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RESEARCH MEANING:
Research is a systematic process of collecting and analyzing information in order to increase our
understanding of the topic. Research is the search of knowledge. Research is an investigation.Research
methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem. It is a science of studying how
research is done scientifically. Research can be defined as the search for knowledge through objective
and systematic method of finding solution to a problem.The systematic approach concerning
generalization and the formulation of a theory is also research.
Definition of research:
Research is defined as “the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of
generalizing to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in construction
of theory or in the practice of an art.”
D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson
1. The role of research in several fields of applied economics, whether related to business or to the
economy as a whole, has greatly increased in modern times.
2. Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic system.
3. Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning problems of
business and industry
4. Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social relationships and in seeking
answers to various social problems.
5. Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social relationships and in seeking
answers to various social problems.
OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific
procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been
discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think of research
objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupings:
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with this
object in view are termed as exploratory or formulate research studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group
(studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated
with something else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research studies);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as
hypothesis-testing research studies
All other types of research are variations of one or more of the above stated approaches, based on either
the purpose of research, or the time required to accomplish research, on the environment in which research
is done, or on the basis of some other similar factor.
1. From the point of view of time, we can think of research either as one-time research or longitudinal
research. In the former case the research is confined to a single time-period, whereas in the latter
case the research is carried on over several time-periods.
2. Research can be field-setting research or laboratory research or simulation research, depending
upon the environment in which it is to be carried out.
3. Research can as well be understood as clinical or diagnostic research. Such research follow case-
study methods or indepth approaches to reach the basic causal relations. Such studies usually go
deep into the causes of things or events that interest us, using very small samples and very deep
probing data gathering devices.
4. The research may be exploratory or it may be formalized. The objective of exploratory research is
the development of hypotheses rather than their testing, whereas formalized research studies are
those with substantial structure and with specific hypotheses to be tested. Historical research is that
which utilizes historical sources like documents, remains, etc. to study events or ideas of the past,
including the philosophy of persons and groups at any remote point of time.
5. Research can also be classified as conclusion-oriented and decision-oriented. While doing
conclusion oriented research, a researcher is free to pick up a problem, redesign the enquiry as he
proceeds and is prepared to conceptualize as he wishes. Decision-oriented research is always for
the need of a decision maker and the researcher in this case is not free to embark upon research
according to his own inclination.
6. Operations research is an example of decision oriented research since it is a scientific method of
providing executive departments with a quantitative basis for decisions regarding operations under
their control.
RESEARCH APPROACHES
There are two basic approaches to research,
1. Quantitative Approach
TYPES OF RESEARCH
I. On the basis of application
1. Pure research (also called as fundamental or basis research)
It is a type of research conducted for a problem that has not been clearly defined. The exploratory
research helps determine the best research design, data collection method and selection of subjects.The
results of exploratory research are not usually useful for decision-making by themselves, but they can
provide significant insight into a given situation. The exploratory research is not typically
generalizable to the population at large.The exploratory research can be quite informal, relying on
secondary research such as reviewing available literature and/or data like informal discussions with
consumers, employees, management, case studies or pilot studies etc.
2. Conclusive research
Conclusive research is meant to provide information that is useful in reaching conclusions or decision-
making. It tends to be quantitative in nature, that is to say in the form of numbers that can be
quantified and summarized. It relies on both secondary data, particularly existing databases that are
reanalysed to shed light on a different problem and primary data.
2.a. Descriptive research
Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds. The major purpose
of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present.
2. Empirical research
Empirical research relies on experience and observation alone, often without due regard for system
and theory. It is a data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of being
verified by observation or experiment. In empirical research, the researcher must first provide
himself with a working hypothesis or guess as to the probable results. He then works to get enough
facts (data) to prove or disprove his hypothesis.
Cross-sectional research studies are based on observations that take place in different groups at one
time. This means there is no experimental procedure, so no variables are manipulated by the
researcher. Instead of performing an experiment, the researcher would simply record the information
that she/he observe in the groups they are examining.
Economic Forecasting
Sales Forecasting
Budgetary Analysis
Stock Market Analysis
Yield Projections
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Process and Quality Control
Inventory Studies
Workload Projections
Utility Studies
Census Analysis
b. Panel study
A panel usually involves a somewhat random sample of subjects.Panel studies are a particular design
of longitudinal study in which the unit of analysis is followed at specified intervals over a long period,
often many years. The key feature of panel studies is that they collect repeated measures from the same
sample at different points in time. Most panel studies are designed for quantitative analysis and use
structured survey data.Panel (data) analysis is a statistical method, widely used in social
science, epidemiology, and econometrics, which deals with two and "n"-dimensional (in and by the -
cross sectional/times series time)panel data.[1] The data are usually collected over time and over the
same individuals and then a regression is run over these two dimensions.
c. Cohort study
Cohort study observes subjects in a similar group based on region, age, or common experiences.
A cohort is a group of people who share a common characteristic or experience within a defined
period. Prospective cohort studies re-investigate groups of people who share some social characteristic.
Cohort study takes its name from two intellectual traditions.Cohort studies are observational in design
and are generally concerned with information regarding the prevalence distribution and inter-
relationship of variables in a population. They are also used to identify risk factors and to collect
information to describe the natural history or progression of disease. Cohort studies provide a wealth
of valuable information about population health- which informs the planning and implementation of
health policy. Cohort designs are thus ideal for many of the health-related areas that interest nursing
and midwifery researcher.An algorithm is a well-defined sequence of steps to solve a problem of
interest in industry, business and government.
Algorithmic Research Report:
This type of research provides well defined sequence of steps to solve organizational problems; it may
be government business or any industry. These problems can be polynomial or combinatorial.
Combinatorial problems are those problems which take the exponential form of volume and time
Models are developed and used to help us (scientists, engineers, decision makers) to understand and
communicate about a system of interest with the ultimate aim of bringing a positive change to how a
system is built and/or managed. By definition, models are inherently wrong. First, they are and must be
a simplified representation of the modelled system. To be useful, models need to provide a
cognitively-mediated environment to explain the systemic behaviour. If a model keeps growing in
complexity, it will be difficult to understand and use. Yet, in many applications, large models are
inevitable to support system understanding, and decision making at the appropriate and acceptable
level of detail This has been long recognized as the 'modelling paradox' (Bonini, 1963). Second,
models are limited to the collective cognitive complexity of the "mental models" of those involved in
model development. Our mental models (another type of models) are a flawed, incomplete, and
sometimes inconsistent, representation especially of dynamic and complex systems (Rouse and Morris,
1986). These challenges are escalated on using models in deep uncertainty situations where
stakeholders do not know or cannot agree on the system structure, future scenarios, and model
parameters (Kwakkel and Pruyt, 2013).
TYPES OF MODELS:
Symbolic model
Symbolic model is representation of the performance measure of the system of interest in terms of its
variables. This means that the attributes of a system are related by an equation. Regression equation is
an example of a symbolic model
Mathematical model
Mathematical model are mainly operations research models which are aimed to solve complex real life
problems arising in the direction and management of large systems of men , machines, materials and
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money in the industry, business and government . Some examples of mathematical models are linear
programming models, tgransportation models, assignment models , inventory models , replacement
models , goal programming models , parametric programming models, quadratic programming
models , change constrained programming models, separable programming models etc
Simulation model:
Simulation models is an experiment conducted over a real life stochastic system in a scaled time frame
to extract as many average operational statistics as possible to formicate respective decision guidelines
at all the levels of management , industry , business or government . the simulation model can be either
continuous of discrete.
RESEARCH PROCESS
Research process consists of series of actions or steps to effectively carry out research and the desired
sequencing of these steps. The following order concerning various steps provides a useful procedural
guideline regarding the research process:
Analysis of data;
Hypothesis testing;
The first and foremost stage in the research process is to select and properly define the research
problem. A researcher should first identify a problem and formulate it, so as to make it amenable or
susceptible to research. In general, a research problem refers to an unanswered question that a
The formulation of a general topic into a specific research problem, thus, constitutes the first step in a
scientific enquiry. Essentially two steps are involved in formulating the research problem
The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with one’s own colleagues or with
those having some expertise in the matter.
In an academic institution the researcher can seek the help from a guide who is usually an
experienced man and has several research problems in mind. Often, the guide puts forth the
problem in general terms and it is up to the researcher to narrow down and phrase the problem
in operational terms.
In private business units or in governmental organizations, the problem is usually earmarked by
the administrative agencies with whom the researcher can discuss as to how the problem
originally came about and what considerations are involved in its possible solutions.
The researcher must at the same time examine all available literature to get himself acquainted
with the selected problem. The basic outcome of reviewing literature will be to enhance
knowledge as to what data and other materials are available for operational purposes which will
enable the researcher to specify his own research problem in a meaningful context.
After understanding the problem the researcher rephrases the problem into analytical or operational
terms i.e., to put the problem in as specific terms as possible. This task of formulating, or defining, a
research problem is a step of greatest importance in the entire research process. The problem to be
investigated must be defined unambiguously for that will help discriminating
relevant data from irrelevant ones. Care must, however, be taken to verify the objectivity and validity
of the background facts concerning the problem.
Professor W.A. Neiswanger correctly states that, the statement of the objective is of basic importance
because it determines the data which are to be collected, the characteristics of the data which are
relevant, relations which are to be explored, the choice of techniques to be used in these explorations
and the form of the final report.
Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should be written down. At this juncture the
researcher should undertake extensive literature survey connected with the problem. For this purpose,
the abstracting and indexing journals and published or unpublished bibliographies are the first place to
go to. Academic journals, conference proceedings, government reports, books etc., must be tapped
depending on the nature of the problem. In this process, it should be remembered that one source will
lead to another. The earlier studies, if any, which are similar to
the study in hand should be carefully studied. A good library will be a great help to the researcher at
this stage.
3. Development of hypotheses:
A good research design often possesses the qualities of being flexible, suitable, efficient, economical
and so on. Generally, a research design which minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data
collected and analysed is considered a good design (Kothari 1988). A research design which does not
allow even the smallest experimental error is said to be the best design for investigation. Further, a
research design that yields maximum information and provides an opportunity of viewing the various
dimensions of a research problem is considered to be the most appropriate and efficient design. Thus,
the question of a good design relates to the purpose or objective and nature of the research problem
studied. While a research design may be good, it may not be equally suitable to all studies. In other
words, it may be lacking in one aspect or the other in the case of some other research problems.
Therefore, no single research design can be applied to all types of research problems.
A research design suitable for a specific research problem would usually involve the following
considerations:
i. The methods of gathering the information;
ii. The skills and availability of the researcher and his/her staff, if any;
iii. The objectives of the research problem being studied;
iv. The nature of the research problem being studied; and
v. The available monetary support and duration of time for the research work.
Research purposes may be grouped into four categories, viz.,
1. Exploration,
The Exploratory Research Design is known as formulative research design. The main objective of
using such a research design is to formulate a research problem for an in-depth or more precise
investigation, or for developing a working hypothesis from an operational aspect. The major purpose
of such studies is the discovery of ideas and insights. Therefore, such a research design suitable for
such a study should be flexible enough to provide opportunity for considering different dimensions of
the problem under study. The in-built flexibility in research design is required as the initial research
problem would be transformed into a more precise one in the exploratory study, which in turn may
necessitate changes in the research procedure for collecting relevant data. Usually, the following three
methods are considered in the context of a research design for such studies. They are (a) a survey of
related literature; (b) experience survey; and (c) analysis of ‘insight-stimulating’ instances.
The research design in such studies should be rigid and not flexible. Besides, it must also focus
attention on the following:
a) Formulation of the objectives of the study,
b) Proper designing of the methods of data collection,
c) Sample selection,
d) Data collection,
e) Processing and analysis of the collected data, and
f) Reporting the findings.
The preparation of the research design, appropriate for a particular research problem, involves
usually the consideration of the following:
(i) the means of obtaining the information;
(ii) the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if any);
(iii) explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information will be organised
and the reasoning leading to the selection;
(iv) the time available for research; and
(v) the cost factor relating to research, i.e., the finance available for the purpose.
A blueprint of the procedure that enables the researcher to test his hypothesis by reaching valid
conclusions about relationships between independent and dependent variables. It refers to the
conceptual framework within which the experiment is conducted .Hypothesis-Testing Research
Designs are those in which the researcher tests the hypothesis of causal relationship between two or
more variables. These studies require procedures that would not only decrease bias and enhance
reliability, but also facilitate deriving inferences about the causality. Generally, experiments satisfy
such requirements. Hence, when research design is discussed in such studies, it often refers to the
design of experiments.
A sample design is a definite plan determined before any data are actually collected for obtaining a
sample from a given population All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute a
‘universe’ or ‘population’. A complete enumeration of all the items in the ‘population’ is known as a
census inquiry. Census inquiry is not possible in practice under many circumstances. For instance,
blood testing is done only on sample basis. Hence only a few items from the universe for our study
purposes. The items so selected constitute what is technically called a sample. The researcher must
decide the way of selecting a sample or what is popularly known as the sample design. Thus, the plan
to select 12 of acity’s 200 drugstores in a certain way constitutes a sample design.
In dealing with any real life problem it is often found that data at hand are in adequate, and hence, it
becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate. There are several ways of collecting the
appropriate data which differ considerably in context of money costs, time and
other resources at the disposal of the researcher. Primary data can be collected either through
experiment or through survey. If the researcher which he examines the truth contained in his
hypothesis. But in the case of a survey, data can be collected by any one or more of the following
ways:
(i) By observation: This method implies the collection of information by way of investigator’s
own observation, without interviewing the respondents. The information obtained relates to what is
currently happening and is not complicated by either the past behaviour or future intentions or attitudes
of respondents. This method is no doubt an expensive method an the information provided by this
method is also very limited. As such this method is no suitable in inquiries where large samples are
concerned.
(ii) Through personal interview: The investigator follows a rigid procedure and seeks answers to a set
of pre-conceived questions through personal interviews. This method of collecting data is usually
carried out in a structured way where output depends upon the ability of the interviewer to a large
extent.
The researcher should select one of these methods of collecting the data taking intoconsideration the
nature of investigation, objective and scope of the inquiry, finanical resources,available time and the
desired degree of accuracy. Though he should pay attention to all these factors but much depends upon
the ability and experience of the researcher. In this context Dr A.L.Bowley very aptly remarks that in
collection of statistical data commonsense is the chief requisiteand experience the chief teacher.
7. Execution of the project:
Execution of the project is a very important step in the research process. If the execution of the project
proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected would be adequate and dependable. The researcher
should see that the project is executed in a systematic manner and in time. If the survey is to be
conducted by means of structured questionnaires, data can be readily machine-processed. In such a
situation, questions as well as the possible answers may be coded. If the data are to be collected
through interviewers, arrangements should be made for proper selection and training of the
interviewers. The training may be given with the help of instruction manuals which explain clearly the
job of the interviewers at each step. Occasional field checks should be made to ensure that the
interviewers are doing their assigned job sincerely and efficiently. A careful watch should be kept for
8. Analysis of data:
After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of analyzing them. The analysis of
data requires a number of closely related operations such as establishment of categories, the
application of these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation and then drawing statistical
inferences.
Coding operation is usually done at this stage through which the categories of data are
transformed into symbols that may be tabulated and counted. Editing is the procedure that
improves the quality of the data for coding.
Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure wherein the classified data are put in the form of
tables. The mechanical devices can be made use of at this juncture. A great deal of data,
especially in large inquiries, is tabulated by computers. Computers not only save time but also
make it possible to study large number of variables affecting a problem simultaneously.
Analysis work after tabulation is generally based on the computation of various percentages,
coefficients, etc., by applying various well defined statistical formulae. In the process of
analysis, relationships or differences supporting or conflicting with original or new hypotheses
should be subjected to tests of significance to determine with what validity data can be said to
indicate any conclusion(s).
9. Hypothesis-testing:
Hypothesis-testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it. If the researcher had
no hypotheses to start with, generalizations established on the basis of data may be stated as
hypotheses to be tested by subsequent researches in times to come.
If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for the researcher to arrive at
generalization, i.e., to build a theory. As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its ability to
arrive at certain generalizations. If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to
explain his findings on the basis of some theory. It is known as interpretation. The process of
interpretation may quite often trigger off new questions which in turn may lead to further researches.
Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him. Writing of report must
be done with great care keeping in view the following:
1. The layout of the report should be as follows: (i) the preliminary pages; (ii) the main text,
and (iii) the end matter.In its preliminary pages the report should carry title and date followed by
acknowledgements and foreword. Then there should be a table of contents followed by a list of tables
and list of graphs and charts, if any, given in the report.
The main text of the report should have the following parts:
(a) Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the research and an explanation
of the methodology adopted in accomplishing the research. The scope of the study along with various
limitations should as well be stated in this part.
(b) Summary of findings: After introduction there would appear a statement of findings and
recommendations in non-technical language. If the findings are extensive, they should be summarized.
(ii) Simple random sampling: This type of sampling is also known as chance sampling or probability
sampling where each and every item in the population has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample
and each one of the possible samples, in case of finite universe, has the same probability of being
selected. For example, if we have to select a sample of 300 items from a universe of 15,000 items, then
we can put the names or numbers of all the 15,000 items on slips of paper and conduct a lottery. Using
the random number tables is another method of random sampling. To select the sample, each item is
assigned a number from 1 to 15,000. Then, 300 five digit random numbers are selected from the table.
To do this we select some random starting point and then a systematic pattern is used in proceeding
through the table. We might start in the 4th row, second column and proceed down the column to the
bottom of the table and then move to the top of the next column to the right. When a number exceeds
the limit of the numbers in the frame, in our case over 15,000, it is simply passed over and the next
number selected that does fall within the relevant range. Since the numbers were placed in the table in
a completely random fashion, the resulting sample is random. This procedure gives each item an equal
probability of being selected. In case of infinite population, the selection of each item in a random
sample is controlled by the same probability and that successive selections are independent of one
another.
(iii) Systematic sampling: In some instances the most practical way of sampling is to select every
15th name on a list, every 10th house on one side of a street and so on. Sampling of this type is known
as systematic sampling. An element of randomness is usually introduced into this kind of sampling by
using random numbers to pick up the unit with which to start. This procedure is useful when sampling
frame is available in the form of a list. In such a design the selection process starts by picking some
random point in the list and then every nth element is selected until the desired number is secured.
(iv) Stratified sampling: If the population from which a sample is to be drawn does not constitute a
homogeneous group, then stratified sampling technique is applied so as to obtain a representative
(v) Quota sampling: In stratified sampling the cost of taking random samples from individual
strata is often so expensive that interviewers are simply given quota to be filled from different strata,
the actual selection of items for sample being left to the interviewer’s judgement. This is called quota
sampling. The size of the quota for each stratum is generally proportionate to the size of that stratum in
the population. Quota sampling is thus an important form of non-probability sampling. Quota samples
generally happen to be judgement samples rather than random samples.
(vi) Cluster sampling and area sampling: Cluster sampling involves grouping the population and
then selecting the groups or the clusters rather than individual elements for inclusion in the sample.
Suppose some departmental store wishes to sample its credit card holders. It has issued its cards to
15,000 customers. The sample size is to be kept say 450. For cluster sampling this list of 15,000 card
holders could be formed into 100 clusters of 150 card holders each. Three clusters might then be
selected for the sample randomly. The sample size must often be larger than the simple random sample
to ensure the same level of accuracy because is cluster sampling procedural potential for order bias and
other sources of error is usually accentuated. The clustering approach can, however, make the
sampling procedure relatively easier and increase the efficiency of field work, specially in the case of
personal interviews. Area sampling is quite close to cluster sampling and is often talked about when
the total geographical area of interest happens to be big one. Under area sampling we first divide the
total area into a number of smaller non-overlapping areas, generally called geographical clusters, then
a number of these smaller areas are randomly selected, and all units in these small areas are included in
the sample. Area sampling is specially helpful where we do not have the list of the population
concerned. It also makes the field interviewing more efficient since interviewer can do many
interviews at each location.
(vii) Multi-stage sampling: This is a further development of the idea of cluster sampling. This
technique is meant for big inquiries extending to a considerably large geographical area like an entire
country. Under multi-stage sampling the first stage may be to select large primary sampling units such
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as states, then districts, then towns and finally certain families within towns. If the technique of
random-sampling is applied at all stages, the sampling procedure is described as multi-stage random
sampling.
(viii) Sequential sampling: This is somewhat a complex sample design where the ultimate size of the
sample is not fixed in advance but is determined according to mathematical decisions on the basis of
information yielded as survey progresses. This design is usually adopted under acceptance sampling
plan in the context of statistical quality control.
RESEARCH DESIGN:
A research design helps to decide upon issues like what, when, where, how much, by what means
etc. With regard to an enquiry or a research study. A research design is the arrangement of
conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the
research purpose with economy in procedure. Infact, research design is the conceptual structure
within which research is conducted; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement
and analysis of data (Selltiz et al, 1962). Thus, research design provides an outline of what the
researcher is going to do in terms of framing the hypothesis, its operational implications and the
final data analysis. In view of the stated research design decisions, the overall research design
may be divided into the following (Kothari1988):
The sampling design that deals with the method of selecting items to be observed for the
selected study;
The observational design that relates to the conditions under which the observations are to
be made;
The statistical design that concerns with the question of how many items are to be observed,
and how the information and data gathered are to be analysed; and The operational design
that deals with the techniques by which the procedures specified in the sampling, statistical
and observational designs can be carried out.
Research design highlights decisions which
includes :
1. The nature of the study
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2. The purpose of the study
3. The location where the study would be conducted
4. The nature of data required
5. From where the required data can be collected
6. What time period the study would cover
7. The type of sample design that would be used
8. The techniques of data collection that would be used
9. The methods of data analysis that would be adopted and
10. The manner in which the report would be prepared
The research design in such studies should be rigid and not flexible. Besides, it must also
focus attention on the following:
a) Formulation of the objectives of the study,
b) Proper designing of the methods of data collection,
c) Sample selection,
DATA COLLECTION
There are two types of data, primary and secondary
Data which are collected first hand are called Primary data
Sources of Primary data : Direct Personal Interviews, Indirect Oral Interviews, Information from
Correspondents, Mailed questionnaire method, Schedules sent through enumerators and so on.
Data which have already been collected and used by somebody are called Secondary data.
(a) Published sources : Published sources are like publications of different government and
semi-government departments, research institutions and agencies etc.
(b) Unpublished sources. Whereas unpublished sources are like records maintained by different
government departments and unpublished theses of different universities etc.
SECONDARY DATA:
As stated earlier, secondary data are those data which have already been collected and analyzed
by some earlier agency for its own use, and later the same data are used by a different agency.
According to W.A.Neiswanger, “A primary source is a publication in which the data are
published by the same authority which gathered and analyzed them. A secondary source is a
publication, reporting the data which was gathered by other authorities and for which others are
responsible.”
Sources Of Secondary Data:
The various sources of secondary data can be divided into two broad categories:
1. Published sources, and
2. Unpublished sources.
1. Published Sources:
The governmental, international and local agencies publish statistical data, and chief among them
are explained below:
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(a) International Bublications:
There are some international institutions and bodies like I.M.F, I.B.R.D, I.C.A.F.E and U.N.O
who publish regular and occasional reports on economic and statistical matters.
(b) Official Publications of Central and State Governments:
Several departments of the Central and State Governments regularly publish reports on a number
of subjects. They gather additional information. Some of the important publications are: The
Reserve Bank of India Bulletin, Census of India, Statistical Abstracts of States, Agricultural
Statistics of India, Indian Trade Journal, etc.
(c) Semi-Official Publications:
Semi-Government institutions like Municipal Corporations, District Boards, Panchayats, etc.
Publish reports relating to different matters of public concern.
(d) Publications of Research Institutions:
Indian Statistical Institute (I.S.I), Indian Council of Agricultural Research (I.C.A.R), Indian
Agricultural Statistics Research Institute (I.A.S.R.I), etc. Publish the findings of their research
programmes.
(e) Publications of various Commercial and Financial Institutions 55
(f) Reports of various Committees and Commissions appointed by the Government as the Raj
Committee’s Report on Agricultural Taxation, Wanchoo Committee’s Report on Taxation and
Black Money, etc. Are also important sources of secondary data.
(g) Journals and News Papers:
Journals and News Papers are very important and powerful source of secondary data. Current
and important materials on statistics and socio-economic problems can be obtained from journals
and newspapers like Economic Times, Commerce, Capital, Indian Finance, Monthly Statistics of
trade etc.
2. Unpublished Sources:
Unpublished data can be obtained from many unpublished sources like records maintained by
various government and private offices, the theses of the numerous research scholars in the
universities or institutions etc.
Precautions in the use of Secondary Data:
Since secondary data have already been obtained, it is highly desirable that a proper scrutiny of
such data is made before they are used by the investigator. In fact the user has to be extra-
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cautious while using secondary data. In this context Prof. Bowley rightly points out that
“Secondary data should not be accepted at their face value.” The reason being that data may be
erroneous in many respects due to bias, inadequate size of the sample, substitution, errors of
definition, arithmetical errors etc. Even if there is no error such data may not be suitable and
adequate for the purpose of the enquiry. Prof. SimonKuznet’s view in this regard is also of great
importance. According to him, “the degree of reliability of secondary source is to be assessed
from the source, the compiler and his capacity to produce correct statistics and the users also, for
the most part, tend to accept a series particularly one issued by a government agency at its face
value without enquiring its reliability”.
Therefore, before using the secondary data the investigators should consider the following
factors:
The Suitability Of Data:
The investigator must satisfy himself that the data available are suitable for the purpose of
enquiry. It can be judged by the nature and scope of the present enquiry with the original
enquiry. For example, if the object of the present enquiry is to study the trend in retail prices, and
if the data provide only wholesale prices, such data are unsuitable.
Adequacy Of Data:
If the data are suitable for the purpose of investigation then we must consider whether the data
are useful or adequate for the present analysis. It can be studied by the geographical area covered
by the original enquiry. The time for which data are available is very important element. In the
above example, if our object is to study the retail price trend of india, and if the available data
cover only the retail price trend in the state of bihar, then it would not serve the purpose.
Reliability Of Data:
The reliability of data is must. Without which there is no meaning in research. The reliability of
data can be tested by finding out the agency that collected such data. If the agency has used
proper methods in collection of data, statistics may be relied upon.
It is not enough to have baskets of data in hand. In fact, data in a raw form are nothing but a
handful of raw material waiting for proper processing so that they can become useful. Once data
have been obtained from primary or secondary source, the next step in a statistical investigation
is to edit the data i.e. To scrutinize the same. The chief objective of editing is to detect possible
errors and irregularities. The task of editing is a highly specialized one and requires great care
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and attention. Negligence in this respect may render useless the findings of an otherwise valuable
study. Editing data collected from internal records and published sources is relatively simple but
the data collected from a survey need excessive editing.
While editing primary data, the following considerations should be borne in mind:
1. The data should be complete in every respect57
2. The data should be accurate
3. The data should be consistent, and
4. The data should be homogeneous.
Data to posses the above mentioned characteristics have to undergo the same type of editing
which is discussed below:
5. Editing for Completeness:
while editing, the editor should see that each schedule and questionnaire is complete in all
respects. He should see to it that the answers to each and every question have been furnished. If
some questions are not answered and if they are of vital importance, the informants should be
contacted again either personally or through correspondence. Even after all the efforts it may
happen that a few questions remain unanswered. In such questions, the editor should mark ‘No
answer’ in the space provided for answers and if the questions are of vital importance then the
schedule or questionnaire should be dropped.
(a) Editing for Consistency:
At the time of editing the data for consistency, the editor should see that the answers to questions
are not contradictory in nature. If they are mutually contradictory answers, he should try to
obtain the correct answers either by referring back the questionnaire or by contacting, wherever
possible, the informant in person. For example, if amongst others, two questions in questionnaire
are (a) Are you a student? (b) Which class do you study and the reply to the first question is ‘no’
and to the latter ‘tenth’ then there is contradiction and it should be clarified.
(b) Editing for Accuracy:
The reliability of conclusions depends basically on the correctness of information. If the
information supplied is wrong, conclusions can never be valid. It is, therefore, necessary for the
editor to see that the information is accurate in all respects. If the inaccuracy is due to
arithmetical errors, it can be easily detected and corrected. But if the cause of inaccuracy is faulty
PREPARATION OF A QUESTIONNAIRE
Questionnaire is widely used for data collection in social research. It is a reasonably fair tool for
gathering data from large, diverse, varied and scattered social groups. The questionnaire is the
media of communication between the investigator and the respondents. According to Bogardus, a
questionnaire is a list of questions sent to a number of persons for their answers and which
obtains standardized results that can be tabulated and treated statistically. The Dictionary of
Statistical Terms defines it as a “group of or sequence of questions designed to elicit information
upon a subject or sequence of subjects from information.” A questionnaire should be designed or
drafted with utmost care and caution so that all the relevant and essential information for the
enquiry may be collected without any difficulty, ambiguity and vagueness. Drafting of a good
questionnaire is a highly specialized job and requires great care skill, wisdom, efficiency and
experience. No hard and fast rule can be laid down for designing or framing a questionnaire.
1. State the information required- This will depend upon the nature of the problem, the
purpose of the study and hypothesis framed. The target audience must be concentrated on.
2. State the kind of interviewing technique- interviewing method can be telephone, mails,
personal interview or electronic interview. Telephonic interview can be computer assisted.
Personal interview can be conducted at respondent’s place or at mall or shopping place. Mail
interview can take the form of mail panel. Electronic interview takes place either through
electronic mails or through the internet.
3. Decide the matter/content of individual questions- There are two deciding factors for this-
a. Is the question significant? - Observe contribution of each question. Does the
question contribute for the objective of the study?
b. Is there a need for several questions or a single question? - Several questions are
asked in the following cases:
When there is a need for cross-checking
When the answers are ambiguous
When people are hesitant to give correct information.
There may be sensitive information which may cause embarrassment or harm the
respondent’s image.
The respondent may not be familiar with the genuine purpose
The question may appear to be irrelevant to the respondent
The respondent will not be willing to reveal traits like aggressiveness (For
instance - if he is asked “Do you hit your wife, sister”, etc.)
To overcome the respondent’s unwillingness to answer:
Yes
No
10. Pre-test the questionnaire- The questionnaire should be pre-tested on a small number of
respondents to identify the likely problems and to eliminate them. Each and every dimension
of the questionnaire should be pre-tested. The sample respondents should be similar to the
target respondents of the survey.
SCALING TECHNIQUES
The term scaling is applied to the attempts to measure the attitude objectively. Attitude is
resultant of number of external and internal factors. Depending upon the attitude to be measured,
appropriate scales are designed. Scaling is a technique used for measuring qualitative responses
of respondents such as those related to their feelings, perception, likes, dislikes, interests and
preferences.
Types of Scales
1. Nominal Scale
2. Ordinal Scale
3. Interval Scale
4. Ratio Scale
100 – 200
200 – 300
1. Company Name
2.
Functions
3.
Price
4.
Comfort
5.
Design
The most important attribute is ranked 1 by the respondents and the least important is ranked 5.
Instead of numbers, letters or symbols too can be used to rate in a ordinal scale. Such scale
makes no attempt to measure the degree of favourability of different rankings.
Example 2 - If there are 4 different types of fertilizers and if they are ordered on the basis of
quality as Grade A, Grade B, Grade C, Grade D is again an Ordinal Scale.
Example 3 - If there are 5 different brands of Talcom Powder and if a respondent ranks them
based on say, “Freshness” into Rank 1 having maximum Freshness Rank 2 the second maximum
Freshness, and so on, an Ordinal Scale results.
Median and mode are meaningful for ordinal scale.
3. Interval Scale
Herein the distance between the various categories unlike in Nominal, or numbers unlike in
Ordinal, are equal in case of Interval Scales. The Interval Scales are also termed as Rating
Scales. An Interval Scale has an arbitrary Zero point with further numbers placed at equal
intervals. A very good example of Interval Scale is a Thermometer.
Illustration 1 - How do you rate your present refrigerator for the following qualities.
0 1 5 7
(poor quality) (bad quality) (neither good nor bad) (good quality)
BRAND 1
This is also known as continuous rating scale. The customer can occupy any position. Here one
attribute is taken ex-quality of any brand of icecream.
poor good
BRAND 2
This line can be vertical or horizontal and scale points may be provided. No other indication is
there on the continuous scale. A range is provided. To quantify the responses to question that
“indicate your overall opinion about ice-ream Brand 2 by placing a tick mark at appropriate
position on the line”, we measure the physical distance between the left extreme position and the
response position on the line.; the greater the distance, the more favourable is the response or
attitude towards the brand.Its limitation is that coding and analysis will require substantial
amount of time, since we first have to measure the physical distances on the scale for each
respondent.
Likert Scale
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Pleasant
Unpleasant Dominant
Submissive
Suppose we want to know personality of a particular person. We have options-
1. Unpleasant/Submissive
2. Pleasant/Dominant
Bi-polar means two opposite streams. Individual can score between 1 to 7 or -3 to 3. On the basis
of these responses profiles are made. We can analyse for two or three products and by joining
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these profiles we get profile analysis. It could take any shape depending on the number of
variables.
Profile Analysis
---------------/---------------
----------/--------------------
--------/----------------------
Mean and median are used for comparison. This scale helps to determine overall similarities and
differences among objects.
When Semantic Differential Scale is used to develop an image profile, it provides a good basis
for comparing images of two or more items. The big advantage of this scale is its simplicity,
while producing results compared with those of the more complex scaling methods. The method is
easy and fast to administer, but it is also sensitive to small differences in attitude, highly versatile,
reliable and generally valid.
b. Stapel’s Scale
It was developed by Jan Stapel. This scale has some distinctive features:-
I. Each item has only one word/phrase indicating the dimension it represents.
II. Each item has ten response categories.
III. Each item has an even number of categories.
IV. The response categories have numerical labels but no verbal labels.
For example, in the following items, suppose for quality of ice cream, we ask
respondents to rank from +5 to -5. Select a plus number for words which best
describe the ice cream accurately. Select a minus number for words you think do
not describe the ice cream quality accurately. Thus, we can select any number
from +5,for words we think are very accurate, to -5,for words we think are very
inaccurate. This scale is usually presented vertically.
+5
+4
+3
+2
+1
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High Quality
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
This is a unipolar rating scale.
It is a computer based technique. The respondents are asked to place the various brands into
different groups like similar, very similar, not similar, and so on. A goodness of fit is traded off
on a large number of attributes. Then a lack of fit index is calculated by computer program. The
purpose is to find a reasonably small number of dimensions which will eliminate most of the
stress. After the configuration for the consumer’s preference has been developed, the next step is to
determine the preference with regards to the product under study. These techniques attempt to
identify the product attributes that are important to consumers and to measure their relative
importance.This scaling involves a unrealistic assumption that a consumer who compares different
brands would perceive the differences on the basis of only one attribute. For example, what are
the attributes for joining M.Com course. The responses may be -to do PG, to go into teaching
line,to get knowledge, appearing in the NET. There are a number of attributes, you can
not base decision on one attribute only. Therefore, when the consumers are choosing between
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brands, they base their decision on various attributes. In practice, the perceptions of the
consumers involve different attributes and any one consumer perceives each brand as a
composite of a number of different attributes. This is a shortcoming of this scale.
Whenever we choose from a number of alternatives, go for multi- dimensional scaling. There are
many possible uses of such scaling like in market segmentation, product life cycle, vendor
evaluations and advertising media selection.The limitation of this scale is that it is difficult to
clearly define the concept of similarities and preferences. Further the distances between the items
are seen as different
Thurston Scales
These are also known as equal appearing interval scales. They are used to measure the attitude
towards a given concept or construct. For this purpose a large number of statements are collected
that relate to the concept or construct being measured. The judges rate these statements along an
11 category scale in which each category expresses a different degree of favourableness towards
the concept. The items are then ranked according to the mean or median ratings assigned by the
judges and are used to construct questionnaire of twenty to thirty items that are chosen more or
less evenly across the range of ratings.
The statements are worded in such a way so that a person can agree or disagree with them. The
scale is then administered to assemble of respondents whose scores are determined by computing
the mean or median value of the items agreed with. A person who disagrees with all the items
has a score of zero. So, the advantage of this scale is that it is an interval measurement scale. But it
is the time consuming method and labour intensive. They are commonly used in psychology and
education research.
SAMPLING
Sampling is a process used in statistical analysis in which a predetermined number of
observations will be taken from a larger population.
It may be too expensive or too time consuming to attempt either a complete or a nearly complete
coverage in a statistical study. Further to arrive at valid conclusions, it may not be necessary to
enumerate all or nearly all of a population. We may study a sample drawn from the large population
and if that sample is adequately representative of the population, we should be able to arrive at valid
conclusions.
According to Rosander, “The sample has many advantages over a census or complete enumeration.
If carefully designed, the sample is not only considerably cheaper but may give results which are just
accurate and sometimes more accurate than those of a census. Hence a carefully designed sample
may actually be better than a poorly planned and executed census.”
For example a house wife tests a small quantity of rice to see whether it has been well-cooked and
gives the generalized result about the whole rice boiling in the vessel. The result arrived at is most of
the times 100% correct. In another example, when a doctor wants to examine the blood for any
deficiency, takes only a few drops of blood of the patient and examines. The result arrived at is most
of the times correct and represent the whole amount of blood available in the body of the patient.
Advantages of Sampling
1. It saves time: Sampling method of data collection saves time because fewer items are collected
and processed. When the results are urgently required, this method is very helpful.
SAMPLING ERROR
In a sample survey, since only a small portion of the population is studied its results are bound to
differ from the census results and thus, have a certain amount of error. In statistics the word error is
used to denote the difference between the true value and the estimated or approximated value. This
error would always be there no matter that the sample is drawn at random and that it is highly
representative. This error is attributed to fluctuations of sampling and is called sampling error.
Sampling error exist due to the fact that only a sub set of the population has been used to estimate
the population parameters and draw inferences about the population. Thus, sampling error is present
only in a sample survey and is completely absent in census method.
Sampling errors occur primarily due to the following reasons:
1. Faulty selection of the sample: Some of the bias is introduced by the use of defective sampling
technique for the selection of a sample e.g. Purposive or judgment sampling in which the
investigator deliberately selects a representative sample to obtain certain results. This bias can be
easily overcome by adopting the technique of simple random sampling.
QUOTA
PURPOSIVE
NON PROBABILITY
CONVINIENCE
SAMPLING
METHODS
OF
SAMPLING
SIMPLE RANDOM
PROBABILITY SYSTEMATIC RANDOM
SAMPLING STRATIFIED RANDOM
RANDOM CLUSTER
STRATIFIED CLUSTER
COMPLED MULTI STAGE RANDOM
While probability sampling is based on random selection, the non-probability sampling is based on
‘non-random’ selection of samples.
I. Non-Probability Sampling:
Non-probability sampling is the sampling procedure that does not afford any basis for estimating the
probability that each item in the population would have an equal chance of being included in the
sample. Non-probability sampling is also known as deliberate sampling, judgment sampling and
purposive sampling. Under this type of sampling, the items for the sample are deliberately chosen by
the researcher; and his/her choice concerning the choice of items remains supreme. In other words,
under non-probability sampling the researchers select a particular unit of the universe for forming a
sample on the basis that the small number that is thus selected out of a huge one would be typical or
representative of the whole population. For example, to study the economic conditions of people
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living in a state, a few towns or village may be purposively selected for an intensive study based on
the principle that they are representative of the entire state. In such a case, the judgment of the
researcher of the study assumes prime importance in this sampling design.
Quota Sampling:
Quota sampling is also an example of non-probability sampling. Under this sampling, the
researchers simply assume quotas to be filled from different strata, with certain restrictions imposed
on how they should be selected. This type of sampling is very convenient and is relatively less
expensive. However, the samples selected using this method certainly do not satisfy the
characteristics of random samples. They are essentially judgment samples and inferences drawn
based on that, would not be amenable to statistical treatment in a formal way.
II. Probability Sampling:
Probability sampling is also known as ‘choice sampling’ or ‘random sampling’. Under this sampling
design, every item of the universe has an equal chance of being included in the sample. In a way, it
is a lottery method under which individual units are selected from the whole group, not deliberately,
but by using some mechanical process. Therefore, only chance would determine whether an item or
the other would be included in the sample or not. The results obtained from probability or random
sampling would be assured in terms of probability. That is, the researcher can measure the errors of
estimation or the significance of results obtained from the random sample. This is the superiority of
random sampling design over the deliberate sampling design. Random sampling satisfies the law of
statistical regularity, according to which if on an average the sample chosen is random, then it would
have the same composition and characteristics of the universe. This is the reason why the random
sampling method is considered the best technique of choosing a representative sample
.The following are the implications of the random sampling:
i. it provides each element in the population an equal probable chance of being chosen in the sample,
with all choices being independent of one another and
ii. it offers each possible sample combination an equal probable opportunity of being selected.
Method Of Selecting A Random Sample:
The process of selecting a random sample involves writing the name of each element of a finite
population on a slip of paper and putting them into a box or a bag. Then they have to be thoroughly
mixed and then the required number of slips for the sample can be picked one after the other without
replacement. While doing this, it has to be ensured that in successive drawings each of the remaining
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elements of the population has an equal chance of being chosen. This method results in the same
probability for each possible sample.
Complex Random Sampling Designs:
Under restricted sampling technique, the probability sampling may result in complex random
sampling designs. Such designs are known as mixed sampling designs. Many of such designs may
represent a combination of non-probability and probability sampling procedures in choosing a
sample.
Some of the prominent complex random sampling designs are as follows:
(i) Systematic Sampling:
In some cases, the best way of sampling is to select every first item on a list. Sampling of this kind is
called as systematic sampling. An element of randomness is introduced in this type of sampling by
using random numbers to select the unit with which to start. For example, if a 10 per cent sample is
required out of 100 items, the first item would be selected randomly from the first low of item and
thereafter every 10th item. In this kind of sampling, only the first unit is selected randomly, while rest
of the units of the sample is chosen at fixed intervals.
(ii) Stratified Sampling:
When a population from which a sample is to be selected does not comprise a homogeneous group,
stratified sampling technique is generally employed for obtaining a representative sample. Under
stratified sampling, the population is divided into many sub-populations in such a manner that they
are individually more homogeneous than the rest of the total population. Then, items are selected
from each stratum to form a sample. As each stratum is more homogeneous than the remaining total
population, the researcher is able to obtain a more precise estimate for each stratum and by
estimating each of the component parts more accurately; he/she is able to obtain a better estimate of
the whole. In sum, stratified sampling method yields more reliable and detailed information.
(iii) Cluster Sampling:
When the total area of research interest is large, a convenient way in which a sample can be selected
is to divide the area into a number of smaller non-overlapping areas and then randomly selecting a
number of such smaller areas. In the process, the ultimate sample would consist of all the units in
these small areas or clusters. Thus in cluster sampling, the total population is sub-divided into
numerous relatively smaller subdivisions, which in themselves constitute clusters of still smaller
units. And then, some of such clusters are randomly chosen for inclusion in the overall sample.
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(iv) Area Sampling:
When clusters are in the form of some geographic subdivisions, then cluster sampling is termed as
area sampling. That is, when the primary sampling unit represents a cluster of units based on
geographic area, the cluster designs are distinguished as area sampling. The merits and demerits of
cluster sampling are equally applicable to area sampling.
(v) Multi-Stage Sampling:
A further development of the principle of cluster sampling is multi-stage sampling. When the
researcher desires to investigate the working efficiency of nationalized banks in India and a sample
of few banks is required for this purpose, the first stage would be to select large primary sampling
unit like the states in the country. Next, certain districts may be selected and all banks interviewed in
the chosen districts. This represents a two-stage sampling design, with the ultimate sampling units
being clusters of districts.
On the other hand, if instead of taking census of all banks within the selected districts, the researcher
chooses certain towns and interviews all banks in it, this would represent three-stage sampling
design. Again, if instead of taking a census of all banks within the selected towns, the researcher
randomly selects sample banks from each selected town, then it represents a case of using a four-
stage sampling plan. Thus, if the researcher selects randomly at all stages, then it is called as multi-
stage random sampling design.
(vi) Sampling With Probability Proportional To Size:
When the case of cluster sampling units does not have exactly or approximately the same number of
elements, it is better for the researcher to adopt a random selection process, where the probability of
inclusion of each cluster in the sample tends to be proportional to the size of the cluster. For this, the
number of elements in each cluster has to be listed, irrespective of the method used for ordering it.
Then the researcher should systematically pick the required number of elements from the cumulative
totals. The actual numbers thus chosen would not however reflect the individual elements, but would
indicate as to which cluster and how many from them are to be chosen by using simple random
sampling or systematic sampling. The outcome of such sampling is equivalent to that of simple
random sample. The method is also less cumbersome and is also relatively less expensive. Thus, a
researcher has to pass through various stages of conducting research once the problem of interest has
been selected. Research methodology familiarizes a researcher with the complex scientific methods
Sign test:
Tests whether matched pair samples are drawn from distributions with equal medians
The sign test is a statistical method to test for consistent differences between pairs of
observations, such as the weight of subjects before and after treatment. Given pairs of
observations (such as weight pre- and post-treatment) for each subject, the sign test
determines if one member of the pair (such as pre-treatment) tends to be greater than (or less
than) the other member of the pair (post-treatment). The sign test is a non-parametric
test which makes very few assumptions about the nature of the distributions under test - this
means that it has very general applicability but may lack the statistical power of the
alternative tests.
The paired observations may be designated x and y. For comparisons of paired observations
(x,y), the sign test is most useful if comparisons can only be expressed as x > y, x = y, or x <
y. If, instead, the observations can be expressed as numeric quantities (x = 7, y = 18), or as
ranks (rank of x = 1st, rank of y = 8th), then the paired t-test[1] o
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.
If X and Y are quantitative variables, the sign test can be used to test the hypothesis that the
difference between the median of X and the median of Y is zero, assuming continuous
distributions of the two random variables X and Y, in the situation when we can draw paired
samples from X and Y.
The sign test can also test if the median of a collection of numbers is significantly greater
than or less than a specified value. For example, given a list of student grades in a class, the
sign test can determine if the median grade is significantly different from, say, 75 out of 100.
Kolmogorov–Smirnov test:
Tests whether a sample is drawn from a given distribution, or whether two samples are drawn
from the same distribution
In statistics, the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test (K–S test or KS test) is a nonparametric test of the
equality of continuous, one-dimensional probability distributions that can be used to compare
a sample with a reference probability distribution (one-sample K–S test), or to compare two samples
(two-sample K–S test). The Kolmogorov–Smirnov statistic quantifies a distance between
the empirical distribution function of the sample and the cumulative distribution function of the
reference distribution, or between the empirical distribution functions of two samples. The null
distribution of this statistic is calculated under the null hypothesis that the sample is drawn from the
reference distribution (in the one-sample case) or that the samples are drawn from the same
distribution (in the two-sample case). In each case, the distributions considered under the null
hypothesis are continuous distributions but are otherwise unrestricted.
The two-sample K–S test is one of the most useful and general nonparametric methods for
comparing two samples, as it is sensitive to differences in both location and shape of the
empirical cumulative distribution functions of the two samples.
The Kolmogorov–Smirnov test can be modified to serve as a goodness of fit test. In the
special case of testing for normality of the distribution, samples are standardized and
compared with a standard normal distribution. This is equivalent to setting the mean and
variance of the reference distribution equal to the sample estimates, and it is known that
using these to define the specific reference distribution changes the null distribution of the
test statistic: see below.
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The two-sample paired sign test
The two-sample paired sign test is used to test the null hypothesis that the probability of a random
value from the population of paired differences being above the specified value is equal to the
probability of a random value being below the specified value.
The paired differences are independent.
Each paired difference comes from a continuous distribution with the same median. Strictly
speaking, the population distributions need not be the same for all the paired differences.
However, if we want a consistent test, we assume that the paired differences all come from
the same continuous distribution. (The sign test is a nonparametric test. We need not specify
or know what the distribution is, only that all the paired difference follow the same one.)
Because the test statistic for the paired sign test is based only on the sign (+, -, or 0) of the
paired differences, the test can be performed when the only information available the sign of
each paired difference.
The two samples should be related to each other such that they create pairs of data points,
such as the measurements on two matched people in a case/control study, or before- and
after-treatment measurements on the same person.
The two-sample paired sign test is equivalent to performing a one-sample sign test on the
paired differences.
Mann–Whitney U or Wilcoxon rank sum test:
Tests whether two samples are drawn from the same distribution, as compared to a given
alternative hypothesis.
In statistics, the Mann–Whitney U test (also called the Mann–Whitney Wilcoxon (MWW),
Wilcoxon rank-sum test, or Wilcoxon–Mann–Whitney test) is nonparametric test of the null
hypothesis that two samples come from the same population against an alternative hypothesis,
especially that a particular population tends to have larger values than the other.
The test involves the calculation of a statistic, usually called U, whose distribution under the null
hypothesis is known. In the case of small samples, the distribution is tabulated, but for sample sizes
above ~ 20 approximations using the normal distribution is fairly good. Some books tabulate
statistics equivalent to U, such as the sum of ranks in one of the samples, rather than U itself.
Method one:
For comparing two small sets of o bservations, a direct method is quick, and gives insight into the
meaning of the U statistic, which corresponds to the number of wins out of all pair wise contests (see
the tortoise and hare example under Examples below). For each observation in one set,count
the number of times this first value wins over any observations in the other set (the other value
loses if this first is larger). Count 0.5 for any ties. The sum of wins and ties is U for the first set. U
for the other set is the converse.
Method two:
For larger samples:
1. Assign numeric ranks to all the observations, beginning with 1 for the smallest value. Where
there are groups of tied values, assign a rank equal to the midpoint of un adjusted rankings
[e.g., the ranks of (3, 5, 5, 9) are (1, 2.5, 2.5, 4)].
2. Now, add up the ranks for the observations which came from sample 1. The sum of ranks in
sample 2 is now determinat e, since the sum of all the ranks equals N(N + 1)/2 where N is the
total number of observations.
3. U is then given by:[3]
where n1 is the sample size for sample 1, and R1 is the sum of the ranks in sample 1.
Note that it doesn't matter w hich of the two samples is considered sample 1. An equally valid
formula for U is
The smaller value of U1 and U2 is the one used when consulting significance tables. The sum
of the two values is given by
Knowing that R1 + R2 = N(N + 1)/2 and N = n1 + n2, and doing some algebra, we find that the
sum is
U1 + U2 = n1n2.
Hypothesis:
“Hypothesis may be defined as a proposition or a set of propositions set forth as an explanation for
the occurrence of some specified group of phenomena either asserted merely as a provisional
conjecture to guide some investigation in the light of established facts” (Kothari, 1988). A research
hypothesis is quite often a predictive statement, which is capable of being tested using scientific
methods that involve an independent and some dependent variables. For instance, the following
statements may be considered:
i. “Students who take tuitions perform better than the others who do not receive tuitions” or,
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ii. “The female students perform as well as the male students”.
These two statements are hypotheses that can be objectively verified and tested. Thus, they indicate
that a hypothesis states what one is looking for. Besides, it is a proposition that can be put to test in
order to examine its validity.
Characteristics of Hypothesis:
1. A hypothesis should have the following characteristic features:-
2. A hypothesis must be precise and clear. If it is not precise and clear, then the inferences drawn
on its basis would not be reliable.
3. A hypothesis must be capable of being put to test. Quite often, the research programmes fail
owing to its incapability of being subject to testing for validity. Therefore, some prior study
may be conducted by the researcher in order to make a hypothesis testable. A hypothesis “is
tested if other deductions can be made from it, which in turn can be confirmed or disproved
by observation” (Kothari, 1988).
4. A hypothesis must state relationship between two variables, in the case of relational
hypotheses.
5. A hypothesis must be specific and limited in scope. This is because a simpler hypothesis
generally would be easier to test for the researcher. And therefore, he/she must formulate such
hypotheses.
6. As far as possible, a hypothesis must be stated in the simplest language, so as to make it
understood by all concerned. However, it should be noted that simplicity of a hypothesis is not
related to its significance.
7. A hypothesis must be consistent and derived from the most known facts. In other words, it
should be consistent with a substantial body of established facts. That is, it must be in the
form of a statement which is most likely to occur.
8. A hypothesis must be amenable to testing within a stipulated or reasonable period of time. No
matter how excellent a hypothesis, a researcher should not use it if it cannot be tested within a
given period of time, as no one can afford to spend a life-time on collecting data to test it.
Testing of hypothesis:
As a part of investigation, samples are drawn from the population and results are derived to help in
taking the decisions. But such decisions involve an element of uncertainty causing wrong decisions.
If sample results do not support this null hypothesis, then it should be concluded that something else
is true. The conclusion of rejecting the null hypothesis is called as alternative hypothesis H1. To put
it in simple words, the set of alternatives to the null hypothesis is termed as the alternative
hypothesis. If H0 is accepted, then it implies that Ha is being rejected. On the other hand, if H0 is
rejected, it means that Ha is being accepted.
MULTIPLE CORRELATION
When the value of a variable is influenced by another variable, the relationship between them is a
simple correlation. In a real life situation, a variable may be influenced by many other variables. For
example, the sales achieved for a product may depend on the income of the consumers, the price, the
quality of the product, sales promotion techniques, the channels of distribution, etc. In this case, we
have to consider the joint influence of several independent variables on the dependent variable.
Multiple correlations arise in this context.
CLUSTER ANALYSIS
Cluster analysis or clustering is the task of grouping a set of objects in such a way that objects in
the same group (called a cluster) are more similar (in some sense or another) to each other than to
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those in other groups (clusters). It is a main task of exploratory data mining, and a common
technique for statistical data analysis, used in many fields, including machine learning, pattern
recognition, image analysis, information retrieval, bioinformatics, data compression, and computer
graphics.
Cluster analysis itself is not one specific algorithm, but the general task to be solved. It can be
achieved by various algorithms that differ significantly in their notion of what constitutes a cluster
and how to efficiently find them. Popular notions of clusters include groups with
small distances among the cluster members, dense areas of the data space, intervals or
particular statistical distributions. Clustering can therefore be formulated as a optimization problem.
The appropriate clustering algorithm and parameter settings (including values such as the function to
use, a density threshold or the number of expected clusters) depend on the individual data set and
intended use of the results. Cluster analysis as such is not an automatic task, but an iterative process
of knowledge discovery or interactive multi-objective optimization that involves trial and failure. It
is often necessary to modify data preprocessing and model parameters until the result achieves the
desired properties.
Report writing – types of report, guidelines to write report, typing instruction, need of summary,
importance of language in the preparation of research report, oral presentation. Recording the
findings of research – publication- contents to meet the journals standard – impact factor –
citation and citation index, policy on academic honesty and integrity – academics cheating and
plagiarism. Opportunities to carry out research projects with funding/assistance from various
Government agencies.
Reports vary in length and type. Students’ study reports are often called term papers, project reports,
theses, dissertations depending on the nature of the report. Reports of researchers are in the form of
monographs, research papers, research thesis, etc. In business organizations a wide variety of reports
are under use: project reports, annual reports of financial statements, report of consulting groups,
project proposals etc. News items in daily papers are also one form of report writing. In this lesson,
let us identify different forms of reports and their major components
Types of reports
Reports may be categorized broadly as Technical Reports and General Reports based on the nature
of methods, terms of reference and the extent of in-depth enquiry made etc. On the basis of usage
pattern, the reports may also be classified as information oriented reports, decision oriented reports
and research based reports. Further, reports may also differ based on the communication situation.
For example, the reports may be in the form of Memo, which is appropriate for informal situations
or for short periods. On the other hand, the projects that extend over a period of time, often call for
project reports. Thus, there is no standard format of reports. The most important thing that helps in
classifying the reports is the outline of its purpose and answers for the following questions:
What did you do?
Why did you choose the particular research method that you used?
What did you learn and what are the implications of what you learned?
If you are writing a recommendation report, what action are you recommending in response to what
you learned?
7. Reinforcement
Scopus is a bibliographic database containing abstracts and citations for academic journal articles. It
covers nearly 22,000 titles from over 5,000 publishers, of which 20,000 are peer-reviewed journals
in the scientific, technical, medical, and social sciences (including arts and humanities). It is owned
by Elsevier and is available online by subscription. Searches in Scopus also incorporate searches of
patent databases. Since Elsevier is the owner of Scopus and is also one of the main international
publishers of scientific journals, an independent and international Scopus Content Selection and
Advisory Board was established to prevent a potential conflict of interest in the choice of journals to
be included in the database and to maintain an open and transparent content coverage policy,
regardless of publisher. Scopus Content Selection and Advisory Board consists of scientists and
subject librarians who assess the articles to be published in the listed journals.
GOOGLE SCHOLAR
Google Scholar is a freely accessible web search engine that indexes the full text or metadata
of scholarly literature across an array of publishing formats and disciplines. Released in beta in
November 2004, the Google Scholar index includes most peer-reviewed online journals of Europe
and America's largest scholarly publishers, plus scholarly books and other non-peer reviewed
journals. While Google does not publish the size of Google Scholar's database, third-party
researchers estimated it to contain roughly 160 million documents as of May 2014 [1] and an earlier
statistical estimate published inPLOS ONE using a Mark and recapture method estimated
approximately 80-90% coverage of all articles published in English. Google Scholar is similar in
THOMSON REUTERS
Thomson Reuters Corporation is a major multinational mass media and information firm founded
in Toronto, Ontario, Canada and based in New York City and Toronto. Thomson Reuter’s Web of
Science (WOS) and Elsevier’s Scopus are the most widespread databases on different scientific
fields which are frequently used for searching the literature (Guz&Rushchitsky, 2009). WOS from
Thomson Reuters (ISI) was the only citation database and publication which covers all domains of
science for many years. However, Elsevier Science introduced the database Scopus in 2004 and it is
rapidly become a good alternative (Vieira & Gomes, 2009). Scopus database is the largest searchable
citation and abstract source of searching literature which is continually expanded and updated (Rew,
2009). WOS is challenged by the release of Scopus, an academic literature database which is built on
a similar breadth and scale.
H-INDEX
The h-index is a metric for evaluating individual scientists. For measuring h-index, the publication
records of an author, the number of papers published during the selected number of years and the
number of citations for each paper are considered. The measurement is dependent on both quantity
(number of publications) and quality (number of citations) of an academic's publications. Example:
h-index is 10 if 10 articles have each received at least 10 citations; their h-index is 81 if 81 articles
have each received at least 81 citations. The h-index is automatically computed in both databases for
every author and collections of articles which are selected by the user.
IMPACT FACTOR
The journal Impact Factor is published every year by Thomson Reuters. It measures the number of
times an average paper in a particular journal has been referred to.
The Impact Factor of journal J in the calendar year X is the number of citations received by J in X to
any item published in J in (X-1) or (X-2), divided by the number of source items published in J in
(X-1) or (X-2). The Impact Factor can be a useful way of comparing citability of journals, but the
absolute Impact Factor is of limited use without those of other journals in the field against which to
judge it. You can find the most recent Impact Factors of an individual journal on their homepages.
PUBLICATION IN SCOPUS
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Publication malpractice is an unfortunate occurrence in the world of scholarly literature. It happens
in all subject areas and in all jurisdictions and few journals or books are immune. Here at Scopus, we
have recently received notification of journals that purport to be indexed by Scopus but really are
not. These journals have even gone as far as to forge letters from the Head of Scopus Content
(signature and all)! And just because a journal may have a Scopus logo on their web site, this does
not mean they’re indexed in Scopus.
As an author, if you would like to know if your published article will be included in Scopus, we urge
you to take note of the following before submitting your work to a journal or conference.
Check the title list. First check the publicly available Scopus title list. If you don’t see the title, you
can also look at “Browse sources” on the Scopus.com home page to see what titles are indexed.
Search in Scopus. Use a Scopus search for the name of the journal or conference and check if any
current content is available to see if the title is indeed indexed.
Ask! When in doubt, send an email to the Scopus Helpdesk and one of our Customer Service
representatives can let you know if that title is indexed (or is going to be indexed).
OPPORTUNITIES TO CARRY OUT RESEARCH PROJECTS WITH FUNDING/
/ASSISTANCE FROM VARIOUS GOVERNMENT AGENCIES
I.Government Agencies
University Grants Commission (UGC)
UGC strives to promote teaching and research in emerging areas in Humanities, Social Sciences,
Languages, Literature, Pure Sciences, Engineering & Technology, Pharmacy, Medical, Agricultural
Sciences etc.
All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE)
The All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) has been performing its regulatory,
planning and promotional functions through its Bureaus, namely: Administration; Finance; Planning
and Coordination; Under Graduate Studies; Post Graduate Education and Research; Faculty
Development; Quality Assurance; and Research and Institutional Development Bureaus; and through
its Regional Offices located in various parts of the country.
II. Name of scheme(s)
i) Research & Institutional Development Schemes
a) Modernization & Removal of Obsolescence Scheme (MODROBS)
A patent is a set of exclusive rights granted by a sovereign state to an inventor or assignee for a
limited period of time in exchange for detailed public disclosure of an invention. An invention is a
solution to a specific technological problem and is a product or a process. [1]:17 Patents are a form
of intellectual property.
The procedure for granting patents, requirements placed on the patentee, and the extent of the
exclusive rights vary widely between countries according to national laws and international
agreements. Typically, however, a granted patent application must include one or more claims that
define the invention. A patent may include many claims, each of which defines a specific property
right. These claims must meet relevant patentability requirements, such as novelty, usefulness,
Under the World Trade Organization's (WTO) Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual
Property Rights, patents should be available in WTO member states for any invention, in all fields of
technology,[4] and the term of protection available should be a minimum of twenty
years.[5] Nevertheless, there are variations on what is patentable subject matter from country to
country.
STEPS INVOLVED IN SUBMITTING A RESEARCH PAPER IN AN INTERNATIONAL
/NATIONAL JOURNAL
Find the right journal
As researchers, you make huge strides in advancing essential knowledge. Your achievements can
save lives and improve the way we live. If you’re ready to share your knowledge with the world, this
booklet outlines the best opportunities for publishing your research – and for seeing it shared
globally.
Preparation of an article
Title The title is the main advertisement for your article. A great title entices the audience to read on;
a poorly-titled article may never reach its target readers. Your article’s title should reflect its content
clearly, enabling readers to decide whether it’s relevant for them. Make the title catchy and keep it
specific.
Contents of an articles
1. Title of the article
2. Affiliations (Authors name/name of the institution)
3. Keyword list
4. Abstract
5. Body of the text
6. Method
7. Results
8. Discussion & conclusion
9. Acknowledgments
10. References
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Publishing an article
1. Submit and revise your paper
Once you’ve checked (and re-checked!) your manuscript, you’re ready to submit it to the
journal editor via the submission and peer review system.
2. Methods of Submitting a paper.
Elsevier’s Editorial System (EES) has transitioned to Evise®, a fully online workflow for
article publication. Submission is simple: direct links for registration and log-in are provided
from our journals’ Guide for Authors.
3. Peer review
After submission, each manuscript is checked for plagiarism, and assessed carefully to
determine if it fits the aims and scope of the journal. If journal representatives are
enthusiastic about the work, the journal editor will appoint reviewers.
4. After Acceptance
There are a few more things to consider that can optimise the publication of your work.
5. Articles in Press
Accepted articles are published online on Science Direct as an ‘article in press’, and assigned
an issue at a later date. You can track your article and citations throughout this process.
6. Proofing
Accurate proofreading and clear marking of corrections are essential for the production of a
quality article. As soon as your article has been typeset, you’ll receive an email with either a
PDF attachment of your article or a link to it on our online proofing system.
7. Share link and Offprint
Most of our journals give authors a personalized link that provides 50 days free access to the
final published version of their article on Science Direct. This link can also be used for
sharing via email and social networks
8. Copyright
When you publish with Elsevier, you enter into a legal agreement. This means that both we at
Elsevier and you as an author agree to certain rights and responsibilities, and promise to act
in a legally-sound manner.
Reliability:
According to Jope (2000) Reliability is defined as the degree to which the finding is
independent of accidental situation of the research. Reliability is the degree to which the
measures yield stable results and are free from error i.e. the measurement procedure
stableness. Reliability is also the consistency degree between two measures of common
thing. It is also the measure of how dependable, consistent, stable and trustworthy a test is in
measuring common thing every time. The reliability of the research outcomes enhances
whether or not the ethnographer would expect to acquire similar finding if she or he tried
again in similar way. The researcher has ensured reliability by confirming that all
respondents who had participated in that survey had answered all questions only once.
Validity:
Validity has been referred by the extent to which the measures of test what it claims to
measure. The measure is valid if it measures what does so cleanly and is supposed to
measure, without including these factors accidentally. Validity decides whether the research
measures truly which it was intended to measure or how real the outcomes of research are.
Generally researchers decide validity by asking a group of queries and will always view for
responses in others research (Elden and Chisholm, 1993). The researcher has ensured
validity by designing questionnaires with questions related to the research objectives.