The
maximum possible score for Part 1 was 28.
2. PART 2: Social Inference—Minimal (SI-M) comprised 15 vignettes
that contained dialogues between two actors, e.g., a woman complimenting a

co-worker on all the hard work he had done. In five vignettes, the exchange was
sincerely meant. In the remainder the script was enacted sarcastically, e.g., in
a sarcastic version of the above example the woman is clearly angry with her
co-worker and while on the surface she is complimenting him, she is, in fact,
inferring that he has done very little1. These vignettes tap the ability of viewers
to derive information that is inferred rather than stated directly. It requires the
subjects to detect a sarcastic inference based on the demeanour of the
interactants, such as their tone of voice, facial expression, etc. The extent to
which participants comprehended each vignette was assessed by asking them
four questions which probe for interpretations of what the speaker was
thinking, doing (e.g., criticising, cajoling), meaning to say and, finally, feeling.
Scores on each vignette are thus derived out of a maximum of four. Part 2
yielded a maximum possible score of 60.
3. PART 3: Social Inference—Enriched (SI-E) comprised 16 vignettes
that provided additional information before or after the dialogue of interest to
“set the scene”. For example, two co-workers confide to each other that a party
on the weekend was truly dreadful. This was followed by a scene with the host
of the party in which they claim the party was a great success. Part 3 probes for
the ability to detect deception in communication (lies) as well as sarcasm. Like
Part 2 these vignettes tap the ability to determine speaker intention based on
demeanour. But in addition, they probe for the ability to integrate knowledge
from additional sources. Like Part 2, ability to interpret the vignettes correctly
was assessed via a set of four questions for each vignette tapping understanding
of what the speaker is thinking, doing, saying, or feeling. The maximum
possible score on Part 3 was 64.
1 Although a number of scripts appear twice in Parts 2 and 3 of TASIT—as a sarcastic version
and a sincere/lie version—no one script is shown twice in a given form. So, for example, if the
sincere version of a script is shown in Form A of Part 2, then the sarcastic version is shown in
Form B.
292 McDONALD ET AL.
The three parts of TASIT had a combined playing time of approximately

35 minutes. Each subject was tested individually. It was explained to the
subject that he/she would be shown a video of some people interacting and
that he/she would be asked questions about these. Practice items preceded
each section to familiarise the subject with the task requirements. The video
was then paused after each vignette and the subject was asked to respond to
questions concerning the content of the video.
Spontaneous videoed interaction

Opposite sex interaction. In order to provide an estimate of actual social

performance, all TBI participants were surreptitiously videoed during a sponta-
neous social encounter. In each case they had given consent some time earlier
to be videoed in principle but were not told when or where. On the occasion of
the videoing session, each participant was individually shown to a waiting
room prior to some unrelated testing. They were asked to assist anyone else
entering the waiting room by showing them where a form to be completed
could be found as well as showing them the tea and coffee facilities. Shortly
thereafter, a confederate (a professional actor) of the opposite gender entered
the room and waited to be shown what to do. The confederate was trained to be
progressively more directive in his/her queries if the TBI participant was not
forthcoming with information.
Same (aggressive) sex interaction. For a proportion of the subjects a

second component of this social interaction was introduced. In this component,
after the first confederate had been in the room for sufficient time to interact
with the TBI participant, a second confederate of the same gender as the partici-
pant with TBI, entered the waiting room (ostensibly for the same reason as the
first). This second actor behaved in a verbally aggressive manner towards the
first confederate, e.g., criticising them for some behaviour they displayed
earlier or asking them out in a persistent and offensive manner. After a short
period the first confederate got up to leave, claiming to be offended by the
behaviour of the second confederate. Shortly after this the TBI participant
was asked to leave the waiting room. It was then explained that the others in
the waiting room had been confederates to the study and that the session had
been video-recorded. All participants expressed satisfaction concerning the
explanation offered.
Ratings. The videotapes of the TBI subjects, thus obtained, were then
assessed for the level of social competence displayed using molar rating scales
taken from the previously published Behaviourally Referenced Rating System
of Intermediate Social Skills—Revised (BRISS-R; Wallander, Conger, &
Conger, 1985). This scale has documented reliability and validity as a
consistent and sensitive measure of social skills. It also has two scales that are
particularly suitable for this study, i.e., the Personal Conversational Style
(PCS) with three subscales rating self-disclosure, use of humour and social
manners (e.g., politeness, use of compliments, interruptions) and the Partner-
Directed Behaviour Scale (PDBS) with three subscales rating the use of verbal
reinforcements, egocentric behaviour and partner involvement behaviour (e.g.,
getting the other person to talk about himself/herself). Each type of behaviour is
rated independently on a Likert scale ranging from 1 (“very inappropriate”)
through 3–5 (“normal range”) to 7 (“very appropriate”). Both scales measure
the degree to which the conversant adapts to the social context. The PDBS, in
particular, focuses on behaviours requiring awareness and sensitivity to “the

other” and to the effect of one’s behaviour on “the other”. These scales have
been used by our group in previous research with the TBI population
(Flanagan, McDonald, & Togher, 1995) and are particularly appropriate for
measuring social behaviour that may be moderated by a reduction in social
sensitivity and awareness.
Three postgraduate clinical psychology trainees who were blind to the aims
of the study were trained to rate the videotaped social interactions. The raters
underwent three, two-hour training sessions using videotapes from unrelated
research. They were also required to practise ratings on additional videos
outside the training sessions and their performance on these was used as part of
the training in the following session. Once a reasonable level of inter-rater
agreement appeared to be achieved they commenced rating the tapes produced
in this study. The ratings yielded eight scores: (1) PCS global score, (2) PDBS
global score, (3) self-disclosure sub-score, (4) humour sub-score, (5) social
manners sub-score, (6) verbal reinforcements sub-score, (7) egocentric behav-
iour sub-score, and (8) partner-involvement behaviour subscore.
SPSS— Modified
A relative or carer of the TBI individual was asked to complete a questionnaire
concerning his/her social behaviour. The Social Performance Survey Schedule
(Lowe & Cautela, 1978) is a commonly used questionnaire that probes for a
range of social skills. It has proven to be sensitive to differences in skill level in
developmentally disabled, psychiatric and normal populations and has good
reliability and validity (Lowe, 1982, 1985). It has 50 positive social behaviours
and 50 negative behaviours and yields two scores, respectively. An additional
10 positive and 10 negative behaviours were added to more specifically probe
for behaviours that are commonly reported as problematic following traumatic
brain injury. The maximum scores for the original scales were 200 for positive
and negative scores, respectively, and 240 for the two modified scales. The
negative scales were reverse keyed so that a high score on both positive and
negative scales represented high levels of social competence.
294 McDONALD ET AL.
RESULTS
Performance on TASIT
The average performance of the group of adults with TBI is detailed in Table 3
along with the performance of the matched control group. Group comparisons
were conducted using Mann Whitney U tests.
The pattern of performance of the TBI group was similar to that reported
elsewhere. As can be seen in Table 3, the TBI participants were in general,
poorer at judging emotions than their non-brain-injured counterparts. They
were as capable as others in their capacity to interpret sincere conversational
exchanges and lies normally. However, they were significantly impaired in

their capacity to understand sarcastic comments.
Spontaneous videoed interaction

Ratings on the same sex (aggressive) scenarios were not reliable and so this
component of the interaction was not analysed further. In contrast there was
significant agreement between pairs of raters for almost all of the behaviours
rated during the opposite gender interactions. While all three raters dem-
onstrated high levels of agreement with each other, two raters in particular, had
the most consistent agreement and their mean data were used for subsequent
analyses. Inter-rater agreement between these two raters on the two overall
scales was significant (Personal Conversational Style: r = .71; Partner Directed
Behaviour Scale, r = .77). With the exception of the Social Manners subscale,
agreements for the subscales were also all significant, ranging from .51 (Self-
disclosure) to .84 (Egocentric Behaviour). The mean ratings for the different
TABLE 3
Mean and standard deviations for 21 TBI subjects compared to 21 non-brain-injured
matched control subjects on TASIT: Part 1 (Emotional Evaluation Test); Part 2 (Social
Inference—Minimal) and Part 3 (Social Inference—Enriched) (Form A)
Part 1 (EET) Part 2 (SI-M) Part 3 (SI-E)
Total Sincere Sarcasm Total Lies Sarcasm Total

Maximum score 28 20 40 60 32 32 64
TBI subjects (N = 21)

Mean 19.5* 15.1 30.0* 45.2* 24.4 21.0* 45.4*
SD 4.5 3.4 7.6 9.1 5.0 6.4 7.9
Control subjects (N = 21)
Mean 25.5 16.3 37.2 53.5 27.2 27.5 54.7
SD 1.8 2.5 3.4 4.1 2.7 4.3 5.3
TBI significantly different to matched control group * p < .05

TABLE 4
Mean and range of scores on the Personal Conversational Style and
the Partner-Directed Behaviour Scale of the BRISS-R for behaviour
of TBI participants in response to a stranger of the opposite sex
Scale Personal Conversational Style Partner Directed Behaviour Scale
Self Use of Social Use of Egocentric Partner

Subscale disclosure humour manners Total reinforcers behaviour involvement Total
TBI
(N = 21)
Mean4 4.8 4.01,2,3 4.13 12.93 3.83 3.93 3.73 11.43

Range 3.5–6.0 2.5–5.0 3–5 9–15 3–5 1.5–5.5 2–6 6.5–15.5
Significant correlations (Spearman’s r) with TASIT: 1 Part 1, 2 Part 2, and 3 Part 3

4
Maximum possible scores for subscales = 7 for “highly appropriate” while scores between 3 and 5
represent the normal range and 1 represents “highly inappropriate”
subscales of the Personal Conversational Scale and the Partner Directed Scale
of the BRISS-R for the opposite sex encounter are detailed in Table 4.
As can be seen in Table 4, interactions were rated as generally within the
normal range. However the range of ratings on the subscales “Use of Humour”,
“Egocentric Behaviour”, and “Partner Involvement” indicated that there were
individuals who were behaving in a manner that was clearly inappropriate
relative to normal expectations.
In addition, the majority of subscales were associated with one or more parts
of TASIT. Specifically, Use of Humour was correlated with Part 1 (r = .46),
Part 2 (r = .58), and Part 3 (r = .67). Social manners, Use of Reinforcers,
Egocentric Behaviour, and Partner Involvement were each correlated with Part
3 (r = .57, .57, .77, .49, respectively). Given that the inter-rater agreement on the
Social Manners scale was not significant, it is unclear what to make of average
performance on this scale or its association with TASIT. It is of interest,
however, that the separate scores on Social Manners given by the two raters,
while not associated with each other, were both associated with Part 3 of
TASIT (r = .49 and .50, respectively). So, while the raters may have been using
differing criteria for attributing scores on this subscale, their ratings according
to these independent criteria also shared some variance with TASIT.
Performance on the Social Performance Survey

Schedule
Scores on the original Social Performance Survey Schedule are detailed in
Table 5, along with scores taken from a study of USA university students
(Lowe & Cautela, 1978) and psychiatric patients (Fingeret, Monti, & Paxson,
1983) for comparison.
296 McDONALD ET AL.
TABLE 5
Scores on the Positive and Negative subscales of the Social Performance Survey
Schedule for the TBI participants as well as university students and psychiatric patients
TBI participants USA university students Psychiatric patients

( N = 21) ( N = 303)1 ( N = 63)2
Positive Scale (Max = 200)

Mean 129 141 108.5
SD 32 19.9 36.1
Negative Scale (Max = 200)
Mean 162 149.6 140.7
SD 26 20 25
1
(Lowe & Cautela, 1978), 2 (Fingeret et al., 1983)
The TBI participants in our sample had mean scores on the Positive scale
that were not significantly different to those of the university students (one
sample t-test: t = –1.854) but significantly higher than those of psychiatric
patients (t = 2.962, p = .007). However, like the psychiatric patients, they were
more variable than university students in the scores obtained. This is expected
given the heterogeneity seen in TBI and other clinical populations. The scores
of the TBI participants on the Negative scale were unexpected. On this scale
they were, on average, better than both the psychiatric patients and the univer-
sity students (t = 5.003, p = .000, t = 3.143, p = .004, respectively). This
suggests that they exhibited less negative behaviours than did either of the other
groups. Their variability on this measure was similar to that seen in the
psychiatric population.
The performance of the TBI participants on the negative scale of the SPSS is
problematic. Given that it is unlikely that this population has fewer negative
behaviours than non-brain-damaged university students, it suggests that there
are problems with the measure. It was also found that the questionnaire had no
correlation with scores on TASIT. This was true for both the positive and
negative scale of the original version and also for the positive and negative
scales of the extended version that was purpose-designed for this study.
DISCUSSION
The results of this study provide support for the hypothesis that TASIT is sensi-
tive to social perception difficulties experienced by people with severe, chronic
traumatic brain injuries. The group of people with TBI was significantly poorer
than matched controls when categorising emotions (Part 1) and interpreting
sarcasm (Parts 2 and 3) but were normal when interpreting sincere exchanges
and lies. This pattern of performance is consistent with previous investigations
and with expectations based upon the kinds of difficulties commonly seen
following TBI. It re-confirms independent studies that document problems with

emotion recognition in this population as well as the previous investigation of
TBI performance on TASIT as reported by our group. It also confirms that
people with chronic TBI can have difficulty reasoning through communication
that is inferential in nature, despite normal capacities to process language.
Thus, this TBI group performed at a normal level when asked to interpret con-
versational remarks that could be interpreted literally, i.e., sincere exchanges
and lies. On the other hand, their ability to understand sarcastic comments,
where the inferred meaning is the reverse to that literally stated, was poor.
Not only was the pattern or performance across the subtests of TASIT
similar to that previously reported but also the variability in TBI performance
was once again evident. This is indicated by the standard deviations associated
with the average scores for each subtest and suggests that, as expected, there
was a range of competence on TASIT within the TBI group. This variability is
further indication that our sample was heterogeneous in terms of functional
outcome and ensured that subsequent efforts to find associations between
TASIT performance and other measures of social functioning would not be
hampered by a restriction in the range of scores available.
The main aim of this study was to determine whether TASIT has ecological
validity in terms of predicting difficulties in everyday social behaviour. The
results provide some support for this. When rated for social competence in a
spontaneous encounter with a stranger of the opposite sex, raters were able to
detect consistent differences between individuals with TBI in their level of
social appropriateness. While, in general, behaviour was rated as within the
normal range there were clear examples of inappropriate social interactions.
This was despite the fact that the social situation was constrained and the TBI
speaker was given a clear brief as to how to behave. While contrived, the social
situation used in this study was very close to a normal situation familiar to most,
such as sitting in a doctor’s surgery or waiting to enrol in a course.
Importantly, there was a clear, consistent relationship between parts of
TASIT and ratings of this spontaneous social behaviour. In particular, the
ability to use humour appropriately in a social context was clearly linked to the
ability to judge facial expressions (Part 1) as well as the ability to understand
social inference (Parts 2 and 3). Partner-directed behaviours such as asking
questions, reinforcing the other speaker, and refraining from egocentric behav-
iour were all also associated with recognising social inferences (Part 3). The
fact that significant associations were found for social inference in Part 3 but
not 2 of TASIT is intriguing. Part 3 of TASIT is distinctive because it requires
viewers to integrate social information and link information from one conver-
sation to another. It could be speculated, therefore, that this integrative ability is
also required when attempting to facilitate a conversation with another person.
Despite the encouraging relationship between TASIT scores and sponta-
neous behaviour, there was no association between scores on the Social
298 McDONALD ET AL.
Performance Survey Schedule and TASIT. This was not surprising given that
the average scores returned on SPSS were aberrant relative to expectations.
While the number of prosocial positive behaviours reported by a significant
other appeared to be within expectations based upon research with both normal
and psychiatric populations, the number of negative behaviours was not. Not
only did the carers or relatives of the adults with TBI report fewer negative,
antisocial behaviours than seen in a psychiatric population, it was also fewer
than seen in an undergraduate university sample. The reasons for this unusual
finding are not clear but it is possible that the range of chronicity of the injuries
experienced in this sample may provide some explanation. The range of time
post-trauma for individuals in this study extended from 12 months to 40 years.

This introduced the possibility that respondents to the questionnaire differed in
terms of both their memory of the pre-injured person, and their expectations of
normal behaviour. For example, it is feasible that a carer commenting upon the
social behaviour of a person with very chronic injuries may feel that many of
his/her behaviours some years down the track, are actually good relative to
what they were initially post-injury. In contrast, a respondent who is com-
menting on the behaviour of a person with a relatively new injury of 12 months
or so duration may have very different impressions. Chronicity of the injuries
also introduced a level of heterogeneity among the respondents to the SPSS in
terms of their relationship and familiarity with the person with TBI. Thus, for
some people with chronic TBI the only available respondents were paid carers
who were not especially familiar with them while, in others, the respondents
were partners or parents.
It was a deliberate choice to use a chronic TBI population for this validity
study to ensure that there would be sufficient information accrued concerning
social outcome. However, clearly this introduced difficulties in terms of these
individual differences. A potential means to overcome this would be to focus
upon a larger sample of people with TBI who have chronic injuries but within a
smaller window of time post-injury. An alternative approach would be to return
to an acute sample, using a measure of pre- and post-social functioning, such as
that utilised by Tate (2003).
In the meantime, this study has indicated that TASIT scores are predictive of
observable difficulties in social encounters. This established, there is a need for
further basic research concerning the cognitive underpinnings of social deficits
as revealed by this instrument. For example, while disorders of emotion recog-
nition are considered by many to reflect a fundamental neuropsychological
disorder, the emotion vignettes in TASIT differ from conventional stimuli
because they are dynamic, videotaped portrayals. Thus, the emotional expres-
sions unfold in real time introducing additional processing demands. People
who have pathologically slowed information processing may, therefore, fail to
recognise such expressions simply because they evolve too rapidly, mirroring
the processing demands of natural social settings. Similarly, the extent to which
poor understanding of conversational inference is underscored by disorders of

attention, working memory or executive function is poorly understood. Further
research concerning the construct validity of TASIT is required in order to
examine these relationships, correlating TASIT performance to basic measures
of cognitive function.
Finally, the role of language impairments in producing poor social under-
standing in brain injury is another area for future investigation. While those
who suffer frank aphasic deficits will have difficulty understanding the literal
language components of TASIT, other subtle deficits in language processing
are frequently observed following traumatic and other forms of brain injury
(e.g., right hemisphere stroke, frontal lesions) and may impact upon the
efficiency by which indirect conversational meaning is understood. Disorders
of prosodic awareness are common following right hemisphere damage
(Lalande, Braun, Charlebois, & Whitaker, 1992; Weylman, Brownell, Roman,
& Gardner, 1989) and, although relatively unexplored in TBI, have been
reported (e.g., Hornack, Rolls, & Wade, 1996; McDonald & Pearce, 1996;
Milders, Fuchs, & Crawford, 2003). Such deficits will lead to differential
impairment understanding tone of voice compared to visual social cues. Other
subtle linguistic impairments, such as reduced verbal fluency, overly concrete
interpretation of language, poor inference making and poor performance on the
Token test have been frequently observed in frontal lobe, right hemisphere and
TBI populations (Adamovich & Henderson, 1984; Alexander, Benson, &
Stuss, 1989; Beeman, 1993; Bihrle, Brownell, Powelson, & Gardner, 1986;
Brownell, Potter, Bihrle, & Gardner, 1986; Levin, Grossman, Sarwar, &
Meyers, 1981; Lohman, Ziggas, & Pierce, 1989; McDonald & Wales, 1986).
Controversy continues as to whether these reflect “subclinical’ aphasias (e.g.,
Sarno, 1980), constitute true linguistic impairments, or are disorders secondary
to general executive and attentional problems (e.g., see Holland, 1982;
McDonald, 1993; Martin & McDonald, 2003). Regardless of the outcome of
these debates, the development of tests such as TASIT provide a means to
systematically evaluate the relationship between such poor linguistic perfor-
mance and social understanding.
In terms of rehabilitation, TASIT is predictive of specific difficulties in
social encounters and this should translate into clear treatment goals. The sub-
scores of TASIT focus upon emotion recognition, conversational inference-
making and allied abilities to make judgements about the thoughts, feelings and
beliefs of others. The video format of the instrument allows for further analysis
of performance when restricted to the visual (i.e., sound turned down) or audio
(visual screen obscured) channel. Further, the fact that TASIT has alternate
forms makes it not only useful for test–retest, but also for treatment. For
example, one form can be used for initial assessment and also as a stimulus and
feedback for subsequent therapy, in either individual or group format. The
parallel form can be reserved for evaluating the success of such interventions.
300 McDONALD ET AL.
In conclusion, TASIT has been developed to assess competency in social

awareness using materials that, while realistic, are based upon clear and
theoretically driven notions of social cognition. This study, reporting on a
sample of 21 adults with chronic traumatic brain injuries, suggests that the
instrument is sensitive to observable deficits in social performance. While there
is much work yet to be done in terms of revealing the basic cognitive mecha-
nisms underlying impairments in social perception, it appears that TASIT is
ecologically appropriate and can therefore serve an important function in the
assessment and remediation of psychosocial deficits after brain injury.
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Neuropsychological Rehabilitation

ISSN: 0960-2011 (Print) 1464-0694 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/pnrh20

The ecological validity of TASIT: A test of social

Skye McDonald , Sharon Flanagan , Inge Martin & Clare Saunders

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09602010343000237

Published online: 13 May 2010.

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The ecological validity of TASIT:

School of Psychology, University of NSW, Sydney, Australia

The Awareness of Social Inference Test (TASIT) comprises videoed vignettes in

Correspondence should be addressed to A/Prof Skye McDonald, School of Psychology,

Ó 2004 Psychology Press Ltd

al., 2003) a characteristic pattern of deficit performances on TASIT was

be as capable as their non-brain-injured peers when processing and interpreting

in individual performance for correlational analyses to be representative.

1. PART 1: The Emotion Evaluation Test (EET) comprised 28 vignettes

that contained dialogues between two actors, e.g., a woman complimenting a

The three parts of TASIT had a combined playing time of approximately

Spontaneous videoed interaction

Opposite sex interaction. In order to provide an estimate of actual social

Same (aggressive) sex interaction. For a proportion of the subjects a

particular, focuses on behaviours requiring awareness and sensitivity to “the

exchanges and lies normally. However, they were significantly impaired in

Spontaneous videoed interaction

Part 1 (EET) Part 2 (SI-M) Part 3 (SI-E)

Total Sincere Sarcasm Total Lies Sarcasm Total

TBI subjects (N = 21)

TBI significantly different to matched control group * p < .05

Scale Personal Conversational Style Partner Directed Behaviour Scale

Self Use of Social Use of Egocentric Partner

Mean4 4.8 4.01,2,3 4.13 12.93 3.83 3.93 3.73 11.43

Significant correlations (Spearman’s r) with TASIT: 1 Part 1, 2 Part 2, and 3 Part 3

Performance on the Social Performance Survey

TBI participants USA university students Psychiatric patients

Positive Scale (Max = 200)

following TBI. It re-confirms independent studies that document problems with

post-trauma for individuals in this study extended from 12 months to 40 years.

poor understanding of conversational inference is underscored by disorders of

In conclusion, TASIT has been developed to assess competency in social

Sbordone, R. J. (2001). Limitations of neuropsychological testing to predict the cognitive

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