©2004 by Economic Geology

Vol. 99, pp. 1085–1106

Metal Sources in Mineral Deposits and Crustal Rocks of Ecuador (1° N–4° S):
A Lead Isotope Synthesis
MASSIMO CHIARADIA,†*
Section des Sciences de la Terre, University of Geneva, Rue des Maraîchers 13, 1205 Geneva, Switzerland

LLUÍS FONTBOTÉ,
Section des Sciences de la Terre, University of Geneva, Rue des Maraîchers 13, 1205 Geneva, Switzerland

AND AGUSTÍN PALADINES

FIGEMPA, Universidad Central del Ecuador, Quito, Ecuador

Abstract
Ecuador consists of terranes having both continental (Chaucha, Tahuin, Loja terranes) and oceanic
(Macuchi, Alao, Salado terranes) affinity, which were accreted to the Amazon craton from Late Jurassic to
Eocene. Four main magmatic arcs were formed by the subduction of the Farallon/Nazca plate since the Juras-
sic: a Jurassic continental arc on the western margin of the Amazon craton, a Jurassic island arc (Alao terrane),
an early Tertiary island arc (Macuchi terrane), and a middle-late Tertiary continental arc encompassing the ter-
ranes of Macuchi, Chaucha, Tahuin, Loja, and Alao after complete assembly of the Ecuadorian crust. Mineral
deposits formed during these magmatic arc activities include porphyry-Cu and gold skarn deposits in associa-
tion with the Jurassic continental arc, polymetallic volcanic-hosted massive sulfide deposits (VHMS) in associ-
ation with the Jurassic island arc of Alao, Au-Cu-Zn VHMS deposits in association with the early Tertiary is-
land arc of Macuchi, and porphyry-Cu and precious-metal epithermal deposits in association with the
middle-late Tertiary continental-arc magmatism on the newly assembled crust of Ecuador (Macuchi, Chaucha,
Tahuin, Loja, and Alao terranes). In this study, we have compiled 148 new and 125 previously published lead
isotope analyses on Paleozoic to Miocene metamorphic, intrusive, volcanic, and volcanosedimentary rocks, as
well as on Jurassic to Miocene magmatic-related ore deposits of Ecuador. Lead isotope compositions of the
magmatic rocks of the four main arc events derive from mixing of various sources including mantle, variably
enriched by pelagic sediments and/or by a high 238U/204Pb component, and heterogeneous continental crust
rocks.
Lead isotope compositions of the Ecuadorian ore deposits display a broad range of values (206Pb/204Pb =
18.3–19.3, 207Pb/204Pb = 15.54–15.74, 208Pb/204Pb = 38.2–39.2), which is as large as the range previously re-
ported for all magmatic-related ore deposits of the Central Andean provinces I and II combined. Ore deposits
formed before complete assembly of the Ecuadorian crust through complete accretion of the several terranes
(i.e., pre-Eocene) have lead isotope compositions overlapping those of the associated magmatic rocks, sug-
gesting a largely magmatic origin for their lead. In contrast, post-assembly ore deposits (i.e., post-Eocene) have
lead isotope compositions that only partly overlap those of the coeval magmatic rocks of the continental arc. In
fact, several ore deposits have lead isotope compositions shifted toward those of the basement rocks that host
them, suggesting that lead derives from a mixture of magmatic lead and basement-rock lead leached by hy-
drothermal fluids.
Most Ecuadorian ores have high 207Pb/204Pb values (>15.55), suggesting a dominant continental crust or
pelagic sediment origin of the lead. However, we caution against concluding that chalcophile metals (for ex-
ample, Cu and Au) also have a continental crust origin.
Ore deposits of the different terranes of Ecuador, irrespective of their age, plot in distinct isotopic fields,
which are internally homogeneous. This suggests that lithologic factors had an important control on the lead
isotope compositions. Ultimately, lead isotope compositions of the ore deposits of Ecuador mirror the isotopic
compositions of the rocks of the host terranes and are consistent with the multiterrane nature of the Ecuado-
rian crust.

Introduction rocks. Various studies suggest that lead isotopes of igneous

LEAD ISOTOPES are a powerful tool to trace metal sources in
mineral deposits because lead is thought to approximate the
behavior of accompanying metals (e.g., Zn, Cu, Au, Ag) in
most base-metal–rich hydrothermal solutions (e.g., Tosdal et
al., 1999) and is ubiquitous in common ore minerals and
† Corresponding
author: e-mail, M.Chiaradia@earth.leeds.ac.uk
*Present address: Centre for Geochemical Mass Spectrometry, School of
Earth Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, U.K.
rocks of the Central Andes reflect the compositions of the
subjacent basements (e.g., Davidson and de Silva, 1992;
Wörner et al., 1992; Aitcheson et al., 1995). Macfarlane et al.
(1990) and Macfarlane (1995) have shown that ore lead of
magmatic-related deposits in the Central Andes is a mixture
of mantle and crustal sources and reflects the existence of dif-
ferent geologic provinces. The mantle Pb input is considered
to be represented by magmatic addition into the crust, whereas
the crust input would consist, in most magmatic-related

0361-0128/01/3448/1085-22 $6.00 1085

1086 CHIARADIA ET AL.

deposits, of basement-rock lead assimilated by magmas be- Caribbean

81 W Sea 80 W 79 W 78 W 77 W
fore being delivered to ore fluids, and, to a lesser extent, of
CPF PF
basement-rock lead leached by hydrothermal fluids. Addi- 1 N

PF
0° BF Colo

CM
tional lead isotope studies on the Central Andean ore deposits ECUADOR mbia
and magmatic rocks (e.g., Hawkesworth et al., 1982; James,

do
1982; Barreiro, 1984; Barreiro and Clark, 1984; Puig, 1988; 1

S ala
Gunnesch et al., 1990; Kontak et al., 1990; Macfarlane and 0
20°S Quito N
2 Loja
Petersen, 1990; Macfarlane et al., 1990; Mukasa et al., 1990;

ote
~

TAL
Pacific Pinon

Guam
Aitcheson et al., 1995; Kamenov et al., 2002; Tosdal and Mu- Ocean 30 39

RIEN
3

IN
nizaga, 2003) support extensive interaction between mantle- 31

PLA

ha

RA O
40°S
derived magmas and continental crust. 32

hauc
AL

Salado CORDILLE
AL
AST
500 km
In contrast to the Central Andes, the Ecuadorian crust is

C
NT
1 S

CO

IDE
100W 80W
composed of terranes having both oceanic and continental 4 Amazon

A O chi
CC
u
affinity, accreted to the continent from the Jurassic to the

ILL Mac

EN N
2 S 6 5 ORIENTE

ER

AB EA
33
Eocene (e.g., Feininger, 1987; Mourier et al., 1988; Lither-

GR AND
land et al., 1994; Jaillard and Soler, 1996; Hughes and Pi-

o
RD

Ala
ER
Paci

nga
CO
latasig, 2002). In this contribution, we combine the results of 34

INT
0 100 km

lata
87
148 new lead isotope analyses with 125 previously published

fic Ocea

Pal
3 S 9 11
16
analyses (Chiaradia and Fontboté, 1999; Chiaradia and Font- 14 15 18
10 12 13 35, 36 Peru
JF 19
boté, 2001; Chiaradia et al., 2004) on ores as well as on meta- 21 20 Middle-Late Tertiary deposit
22 17 23
morphic, intrusive, volcanic, and volcanosedimentary rocks, RF 25 37, 38 Early Tertiary deposit

ranging in age from Paleozoic to Miocene, in order to evalu-
ate the possible metal sources for the mineral deposits in
Ecuador. All investigated ore deposits are magmatic related
and belong to skarn, porphyry, volcanic-hosted massive sul-
fide (VHMS), and epithermal mineralization types. The main
economic metals are Au, Ag, and Cu, with a limited number
of occurrences having Pb and Zn in recoverable amounts.
Whereas Chiaradia and Fontboté (2001) and Chiaradia et
al. (2004) focused on the relationships between magmatic
processes and associated mineralization within narrow time
intervals (i.e., Eocene and Oligo-Miocene, respectively), the
present study is the first comprehensive synthesis of lead
sources in crustal rocks and mineral deposits of Ecuador
throughout the whole Andean cycle, from the Paleozoic to
the late Miocene. Using the combined database, we identify
the sources of lead in the Jurassic to Miocene ore deposits as
well as in the associated igneous rocks of Ecuador, test the
multiterrane model for the Ecuadorian crust, and compare
the data obtained with those of the Central Andes. Our re-
sults indicate that lead isotope compositions of the Ecuado-
rian ore deposits and associated magmatic rocks differ ac-
cording to the terranes identified by Litherland et al. (1994)
and encompass a range of isotopic compositions larger than
that of provinces I and II of the Central Andes (Macfarlane et
al., 1990). Also, numerous magmatic-related deposits of the
Ecuadorian Andes do not entirely reflect the compositions of
the associated magmas, but incorporate basement-rock lead
leached by hydrothermal fluids.
Geologic Setting
Ecuador consists of five distinct physiographic provinces
(Coastal Plain, Cordillera Occidental, Interandean Graben,
Cordillera Oriental, and Oriente), which broadly coincide
with the subdivision of the Ecuadorian crust into several ter-
ranes (Fig. 1). Such terranes, which were formed during the
separation of the Central and South American plates and sub-
sequent subduction of the Farallon/Nazca plate under the
South American continent, have been accreted onto the
Amazon craton from Late Jurassic to Eocene (Aiguirre and
Loja
24 40 Cretaceous (?) deposit
4 S Tahuin 26 41 Jurassic deposit
27 42 45
28
29 43
44 continental terrane
oceanic terrane
crustal fault/suture
5 S Peru (=terrane boundary)
FIG. 1. Geotectonic map of Ecuador (modified after Litherland et al.,
1994) showing the location of the ore deposits discussed in the present study.
Numbers correspond to the deposits listed in Table 2. Terranes and physio-
graphic domains are identified by bold and capital bold italic fonts, respec-
tively. Abbreviations: BF = Baños fault, CF = Cañar fault zone, CFZ =
Chaucha fault zone, CMPF = Cosanga-Mendez-Palanga fault, CPF = Cala-
calí-Pallatanga-Palenque fault, JF = Jubones fault zone, PF = Peltetec suture
continuing south into Las Aradas fault, RF = Raspas fault zone.
Atherton, 1987; Feininger, 1987; Mourier et al., 1988;
Aguirre, 1992; Litherland and Aspden, 1992; van Thournout
et al., 1992; Litherland et al., 1994; Aspden et al., 1995; Jail-
lard and Soler, 1996; Jaillard et al., 1997; Reynaud et al., 1999;
Hughes and Pilatasig, 2002; Mamberti et al., 2003). Most of
these terranes extend for several hundreds of kilometers in a
north-northeast direction, are only a few tens of kilometers
wide (Fig. 1), and are separated by north-northeast–trending,
deep crustal suture zones and faults (Fig. 1). In southern
Ecuador, deep crustal east-west to northeast-southwest fault
systems and sutures (Fig. 1), such as the Jubones fault and the
Raspas fault, mark the transition from the Central to the
Northern Andes (Huancabamba deflection).
The Loja, Tahuin, and Chaucha terranes represent conti-
nental fragments partly or completely detached during the
separation of the South and Central American plates, and
subsequently accreted onto the Amazon craton during the
Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous (Peltetec event; Fig. 2). The
crystalline basements of the Loja and Tahuin terranes consist
of similar lithologies (Fig. 3; Table 1). The Chaucha terrane
has no exposed basement, but xenoliths of metamorphic rocks
similar to those of the Loja and Tahuin terranes have been
found in recent volcanic rocks of the Chaucha terrane
(Litherland et al., 1994).

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 1086

 LEAD ISOTOPES AND METALLOGENY OF ECUADOR 1087

OLIGOCENE-MIOCENE 81 W 80 W 79 W 78 W 77 W
Au-Ag epithermal and porphyry-Cu-Au
1 N CPF PF

PF
Alao BF Colo

cea
~

CM
W Pinon/ Macuchi E mbia

ic O
Pallatanga Loja Rosa Florida
Amazon pluton
Chaucha

Pacif
Salado Chingual pluton
Tahuin 0
Continental terrane
QUITO N
Oceanic terrane
MORB crust
OIB crust Abitagua granite
1 S
Tertiary intrusion

LATE CRETACEOUS-EOCENE Azafran pluton

Macuchi
La Plata and
W Macuchi VHMS E 2 S
San Lorenzo arc Chaucha/Tahuin
~
Pinon/
Pallatanga
3 S Piedras
JF Peru
RF Tres Lagunas granite
Moromoro
LATE JURASSIC-EARLY CRETACEOUS La Victoria Unit Precambrian?
Peltetec Alao 4 S
W ophiolite E El Tigre Zamora batholith
Loja Unit
Chaucha/Tahuin 0 100 km
Amazon
Salado
Sabanilla gneiss
5 S Peru
Quartzites/semipelites Continental volcanic
Paleozoic

(Chiguinda Unit) rocks (Celica Formation)

JURASSIC

Cretaceous
porphyry-CuMo (Pangui area) Pelitic schists
Au-skarns (Nambija) Volcanosedimentary/sedimentary
(Agoyan Unit) deposits (Yunguilla Unit)
Au-Ag epithermal (Chinapintza)?
Las Pilas VHMS Metagranite/
Trias

Guarumales VHMS migmatite Oceanic plateau

W Guamote E
Alao Salado
Chaucha Amphibolite Tertiary-Quaternary
Loja Amazon Basalts/andesites
Tahuin (Macuchi Unit)
Granitoids
Jurassic

Azafran, Abitagua,
Continental volcanics Tertiary plutons
and Zamora plutons (Misahualli Unit)
and porphyritic Undifferentiated Tertiary/
Metavolcanic/
intrusions metasedimentary rocks Quaternary volcanic rocks
(Alao/Salado terranes) and sediments
TRIASSIC
FIG. 3. Geological map of Ecuador (modified after Litherland et al., 1994,
W intracontinental rift + shear E and Cosma et al., 1998). Abbreviations as in Figure 1.

Central American South American plate

plates
S-type granites MORB-type dikes
FIG. 2. Schematic representation of the geodynamic evolution of Ecuador
(modified after Feininger, 1987; Mourier et al., 1988; Aguirre, 1992; Aspden
and Litherland, 1992; van Thournout et al., 1992; Litherland et al., 1994; Jail-
lard and Soler, 1996; Jaillard et al., 1997; Chiaradia and Fontboté, 2001),
showing the location and time of the major ore events. Regular fonts identify
terranes, whereas italic fonts identify ore deposits and geological events. Tri-
assic: intracontinental rift and shear mark the onset of the separation be-
tween Central and South American plates. Jurassic: a double E-verging sub-
duction zone produces the intraoceanic island arc of Alao and a continental
magmatic arc on the western margin of the Amazon craton. Late Jurassic-
Early Cretaceous: the Chaucha/Tahuin terranes are accreted onto the Alao
terrane, from which they are separated by the Peltetec ophiolite. Late Cre-
taceous-Eocene: intraoceanic island arcs develop upon fragments of Creta-
ceous oceanic plateau and are accreted onto the Chaucha/Tahuin terranes.
Oligocene-Miocene: subduction of the Farallon/Nazca plate is associated
with the formation of continental-arc magmatism across the newly assembled
Ecuadorian crust.
The Salado marginal basin and the Alao island-arc terranes,
as well as the plutons in the western margin of the Amazon
craton, were formed during the Jurassic double subduction of
the proto-Caribbean sea (Figs. 2 and 3). Rocks of the Alao
(basalts and andesites) and Salado (volcanosedimentary rocks
of andesitic composition) terranes were metamorphosed dur-
ing the Late Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous Peltetec event, dur-
ing which the Chaucha and Tahuin terranes were accreted
onto the Alao terrane (Fig. 2; Table 1). The suture between
Chaucha/Tahuin and Alao is marked by the ophiolitic slices of
the Peltetec Complex (Fig. 2).
The accretion of the Alao, Chaucha, and Tahuin terranes
caused a westward jump of the subduction zone during the
Cretaceous (Fig. 2). A continental magmatic arc was estab-
lished during the Cretaceous-early Tertiary in southernmost

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 1087

1088 CHIARADIA ET AL.

TABLE 1. Simplified Summary of the Stratigraphy and of the Tectonic Events in the Terranes of Ecuador1

Terrane Piñon/Pallatanga Macuchi Chaucha/Tahuin Alao Loja Salado Amazon

Middle-Late Continental-arc intrusions and volcanic rocks

Tertiary (Sacapalca unit, Saraguro Group, Sta. Isabel, Turi, Tarqui, Pisayambo formations)

Early Tertiary Accretion and

metamorphism
Island-arc basalts
and basaltic
andesites
(Macuchi unit)

Cretaceous Accretion Shale, sandstone

Oceanic plateau (Chapiza unit);
basalts (Piñon continental-arc
Formation/ intrusions
Pallatanga unit) (Chinapintza?)

Jurassic Accretion and metamorphism

Raspas Island-arc basalts Calc-alkaline I-type continental-
amphibolite and andesites andesitic volcano- arc plutons (Zamora
sedimentary and Abitagua),
rocks (Upano porphyries, and
Formation); I- volcanosedimentary
type continental- rocks (Misahualli
arc pluton unit)
(Azafran)

Triassic High-grade High-grade Volcano-

metamorphism metamorphism sedimentary
in transtensional in transtensional sequence (Piuntza
shear zones; shear zones; Formation)
migmatite migmatite
(Moromoro), (Sabanilla),
S-type granite S-type granite
(Moromoro), (Tres Lagunas),
MORB-type MORB-type
amphibolite amphibolite
lenses (Piedras) lenses (Monte
Olivo)

Paleozoic Gneiss Gneiss (Agoyan), Black shale and sand-

(La Victoria), schist, and slate stone (Pumbuiza
schist and slate (Chiguinda) unit); limestone and
(El Tigre) and shale (Macuma
Formation);
phyllite, tuff,
volcanic breccia,
and carbonate
(Isimanchi unit)

Proterozoic High-grade
metamorphic
basement

1 After data of Aspden and Litherland, 1992; Aspden et al., 1992; Litherland et al., 1994; Reynaud et al., 1999; Hughes and Pilatasig, 2002; Hungerbühler

et al., 2002

Ecuador (Tangula batholith with its various facies). In North-
ern Ecuador, accretions of several mid-Cretaceous oceanic
plateau rafts (e.g., Piñon, Pallatanga) and overlying island arcs
(e.g., San Lorenzo, Macuchi) occurred from the Late Creta-
ceous to the late Eocene (Fig. 2). The early Tertiary accre-
tions of the oceanic plateaus and island arcs marked the com-
plete assembly of the Ecuadorian crust, as well as the onset of
the Farallon/Nazca plate subduction and associated continen-
tal-arc magmatism (Fig. 2; Table 1).
Ore Deposits of Ecuador
The geology and geochemistry of the major ore districts of
Ecuador have been described by Stoll (1962), Goossens
(1972), Goossens and Hollister (1973), Lehne (1990), Pal-
adines and Rosero (1996), van Thournout et al. (1996), Mul-
shaw et al. (1997), Gendall et al. (2000), Prodeminca
(2000a-d), Chiaradia and Fontboté (2001), Spencer et al.
(2002), and Chiaradia et al. (2004). These works are the basis

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 1088

 LEAD ISOTOPES AND METALLOGENY OF ECUADOR 1089

of information on the investigated ore deposits provided in
this section (see Table 2 for additional data).
Jurassic to Cretaceous (?)
Jurassic mineral deposits include the polymetallic VHMS
ores of Las Pilas (Alao terrane) and Guarumales (Salado ter-
rane; Figs. 1 and 2). The recently discovered porphyry copper
belt in the Pangui area (western margin of the Amazon cra-
ton) is associated with composite granodiorite to monzogran-
ite porphyry stocks (Gendall et al., 2000), which cut the Juras-
sic Zamora batholith and have been dated at 154 ± 5 and 157
± 5 Ma (Prodeminca, 2000d; Figs. 1 and 2).
The Jurassic Nambija gold mineralization (Vallance et al.,
2003; molybdenite Re-Os ages of 145.92 ± 0.46 Ma and
145.58 ± 0.45 Ma: H. Stein, AIRIE Colorado, unpub. data)
consists of six main mineralized sites (Fortuna, Cambana,
Campanillas, Nambija, Guaysimi, and Sultana del Condor).
The mineralization is hosted by skarns developed on volcani-
clastic lithologies of the Triassic Piuntza unit, which forms a
lens within the Zamora batholith on the western margin of
the Amazon craton (Figs. 1 and 2).
Chinapintza, situated 25 km east of Nambija, is a low-sulfi-
dation epithermal deposit related to a mid-Cretaceous (96 ±
10 Ma K-Ar biotite age) volcanic-subvolcanic complex
(Prodeminca, 2000d). The low precision of the age and the K-
Ar method used cast some doubts on the reliability of this
date, which Prodeminca (2000d) considers as a minimum age.
Cretaceous-early Tertiary
Cosanga is one of several porphyry-Cu prospects in south-
ernmost Ecuador, including Catacocha, Macara, and
Changaimina (Goossens, 1972). These porphyry-Cu deposits
are associated with continental-arc intrusions (Tangula,
Macará, Colaisaca), which represent the northern extension
of the Coastal batholith of Peru. The intrusions have been
dated by the K-Ar method, yielding variable Cretaceous to
Tertiary ages (e.g., 111 ± 30 Ma on hornblende and 48 ± 2 Ma
on biotite for the Macará body; 108 ± 3 Ma on plagioclase,
111 ± 3 Ma on hornblende, and 93 ± 1 Ma on biotite for the
Colaisaca body: Kennerley, 1973; Bristow and Hoffstetter,
1977). Due to the large error of some determinations, these
ages should be considered with caution. Because no dating is
available for the Cosanga porphyry, the latter could have any
age between Cretaceous and early Tertiary.
The island-arc terrane of Macuchi hosts the early Tertiary
Au-Cu-Zn VHMS deposits of La Plata, Macuchi, and El

TABLE 2. Deposits and Mineralization Included in the Synthesis

Middle-late Tertiary deposits

No. District Deposit Status Deposit type Terrane Coordinates

1
1 Imbaoeste Junin Developed prospect Porphyry Cu-Mo Macuchi 78°39'W, 0°16'N
2 N.d. E94010 Showing 2 Epithermal Au Macuchi 78°49'W, 0°23'S
3 N.d. Sigchos Prospect 2 Epithermal Ag-Cu Macuchi 78°55'W, 0°47'S
4 N.d. Pujili Showing 2 Porphyry-Cu Macuchi 79°00'W, 0°59'S
53 Balzapamba El Torneado Developed prospect 4 Porphyry Cu-Mo Macuchi 79°08'W, 1°40'S
6 N.d. Pascuales Showing 2 Epithermal Cu-Zn Píñon 80°01'W, 2°07'S
7 N.d. Aguas Calientes Prospect 2 Porphyry-Cu-Mo(Au) Pallatanga-Macuchi 79°28'W, 2°40'S
83 Molleturo Molleturo Prospect 2 Epithermal Cu-Pb-Zn Chaucha 79°24'W, 2°46'S
93 Molleturo Angas Prospect 2 Epithermal Ag-Au Chaucha 79°20'W, 2°55'S
10 3 Molleturo Chaucha Developed prospect 5 Porphyry Cu-Mo Chaucha 79°25'W, 2°57'S
11 S. Bartolomé S. Bartolomé Abandoned mine 6 Epithermal Ag-Au Alao 78°52'W, 3°02'S
12 Quimsacocha Quimsacocha Prospect 2 Epithermal Sb-Au Chaucha 79°14'W, 3°05'S
13 N.d. Sig-Sig Middle 2 Epithermal Au Loja 78°48'W, 3°06'S
14 Ponce Enriquez Las Minas Mine 7 Epithermal Au-Ag Pallatanga-Macuchi 79°42'W, 3°06'S
15 Ponce Enriquez La Union Epithermal Au-Ag Pallatanga-Macuchi 79°43'W, 3°05'S
16 Bella Rica Muyuyacu Prospect 2 Epithermal Au-polymetallic Pallatanga-Macuchi 79°42'W, 3°05'S
17 Bella Rica Bella Rica Middle 2 Epithermal Au(-Cu) Pallatanga-Macuchi 79°41'W, 3°06'S
18 N.d. Filo Largo Prospect 2 Epithermal Au Chaucha 79°23'W, 3°12'S
19 3 N.d. Gañarin Middle 2 Epithermal Au-Ag Chaucha 79°24'W, 3°22'S
20 3 N.d. Peggy Abandoned mine 8 Epithermal Cu-Pb-Zn Loja 78°47'W, 3°07'S
21 N.d. S. Rafael Prospect 2 Epithermal Au Chaucha 79°34'W, 3°20'S
22 N.d. Ecuaba Middle 2 Epithermal Au-Ag Chaucha 79°52'W, 3°36'S
23 Portovelo-Zaruma Muluncay Mine 9 Epithermal Au Chaucha 79°38'W, 3°41'S
24 3 Portovelo-Zaruma Portovelo Mine 9 Epithermal Au-Ag Chaucha 79°37'W, 3°44'S
25 3 Portovelo-Zaruma Zaruma Mine 9 Epithermal Au-Ag Chaucha 79°37'W, 3°43'S
26 N.d. Cosanga 10 Prospect 2 Porphyry-Cu Tahuín 79°50'W, 4°02'S
27 3 N.d. Los Linderos Prospect 2 Porphyry Cu-Mo(-Au) Tahuín 80°06'W, 4°18'S
28 3 N.d. Laguar Prospect 2 Epithermal Au Tahuín 80°02'W, 4°21'S
29 N.d. Malacatos Showing 2 Epithermal Au-Pb Loja 79°12'W, 4°16'S

Early Tertiary deposits

No. District Deposit Status Deposit type Terrane Coordinates

30 11 La Plata La Plata Developed prospect 12 VHMS Cu-Zn-Au Macuchi 78°56'W, 0°26'S

31 11 Macuchi Macuchi Abandoned mine 13 VHMS Cu-Au Macuchi 79°04'W, 0°59'S
32 11 Macuchi El Patiño Prospect 2 VHMS Cu-Au Macuchi 79°03'W, 0°58'S

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 1089

1090 CHIARADIA ET AL.

TABLE 2. (Cont.)

Jurassic to Cretaceous (?) deposits

No. District Deposit Size Deposit type Terrane Coordinates

14
33 N.d. Las Pilas Prospect VHMS Cu-Pb-Zn (Au) Alao 78°27'W, 1°51'S
34 N.d. Guarumales Prospect 14 VHMS Cu-Pb-Zn (Au) Salado 78°31'W, 2°39'S
35 El Pangui Trinidad Prospect 15 Porphyry-Cu-Mo Amazon 78°27'W, 3°10'S
36 El Pangui Panantza Prospect 15 Porphyry-Cu-Mo Amazon 78°27'W, 3°12'S
37 El Pangui Chancho Prospect 15 Porphyry-Cu-Mo Amazon 78°27'W, 3°38'S
38 El Pangui Mirador Prospect 15 Porphyry-Cu-Mo Amazon 78°26'W, 3°37'S
39 N.d. E94006 Showing 2 Mesothermal Cu Salado 78°02'W, 0°26'S
40 Nambija Cumbaratza Mine 16 Skarn Au Amazon 78°48'W, 4°05'S
41 Nambija Cumay Skarn Cu-Pb-Zn (Au) Amazon 78°53'W, 4°01'S
42 Nambija Campanillas Skarn Au Amazon 78°48'W, 4°05'S
43 Nambija Nambija Skarn Au Amazon 78°47'W, 4°04'S
44 Nambija El Tierrero Porphyry Cu-Mo Amazon 78°47'W, 4°02'S
45 Chinapintza Chinapintza Large 2 Epithermal Au-Ag-Zn Amazon 78°34'W, 4°03'S

Note: Numbers refer to Figure 1

Abbreviations: N.d. = not defined
1
72 Mt @ 1% Cu (Prodeminca, 2000c)
2
No data available on the actual size of the deposits: the qualitative size classification is from Paladines and Rosero (1996)
3
From Chiaradia et al. (2004)
4
0.71–1.35% Cu (tonnage not available; Prodeminca, 2000c)
5
55 Mt @ 0.57% Cu, 0.03% Mo (Prodeminca, 2000c)
6
200,000 t @ 20 oz/ Ag, 2.9% Zn, 1.15% Pb, traces Au (Mulshaw et al., 1997)
7
District: 165 Mt @ 0.73 g/t Au, 0.84 g/t Ag, 0.12% Cu (Prodeminca, 2000c)
8
7.36% Cu, 170 g/t Ag, 0.6 g/t Au (small volume; Prodeminca, 2000c)
9
District: 9.1 Mt @ 13.3 g/t Au, 62 g/t Ag, 0.9% Cu, 1% Zn (extracted); 0.12 Mt @ 1% Cu, 1.7% Zn, 63 g/t Ag, 12 g/t Au (reserves in 1992; Prodeminca,
2000c)
10
Cretaceous-early Tertiary (see text for discussion)
11
From Chiaradia and Fontboté (2001)
12
0.84 Mt @ 4.8 g/t Au, 54 g/t Ag, 4.1% Cu, 0.7% Pb (resource; Cambior Inc., 1998 annual report)
13
5% Cu, 7.6 g/t Au, 8.5 g/t Ag (tonnage not available; Stoll, 1962)
14
From Prodeminca (2000b)
15
District: 0.5–0.7% Cu (Gendall et al., 2002)
16
District: 2 Moz Au extracted; 4–5 Moz Au reserves (Prodeminca, 2000d)

Patiño (Chiaradia and Fontboté, 2001; Figs. 1 and 2; Table
2).
Middle-late Tertiary
The middle-late Tertiary deposits of Ecuador are geneti-
cally associated with the continental-arc magmatism and the
subduction of the Farallon/Nazca plate beneath the fully as-
sembled Ecuadorian crust (Figs. 1 and 2). These deposits,
which range in age between 30 and 5 Ma and mostly between
20 and 10 Ma (Prodeminca, 2000a–d; see also Chiaradia et
al., 2004), are of the porphyry-Cu (e.g., Junin, Chaucha, El
Torneado, Los Linderos) and epithermal (e.g., Portovelo-
Zaruma, San Bartolomé, Quimsacocha, Gañarin, Beroen,
Angas, Ponce Enriquez, Sig-Sig, Peggy) type and have been
mined essentially for precious metals (Table 2). They are
widely distributed along and across the Ecuadorian Andes
(Fig. 2), but are mostly concentrated in central-southern
Ecuador (Fig. 1).
Sampling and Analytical Method
Knowing the isotopic compositions of potential source
rocks in a mineral district is fundamental to metallogenic
models based on the lead isotope compositions of ore miner-
als. The reliability of the models depends on adequate and
systematic sampling and establishing the isotopic composi-
tions of the fraction of host rocks leached by hydrothermal
fluids (e.g., Chiaradia and Fontboté, 2003). To address this,
we have performed a large number of analyses on potential
source rocks from the various lithologic units of Ecuador
(Table 3), in addition to those already in the literature, and
analyzed separate leachate and residue fractions on most rock
samples (for a total of 90 analyses on 52 rock samples), ac-
cording to the method described by Chiaradia and Fontboté
(2003) and summarized in the Appendix. The two data
(leachate and residue) obtained on a single sample provide a
range of values that better represents the isotopic variability
of a source rock leached by hydrothermal fluids than does a
single analysis (Chiaradia and Fontboté, 2003; see also Curti,
1987; Macfarlane and Petersen, 1990; Macfarlane, 1999; Ka-
menov et al., 2002). Residues of most feldspar-rich magmatic
and high-grade metamorphic rocks represent the common
lead, whereas leachates extract radiogenic lead developed in
situ, and possibly disequilibrium lead introduced after rock
formation by hydrothermal fluids (see Appendix; Chiaradia
and Fontboté, 2003). The lead isotope compositions of rocks
and silicate minerals are reported in Table 4. Included in this
data set are leachate and residue analyses of eight Paleozoic
to Jurassic metamorphic rocks from Chiaradia and Fontboté
(2003) and Chiaradia et al. (2004). Leachate and residue
analyses of 25 volcanic rocks of the early Tertiary Macuchi
unit from Chiaradia and Fontboté (2001) and of 24 Tertiary
volcanic rocks from Chiaradia et al. (2004) are also discussed.

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 1090

 LEAD ISOTOPES AND METALLOGENY OF ECUADOR 1091

TABLE 3. Rock Samples Investigated in the Present Study, Listed by Age

Sample no. Lithology Unit/Formation/Group Age Terrane Coordinates

E94018 Porphyritic granite Tertiary intrusion Tertiary Alao 78°50'W, 3°05'S

E94025 Tuff Saraguro Tertiary Alao 79°00'W, 3°05'S
E94020 Andesite Saraguro Tertiary Alao 78°50'W, 3°05'S
E94035 Basaltic andesite Saraguro Tertiary Alao 79°08'W, 3°15'S
E99207 Diorite Pujili Tertiary pluton Tertiary Macuchi 79°00'W, 0°59'S
E99061 Porphyritic dacite Tertiary intrusion Tertiary Chaucha 79°24'W, 3°22'S
Pb825 Andesite Saraguro Tertiary Chaucha 79°19'W, 3°35'S
E99067 Rhyolite Turi Tertiary Chaucha 79°10'W, 3°05'S
E99045 Porphyry granite Los Linderos intrusion Tertiary Tahuín 80°06'W, 4°18'S
E99040 Diorite Tangula batholith Cretaceous-early Tertiary Tahuin 79°52'W, 4°10'S
E99046 Diorite Tangula batholith Cretaceous-early Tertiary Tahuin 59°54'W, 4°15'S
E99035 Diorite Cosanga pluton Cretaceous-early Tertiary Tahuin 79°50'W, 4°02'S
E99125 Granite Chinapintza pluton Cretaceous (?) Amazon 78°34'W, 4°03'S
E99126 Granite Chinapintza pluton Cretaceous (?) Amazon 78°34'W, 4°03'S
E94019 1 Metabasalt Alao-Paute Jurassic Alao 78°50'W, 3°05'S
E94038 Chlorite-schist Alao-Paute Jurassic Alao 78°52'W, 3°06'S
E99070 1 Metabasalt Alao-Paute Jurassic Alao 78°48'W, 2°52'S
E99072 Schist Alao-Paute Jurassic Alao 78°48'W, 2°52'S
E99073 Meta-basalt Alao-Paute Jurassic Alao 78°48'W, 3°03'S
E99219 Meta-basalt Alao-Paute Jurassic Alao 78°26'W, 1°22'S
E99229 Granite Azafran batholith Jurassic Salado 78°16'W, 1°18'S
E99227 Granite Azafran batholith Jurassic Salado 78°18'W, 1°18'S
E99230 K-feldspar in granite Abitagua batholith Jurassic Amazon 78°10'W, 1°21'S
E99231 Granite Abitagua batholith Jurassic Amazon 78°10'W, 1°21'S
E99232 Granite Abitagua batholith Jurassic Amazon 78°10'W, 1°21'S
E99233 Granite Abitagua batholith Jurassic Amazon 78°17'W, 1°18'S
E94046 Diorite Zamora batholith Jurassic Amazon 78°59'W, 4°05'S
E99022 Diorite Zamora batholith Jurassic Amazon 79°51'W, 4°04'S
E99054 Amphibolite El Toro Jurassic Tahuin 80°05'W, 3°31'S
E99055 Amphibolite El Toro Jurassic Tahuin 80°04'W, 3°30'S
DTR14 K-feldspar in porphyry Cumay porphyry Jurassic Amazon 78°46'W, 4°01'S
DTR15 Plagioclase in porphyry Cumay porphyry Jurassic Amazon 78°45'W, 4°03'S
DTR156 Porphyry intrusion Jurassic porphyry Jurassic Amazon 78°47'W, 4°04'S
DTR184 Porphyry intrusion Jurassic porphyry Jurassic Amazon 78°48'W, 4°03'S
DTR221 Andesite dyke Jurassic dyke Jurassic Amazon 78°47'W, 4°03'S
DTR238 Porphyry intrusion Jurassic porphyry Jurassic Amazon 78°48'W, 4°04'S
E99054.1 Granite Moromoro granite Triassic Tahuín 80°06'W, 3°46'S
E94028 Amphibolite Piedras amphibolite Triassic Tahuin 79°46'W, 3°39'S
E94030 Amphibolite Piedras amphibolite Triassic Tahuin 78°50'W, 3°04'S
E94003 Amphibolite Monte Olivo amphibolite Triassic Loja 77°53'W, 0°20'N
E99021 2 Gneiss Sabanilla Triassic Loja 78°58'W, 4°03'S
E99014 Granite Tres Lagunas granite Triassic Loja 79°17'W, 4°15'S
E99224 Plagioclase in gneiss Tres Lagunas granite Triassic Loja 78°22'W, 1°23'S
E99053 2 Mica-schist La Victoria Paleozoic Tahuin 80°06'W, 3°47'S
E99056 2 Slate El Tigre Paleozoic Tahuín 79°50'W, 3°22'S
E94001 Paragneiss Agoyan Paleozoic Loja 77°80'W, 0°24'N
E94005 Gneiss Agoyan Paleozoic Loja 78°07'W, 0°22'S
E99012 2 Migmatite Agoyan Paleozoic Loja 79°17'W, 3°50'S
E94027 Phyllite Palenque Paleozoic Loja 79°50'W, 3°35'S
E94034 Chlorite-schist Chiguinda Paleozoic Loja 78°42'W, 3°02'S
E99018 2 Phyllite Chiguinda Paleozoic Loja 79°06'W, 3°57'S
E99020 2 Phyllite Chiguinda Paleozoic Loja 79°07'W, 3°53'S

The nomenclature of the pre-Tertiary lithological units is from Litherland et al. (1994), whereas the nomenclature of the Tertiary magmatic rocks is from
Bristow and Hoffstetter (1977), British Geological Survey and Corporación de Desarollo e Investigación Geológico Minero-Metallurgica (1999), and Hunger-
bühler et al. (2002)
1
From Chiaradia et al. (2004)
2
From Chiaradia and Fontboté (2003)

Ore lead isotope analyses (Table 5) have been carried out
on 84 mineral fractions from 45 deposits listed in Table 2 and
indicated in Figures 1 and 2. In general, more than one sam-
ple was analyzed for each deposit (see Table 5). Included in
this data set are 17 lead isotope analyses of the early Tertiary
VHMS deposits from Chiaradia and Fontboté (2001), and 11
of Tertiary porphyry and epithermal deposits from Chiaradia
et al. (2004). Galena was used whenever possible. Lead iso-
tope signatures obtained on other sulfides (e.g., pyrite, chal-
copyrite, sphalerite) also represent the common lead compo-
sitions because the sulfides used are Pb rich and U/Th poor,
and the samples are Jurassic to late Tertiary in age (see also
Tosdal et al., 1999). Therefore, no corrections for time-inte-
grated decay of uranium and thorium were performed.

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 1091

1092 CHIARADIA ET AL.

TABLE 4. Lead Isotope Data of Silicate Minerals and Residue and Leachate Fractions of Whole Rocks
206
Sample no. Lithology Age Terrane Pb/204Pb 207
Pb/204Pb 208
Pb/204Pb

E94018L Porphyry Tertiary Alao 18.920 15.691 38.914

E94018R Porphyry Tertiary Alao 18.871 15.622 38.687
E94020L Saraguro andesite Tertiary Alao 18.908 15.624 38.665
E94020R Saraguro andesite Tertiary Alao 18.981 15.661 38.821
E94025L Saraguro tuff Tertiary Alao 18.984 15.645 38.789
E94025R Saraguro tuff Tertiary Alao 19.056 15.648 38.844
E94035L Saraguro basaltic andesite Tertiary Alao 19.000 15.655 38.828
E94035R Saraguro basaltic andesite Tertiary Alao 19.008 15.655 38.828
E99061L Saraguro dacite Tertiary Chaucha 19.096 15.675 39.053
E99061R Saraguro dacite Tertiary Chaucha 19.189 15.658 39.013
E99067L Turi rhyolite Tertiary Chaucha 19.006 15.660 38.839
E99067R Turi rhyolite Tertiary Chaucha 18.860 15.646 38.696
Pb825L Saraguro andesite Tertiary Chaucha 18.975 15.660 38.782
Pb825R Saraguro andesite Tertiary Chaucha 19.149 15.652 38.897
E99207R Pujili diorite Tertiary Macuchi 18.925 15.594 38.568
E99045L Los Linderos granodiorite Tertiary Tahuín 18.953 15.668 38.763
E99035L Cosanga diorite Cret.-early Tert. Tahuin 18.864 15.611 38.642
E99035R Cosanga diorite Cret.-early Tert. Tahuin 18.883 15.624 38.717
E99040L Tangula diorite Cret.-early Tert. Tahuin 18.989 15.636 38.860
E99040R Tangula diorite Cret.-early Tert. Tahuin 18.783 15.621 38.548
E99046L Tangula diorite Cret.-early Tert. Tahuin 18.873 15.641 38.743
E99046R Tangula diorite Cret.-early Tert. Tahuin 18.893 15.647 38.690
E99125R Chinapintza granite Cretaceous (?) Amazon 18.591 15.577 38.294
E99126R Chinapintza granite Cretaceous (?) Amazon 18.631 15.576 38.369
E94019L1 Metabasalt Jurassic Alao 19.213 15.680 38.884
E94019R1 Metabasalt Jurassic Alao 19.254 15.694 38.938
E94038L Chlorite-schist Jurassic Alao 19.107 15.632 38.772
E94038R Chlorite-schist Jurassic Alao 19.140 15.659 38.760
E99070L1 Metabasalt Jurassic Alao 19.111 15.685 38.799
E99070R1 Metabasalt Jurassic Alao 19.174 15.704 39.054
E99073L Metabasalt Jurassic Alao 19.277 15.698 39.078
E99073R Metabasalt Jurassic Alao 19.508 15.706 39.228
E99072L Chlorite-schist Jurassic Alao 19.453 15.704 39.018
E99072R Chlorite-schist Jurassic Alao 20.157 15.671 38.860
E99219R Alao metabasalt Jurassic Alao 20.193 15.694 38.820
E94046L Zamora diorite Jurassic Amazon 19.258 15.651 39.650
E99022L Zamora diorite Jurassic Amazon 18.913 15.615 38.901
E99022R Zamora diorite Jurassic Amazon 19.058 15.631 38.574
E99232R Abitagua granite Jurassic Amazon 18.359 15.571 38.237
E99233R Abitagua granite Jurassic Amazon 19.098 15.618 38.647
E99231R Abitagua granite Jurassic Amazon 18.662 15.582 38.426
E99230R K-feldspar (Abitagua granite) Jurassic Amazon 18.444 15.606 38.291
E99227R Granite Azafran Jurassic Salado 18.793 15.600 38.624
E99229R Granite Azafran Jurassic Salado 18.685 15.586 38.457
E99054L El Toro amphibolite Jurassic Tahuin 19.068 15.748 39.085
E99054R El Toro amphibolite Jurassic Tahuin 19.175 15.693 38.957
E99055L El Toro amphibolite Jurassic Tahuin 19.227 15.705 38.988
E99055R El Toro amphibolite Jurassic Tahuin 19.188 15.697 38.963
DTR-14R K-feldspar (Cumay porphyry) Jurassic Amazon 18.738 15.610 38.380
DTR-14R K-feldspar (Cumay porphyry) Jurassic Amazon 18.732 15.607 38.369
DTR-15R Plagioclase (Cumay porphyry) Jurassic Amazon 18.930 15.624 38.739
DTR156L Porphyritic granite Jurassic Amazon 18.586 15.579 38.331
DTR156R Porphyritic granite Jurassic Amazon 18.611 15.634 38.679
DTR184L Porphyritic granite Jurassic Amazon 18.977 15.602 38.612
DTR184R Porphyritic granite Jurassic Amazon 19.989 15.609 39.056
DTR221L Andesite dike Jurassic Amazon 18.769 15.609 38.512
DTR221R Andesite dike Jurassic Amazon 18.485 15.612 38.389
DTR238L Porphyry granite Jurassic Amazon 18.857 15.647 39.095
DTR238R Porphyry granite Jurassic Amazon 18.513 15.587 38.439
E94003L M. Olivo amphibolite Triassic Loja 18.518 15.665 38.515
E94003R M. Olivo amphibolite Triassic Loja 18.663 15.701 38.520
E99014L Tres Lagunas granite Triassic Loja 18.692 15.639 38.573
E99014R Tres Lagunas granite Triassic Loja 18.600 15.631 38.533
E99021L2 Sabanilla gneiss Triassic Loja 19.141 15.668 38.633
E99021R2 Sabanilla gneiss Triassic Loja 18.619 15.642 38.443
E94028L Piedras amphibolite Triassic Tahuin 18.355 15.577 38.104
E94028R Piedras amphibolite Triassic Tahuin 18.055 15.496 37.638
E94030L Piedras amphibolite Triassic Tahuin 18.413 15.571 38.106
E94030R Piedras amphibolite Triassic Tahuin 18.139 15.525 37.769

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 1092

 LEAD ISOTOPES AND METALLOGENY OF ECUADOR 1093

TABLE 4. (Cont.)
206
Sample no. Lithology Age Terrane Pb/204Pb 207
Pb/204Pb 208
Pb/204Pb

E99054.1L Moromoro granite Triassic Tahuín 18.648 15.638 38.862

E99054.1R Moromoro granite Triassic Tahuín 18.568 15.644 38.793
E94001L Paragneiss Paleozoic Loja 19.461 15.697 39.183
E94001R Paragneiss Paleozoic Loja 19.586 15.709 39.279
E94005L Gneiss Paleozoic Loja 18.684 15.629 38.700
E94005R Gneiss Paleozoic Loja 18.676 15.641 38.703
E94027L Phyllite Paleozoic Loja 18.779 15.646 38.993
E94027R Phyllite Paleozoic Loja 18.768 15.662 38.813
E94034L Chlorite-schist Paleozoic Loja 18.556 15.618 38.566
E94034R Chlorite-schist Paleozoic Loja 20.444 15.729 42.000
E99012L2 Agoyan migmatite Paleozoic Loja 18.883 15.666 39.349
E99012R2 Agoyan migmatite Paleozoic Loja 18.716 15.641 38.674
E99018L2 Chiguinda phyllite Paleozoic Loja 18.679 15.666 39.005
E99018R2 Chiguinda phyllite Paleozoic Loja 19.010 15.680 38.811
E99020L2 Chiguinda phyllite Paleozoic Loja 18.710 15.630 39.057
E99020R2 Chiguinda phyllite Paleozoic Loja 19.319 15.679 38.892
E99224R Plagioclase Tres Lagunas Paleozoic Loja 18.625 15.613 38.538
E99053L2 La Victoria mica schist Paleozoic Tahuin 19.180 15.657 39.810
E99053R2 La Victoria mica schist Paleozoic Tahuin 18.579 15.635 38.442
E99056L2 El Tigre slate Paleozoic Tahuín 18.711 15.673 39.011
E99056R2 El Tigre slate Paleozoic Tahuín 21.188 15.818 40.285

Abbreviations: Cret. = Cretaceous, Tert. = Tertiary

1
From Chiaradia et al. (2004)
2
From Chiaradia and Fontboté (2003)

Details of the analytical methods are presented in the
Appendix.
Results
Paleozoic-Triassic basement rocks
Lead isotope compositions of the residue fractions of high-
grade basement rocks (S-type granites, migmatite, and
gneiss) of the continental terranes (Loja, Tahuin, Chaucha)
are consistently less radiogenic than the corresponding
leachates, as expected in these lithologies (Chiaradia and
Fontboté, 2003; Fig. 4; Table 4). The similar compositions of
the residual fractions of the S-type granites, gneiss, and
migmatite of the Loja (Tres Lagunas granites, Sabanillas
gneiss, and Sabanilla migmatites) and Tahuin (Moromoro
granites and migmatites) terranes correspond to common
lead (Chiaradia and Fontboté, 2003) and indicate an identical
source reservoir of crustal affinity for the two terranes (see
also Litherland et al., 1994).
The low-grade metamorphic rocks of the Loja (Chiguinda
schists) and Tahuin terranes (El Tigre slates) are character-
ized by residual fractions consistently more radiogenic than
the leachates, which have compositions similar to those of the
residues of the S-type granites, migmatites, and gneiss (Fig.
4). This fact likely results from the majority of common lead
being contained in the leachable fraction in low-grade meta-
morphic rocks, combined with the presence of refractory zir-
cons (see Appendix; Chiaradia and Fontboté, 2003).
Lead isotope compositions of the Triassic amphibolites of
the Tahuin terrane (Piedras Group) plot at the nonradiogenic
end of the E-Pacific MORB field (Fig. 4), supporting the ab-
sence of crustal contamination suggested by Litherland et al.
(1994) on the basis of trace-element geochemistry. In con-
trast, the amphibolite of the Loja terrane (Monte Olivo),
which is correlated to the Piedras Group by Litherland et al.
(1994), has a high 207Pb/204Pb value that indicates crustal con-
tamination (Fig. 4).
Magmatic rocks of the Jurassic arcs
Both residual and leachate fractions of the Jurassic
metabasalts of the Alao island arc have similarly radiogenic
signatures, plotting on or close to the upper-crust evolution
curve of Zartman and Doe (1981; Fig. 5A and B). The sim-
ilar values of leachate and residue fractions derive from low
U/Pb and Th/Pb ratios typical of mafic rocks. However,
samples E99072 and E99219 have significantly radiogenic
residues (Fig. 5A and B; Table 4), probably due to the fact
that the majority of the common lead is hosted by the
leachable fraction in these rocks combined with the pres-
ence of zircon, as in the low-grade metamorphic rocks (see
Appendix; Chiaradia and Fontboté, 2003). Jurassic amphi-
bolites of the Tahuin terrane (Raspas zone) have the same
isotopic signatures as the Alao metabasalts, suggesting a
similar source for the rocks of the two terranes (Fig. 5A and
B; Table 4).
Lead isotope signatures of residue fractions of whole rocks
and K-feldspar and/or plagioclase of the Amazon craton plu-
tons (Zamora and Abitagua) and porphyritic stocks cutting
the Zamora pluton, as well as those of the Salado terrane
batholith of Azafran, define an elongated field straddling the
orogen curve (Fig. 5A and B). Leachate fractions of the Juras-
sic plutons plot along the same trend as the residues at vari-
ably more radiogenic values, suggesting that they contain ra-
diogenic lead developed in situ (Fig. 5A and B). In contrast,
some of the leachate fractions of porphyritic rocks are shifted
to higher 207Pb/204Pb values (Fig. 5A and B), suggesting the
presence of disequilibrium lead (i.e., additional to that
formed by in situ radioactive decay).

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 1093

1094 CHIARADIA ET AL.

TABLE 5. Lead Isotope Data of Minerals from the 45 Ore Deposits Included in the Synthesis

Middle-late Tertiary deposits

206
No. Sample Mineral Deposit Deposit type Terrane Pb/204Pb 207
Pb/204Pb 208
Pb/204Pb

1 Pb790 Cpy Junin Porphyry Cu-Mo Macuchi 18.736 15.617 38.493

1 Pb791 My Junin Porphyry Cu-Mo Macuchi 18.812 15.591 38.475
2 E94010 Py Showing Py-veins Macuchi 18.755 15.592 38.437
2 E94010 Py Showing Py-veins Macuchi 18.774 15.606 38.479
3 Pb789 Py Sigchos Epith. Ag-Cu Macuchi 18.898 15.631 38.651
4 E99207 Py Pujili Porphyry Cu Chaucha 18.937 15.628 38.651
5 Pb795 1 Mo El Torneado Porphyry Cu-Mo Macuchi 18.579 15.595 38.345
6 E94063 Py Pascuales Epith. Cu-Zn Píñon 18.684 15.547 38.319
7 E94055 Py Ag. Calientes Porphyry Cu-Mo(Au) Macuchi 18.944 15.619 38.699
8 Pb939 1 Py Molleturo Epith. Cu-Pb-Zn Chaucha 18.959 15.660 38.845
8 Pb1291 1 Py Molleturo Epith. Cu-Pb-Zn Chaucha 18.962 15.647 38.738
9 E94059 Py Angas Epith. Ag-Au Chaucha 18.955 15.653 38.769
10 Pb801 Py Chaucha Porphyry Cu-Mo Chaucha 18.755 15.643 38.575
11 E94036 Gn S. Bartolomé Epith. Ag-Au Alao 19.182 15.673 38.934
11 E99080 Gn S. Bartolomé Epith. Ag-Au Alao 19.219 15.684 38.988
11 E99081 Py S. Bartolomé Epith. Ag-Au Alao 19.373 15.706 39.125
11 E99083 Spl-Gn S. Bartolomé Epith. Ag-Au Alao 19.355 15.732 39.187
11 E99084 Py S. Bartolomé Epith. Ag-Au Alao 19.265 15.743 39.197
11 E99085 Spl-Gn S. Bartolomé Epith. Ag-Au Alao 19.222 15.728 39.103
11 E99082 Spl-Gn S. Bartolomé Epith. Ag-Au Alao 19.211 15.713 39.071
12 E99065 1 Py Quimsacocha Epith. Sb-Au Chaucha 18.999 15.657 38.804
13 E99077 Spl Sig-Sig Epith. Au Loja 18.818 15.658 38.785
13 E94037 Py Sig-Sig Epith. Au Loja 18.812 15.641 38.767
13 E99075 Spl Sig-Sig Epith. Au Loja 18.818 15.652 38.785
14 BR202 Spl Las Minas Epith. Au-Ag Macuchi 18.683 15.629 38.543
14 BR202 Spl Las Minas Epith. Au-Ag Macuchi 18.687 15.634 38.543
15 BR275 Spl La Union Epith. Au-Ag Macuchi 19.013 15.638 38.772
15 E94041 1 Py La Union Epith. Au-Ag Macuchi 18.966 15.632 38.733
16 E94061 Py Muyuyacu Epith. Au-poly Macuchi 18.849 15.632 38.653
17 E98012 Gn Bella Rica Epith. Au(Cu) Macuchi 18.971 15.634 38.725
18 Pb809 Cpy Filo Largo Epith. Au Chaucha 18.768 15.641 38.624
19 E99063 Fe-ox Gañarin Epith. Au-Ag Chaucha 18.716 15.648 38.574
19 E99063 1 Fe-ox Gañarin Epith. Au-Ag Chaucha 18.715 15.645 38.564
20 E94057 1 Py Peggy Epith. Cu-Pb-Zn Loja 18.828 15.669 38.842
21 Pb793 Py S. Rafael Epith. Au Chaucha 19.000 15.648 38.793
22 E98013 Gn Ecuaba Epith. Au-Ag Chaucha 18.972 15.645 38.810
22 Pb940 Py Ecuaba Epith. Au-Ag Chaucha 19.001 15.671 38.920
23 Pb796 Py Muluncay Epith. Au-Ag Macuchi 18.879 15.657 38.776
24 POR1 1 Gn Portovelo Epith. Au-Ag Chaucha 18.959 15.661 38.852
24 E94033 Gn Portovelo Epith. Au-Ag Chaucha 18.952 15.654 38.831
24 E98014 1 Gn Portovelo Epith. Au-Ag Chaucha 18.959 15.656 38.836
25 E94031 Gn Zaruma Epith. Au-Ag Chaucha 18.971 15.672 38.878
25 E94032 Gn Zaruma Epith. Au-Ag Chaucha 18.975 15.666 38.861
25 E98004 Gn Zaruma Epith. Au-Ag Chaucha 18.973 15.661 38.847
25 E98005 Gn Zaruma Epith. Au-Ag Chaucha 18.983 15.674 38.885
25 E98006 Gn Zaruma Epith. Au-Ag Chaucha 18.979 15.670 38.880
25 E98008 Gn Zaruma Epith. Au-Ag Chaucha 18.974 15.669 38.871
25 E98009 Gn Zaruma Epith. Au-Ag Chaucha 18.975 15.664 38.853
25 E98010 Gn Zaruma Epith. Au-Ag Chaucha 18.967 15.662 38.849
25 E98015 Gn Zaruma Epith. Au-Ag Chaucha 18.976 15.666 38.865
26 2 E99037 Py Cosanga Porphyry Cu Tahuín 18.561 15.634 38.504
27 E99044 1 Mal Los Linderos Porphyry Cu Tahuín 18.758 15.656 38.712
28 E99032 1 Py Laguar Porphyry Cu Tahuín 18.803 15.646 38.682
29 E99209 Gn Malacatos Epith. Au-Pb Loja 18.758 15.645 38.706
30 3 AG20 Py La Plata VHMS Cu-Zn-Au Macuchi 19.020 15.654 38.777
30 3 AG21 Py La Plata VHMS Cu-Zn-Au Macuchi 19.023 15.659 38.788
30 3 AG62 Py La Plata VHMS Cu-Zn-Au Macuchi 19.022 15.661 38.795
30 3 E94050a Cpy La Plata VHMS Cu-Zn-Au Macuchi 19.034 15.665 38.809
30 3 E94050b Cpy La Plata VHMS Cu-Zn-Au Macuchi 19.019 15.655 38.784
30 3 E94050c Gn La Plata VHMS Cu-Zn-Au Macuchi 19.023 15.658 38.786
30 3 E99166 Py La Plata VHMS Cu-Zn-Au Macuchi 19.033 15.665 38.800
30 3 E99168 Py La Plata VHMS Cu-Zn-Au Macuchi 19.020 15.661 38.782
30 3 E99178 Cpy La Plata VHMS Cu-Zn-Au Macuchi 19.007 15.657 38.755
31 3 E94049 Py Macuchi VHMS Cu-Zn-Au Macuchi 18.837 15.608 38.512
31 3 E99104 Py Macuchi VHMS Cu-Zn-Au Macuchi 18.829 15.608 38.521
31 3 E99105 Cpy Macuchi VHMS Cu-Zn-Au Macuchi 18.834 15.615 38.542
31 3 E99106 Cpy Macuchi VHMS Cu-Zn-Au Macuchi 18.850 15.622 38.565
31 3 E99108 Py Macuchi VHMS Cu-Zn-Au Macuchi 18.824 15.610 38.533

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 1094

 LEAD ISOTOPES AND METALLOGENY OF ECUADOR 1095

TABLE 5. (Cont.)

Middle-late Tertiary deposits

206
No. Sample Mineral Deposit Deposit type Terrane Pb/204Pb 207
Pb/204Pb 208
Pb/204Pb

32 3 E99187 Py El Patiño VHMS Cu-Zn-Au Macuchi 18.868 15.644 38.651

32 3 E99188 Py El Patiño VHMS Cu-Zn-Au Macuchi 18.849 15.643 38.666
32 3 E99189 Py El Patiño VHMS Cu-Zn-Au Macuchi 18.862 15.631 38.611

Jurassic to Cretaceous (?) deposits

206
No. Sample Mineral Deposit Deposit type Terrane Pb/204Pb 207
Pb/204Pb 208
Pb/204Pb

33 PI46 Py Las Pilas VHMS Alao 19.262 15.703 38.993

33 PI48 Py Las Pilas VHMS Alao 19.241 15.704 38.992
34 PA139 Py Guarumales VHMS Cu-Pb-Zn(Au) Salado 18.860 15.656 38.708
34 PA140 Py Guarumales VHMS Cu-Pb-Zn(Au) Salado 18.865 15.662 38.733
35 Trinidad Py Trinidad Porphyry Cu-Mo Amazon 18.439 15.609 38.428
36 PA-04 Py Panantza Porphyry Cu-Mo Amazon 18.570 15.612 38.671
37 CH-01 Py Chancho Porphyry Cu-Mo Amazon 18.347 15.584 38.357
38 M-12 Py Mirador Porphyry Cu-Mo Amazon 18.475 15.618 38.530
39 E94006 Py Showing Py-veins Salado 18.429 15.572 38.208
40 E94044 Py Cumbaratza Skarn Cu-Pb-Zn(Au) Amazon 18.563 15.662 38.543
41 Pb1292 Py Cumay Porphyry Cu-Mo Amazon 18.813 15.627 39.285
41 Pb1293 Py Cumay Skarn Au Amazon 18.462 15.638 38.449
42 COM9238 Cpy Campanillas Skarn Au Amazon 18.462 15.622 38.421
42 CPA16 Py Campanillas Skarn Au Amazon 18.353 15.582 38.263
43 E94045 Py Nambija Skarn Au Amazon 18.357 15.590 38.387
43 TM48 Py Nambija Skarn Au Amazon 18.569 15.618 38.455
43 E99138 Py Nambija Skarn Au Amazon 18.438 15.612 38.304
43 E99140 Py Nambija Skarn Au Amazon 18.450 15.593 38.257
44 DTR-6 Py-Mo El Tierrero Porphyry Cu-Mo Amazon 18.475 15.661 38.439
44 DTR-7 Py-Cpy El Tierrero Porphyry Cu-Mo Amazon 18.457 15.595 38.269
44 DTR-8 Py El Tierrero Porphyry Cu-Mo Amazon 18.437 15.591 38.271
45 4 E99128 Cpy Chinapintza Epith. Au-Ag-Zn Amazon 18.640 15.606 38.450
45 4 E99129 Py Chinapintza Epith. Au-Ag-Zn Amazon 18.608 15.580 38.385
45 4 E99129 Spl Chinapintza Epith. Au-Ag-Zn Amazon 18.624 15.589 38.412
45 4 E99130 Gn Chinapintza Epith. Au-Ag-Zn Amazon 18.635 15.606 38.446
45 4 E99131 Spl Chinapintza Epith. Au-Ag-Zn Amazon 18.627 15.592 38.412
45 4 E99132 Gn Chinapintza Epith. Au-Ag-Zn Amazon 18.634 15.595 38.416
45 4 E99146 Spl Chinapintza Epith. Au-Ag-Zn Amazon 18.647 15.612 38.478
45 4 PTZ36 Spl Chinapintza Epith. Au-Ag-Zn Amazon 18.636 15.600 38.435
45 4 PTZ9 Spl Chinapintza Epith. Au-Ag-Zn Amazon 18.651 15.609 38.470

Abbreviations: Cpy = chalcopyrite, Epith. = epithermal, Fe-ox = Fe oxides, Gn = galena, Mal = malachite, Mo = molybdenite, Py = pyrite, Spl = sphalerite
1
From Chiaradia et al. (2004)
2
Cretaceous-early Tertiary
3
From Chiaradia and Fontboté (2001)
4
Minimum age 96 ± 10 Ma (Prodeminca, 2000d)

Early Tertiary rocks of the Macuchi island arc
The Macuchi arc consists of two geochemically and strati-
graphically distinct sequences: a lower sequence (Basal
Macuchi) with basaltic composition and an upper sequence
(Main Macuchi) with basaltic to andesitic compositions
(Chiaradia and Fontboté, 2001). Isotopic signatures of both
residue and leachate fractions of rocks of the two sequences,
discussed in detail by Chiaradia and Fontboté (2001), define
narrow arrays between the E-Pacific MORB field and the
upper-crust evolution curve (Zartman and Doe, 1981) in con-
ventional isotopic plots, with the Main Macuchi rocks being
shifted to more radiogenic values (Fig. 5C and D).
Middle-late Tertiary magmatic rocks of the continental arc
We have analyzed rocks of middle-late Tertiary volcanic units
(Saraguro Group, Turi Formation) and intrusions (Pujili, Los
Linderos) from the Alao, Chaucha, Tahuin, and Macuchi ter-
ranes (Table 2). We include in this group of rocks three sam-
ples from the Cosanga (E99035) and Tangula (E99040,
E99046) intrusions of Cretaceous-early Tertiary age because
of the similar geotectonic setting of the two rock groups: i.e.,
a continental magmatic arc (see above).
Lead isotope compositions of the middle-late Tertiary mag-
matic rocks (plus the three Cretaceous-early Tertiary intru-
sions) plot within the same field of equivalent middle-late
Tertiary magmatic rocks reported by Chiaradia et al. (2004;
Fig. 5C and D). Leachate and residue fractions do not have
significantly different 206Pb/204Pb compositions, probably be-
cause of the young ages of the analyzed samples and the rel-
atively low U/Pb and Th/Pb ratios. The compositional field of
Tertiary magmatic rocks defines a steep trend in the ura-
nogenic plot between the orogen and upper-crust evolution
curves of Zartman and Doe (1981).

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 1095

1096 CHIARADIA ET AL.

the early Tertiary VHMS deposits are more radiogenic than

±2σ
20.444; 15.729 those of the Amazon craton Jurassic mineralization and simi-
UC & ( )
15.7 lar to or less radiogenic than those of the Jurassic VHMS de-
21.188; 15.818
( ) posits of the Salado and Alao terranes, respectively (Fig. 6).
Isotopic compositions are very homogeneous within each of
Pb/204Pb

the early Tertiary VHMS deposits, but differ among deposits

15.6 OR
(Fig. 6).
The post-assembly group refers to mineralization formed in
207

TAHUIN association with continental-arc magmatism and the subduc-

LOJA tion of the Farallon/Nazca plate, and consists of the middle-
E-Pacific migmatite/gneiss/granite leachate late Tertiary porphyry-Cu and Au-Ag epithermal deposits
15.5 MORB hosted by the Macuchi, Chaucha, Tahuin, Loja, and Alao ter-
migmatite/gneiss/granite residue
M schist/slate leachate ranes. In this group, we also include the Cretaceous-early
schist/slate residue Tertiary Cosanga porphyry-Cu ore situated in southernmost
±2σ amphibolite leachate
amphibolite residue Ecuador (Tahuin terrane), where accretion of the Macuchi
40 arc did not occur. Although the Cosanga porphyry-Cu age is
20.444; 42.000
Pb/204Pb

& ( ) older than that of the other post-assembly deposits and simi-
21.188, 40.285 lar to that of the Macuchi arc deposits, the mineralization is
( )
associated with intrusions of a continental magmatic arc and,
UC as such, belongs to a geodynamic setting comparable to that
208

39
of the post-assembly deposits, rather than to the island-arc
setting of the Macuchi arc. Lead isotope compositions of the
middle-late Tertiary deposits, plus the Cretaceous-early Ter-
OR
tiary Cosanga porphyry-Cu deposit, display a broad range of
38 values that vary depending on the host terrane (Fig. 7; Table
M 5).
E-Pacific MORB

18 18.5 19 19.5 20 Discussion

206 Pb/204Pb
FIG. 4. Lead isotope compositions of leachate and residue fractions of Pa-
leozoic and Triassic rocks of the Chaucha, Loja, and Tahuin continental ter-
ranes (data from this study and from Chiaradia and Fontboté, 2003). The
East Pacific MORB field is from data of Unruh and Tatsumoto (1976), Cohen
et al. (1980), and Sun (1980). The mantle (M), orogen (OR), and upper-crust
(UC) evolution curves are from Zartman and Doe (1981).
Mineral deposits
Lead isotope compositions of the ore deposits of Ecuador
are presented in Table 5 and Figures 6 and 7. In order to fa-
cilitate the discussion, we have subdivided the Ecuadorian
mineral deposits into pre-assembly (Jurassic-Cretaceous and
early Tertiary; Fig. 6) and post-assembly (middle to late Ter-
tiary; Fig. 7). The pre-assembly group includes Jurassic poly-
metallic VHMS deposits formed in the intraoceanic island arc
of Alao and in the intracontinental marginal basin of Salado;
Jurassic porphyry-Cu deposits and Au skarns of Nambija in
the western margin of the Amazon craton; the Cretaceous (?)
Chinapintza Au-Ag epithermal mineralization (also in the
Amazon craton); and early Tertiary Au-Cu-Zn VHMS de-
posits associated with the intraoceanic island arc of Macuchi.
Lead isotope compositions of the Jurassic ores are homoge-
neous within each deposit (except the Nambija district min-
eralization) and are progressively less radiogenic from west
(Alao island arc) to east (Salado terrane and Amazon craton;
Fig. 6) in a similar way to Colombian ore deposits (Sillitoe
and Hart, 1984). Sulfides from the porphyry copper belt and
from the Nambija district on the western margin of the Ama-
zon craton are characterized by the lowest 206Pb/204Pb ratios
among the Jurassic ores (Fig. 6). The isotopic compositions of
Sources of lead in the pre-assembly Jurassic to
Cretaceous (?) deposits
The isotopic compositions of two samples of the Las Pilas
VHMS deposit (Alao terrane) are identical within error and
plot in the field of the Alao metabasalts (Fig. 6). This suggests
that the lead in this deposit was derived from the host Alao
metabasalts, a typical feature of VHMS deposits. The lead
isotope compositions of two samples of the Guarumales
VHMS deposit (Salado terrane), also identical within error,
are significantly less radiogenic than those of Las Pilas and of
the Alao metabasalts, excluding an affinity with the Alao ter-
rane. This could be due to the association of Guarumales with
magmatic rocks that have assimilated nonradiogenic meta-
morphic rocks of the continental crust (i.e., similar to rocks of
the Loja and Tahuin terranes; Fig. 4). This interpretation is
reasonable if, as suggested by Litherland et al. (1994), Guaru-
males belongs to the Salado terrane, which is floored by con-
tinental crust (Litherland et al., 1994), and not to the Alao ter-
rane (Prodeminca, 2000b). The existence at the base of the
Salado terrane of metamorphic rocks of the continental crust,
characterized by nonradiogenic lead, similar to high-grade
rocks of the Loja and Tahuin terranes, is supported by the
composition of the Jurassic Azafran batholith, which intruded
through the Salado terrane (Fig. 5A and B). Furthermore,
sample E94006 (see location in Fig. 1), a pyrite vein in a white
mica and chlorite schist of the Salado terrane, also has a low
206
Pb/204Pb value, comparable to those of the Jurassic intru-
sions of the western margin of the Amazon craton (Fig. 6).
The isotopic compositions of the Jurassic porphyry-Cu de-
posits overlap the least radiogenic compositions of the host
Amazon Jurassic batholiths and thus, as expected, suggest

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 1096

 LEAD ISOTOPES AND METALLOGENY OF ECUADOR 1097

A Paleozoic/Triassic (CLT) C
±2σ basements ±2σ Paleozoic/Triassic (CLT) basements
UC
15.7
UC
20.157; 15.671
Abitagua ( )&
Zamora 20.193; 15.694
Pb/204 Pb

Kf Kf ( ) Main Macuchi
15.6 OR plag
Kf OR
207

Azafran
Chinapintza
Basal Macuchi
E-Pacific E-Pacific
15.5 MORB MORB

M Amazon pluton leachate Alao leachate M Magmatic rock leachate

Amazon pluton residue Alao residue Magmatic rock residue
B Amazon porphyry leachate Tahuin leachate D ±2σ
±2σ
Amazon porphyry residue Tahuin residue
40

Paleozoic/Triassic (CLT) basements Paleozoic/Triassic (CLT) basements

Pb/204 Pb

UC
Abitagua UC
39
OR
208

KfKf 20.157; 38.860 Main Macuchi

plag
Zamora ( )&
20.193; 38.820
Kf Azafran ( ) OR
Basal Macuchi
38 Chinapintza
M
E-Pacific MORB M E-Pacific MORB

18 18.5 19 19.5 18 18.5 19 19.5 20

206 Pb/ Pb
204 206 Pb/ Pb
204

FIG. 5. A, B. Lead isotope compositions of leachate and residue whole rock and K-feldspar/plagioclase fractions of Juras-
sic intrusions of the western margin of the Amazon craton and of the Salado terrane, of Jurassic metabasalts of the Alao ter-
rane, and of a Jurassic amphibolite of the Tahuin terrane (El Toro unit; data from this study and from Chiaradia et al., 2004).
C, D. Lead isotope compositions of leachate and residue fractions of middle-late Tertiary magmatic rocks of the continental
arc of Ecuador (Loja, Chaucha, Tahuin, Alao terranes), analyzed in this study. The gray area represents compositions of
leachate and residue fractions of 31 Tertiary magmatic rocks of the continental arc of Ecuador (Loja, Chaucha, Tahuin, Alao
terranes) reported by Chiaradia et al. (2004). Compositions of leachate and residue fractions of 25 basic-intermediate vol-
canic rocks of the Basal and Main Macuchi sequences are from Chiaradia and Fontboté (2001), indicated by dashed lines.
References for the evolution curves (UC, OR, M) and E-Pacific MORB are as in Figure 4.

metal derivation from the Jurassic intrusions (Fig. 6). Ores of
the Nambija district partly overlap the least radiogenic por-
tion of the Jurassic pluton field and the field of the Jurassic
porphyry-Cu deposits. Other samples from the Nambija dis-
trict plot at higher 207Pb/204Pb values overlapping the compo-
sitional field of Triassic amphibolites (Fig. 6). Because Trias-
sic amphibolites represent a very limited portion of the
Ecuadorian crust and have not been found in the western
margin of the Amazon craton, we suggest that varied volcani-
clastic and sedimentary rocks of the Triassic Piuntza unit,
which host the Nambija ore deposits, are a more likely source
of high 207Pb/204Pb values in the Nambija ores. Thus, the vari-
able isotopic compositions of the Nambija ores might derive
from lead input of the Jurassic intrusions plus hydrothermal
leaching of basement rocks (Piuntza unit?). The heteroge-
neous signatures of the Nambija ores suggest an incomplete
homogenization of lead from different sources and support
the hypothesis of hydrothermal leaching of lead.
The ores of the Chinapintza mineral deposit are slightly
more radiogenic than those of the porphyry-Cu belt and of
the Nambija district, but still overlap the isotopic composi-
tions of the Jurassic intrusions in the western margin of the
Amazon craton (Fig. 6). A largely magmatic origin of lead in
the Chinapintza deposit is therefore plausible. The signatures
of the nine samples analyzed are virtually identical within an-
alytical uncertainty, suggesting homogenization of ore lead.
Sources of lead in the pre-assembly early Tertiary deposits
The lead isotope compositions of the early Tertiary VHMS
deposits of the Macuchi arc, discussed by Chiaradia and
Fontboté (2001), plot within the field of the host Macuchi
volcanic-volcaniclastic sequence (Fig. 6). The fact that the

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 1097

1098 CHIARADIA ET AL.

Paleozoic/Triassic has probably occurred within the magma before delivery of

±2σ Jurassic Alao metabasalts (CLT) basements fluids to the hydrothermal system.
15.7 UC
In contrast to these deposits, numerous other deposits from
the terranes of Chaucha (El Tablon, Chaucha, Filo Largo),
Guarumales Tahuin (Cosanga, Los Linderos, Laguar), Loja (Malacatos,
La Plata
Sig-Sig, Peggy), Macuchi (El Torneado, Ponce Enriquez,
Pb/204Pb

El Patiño Junin), and Alao (San Bartolomé) have lead isotope composi-
Macuchi
15.6
tions that plot outside the field of the middle-late Tertiary
OR Amazon Jurassic magmatic rocks and are shifted toward the field of the base-
intrusions ment rocks of the host terranes (Fig. 7). Considering the large
207

E94006 Early Tertiary Macuchi arc

Triassic number of samples included in this synthesis, it seems likely
amphibolites that the data are representative of the actual isotopic variabil-
E-Pacific Alao: Las Pilas ity of the middle-late Tertiary magmatic rocks and, therefore,
15.5 Amazon: El Pangui PC
MORB the ore isotope compositions reflect mobilization of base-
Salado
M ment-rock lead by hydrothermal leaching. Alternatively, if the
Amazon: Nambija
Amazon: Chinapintza
lead of these ore deposits were of magmatic origin, this would
±2σ Macuchi: Early imply that isotopic compositions of the middle-late Tertiary
Tertiary VHMS magmas are variable and terrane dependent. A remarkable
40 case of this behavior is the ore of the San Bartolomé epither-
Paleozoic/Triassic (CLT) basements
mal deposit, which is shifted to higher 206Pb/204Pb ratios than
those of the middle-late Tertiary magmatic rocks and largely
Jurassic Alao metabasalts falls in the field of the Alao metabasalts (i.e., the rocks of the
terrane hosting the San Bartolomé deposit; Fig. 7A and B).
Pb/204Pb

UC
Amazon Jurassic
39 intrusions Some of the San Bartolomé samples have 207Pb/204Pb values
Guarumales
Triassic La Plata slightly higher than those of the Alao metabasalts and might
amphibolites El Patiño have had an additional source, unless our data set on the Alao
208

Macuchi metabasalts is not completely representative. The variable

E94006
Early Tertiary Macuchi arc
38 OR
E-Pacific MORB
M Isotopic compositions of some ores of the Loja (Malacatos,
18 18.5 19 19.5
206
Pb/204Pb
FIG. 6. Lead isotope compositions of ore minerals of pre-assembly Juras-
sic (this study) and early Tertiary (Chiaradia and Fontboté, 2001) deposits.
For reference, the compositional fields of potential source rocks at the time
of mineralization are also shown (CLT = Chaucha-Loja-Tahuin basements of
Chiaradia et al., 2004). References for the evolution curves (UC, OR, M) and
E-Pacific MORB are as in Figure 4.
isotopic compositions are very homogeneous within each de-
posit but differ among deposits (Fig. 6) suggests that lead was
derived from hydrothermal leaching and homogenization of
different parts of the volcanosedimentary sequence (Chiara-
dia and Fontboté, 2001).
Sources of lead in the post-assembly middle-late
Tertiary deposits
Chiaradia et al. (2004) have reported 11 analyses of middle-
late Tertiary deposits (Table 5) with isotopic compositions
similar to those of the associated magmatic rocks. An addi-
tional 43 analyses in the present study allow us to better eval-
uate lead sources in the middle-late Tertiary deposits. Indeed,
ores of the Chaucha terrane (Zaruma, Portovelo, Angas,
Ecuaba) are isotopically homogeneous and have compositions
that overlap the compositions of the associated magmatic
rocks (Fig. 7A and B; Table 5). Because of the coincidence
between magmatic rock and ore signatures, homogenization
isotopic compositions of the San Bartolomé ores (Fig. 7A and
B) reinforce a model of hydrothermal mobilization of metals
from host rocks and incomplete homogenization.
20
Sig-Sig, Peggy deposits), Tahuin (Cosanga, Los Linderos,
Laguar deposits), and Chaucha terranes (Gañarin, Chaucha,
Filo Largo deposits) are shifted to lower 206Pb/204Pb values
than those of Tertiary magmatic rocks, suggesting hydrother-
mal leaching of nonradiogenic Paleozoic/Triassic metamor-
phic and granitic rocks of the Loja, Tahuin, and Chaucha
basements (Fig. 7A and B). Isotopic compositions of the Loja
terrane ores (Malacatos, Sig-Sig, Peggy) overlap the field of
leachate fractions rather than residue fractions of the low-
grade metamorphic rocks, which are the dominant lithology
in this terrane (compare Figs. 4, and 7A, B). This suggests
that hydrothermal fluids have leached lead from the low-
grade metamorphic rocks of the Loja terrane before precipi-
tating ore minerals, in a way similar to the experimental
leaching applied in this study. Conversely, lead isotope com-
positions of mineral deposits of the Tahuin terrane, which is
dominated by high-grade metamorphic rocks and by Triassic
S-type granites, overlap the field of residue ± leachate frac-
tions of high-grade metamorphic and granitic rocks (compare
Figs. 4 and 7A, B).
Some middle-late Tertiary epithermal and porphyry ores
(i.e., Junin, sample E94010) from the Macuchi terrane have
lower 207Pb/204Pb ratios than do the coeval magmatic rocks
and the majority of deposits of the continental terranes of
Loja, Tahuin, and Chaucha, highlighting mobilization of non-
radiogenic lead of the early Tertiary island-arc basement of
this terrane (Fig. 7C and D). Mineral deposits near the suture
with the Chaucha continental terrane (Junin, El Torneado,
Ponce Enriquez) are also shifted toward low 206Pb/204Pb

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 1098

 LEAD ISOTOPES AND METALLOGENY OF ECUADOR 1099

A Jurassic Alao metabasalts Paleozoic/Triassic C Paleozoic/Triassic (CLT) basements

±2σ (CLT) basements ±2σ
Laguar Muluncay
15.7 Los Linderos Peggy UC

Malacatos Junin
UC
Gañarin Zaruma,
Cosanga Sig-Sig Portovelo, Las Minas
Pb/204Pb

Middle-Late Tertiary
Angas, magmatism
15.6 Chaucha Ecuaba
OR OR El Torneado
Filo Largo Middle-Late Tertiary E94010
magmatism
207

Alao
Tahuin Pascuales Early Tertiary
Chaucha Macuchi basalts
E-Pacific Loja E-Pacific
15.5 MORB Macuchi MORB

M M

B D
±2σ ±2σ
Paleozoic/Triassic (CLT) basements Paleozoic/Triassic (CLT) basements
40

Middle-Late Tertiary magmatism Jurassic Alao metabasalts

Middle-late Tertiary magmatism
Pb/204Pb

UC
Sig-Sig
39 Filo Largo UC Junin
Los Linderos Zaruma,
& Malacatos Portovelo,
Angas,
208

Gañarin Las Minas

Ecuaba
Cosanga Early Tertiary
Muluncay El Torneado E94010
Laguar Macuchi basalts
OR Peggy
Chaucha Pascuales
38 OR

M E-Pacific MORB M E-Pacific MORB

18 18.5 19 19.5 18 18.5 19 19.5 20

206Pb/204Pb 206 Pb/204Pb
FIG. 7. A, B. Lead isotope compositions of middle-late Tertiary post-assembly deposits of the Loja, Chaucha, Tahuin, and
Alao terranes (data from this study and from Chiaradia et al., 2004). C, D. Lead isotope compositions of the middle-late Ter-
tiary post-assembly deposits of the Macuchi terrane (data from this study and from Chiaradia et al., 2004). The labeled de-
posits belong geographically to the Macuchi terrane, but are at the transition with the Chaucha terrane (see text for discus-
sion). For reference, the compositional fields of potential source rocks at the time of mineralization are also shown (CLT =
Chaucha-Loja-Tahuin basements of Chiaradia et al., 2004). References for the evolution curves (UC, OR, M) and E-Pacific
MORB are as in Figure 4.

values, suggesting incorporation of lead from nonradiogenic
basement rocks of the Chaucha terrane (Fig. 7C and D). The
heterogeneous signatures of the Ponce Enriquez district and
Junin deposit (Fig. 7C and D; Table 5) suggest that the lead
mobilized from basement rocks was not homogenized with
magmatic lead before precipitation in the ore minerals.
The Pascuales mineralization, consisting of veins of mag-
netite, massive hematite, barite, and traces of gold associated
with a tonalite intrusion, has the lowest 207Pb/204Pb values
among Ecuadorian deposits (Fig. 7C and D), as expected
from its location in the tholeiitic basalts of the oceanic plateau
terrane of Piñon (Fig. 1).
Mantle and crust contributions in magmatic rocks
Figure 8 shows the isotopic compositions of pre- and post-
assembly ore deposits and the fields of the residual fractions
(~common lead) of rocks of the four magmatic arc events of
Ecuador (i.e., Jurassic continental arc of the western margin
of the Amazon craton, Jurassic island arc of Alao, early Ter-
tiary island arc of Macuchi, middle-late Tertiary continental
arc encompassing the terranes of Macuchi, Chaucha, Tahuin,
Loja, and Alao; Fig. 2). Also shown are the compositional
fields of E-Pacific MORB, leachate and residue fractions of
Paleozoic/Triassic basement rocks of the Chuacha, Loja,
Tahuin terranes, and residue fractions of the Triassic Piedras
amphibolite, which represents the signature of the Triassic
MORB mantle beneath Ecuador (Chiaradia and Fontboté,
2002).
The common lead isotope compositions of the four mag-
matic arcs of Ecuador define separate fields that can be ex-
plained by different mixing processes between the above
reservoirs and the different times at which the mixing

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 1099

1100 CHIARADIA ET AL.

15.8
A PRE-ASSEMBLY ORE DEPOSITS C POST-ASSEMBLY ORE DEPOSITS

Paleozoic/Triassic Paleozoic/Triassic
(CLT) basements (CLT) basements
Jurassic Alao arc

15.7 Jurassic Alao arc

UC UC
Pb/204Pb

Middle-Late Tertiary arc

Jurassic continental Jurassic continental
arc arc
207

15.6
OR OR

Early Tertiary Macuchi arc Early Tertiary Macuchi arc

Piedras amphibolite Pascuales Piedras amphibolite
E-Pacific E-Pacific
15.5 MORB MORB

M M

B Paleozoic/Triassic Jurassic Alao arc D Paleozoic/Triassic

(CLT) basements (CLT) basements Alao metabasalts
UC
39.0

UC

38.6
Pb/204Pb

Early Tertiary Macuchi arc Jurassic continental

arc Early Tertiary Macuchi arc
38.2 Jurassic Pascuales
208

continental arc

OR OR
37.8 E-Pacific MORB E-Pacific MORB

Piedras amphibolite Piedras amphibolite

M M
37.4
18 18.5 19 19.5 18 18.5 19 19.5 20
206 Pb/ Pb
204 206 Pb/ Pb
204

Jurassic pre-assembly ore deposits Early-Tertiary pre-assembly ore deposits Middle-Late Tertiary post-assembly ore deposits
FIG. 8. Comparison of the lead isotope compositions of pre- (A and B) and post-assembly (C and D) ore deposits of
Ecuador with the isotopic fields of the residual fractions (~common lead) of rocks of the four magmatic arc events of Ecuador
(i.e., Jurassic continental arc of the western margin of the Amazon craton, Jurassic island arc of Alao, early Tertiary island arc
of Macuchi, middle-late Tertiary continental arc encompassing the terranes of Macuchi, Chaucha, Tahuin, Loja, and Alao;
Fig. 2), of leachate and residue fractions of Paleozoic/Triassic basement rocks of Ecuador (CLT = Chaucha-Loja-Tahuin
basements of Chiaradia et al., 2004), and of residue fractions of the Triassic Piedras amphibolite, which represents the sig-
nature of the Triassic MORB mantle beneath Ecuador (Chiaradia and Fontboté, 2002). References for the evolution curves
(UC, OR, M) and E-Pacific MORB are as in Figure 4.

occurred. The magmatic rocks of the Jurassic continental arc
plot in an elongated field with a slope that corresponds to an
apparent age of 1350 ± 490 Ma in the uranogenic diagram
(Figs. 5 and 8). As these rocks have ages ranging from 190 to
150 Ma (Litherland et al. 1994; Gendall et al., 2002), the
range of data must reflect mixing. The least radiogenic com-
positions of the Jurassic plutons and porphyries are compati-
ble with assimilation of the least radiogenic compositions of
Paleozoic/Triassic metamorphic rocks of the continental ter-
ranes (e.g., Loja and Tahuin) by magmas derived from a
MORB-type mantle like that represented by the time-evolved
Triassic Piedras amphibolite (Fig. 8). The more radiogenic
compositions of the Amazon plutons and porphyries are com-
patible with mixing of the same mantle-derived magmas with
more radiogenic rocks of the Loja and Tahuin terranes (Fig.
8). Mixing between mantle and continental crust reservoirs in
the Jurassic arc is also supported by the initial 87Sr/86Sr values
of the Zamora and Azafran plutons, which range between
0.7037 and 0.7051 (Litherland et al., 1994).
The high 207Pb/204Pb and 206Pb/204Pb values of the Alao
metabasalts imply extensive involvement of upper-crustal
material in the island-arc magma genesis, which could occur

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 1100

 LEAD ISOTOPES AND METALLOGENY OF ECUADOR
either through assimilation of relatively large amounts of con-
tinental crust (Fig. 8) or at the magma source through incor-
poration of radiogenic pelagic sediments. We interpret the
high 207Pb/204Pb signatures of the Alao metabasalts as result-
ing from assimilation of <10 wt percent of pelagic sediments
(i.e., typical amounts in island-arc magmas; Tera et al., 1986)
at the magma source because it is unlikely that mantle-de-
rived magmas assimilated large proportions of crustal rocks
without evolving toward more siliceous compositions than
basalts. Initial strontium isotope ratios (87Sr/86Sr = 07048–
0.7049) of two Alao metabasalts calculated from data in
Chiaradia et al. (2004) are compatible with those of island-arc
magmas derived from a mantle enriched by pelagic sedi-
ments. This interpretation also agrees with the intraoceanic
origin of the Alao arc proposed by Litherland et al. (1994) on
the grounds of major- and trace-element geochemistry of the
Alao metabasalts.
The early Tertiary Macuchi island-arc rocks define a narrow
and steep trend in the uranogenic plot (Figs. 5C, D, and 8).
Chiaradia and Fontboté (2001) showed that this trend derives
from the assimilation at a shallow crustal level of nonradi-
ogenic oceanic crust by mantle-derived magmas, which were
enriched at the source by radiogenic lead of 2.5 to <10 wt per-
cent subducted pelagic sediments. The lowest 207Pb/204Pb val-
ues of the Macuchi arc belong to the most evolved rocks that
have assimilated larger amounts of nonradiogenic oceanic
crust during an assimilation-fractional crystallization process
(Chiaradia and Fontboté, 2001).
The field of the middle-late Tertiary continental-arc mag-
mas largely overlaps that of the Macuchi arc rocks, but is char-
acterized by higher 207Pb/204Pb values (Fig. 8). The steep Pb
isotope trend of the Tertiary continental-arc magmas in the
uranogenic plot results from assimilation of up to 19 wt per-
cent radiogenic crustal basement rocks at shallow crustal lev-
els by magmas derived from an enriched mantle, a conclusion
supported by the range of Sr isotope ratios (initial 87Sr/86Sr =
0.7041–0.7058; Chiaradia et al., 2004). Shallow-level crystal-
lization of these magmas is suggested by extensive plagioclase
fractionation resulting in progressively larger negative Eu
anomalies with geochemical evolution (Chiaradia et al., 2004).
Whereas the Jurassic arcs are characterized by a narrow
range of 207Pb/204Pb values and a relatively large range of
206
Pb/204Pb values, the opposite occurs in the early Tertiary is-
land arc and middle-late Tertiary continental arc, which are
characterized by a narrow range of 206Pb/204Pb values and a
more pronounced 207Pb/204Pb variability (Fig. 8). This seems
to suggest different mantle-crust mixing processes in the
Jurassic and Tertiary arcs, respectively. The absence of steep
mixing trends in the Jurassic arcs might suggest that assimila-
tion-fractional crystallization at shallow crustal levels was not
as important as in the younger arcs, but further work is
needed to test this hypothesis.
Chiaradia and Fontboté (2002) have shown that time-
integrated decay of U of the Triassic mantle beneath Ecuador
(represented by the Triassic MORB-type Piedras amphibo-
lite) cannot explain the high 206Pb/204Pb values of the mantle
end member of the mantle-crust mixing trend defined by
early to late Tertiary magmas of Ecuador (Fig. 8). They have
invoked a post-Triassic addition of a high 238U/204Pb compo-
nent (HIMU of Zindler and Hart, 1986) to the Ecuadorian
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 1101
1101
sub-Andean mantle, which might be related either to mantle
plume diffusion or to assimilation of underplated oceanic
plateaus accreted onto Ecuador since the late Cretaceous-
early Tertiary.
Mantle and crust contributions in mineral deposits
The range of values displayed by ore deposits of Ecuador
(206Pb/204Pb = 18.3–19.3; 207Pb/204Pb = 15.54–15.74; 208Pb/
204
Pb = 38.2–39.2) can be entirely explained in the frame of
the lead isotope compositions of basement and igneous rocks
of Ecuador. Pre-assembly mineral deposits have isotopic
compositions broadly coinciding with those of the common
lead of the magmatic rocks genetically associated with them,
and their lead is therefore entirely of magmatic origin (Fig.
8). Pre-assembly mineral deposits were formed in confined
geotectonic environments representing newly formed seg-
ments of magmatic crust (e.g., VHMS deposits in island arcs)
or were associated with large volumes of batholitic rocks of
the Amazon craton (porphyry-Cu and skarn deposits). In such
environments, most ore lead is expected to come from the as-
sociated magmas. Only the isotopic variability of sulfides of
the Nambija skarns, which extends beyond the field of the
magmatic rocks of the Jurassic continental arc, suggests some
hydrothermal mobilization of Pb from lithologies of the host
Piuntza unit (see above). Despite the common magmatic de-
rivation, lead of pre-assembly deposits is a mixture of a vari-
ety of sources in each separate arc context (i.e., mantle-
pelagic sediments in the Alao arc, mantle-continental crust in
the Jurassic continental arc, mantle–HIMU–pelagic sediments–
oceanic crust in the early Tertiary Macuchi arc). This seems
to exclude an enriched crustal reservoir as the source of lead
and other metals in pre-assembly deposits, as in most ore de-
posits of the Central Andes (Kamenov et al., 2002). Indeed,
on the basis of lead budget calculations for the mafic rocks of
the island arcs of Alao and Macuchi, which indicate <10 wt
percent pelagic sediment and >90 wt percent mantle contri-
butions, the mantle seems to be the most likely source of
chalcophile metals for the VHMS deposits of these island
arcs. On the other hand, more work is needed on the petrology
and geochemistry of the Jurassic continental-arc magmas to
understand how mantle and crustal leads were mixed in these
rocks and in the associated porphyry-Cu and skarn deposits.
In contrast to pre-assembly ores, lead isotope compositions
of many middle-late Tertiary post-assembly deposits, rather
than coinciding with the homogeneous and apparently ter-
rane-independent lead isotope compositions of the associated
magmatic rocks, are shifted toward the isotopic compositions
of the basement rocks of the host terranes (Fig. 8). As such,
they reflect the interaction of isotopically homogenous man-
tle-derived magmas and associated hydrothermal fluids with
the older, isotopically heterogeneous, multiply accreted crust.
Middle-late Tertiary plutonism in Ecuador consists of small
intrusions (e.g., compared to those of the Jurassic continental
arc; Fig. 3) that have used terrane boundaries and crustal
faults as preferred structures for their emplacement at shal-
low crustal levels (Fig. 3; Chiaradia et al., 2004). Thus, lead of
the magmatic-hydrothermal systems associated with these
small intrusions could have been variably dominated by lead
leached from lithologies characterized by heterogeneous
isotopic compositions.
1102 CHIARADIA ET AL.

Despite the involvement of a mantle component in the deposits of the trend in Figure 9 (Junin and Chaucha) are sit-
magmas associated with the ore deposits of Ecuador, the iso- uated in the Macuchi terrane and at the transition between
topic compositions of the majority of deposits plot above the Chaucha and Pallatanga-Macuchi, respectively, and have iso-
orogen evolution curve of Zartman and Doe (1981; Fig. 8). topic compositions slightly different from those of the associ-
Such a dominant crustal lead contribution results in part from ated magmatic rocks (Fig. 7). This may indicate that hydro-
the origin of magma in a mantle enriched by subducted thermal leaching of Cu-rich, nonradiogenic mantle-derived
pelagic sediments (e.g., Jurassic and Tertiary island-arc mag- basement rocks was an important source of metals in these
mas of Alao and Macuchi). Eventually these enriched mantle- deposits.
derived magmas interacted with basement rocks at shallow
crustal levels assimilating radiogenic lead (e.g., middle-late Terrane signatures and comparison with the Central Andes
Tertiary mineral deposits; Chiaradia et al., 2004). Ore fluids A subdivision of Ecuadorian ore deposits by terrane (Fig. 10)
related to hydrothermal systems of shallow-level magma mirrors the geographic-geologic subdivision of the Central
chambers further leached crustal rocks (e.g., middle-late Ter- Andean Pb isotope provinces (Macfarlane et al., 1990; Ka-
tiary mineral deposits). This caused a stepwise addition of menov et al., 2002). Ore deposits of each terrane, irrespective
crustal lead to the final ore signature at different crustal lev-
els. However, this does not necessarily imply that the sources
of chalcophile metals, such as Au and Cu, were also mainly
crustal. A mantle origin of chalcophile metals is likely not only II
IIIa
for the Jurassic and early Tertiary VHMS deposits (see 15.7
UC
above), but also for middle-late Tertiary porphyry-Cu and
porphyry-related deposits. In fact, middle-late Tertiary ore
deposits for which tonnages and grades are available (Table 2)
207Pb/204Pb
IVa
show a significant inverse correlation between Cu contents IIIb
and 207Pb/204Pb values (Fig. 9), which suggests that higher 15.6
OR
amounts of Cu are associated with a higher proportion of
nonradiogenic mantle-derived lead. This could be the result
Pascuales
either of the association of more Cu-rich deposits with larger
mantle-derived magmatic systems that, due to their size, are I

less sensitive to crustal contamination, or of more extensive 15.5 Amazon Alao

leaching of Cu-rich nonradiogenic (mantle-derived) rocks M Tahuin Salado
(e.g., Macuchi and Pallatanga rocks). The most Cu-rich
Chaucha Macuchi
Portovelo-Zaruma

Loja
Ponce Enriquez

39.5
Chaucha

208Pb/204Pb
Peggy

Junin

15.68 39.0 II
deposit on continental crust (Loja, Chaucha) IVa IIIa
deposit on transitional crust (Pallatanga-Macuchi/Chaucha) IIIb
UC
deposit on oceanic crust (Macuchi-Pallatanga)
15.66
38.5
I
Pascuales
207Pb/204Pb

15.64 OR
38.0 M
R=
0.9 18 18.5 19.0 19.5 20
05;
p=
15.62 0.0 206Pb/204Pb
003
FIG. 10. Lead isotope compositions of mineral deposits of Ecuador, sub-
divided by terranes, compared with those of ore deposits of the Central
15.60 Andes, subdivided into the provinces of Macfarlane et al. (1990) and Ka-
±2σ menov et al. (2002). Lead isotope compositions of Ecuadorian rocks and ores
encompass a wider range of values than those of the Central Andean
provinces I and II of Macfarlane et al. (1990) combined. Ecuadorian deposits
15.58 have overall higher 207Pb/204Pb values than province I of Macfarlane et al.
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
(1990), suggesting a dominant crustal lead component. The compositions of
Cu (Mt) most early to late Tertiary ore deposits of the Macuchi and Chaucha terranes
are shifted to higher 206Pb/204Pb values with respect to the provinces I and II
FIG. 9. 207Pb/204Pb vs. Cu (Mt) diagram for middle-late Tertiary porphyry- of Macfarlane et al. (1990), due to the post-Triassic addition of a high
Cu and epithermal deposits with available tonnages and grade data (Table 2). 238
U/204Pb component (Chiaradia and Fontboté, 2002). The mantle (M), oro-
Abbreviations: p = significance level, R = correlation coefficient. Cu tonnages gen (OR), and upper-crust (UC) evolution curves are from Zartman and Doe
are derived from Table 2. (1981).

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 1102

 LEAD ISOTOPES AND METALLOGENY OF ECUADOR
of their age (e.g., Jurassic Las Pilas VHMS and middle-late
Tertiary San Bartolomé epithermal deposits of the Alao ter-
rane), cluster in a relatively narrow field that is separated
from the fields of the other terranes (Fig. 10). This arises
from the different geodynamic settings and ages of the mag-
matic arcs, which result in isotopically distinct terranes (Ama-
zon, Alao, Macuchi), and from the subsequent control of
basement lithologies on the isotopic compositions of middle-
late Tertiary ore deposits (see above).
Overall the lead isotope compositions of the ore deposits of
Ecuador lie within the fields of the provinces defined by Mac-
farlane et al. (1990) and Kamenov et al. (2002; Fig. 10), but
some differences are worth noting. The middle-late Tertiary
ore deposits and, to a lesser extent, all Ecuadorian deposits
have significantly higher 207Pb/204Pb values than province I of
Macfarlane et al. (1990), supporting the dominant crustal
lead component highlighted in the previous section (Fig. 10).
This is rather surprising, considering that the crustal thick-
ness in Ecuador is comparable to or lower than that in the
Central Andes (e.g., Feininger and Seguin, 1983), and that an
enriched mantle also exists beneath the Central Andes (e.g.,
Barreiro, 1984; Macfarlane et al., 1990). We suggest that the
large crustal contribution in middle-late Tertiary mineral de-
posits and magmas of Ecuador might be due to small volumes
of parental magma emplaced at shallow crustal levels (see
above), such magma being the main feeder for near-surface
magmatic-hydrothermal systems associated with mineraliza-
tion (e.g., Tosdal and Richards, 2001). Such a low magma-to-
crustal rock ratio could result in a larger crustal contamina-
tion of mantle-derived magmas.
The compositions of most early to late Tertiary ore deposits
of the Macuchi and Chaucha terranes (i.e., those least modi-
fied by interaction with nonradiogenic basement rocks), in
which a mantle component is inferred on the basis of isotope
systematics and geochemistry of the associated magmatic
rocks (see above), are also shifted to higher 206Pb/204Pb val-
ues with respect to the provinces of Macfarlane et al. (1990)
that are interpreted to contain a mantle component (i.e.,
provinces I, II; Fig. 10). This is because the average
206
Pb/204Pb ratio of the Tertiary sub-Andean mantle under
Ecuador is higher than that of the Tertiary mantle beneath
the Central Andes, due to the post-Triassic addition of a
HIMU component (see above and Chiaradia and Fontboté,
2002).
Lead isotope compositions of the Alao terrane ore deposits
largely overlap the field of province IIIb of Macfarlane et al.
(1990; Fig. 10). However, despite their similarity, the isotopic
compositions of these two areas result from significantly differ-
ent geotectonic processes because province IIIb contains lead
leached from continental crust, whereas the Alao terrane con-
tains lead that is a mixture of mantle and pelagic sediments.
The isotopic compositions of ore deposits of Ecuador are
characterized by a remarkable variability, considering the lim-
ited area of Ecuador. In fact, lead isotope compositions of
Ecuadorian rocks and ores encompass a wider range of values
than those of the Central Andean provinces I and II of Mac-
farlane et al. (1990) combined (Fig. 10). Such variability re-
sults from the nature of the crust of Ecuador, which is an as-
semblage of accreted terranes, largely different in age,
lithology, geotectonic setting, and isotopic compositions.
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 1103
1103
Conclusions
Ore deposits of Ecuador were formed in widely different
geodynamic settings, including intraoceanic island arcs, a
marginal basin, and continental arcs on the cratonic margin
and on multiply accreted continental crust. Their isotopic sig-
natures can be explained by mixing of different reservoirs in-
volved in magma genesis and in magma–host-rock interaction
in each of these geodynamic contexts. The Pb isotope signa-
tures of mineral deposits (and associated magmas) support
the subdivision of the Ecuadorian crust into different terranes
(e.g., Litherland et al., 1994).
Pre-assembly mineral deposits have isotopic compositions
that coincide with those of the common lead of the magmatic
rocks genetically associated with them and reflect the differ-
ent geotectonic environments in which they were formed.
VHMS deposits that formed in the Jurassic Alao and early
Tertiary Macuchi intraoceanic island arcs contain mixtures of
>90 wt percent mantle and <10 wt percent pelagic sediment
lead assimilated at the magma source in the mantle. There-
fore, it is reasonable to assume that the majority of the chal-
cophile metals therein were mantle derived. Lead (and pre-
sumably accompanying metals) of porphyry-Cu and skarn
deposits of the Jurassic continental arc derive from mixing of
mantle (possibly but not necessarily enriched by pelagic sed-
iments) and crustal basements, but more information on the
petrology and geochemistry of the associated intrusions is
needed to understand where and how such mixing occurred.
Lead isotope compositions of post-assembly (middle-late
Tertiary) deposits reflect a mixture of magmatic lead and lead
leached from basement lithologies of the host terranes. Mag-
matic lead is related to the assimilation at shallow crustal lev-
els of up to 19 wt percent crustal rocks by enriched mantle-
derived magmas (Chiaradia et al., 2004). Therefore, in
post-assembly deposits, the crustal component of lead was
added to the mantle-derived component both at depth
(pelagic sediments) and in the upper part of the crust (assim-
ilation-fractional crystallization process). Despite the fact that
the lead budget of the middle-late Tertiary deposits is largely
dominated by crustal reservoirs (continental crust, pelagic
sediments), we caution against concluding that other metals
(especially Cu and Au) were also crustal, as the content of Cu
of middle-late Tertiary porphyry-Cu and epithermal deposits
seems to increase with increasing mantle lead contribution.
Additional data are needed to understand the petrogenesis
of magmatic rocks of the various arcs of Ecuador. Our work
on the early Tertiary island arc of Macuchi (Chiaradia and
Fontboté, 2001) and on the middle-late Tertiary continental
arc (Chiaradia et al., 2004) indicates that combining lead iso-
tope data with the petrogenesis of magmatic rocks can lead to
a better evaluation of metal sources of magmatic-related ore
deposits. Such an approach has implications for exploration
because mineral deposits of Ecuador result from the coinci-
dence of specific magma evolution processes, geodynamic
conditions (Chiaradia et al., 2004), and metal reservoirs
(Chiaradia and Fontboté, 2001; this study). If the tight corre-
lation between 207Pb/204Pb values and Cu content is con-
firmed by further data, high-precision lead isotope analyses
may be a useful exploration tool for middle-late Tertiary por-
phyry-Cu and epithermal deposits.
1104 CHIARADIA ET AL.
Acknowledgments
We thank Dr. Jaime Jarrín (Ministerio de Energia y Minas,
Quito, Ecuador) for logistic assistance in Ecuador and for
providing drill-core samples of the Jurassic porphyry-Cu de-
posits of the Pangui area, as well as Professor Ulrich Petersen
(Harvard University, Cambridge, MA) for providing some of
the samples analyzed. Comments by Dr. Robert Ayuso, an
anonymous reviewer, and Dr. Mark Hannington were greatly
appreciated and contributed significantly to improve the
manuscript. This study was funded by the Swiss National Sci-
ence Foundation (grant no. 2000-054150).
July 30, 2003; June 24, 2004
REFERENCES
Aguirre, L., 1992, Metamorphic pattern of the Cretaceous Celica Formation,
SW Ecuador, and its geodynamic implications: Tectonophysics, v. 205, p.
223–237.
Aguirre, L., and Atherton, M.P., 1987, Low-grade metamorphism and geot-
ectonic setting of the Macuchi Formation, Western Cordillera of Ecuador:
Journal of Metamorphic Geology, v. 5, p. 473–494.
Aitcheson, S.J., Harmon, R.S., Moorbath, S., Schneider, A., Soler, P., Soria-
Escalante, E., Steele, G., Swainbank, I., and Wörner, G., 1995, Pb isotopes
define basement domains of the Altiplano, central Andes: Geology, v. 23, p.
555–558.
Aspden, J.A., and Litherland, M., 1992, The geology and Mesozoic collisional
history of the Cordillera Real, Ecuador: Tectonophysics, v. 205, p. 187–204.
Aspden, J.A., Fortey, N., Litherland, M., Viteri, F., and Harrison, S.M., 1992,
Regional S-type granites in the Ecuadorian Andes: Possible remnants of
the breakup of western Gondwana: Journal of South American Sciences, v.
6, p. 123–132.
Aspden, J.A., Bonilla, W., and Duque, P., 1995, The El Oro metamorphic
complex, Ecuador: Geology and economic mineral deposit: Keyworth,
U.K., British Geological Survey, Overseas Geology and Mineral Resources
no. 67, 63 p.
Barreiro, B.A., 1984, Lead isotopes and Andean magmagenesis, in Harmon,
R.S., and Barreiro, B.A., eds., Andean magmatism, chemical and isotopic
constraints: Cheshire, U.K., Shiva, p. 21–30.
Barreiro, B.A., and Clark, A.H., 1984, Lead isotopic evidence for evolution-
ary changes in magma-crust interaction, Central Andes, southern Peru:
Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 69, p. 30–42.
Bristow, C.R., and Hoffstetter, R., 1977, Lexique stratigraphique interna-
tional: Ecuador, v. 5/2: Paris, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique
(CNRS), 410 p.
British Geological Survey and Corporación de Desarollo e Investigación Ge-
ológico Minero-Metallurgica, 1999, Mapa Geologico de la Cordillera Occi-
dental del Ecuador, Mision Britanica, Corporación de Desarollo e Investi-
gación Geológico Minero-Metallurgica (CODIGEM), Quito, Ecuador, 1997.
Cambior, 1998, Annual Report: Montreal, Canada, CIBC Mellon Trust Co.,
28 p.
Chiaradia, M., and Fontboté, L., 1999, Preliminary new lead isotope data on
ores and rocks of Ecuador: Assessing metal sources in a complex subduc-
tion-related environment, in Stanley, C.J., et al., eds., Mineral deposits:
Processes to processing: Rotterdam, Balkema, p. 1315–1318.
––––2001, Radiogenic lead signatures in Au-rich VHMS ores and associated
volcanic rocks of the early Tertiary Macuchi island arc (Western Cordillera
of Ecuador): ECONOMIC GEOLOGY, v. 96, p. 1361–1378.
––––2002, Lead isotope systematics of Late Cretaceous––Tertiary Andean
arc magmas and associated ores between 8° N and 40° S: Evidence for lat-
itudinal mantle heterogeneity beneath the Andes: Terra Nova, v. 14, p.
337–342.
––––2003, Separate lead isotope analyses of leachate and residue rock frac-
tions: Implications for metal source tracing in ore deposit studies: Mineral-
ium Deposita, v. 38, p. 185–195.
Chiaradia, M., Fontboté, L., and Beate, B., 2004, Cenozoic continental arc
magmatism and associated mineralization in Ecuador: Mineralium De-
posita, v. 39, p. 204–222.
Cohen, R.S., Evensen, N.M., Hamilton, P.J., and O’Nions, R.K., 1980, U-Pb,
Sm-Nd, and Rb-Sr systematics of mid-ocean ridge basalt glasses: Nature, v.
283, p. 149–153.
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 1104
Cosma, L., Lapierre, H., Jaillard, E., Laubacher, G., Bosch, D., Desmet,
A., Mamberti, M., and Gabriele, P., 1998, Pétrographie et géochimie
des unites de la Cordillère occidentale d’équateur (0°30 S): Implica-
tions tectoniques: Bulletin de la Société géologique de France, v. 169,
p. 739–751.
Curti, E., 1987, Lead and oxygen isotope evidence for the origin of the
Monte Rosa gold lode deposits (Western Alps, Italy): A comparison with
Archean lode deposits: ECONOMIC GEOLOGY, v. 82, p. 2115–2140.
Davidson, J.P., and de Silva, S.L., 1992. Volcanic rocks from the Bolivian Al-
tiplano: Insights into crustal structure, contamination, and magma genesis
in the Central Andes: Geology, v. 20, 1127–1130.
Feininger, T., 1987, Allochthonous terranes in the Andes of Ecuador and
northwestern Peru: Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, v. 24, p. 266–278.
Feininger, T., and Seguin, M.K., 1983, Simple Bouguer gravity anomaly field
and the inferred crustal structure of continental Ecuador: Geology, v. 11, p.
40–44.
Gendall, I.R., Quevedo, L.A., Sillitoe, R.H., Spencer, R.M., Puente, C.O.,
Leon, J.P., and Povedo, R.R., 2000, Discovery of a Jurassic porphyry cop-
per belt, Pangui area, southern Ecuador: Society of Economic Geologists
Newsletter, no. 43, p. 1, 8–15.
Goossens, P.J., 1972, Metallogeny in Ecuadorian Andes: ECONOMIC GEOL-
OGY, v. 67, p. 458–468.
Goossens, P.J., and Hollister, V.F., 1973, Structural control and hydrothermal
alteration pattern of Chaucha porphyry copper, Ecuador: Mineralium De-
posita, v. 8, p. 321–331.
Gunnesch, K.A., Baumann, A., and Gunnesch, M., 1990, Lead isotope varia-
tions across the central Peruvian Andes: ECONOMIC GEOLOGY, v. 85, p.
1384–1401.
Hawkesworth, C.J., Hammill, M., Gledhill, A.R., van Calsteren, P., and
Rogers, G., 1982, Isotope and trace element evidence for late-stage intra-
crustal melting in the High Andes: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v.
58, p. 240–254.
Hughes, R.A., and Pilatasig, L.F., 2002, Cretaceous and Tertiary terrane ac-
cretion in the Cordillera occidental of the Andes of Ecuador: Tectono-
physics, v. 345, p. 29–48.
Hungerbühler, D., Steinmann, M., Winkler, W., Seward, D., Egüez, A., Pe-
terson, D.E., Helg, U., and Hammer, C., 2002, Neogene stratigraphy and
Andean geodynamics of southern Ecuador: Earth Science Reviews, v. 57,
p. 75–124.
Jaillard, E., and Soler, P., 1996, Cretaceous to early Paleogene tectonic evo-
lution of the northern Central Andes (0°–18°) and its relations to geody-
namics: Tectonophysics, v. 259, p. 41–53.
Jaillard, E., Benítez, S., and Mascle, G.H., 1997, Les deformations
paléogènes de la zone d’avant-arc sud-équatorienne en relation avec l’évo-
lution géodynamique: Bulletin de la Societé Géologique de France, v. 4, p.
403–412.
James, D.E., 1982, A combined O, Sr, Nd, and Pb isotopic and trace element
study of crustal contamination in central Andean lavas, I. Local geochemi-
cal variations: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 57, p. 47–62.
Kamenov, G., Macfarlane, A.W., and Riciputi, L., 2002, Sources of lead in the
San Cristobal, Pulacayo, and Potosi mining districts, Bolivia, and reevalua-
tion of regional ore lead isotope provinces: ECONOMIC GEOLOGY, v. 97, p.
573–592.
Kennerley, J.B., 1973, Geology of Loja Province, southern Ecuador: London
Institute of Geological Sciences, Overseas Division, Report 23, 34 p.
Kontak, D.J., Cumming, G.L., Krstic, D., Clark, A.H., and Farrar, E., 1990,
Isotopic composition of lead in ore deposits of the Cordillera Oriental,
southeastern Peru: ECONOMIC GEOLOGY, v. 85, p. 1584–1603.
Lehne, R.W., 1990, The Cu-Zn-Au-Ag deposit of La Plata, Toachi, Ecuador:
Society for Geology Applied to Mineral Deposits, Special Publication 8, p.
389–393.
Litherland, M., and Aspden, J.A., 1992, Terrane-boundary reactivation: A
control on the evolution of the Northern Andes: Journal of South American
Sciences, v. 5, p. 71–76.
Litherland, M., Aspden, J.A., and Jemielita, R.A., 1994, The metamorphic
belts of Ecuador: Keyworth, U.K., British Geological Survey, Overseas
Memoir 11, 147 p.
Macfarlane, A.W., 1995, Linear arrays in Andean Pb isotope data and the
depth of mixing [abs.]: Geological Society of America annual meeting,
1995, Abstracts with Programs, v. 27, p. 410.
––––1999, Isotopic studies of Northern Andean crustal evolution and ore
metal sources: Society of Economic Geologists Special Publication 7, p.
195–217.
 LEAD ISOTOPES AND METALLOGENY OF ECUADOR
MacFarlane, A.W., and Petersen, U., 1990, Pb isotopes of the Hualgayoc
area, northern Peru: Implications for metal provenance and genesis of a
Cordilleran polymetallic mining district: ECONOMIC GEOLOGY, v. 85, p.
1303–1327.
Macfarlane, A.W., Marcet, P., LeHuray, A.P., and Petersen, U., 1990, Lead
isotope provinces of the Central Andes inferred from ores and crustal
rocks: ECONOMIC GEOLOGY, v. 85, p. 1857–1880.
Mamberti, M., Lapierre, H., Bosch, D., Jaillard, E., Ethien, R., Hernandez,
J., and Polvé, M., 2003, Accreted fragments of the Late Cretaceous
Caribbean-Colombian plateau in Ecuador: Lithos, v. 66, p. 173–199.
Mourier, T., Laj, C., Mégard, F., Roperch, P., Mitouard, P., and Farfan
Medrano, A., 1988, An accreted continental terrane in northwestern Peru:
Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 88, p. 182–192.
Mukasa, S.B., Vidal C., C.E., and Injoque-Espinoza, J., 1990, Pb isotope
bearing on the metallogenesis of sulfide ore deposits in central and south-
ern Peru: ECONOMIC GEOLOGY, v. 85, p. 1438–1446.
Mulshaw, S.C., Puig, C., Spiro, B., and Buchanan, D.L., 1997, Genesis of epi-
zonal Ag vein mineralization at San Bartolomé in central Ecuador: Textural
evidence: Fluid inclusions, and stable isotope geochemistry: ECONOMIC
GEOLOGY, v. 92, p. 210–227.
Paladines, A., and Rosero, G., 1996, Zonificación mineralogenica del
Ecuador: Quito, Ecuador, Laser Editores, 146 p.
Prodeminca, 2000a, Depositos epi-mesotermales en la cordillera Andina:
Evaluacion de distritos mineros del Ecuador, v. 2: Quito, Ecuador, Proyecto
de Desarollo Minero y Control Ambiental (Prodeminca), 200 p.
––––2000b, Sulfuros masivos alojados en volcanitas: Evaluacion de distritos
mineros del Ecuador, v. 3: Quito, Ecuador, Proyecto de Desarollo Minero
y Control Ambiental (Prodeminca), 172 p.
––––2000c, Depositos porfidicos y epi-mesotermales relacionados con intru-
siones de las cordilleras Occiental y Real: Evaluacion de distritos mineros
del Ecuador, v. 4: Quito, Ecuador, Proyecto de Desarollo Minero y Control
Ambiental (Prodeminca), 316 p.
––––2000d, Depositos porfidicos y epi-mesotermales relacionados con intru-
siones de la Cordillera El Condor: Evaluacion de distritos mineros del
Ecuador, v. 5: Quito, Ecuador, Proyecto de Desarollo Minero y Control
Ambiental (Prodeminca), 223 p.
Puig, A., 1988, Geologic and metallogenic significance of the isotopic com-
position of lead in galenas of the Chilean Andes: ECONOMIC GEOLOGY, v.
83, p. 843–858.
Reynaud, C., Jaillard, E., LaPierre, H., Mamberti, M., and Mascle, G.H.,
1999, Oceanic plateau and island arcs of southwestern Ecuador: Their
place in the geodynamic evolution of northwestern South America:
Tectonophysics, v. 307, p. 235–254.
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 1105
1105
Sillitoe, R.H., and Hart, S.R., 1984, Lead-isotopic signatures of porphyry
copper deposits in oceanic and continental settings, Colombian Andes:
Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 48, p. 2135–2142.
Spencer, R.M., Montenegro, J.L., Gaibor, A., Perez, E.P., Mantilla, G., Viera,
F., and Spencer, C.E., 2002, The Portovelo-Zaruma Mining Camp, SW
Ecuador: Porphyry and epithermal environments: Society of Economic
Geologists Newsletter, no. 49, p. 1, 8–14.
Stoll, W.C., 1962, Notes on the mineral resources of Ecuador: ECONOMIC
GEOLOGY, v. 57, p. 799–808.
Sun, S-S., 1980, Lead isotopic study of young volcanic rocks from mid-ocean
ridges, ocean islands, and island arcs: Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society of London, v. A297, p. 409–445.
Tera, F., Brown, L., Morris, J., and Sacks, I.S., 1986, Sediment incorporation
in island-arc magmas: Inferences from 10Be: Geochimica et Cosmochimica
Acta, v. 50, p. 535–550.
Tosdal, R.M., and Munizaga, F., 2003, Lead sources in Mesozoic and Ceno-
zoic Andean ore deposits, north-central Chile (30°–34° S): Mineralium De-
posita, v. 38, p. 234–250.
Tosdal, R.M., and Richards, J.P., 2001, Magmatic and structural controls on
the development of porphyry Cu ± Mo ± Au deposits: Reviews in Eco-
nomic Geology, v. 14, p. 157–181.
Tosdal, R.M., Wooden, J.L., and Bouse, R., 1999, Pb isotopes, ore deposits,
and metallogenic terranes: Reviews in Economic Geology, v. 12, p. 1–28.
Unruh, D.M., and Tatsumoto, M., 1976, Lead isotopic composition and ura-
nium, thorium, and lead concentrations in sediments and basalts from the
Nazca plate: Deep Sea Drilling Project Initial Reports, v. 34, p. 341–347.
Vallance, J., Markowski, A., Fontboté, L., and Chiaradia, M., 2003, Miner-
alogical and fluid inclusion constraints on the genesis of gold-skarn deposits
in the Nambija district (Ecuador), in Eliopoulos, D., et al., eds., Mineral ex-
ploration and sustainable development: Rotterdam, Millpress, p. 399–402.
van Thournout, F., Hertogen, J., and Quevado, L., 1992, Allochthonous ter-
ranes in northwestern Ecuador: Tectonophysics, v. 205, p. 205–221.
van Thournout, F., Salemink, J., Valenzuela, G., Merlyn, M., Boven, A., and
Muchez, P., 1996, Portovelo: A volcanic-hosted epithermal vein-system in
Ecuador, South America: Mineralium Deposita, v. 31, p. 269–276.
Wörner, G., Moorbath, S., and Harmon, R.S., 1992, Andean Cenozoic vol-
canic centres reflect basement isotopic domains: Geology, v. 20, p.
1103–1106.
Zartman, R.E., and Doe, B.R., 1981, Plumbotectonics––the model: Tectono-
physics, v. 75, p. 135–162.
Zindler, A., and Hart, S., 1986, Chemical geodynamics: Annual Reviews of
Earth and Planetary Sciences, v. 14, p. 493–571.
1106 CHIARADIA ET AL.
APPENDIX
Analytical Method
Rock powders and silicate minerals were subjected to a
strong acid leaching (i.e., ≥36 h at 180°C in screw-sealed, 20-
ml Teflon beakers using a mixture of 3.5 ml of 7M HCl and
1.5 ml of 14M HNO3). The residual fractions were rinsed
twice with deionized water and digested in sealed Teflon
beakers using a mixture of concentrated HNO3 and HF for
≥48 h at 180°C. The strong leaching removes the most solu-
ble rock mineral fraction, which is composed mainly of hy-
drothermal minerals such as carbonates and sulfides. Lead re-
placing potassium at labile lattice sites in sheet silicates is also
likely removed by this strong leaching (Chiaradia and Font-
boté, 2003). The Pb left in the residual rock fraction repre-
sents the common lead incorporated by the rock at the time
of its formation, plus radiogenic lead of zircons, which are re-
sistant to the leaching attack (Chiaradia and Fontboté, 2003).
Usually, in feldspar-rich rocks, including most high-grade
metamorphic rocks and most magmatic rocks, the propor-
tions of radiogenic lead from zircons are small compared to
the common lead. In contrast, in feldspar-poor, low-grade
metasedimentary rocks, which contain most of the common
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 1106
lead in the leachable fraction and may contain abundant de-
trital zircon, and sometimes in mafic rocks, the radiogenic zir-
con component may be measurable (Chiaradia and Fontboté,
2003).
Ores were dissolved in sealed Teflon beakers at 180°C with
a 1/1 mixture of 7M HCl and 14M HNO3.
Rock and ore lead was purified by chromatography with
AG1-X8 and AG-MP1 resins in hydrobromic medium or by
electrodeposition (galena). Fractions of the purified lead
were loaded onto rhenium filaments using the silica gel tech-
nique, and lead isotope compositions were measured on a
Finnigan MAT 262 mass spectrometer at the Department of
Mineralogy of Geneva (Switzerland). Lead isotope composi-
tions were corrected for fractionation by a 0.08 percent amu
correction factor based on more than 100 analyses of the
SRM981 international standard. The analytical uncertainties
(2σ) are 0.05 percent for 206Pb/204Pb, 0.08 percent for
207
Pb/204Pb, and 0.10 percent for 208Pb/204Pb. Procedural
blanks ranged between 70 and 120 pg Pb.