Physiology & Behavior, Vol. 50, pp. 543-548. ©Pergamon Press plc, 1991. Printed in the U.S.A.

0031-9384/91 $3.00 + .00

Effect of Buddhist Meditation on Serum Cortisol

and Total Protein Levels, Blood Pressure,
Pulse Rate, Lung Volume and Reaction Time

RATREE SUDSUANG, VILAI CHENTANEZ AND KONGDEJ VELUVAN

Department o f Physiology and Anatomy, Faculty o f Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand

R e c e i v e d 16 N o v e m b e r 1990

SUDSUANG, R., V. CHENTANEZ AND K. VELUVAN. Effect of Buddhist meditation on serum cortisol and total protein
levels, blood pressure, pulse rate, lung volume and reaction time. PHYSIOL BEHAV 50(3) 543-548, 1991.--Serum cortisol and
total protein levels, blood pressure, heart rate, lung volume, and reaction time were studied in 52 males 20-25 years of age
practicing Dhammakaya Buddhist meditation, and in 30 males of the same age group not practicing meditation. It was found that
after meditation, serum cortisol levels were significantly reduced, serum total protein level significantly increased, and systolic
pressure, diastolic pressure and pulse rate significantly reduced. Vital capacity, tidal volume and maximal voluntary ventilation
were significantly lower after meditation than before. There were also significant decreases in reaction time after meditation prac-
tice. The percentage decrease in reaction time during meditation was 22%, while in subjects untrained in meditation, the percent-
age decrease was only 7%. Results from these studies indicate that practising Dhammakaya Buddhist meditation produces
biochemical and physiological changes and reduces the reaction time.

Buddhist meditation Serum cortisol Total protein Blood pressure Pulse rate Reaction time

DURING the practice of various techniques of meditation, ex-
pert Zen monks may show a decrease in rate of respiration, ox-
ygen consumption, and spontaneous galvanic skin response (GSR),
and their pulse rate and blood pH increase slightly (18). In a
study by Anand et al. (1), the electroencephalogram of yogis
during meditation showed an increase in alpha-wave amplitude
and activity, and in a few of the yogis studied, there was a loss
of the alpha blocking response to all external simuli.
Wallace (20) has found that during transcendental meditation,
oxygen consumption and heart rate decrease, skin resistance in-
creases, and the electroencephalogram may show specific changes
in certain subjects (20). There was a report of breathing suspen-
sion during this technique, which indicated a possible physiogi-
cal correlate of some episodes of the "pure consciousness"
experience (24). Werner et al. (23) reported long-term endoeri-
nologic changes in thyroid stimulating hormone, thyroid hor-
mone, growth hormone, prolactin and cortisol in subjects practicing
transcendental meditation.
Buddhist meditational practice is different from that of other
schools. The aim of the practice is Right Concentration (samma-
samadhi). It has been developed into two methods: Samadhi and
Vipassana. Samadhi meditation consists of achieving the utmost
concentration of thought upon a given subject of salutary nature,
and then raising one's conception of the subject to an abstrac-
tion. In this form of meditation, consciousness is raised from a
lower to a higher plane with the elimination of its inferior ten-
dencies (19). Dhammakaya is one of various methods of Samad-
hi meditation. This method signifies the concentration of the
mind and thoughts upon a round clear glass ball object, free
from all traces of wavering and distraction. After practicing for
a period of time, the meditator becomes serene and his mind
mounts to actual concentration (19). In transcendental medita-
tion, a person allows his mind to experience a relaxed and en-
joyable state, which draws his attention inward. He experiences
quiet levels of the mind in which he becomes increasingly aware
of the unbounded nature of his awareness in the absence of ob-
ject, which is termed pure awareness (5). In doing Zen training,
the student engages in a practice such as counting his or her
breaths or working on a koan. He may also reach a state in
which the normal, logical, or sequential activity of conscious-
ness is arrested, yet the mind is still very much active with
whatever it is concentrating on (12). In a comparison between
these three methods of training, Buddhist meditation is more
similar to Zen than to transcendental meditation.
In this study, we investigated the effects of Dhammakaya
meditation on serum cortisol and total protein levels, blood
pressure, pulse rate, lung volume, and reaction time. The results
from this study could demonstrate the effect of Buddhist medita-
tion on physiological changes, and the possibility of applying
Buddhist meditation to reducing anxiety, and of using methods
similar to transcendental meditation to treat hypertension or
asthma.
METHOD
The experimental subjects consisted of 52 male college Thai
students 20-25 years of age, who had never practiced medita-
tion before joining the Dhammadayada program. This program
aimed to teach Dhammakaya meditation to college students for

543
544 SUDSUANG, CHENTANEZ AND VELUVAN

"FABLE 1
EFFECTS OF BUDDHIST MEDITATION ON SERUM CORTISOL LEVEL (ixg%*)

Before After 3 Weeks After 6 Weeks

Groups Meditation Meditation p Value Meditation p Value

Expt. Gr. A 12.33 +_ 2.82 9.02 _+ 1.31 <0.01 9.31 +_ 1.79 <0.01
(n = 15)
Expt. Gr. B 10.54 _+ 2.37 9.51 _+ 1.96 <0.01 10.40 _+ 2.04 NS
(n=27)
Expt. Gr. A + B 11.43 -- 2.59 9.26 _+ 1.63 <0.01 9.85 _ 1.91 <0.01
(n = 52)
Control group 11.39 +- 1.64 11.34 -+ 1.69 NS 11.43 +_ 1.39 NS
(n = 30)
Comparison between NS <0.01 <0.0l
Expt. Gr. A + B
and control
(p value)

*Values are expressed as mean -+ SD.

NS = not significant.

2 months during the summer vacation. All the subjects had to
stay in the monastery as the monks, and had no other activities
except walking for about 1 km to receive food from people in
the morning. The control group included 30 males who were
nonmeditating college students of the same age. This group
stayed at home for summer vacation, and no special religious
activities were performed.
Serum cortisol level was examined by using a Gammacoat
TM (1251) cortisol radioimmunoassay kit (Clinical Assay Divi-
sion of Laboratories Inc.) (25). Serum total protein level was
assayed by the Biuret method (11,15). Blood pressure of sub-
jects in a sitting position was recorded by a standard mercury
sphygmomanometer. Radial pulse was determined for pulse rate.
An Autospiro AS-500 was used to measure vital capacity (VC),
tidal volume (TV), inspiratory reserve volume (IRV), expiratory
reserve volume (ERV) and maximal voluntary ventilation (MVV).
Reaction time was recorded with a visual choice reaction time
machine.
The measurements were performed before the meditation
program began, at 3 weeks and at 6 weeks into the program.
During the first 3 weeks after joining the program, the subjects
practiced meditation for 4 hours a day. In the last 3 weeks of
the program, they practiced 2 hours a day. Blood samples were
collected between 9:30 and 10:00 a.m. and other parameters
were measured between 9:30 and 10:00 a.m., just after they had
finished practicing for 1 hour in the morning.
Subjects were asked to complete a questionnaire 3 weeks af-
ter the start of the program. The purpose of the questionnaire
was to obtain information about the feelings of the subjects dur-
ing meditation and to classify the subjects.
The parameters obtained before and after the meditational
program were compared by using Student's t-test. The control
group was compared with the experimental group in the same
statistical test.
evaluated separately as well as together.
Effects of Meditation on Serum Cortisol Level (Table 1)
In nonmeditators (control group), serum cortisol did not dif-
fer significantly betwen the 3 times of measurement 3 weeks
apart. In experimental groups A and B, serum cortisol showed a
significant decrease (p<0.001) after the first 3 weeks of medita-
tion. After 6 weeks, the serum cortisol increased somewhat from
the first 3 weeks, but in group A it was still significantly lower
than before meditation (p<0.01). Serum cortisol in group B af-
ter 6 weeks was not significantly different from before medita-
tion. The experimental group as a whole revealed a significant
decrease in serum cortisol after meditation at both 3 weeks and
6 weeks.
Effects of Meditation on Serum Total Protein (Table 2)
In nonmeditators (control group), the serum total protein did
not significantly differ between the 3 measurements. In both
meditator groups, the serum protein after 3 weeks showed no
significant difference from before practice, but after 6 weeks the
serum total protein level in Group A exhibited a significant in-
crease from before meditation (p<0.05).
Effects of Meditation on Blood Pressure (Table 3)
In both groups of meditators, systolic blood pressure and di-
astolic blood pressure decreased significantly after 3 weeks
(p<0.01). The control subjects showed no decline. After 6
weeks of practice, blood pressure in group A only was signifi-
cantly lower (p<0.01). In group B, blood pressure was higher
than it was at 3 weeks, but still significantly lower than its ini-
tial value before practice (p<0.05).

RESULTS Effects of Meditation on Pulse Rate (Table 4)

On the basis of the questionnaires, the experimental group
was divided into two categories before analysis of the data:
group A, who were able to meditate successfully each time and
achieve a state of ~anquility, and group B, who were not able
to achieve this consistently. The responses of the groups were
Both experimental groups illustrated a significant decrease in
pulse rate after meditation (p<0.01 in group A and p < 0 . 0 5 in
group B) compared with before practice and with that of non-
meditators. In nonmeditators, there was no change in pulse rate
in 3 measurements.
PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF MEDITATION 545

TABLE 2
EFFECTS OF BUDDHIST MEDITATION ON SERUM TOTAL PROTEIN (g%*)

Before After 3 Weeks After 6 Weeks

Groups Meditation Meditation p Value Meditation p Value

Expt. Gr. A 7.69 ± 0.98 8.17 -+ 1.19 NS 8.43 --- 0.54 <0.05
(n = 15)
Expt. Gr. B 7.75 +-- 0.95 7.87 +-- 1.08 NS 7.9 - 0.95 NS
(n = 37)
Expt. Gr. A + B 7.72 --- 0.96 8.02 --- 1.13 NS 8.16 --- 0.74 <1.01
(n = 52)
Control group 7.75 - 0.77 7.79 --- 0.43 NS 7.72 _+ 0.83 NS
(n = 30)
Comparison NS NS <0.05
between Gr. A + B
and control
(p value)

*Values are expressed as mean - SD.

NS = not significant.

Effects of Meditation on Pulmonary Ventilation Volume
(Table 5)
Vital capacity, tidal v o l u m e and m a x i m a l voluntary ventila-
tion in all e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p s were significantly lower after
practicing meditation than before ( p < 0 . 0 5 ) . T h e inspiratory and
expiratory reserve v o l u m e s were not c h a n g e d , h o w e v e r .
T h e percentage decrease in reaction time w a s largest in experi-
mental g r o u p A (19% after 3 w e e k s a n d 23% after 6 weeks). In
experimental G r o u p B, the percentage decrease (13% after 3
w e e k s and 20% after 6 weeks) w a s greater than o f the control
group. In the control group, the percentage decrease w a s 5% af-
ter 3 w e e k s and 7% after 6 weeks.

Effects of Meditation on Reaction Time (Table 6) DISCUSSION

Both the control group a n d the e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p s exhibited
significant d e c r e a s e s in reaction time after 3 w e e k s and 6 weeks. T h e results o f the present study indicate that B u d d h i s t medi-

TABLE 3
EFFECTS OF BUDDHIST MEDITATION ON SYSTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE AND DIASTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE (mmHg*)

Before After 3 Weeks After 6 Weeks

Groups Meditation Meditation p Value Meditation p Value

Expt. Gr. A 111.33 ± 8.33 103.73 --+ 8.97 <0.01 104.66 --- 10.06 <0.01
Systolic BP.
Diastolic BP. 73.33 _+ 6.17 64.0 ± 8.28 <0.01 64.33 • 6.39 <0.01
(n = 15)
Expt. Gr. B 116.72 --+ 9.50 107.83 __. 10.03 <0.01 113.78 - 12.50 <0.05
Systolic BP.
Diastolic BP. 74.59 _ 8.02 66.48 --- 10.59 <0.01 70.27 ___ 9.27 <0.05
(n = 37)
Epr. Gr. A + B 114.02 --- 8.91 105.78 ___ 9.50 <0.01 109.22 _ 11.55 <0.01
Systolic BP.
Diastolic BP. 73.96 --- 7.09 65.24 ± 9.43 <0.01 67.80 - 7.83 <0.01
(n = 52)
Control 115.16 - 12.14 117.10 _ 9.78 NS 116.83 __. 7.93 NS
Systolic BP.
Diastolic BP. 75.66 _+ 7.73 75.66 + 7.73 NS 76.33 ± 6.68 NS
(n = 30)
Comparison between
Expt. Gr. A + B and
control (p value)
Systolic BP. NS <0.01 <0.01
Diastolic BP. NS <0.01 <0.01
*Values are expressed as mean ___ SD.
NS = not significant.
546 SUDSUANG, CHENTANEZ AND VELUVAN

TABLE 4
EFFECTS OF BUDDHIST MEDITATION ON HEART RATE (BEATS/MIN*)

Before After 3 Weeks Alter 6 Weeks

Groups Meditation Meditation p Value Meditation p Value

Expt. Gr. A 83.69 -+ 11.29 72.13 _~ 6.52 <0.01 74.8 ± 9.15 <0.01
(n = 15)
Expt. Gr. B 80.75 -+ 6.98 75.13 -+ 9.15 <0.05 76.16 ± 8.63 <0.05
(n=37)
Expt. Gr. A + B 82.17 -+ 9.13 73.63 -+ 7.83 <0.01 75.45 ± 8.89 <0.01
(n=52)
Control group 80.26 -+ 5.24 80.06 ± 4.40 NS 80.73 -+ 7.72 NS
(n = 30)
Comparison between NS <0.01 <0.05
between Gr. A + B
and control (p value)

*Values are expressed as mean _+ SD.

NS = not significant.

tational practice produces reductions in serum cortisol level,
blood pressure, pulse rate, vital capacity, tidal volume, maximal
voluntary ventilation and reaction time. The serum total protein
level increased after 6 weeks of meditation. The cortisol level
has been proposed to be an index of stress in physiology (16).
Therefore, Buddhist meditation may reduce some stress in a way
similar to transcendental meditation (21). In experimental group
A, the subjects claimed that they were in a state of tranquility
every time during their practice, and in this group the serum
cortisol showed the lowest levels. In experimental group B, who
were able to encounter the state of tranquility some times but
not every time, the serum cortisol decreased after 3 weeks of
practice, but increased somewhat after 6 weeks of practice (Ta-
ble 1). This rise could be due to shortening of the period of
practice from 4 hours to 2 hours a day. It has been suggested
that discontinuous practice or reduction of the period of practice
can reverse the state of tranquility of the mind (19).
Experimental group A had elevated serum total protein after
6 weeks of meditation (Table 2). Sitprija and Suvanpha (17)
studied chronic renal failure in Buddhist monks and found that
the monks who practiced meditation were not in the state of se-
vere uremia during the 3 year period of study. This suggests that
meditational practice might have reduced protein metabolism,
which in turn reduced uremia. The cortisol reduction during
meditational practice may be related to an increase in total pro-
tein because of reduction of gluconeogenesis and increased total
protein synthesis by the liver (8).
Blood pressure and pulse rate decreased significantly after
meditation practice (Tables 3 and 4). The tranquility during
practice may have been responsible for a decrease in autonomic
function and reduced blood pressure and pulse rate. Studies of
transcendental meditation or other kinds of meditation have
shown similar effects on pulse rate (18, 20, 21) and blood pres-
sure (3, 6, 22). A decrease in blood pressure can occur in hy-
pertensive subjects who practice meditation (2). Hafner (9) reported
that meditation plus biofeedback-aided relaxation produced a fall
in diastolic blood pressure earlier in the training program than
did meditation alone.
The reduction of lung volume in this study probably indicates
a lower need for oxygen by the body. However, the reduced
values were still within normal limits. Wallace and Benson (21)
reported decreases in respiratory rates and oxygen consumption
during transcendental meditation. The data of Pellitier and Garfield
(14) showed a 3-fold decrease of metabolic rate during medita-
tion. Wolkove et al. (24) suggested that the decrease in minute
ventilation during transcendental meditation was due to a de-
crease in tidal volume resulting from a shortened inspiratory
time. Oxygen consumption and metabolic rate should be studied

TABLE 5
EFFECTS OF BUDDHIST MEDITATION (EXPT. GR. A + B) ON PULMONARY VENTILATIONVOLUME (LITRES*) (n = 12)

Ventilation Before After 3 Weeks After 6 Weeks

Volume Meditation Meditation p Value Meditation p Value

Vital capacity 3.76 ± 0.48 3.38 + 0.65 <0.05 3.29 + 0.58 <0.05
Tidal volume 1.25 - 0.82 1.03 ± 0.60 <0.05 0.99 ± 0.79 <0.05
Inspiratory 1.33 ± 0.54 1.28 ± 0.70 NS 1.35 --- 0.67 NS
reserve volume
Expiratory 1.06 --- 0.42 1.08 - 0.44 NS 0.95 ± 0.58 NS
reserve volume
Maximal voluntary 127.79 ± 29.4 119.06 ± 30.95 <0.05 121.0 +__ 28.3 <0.05
ventilation
*Values are expressed as mean -+ SD.
NS = not significant.
PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF MEDITATION 547

TABLE 6
EFFECT OF BUDDHIST MEDITATION ON REACTION TIME (MS)*

Before After 3 Weeks % After 6 Weeks %

Groups Meditation Meditation Decrease p Value Meditation Decrease p Value

Expt. Gr. A 236.87 --- 29.12 191.12 --- 49.58 19 0.01 180.75 --- 32.65 23 0.01
(n = 8)
Expt. Gr. B 244.31 ± 37.39 210.06 --- 42.66 13 0.01 194.75 - 38.33 20 0.01
(n = 32)
Expt. Gr. A + B 240.59 - 33.25 200.59 _-. 46.12 16 0.01 187.57 --. 35.49 22 0.01
(n = 40)
Control 255.33 -4- 30.93 241.55 +-- 37.79 5 0.01 237.73 --- 41.62 7 0.01
(n = 30)
Comparison NS <0.01 -- -- <0.01 -- --
between Expt.
Gr. A + B and
control (P value)

*Value are expressed as mean ± SD.

NS = not significant.

further in Buddhist meditation to clarify the effects on respira-
tory action.
The reaction time in experimental group A was 23% lower
than that measured before practice (Table 6). This may indicate
that nerve conduction velocity in the visual reaction circuit is
increased after meditation. Orme-Johnson (13) reported that peo-
ple practicing the transcendental meditation technique had faster
reactions after a period of meditation than after a period of rest.
The reduction of reaction time could be due to a variety of fac-
tors, such as closer attention, reduced anxiety and excitement,
and appropriate arousal. Hebb (10) claims that psychomotor per-
formance is low at both extremes of the arousal continuum, i.e.,
in situations of boredom or sleepiness and in situations of hy-
perstimulation or overly strong environmental demands. The re-
duction in reaction time in our control group (7%) may have
been due to the repetition of performance or training: the reduc-
tion in the experimental groups was therefore not entirely due to
effects of meditation practice.
The present study shows that Dhammakaya meditation pro-
duces effects similar to Zen or transcendental meditation. In our
study, however, the timing of measurements was different from
other studies in that we measured variables before learning and
after practicing the technique. In other studies (1, 18, 20), mea-
surements were taken during practice and compared with those
taken before and after practice. These studies also used subjects
who were experts with years of practice. In our experiment, we
started with subjects who had never practiced before, and then
practiced only a short period of 4 - 8 weeks. We are unable to
verify if the different techniques of meditation produce similar
physiological measurements because they produce the same state
of tranquility in the subjects. However, a recent report (4) on
Tibetan Buddhist monks using advanced Buddhist meditation
techniques suggested that such meditative practices may yield
different alterations in metabolism (there are forms of medita-
tion that increase metabolism). The mechanisms involved in
producing these effects remain unclear and invite further investi-
gation.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are grateful to Dr. Warren Y. Brookelman for reading the manu-
script and giving us helpful advice, and also to Mr. Maethee Visutthi-
varn for his secretarial help. This work was supported by Rajadaphisek
Sombodhi Grant, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University.

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