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first break volume 31, June 2013 special topic

Changing Frontiers

Reserves estimation methods for


prospect evaluation with 3D CSEM data
Daniel Baltar1* and Friedrich Roth,1 explain how 3D controlled-source electromagnetic data
can reduce volumetric uncertainty in the reserves estimation process of prospect evaluation.

R eserves are among the key pieces of information used


in prospect evaluation. The estimation of reserves
is typically done in a probabilistic way in order to
account for the large uncertainties in the parameters
that determine the reserves. The largest source of uncertainty
with the components of a petroleum system that are required
for a hydrocarbon accumulation to exist, i.e., source, reser-
voir, etc. The calculation of PMEFS requires generation of a
prospect reserves distribution to which the economic thresh-
old can be applied. The reserves distribution is obtained from
in the reserves estimation is usually the net rock volume a statistical evaluation of the reserves equation:
of the reservoir, which is the product of reservoir area and
net pay thickness. The controlled-source electromagnetic RR=A * ΔZ * Φ * (1-Sw) * Rf/Boi . (2)
(CSEM) method is sensitive to the net rock volume and the
reservoir resistivity, thus making it an excellent exploration Here A is the reservoir area, ΔZ is the net pay thickness, Φ
tool capable of reducing the volumetric uncertainty. We is the porosity, Sw is the water saturation, Rf is the recovery
present two methods that include 3D CSEM inversion data factor, and Boi is the formation volume factor. The product
in the net rock volume evaluation and the reserves estima- of reservoir area and net pay thickness defines the net rock
tion process. The first method deals with a case where a volume: NRV = A * ΔZ.
resistivity anomaly is recovered at the prospect location; the CSEM has the capability to influence both the prob-
second method handles a case where no resistivity anomaly ability of geologic success Pg and the probability of an
is detected. Both methods are easily integrated into common economic discovery PMEFS, leading to better informed explo-
probabilistic reserves estimation processes. ration decision-making. Due to the strong sensitivity of
formation resistivity to hydrocarbon saturation, CSEM is a
Background very good direct hydrocarbon indicator (DHI) and thus can
Estimating reserves is fundamental to the economic evalua- be used to update Pg, e.g. using Bayesian risk modification
tion of exploration prospects. The probability of economic (Buland et al., 2011), based on CSEM anomaly and data
success Pe assigned to a prospect is given by the product of quality characteristics in analogy to seismic amplitude risk
the probability Pg of discovering a flowable hydrocarbon analysis (Roden et al. 2005). The impact of CSEM on the
(HC) accumulation and the probability PMEFS of the discov- prospect reserves distribution results from its sensitivity to
ered accumulation being greater than the minimum econom- the net rock volume. The CSEM response of a hydrocarbon
ic field size (MEFS) quantified in recoverable reserves (RR): accumulation is not a local scattering phenomenum, but a
partially guided wave response the strength of which depends
Pe = Pg * PMEFS = Pg * P(RR > MEFS) (1) on the volume of resistive reservoir rock (area x thickness).
Hydrocarbon exploration is an activity in which
(Rose 2001). uncertainties are generally high. Table 1 lists typical
uncertainties in recoverable reserves for different explo-
It is standard industry practice to calculate Pg by evaluating ration scenarios (Rose, 2001). Uncertainty is meas-
a number of independent geologic chance factors associated ured by the P10/P90 ratio of the reserves distribution.

  Development well Step-out/ Wildcat in known Wildcat in proven Wildcat in


extension productive trend trend new play or
new basin
P10/P90 ratio 2.2-7.0 5-25 10-120 55-220 120-650
Table 1 Characteristic uncertainty ranges for different hydrocarbon exploration scenarios; taken from Rose (2001).

1
EMGS.
*
Corresponding author, E-mail: dbaltar@emgs.com

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The uncertainty is particularly high in frontier exploration HC-saturated formation resistivity scenarios on the well log
and for new play concepts. It is therefore important to use scale that would be consistent with the inversion result. These
all available information to reduce the uncertainty as much scenarios can be calculated from the transverse resistance
as possible to be able to focus the exploratory drilling on the equivalence principle, as will be derived below. All resistivities
prospects with the highest probability of economic success considered in the derivation are vertical resistivities.
and maximize the risked prospect portfolio value. Transverse resistance is the integral of resistivity over
It is well known that most of the uncertainty in the recov- depth. We define the anomalous transverse resistance (ATR)
erable reserves can be attributed to the uncertainty in the of the reservoir as the amount of transverse resistance above
net rock volume. Thus given a CSEM favourable setting, the the value that would exist if no hydrocarbons were present:
CSEM volume sensitivity can result in significant uncertainty
reduction on the reserve estimation. This makes CSEM a very .(3)
attractive ‘companion’ to seismic for prospect evaluation.
We present statistical evaluation methods for estimat- Here, ∆R is the resistivity anomaly due to hydrocarbons at
ing reserves that use anisotropic 3D CSEM inversion data the well log scale. The ATR represents the cumulative resis-
to reduce uncertainty. The methods were developed to tivity contrast over the pay zone (Figure 2).
easily integrate into common probabilistic reserves estimation
processes.
We will distinguish between the case where the 3D
CSEM inversion reconstructed a resistivity anomaly at the
prospect location and the case where no anomaly has been
reconstructed. In the presence of a CSEM anomaly, a Monte
Carlo simulation is run that uses the transverse resistance
equivalence principle to interpret the CSEM anomaly in terms
of net pay thickness and reservoir area, resulting in a net rock
volume probability distribution. This distribution can then be
used in a standard Monte Carlo simulation for recoverable
reserves based on equation (2). In the absence of a CSEM
anomaly, 3D forward modelling is used to establish maximum
non-detectable target cases, which are then used to condition
a standard Monte Carlo simulation for recoverable reserves.
We start by describing the evaluation method for the Figure  1 A hydrocarbon related resistivity anomaly in a 3D CSEM inversion
result is an upscaled version of the resistivity anomaly at the well log scale.
CSEM anomaly case. The method has been applied to real The transverse resistance equivalence can be used to interpret the CSEM
commercial exploration projects, but for reasons of com- anomaly at the well log scale. Example from Yuan et al. (2009).
mercial confidentiality, we simulate an exploration case using
the widely published CSEM data from the Troll West oil
province (TWOP) in the Norwegian North Sea to illustrate
the capability for reducing the uncertainty measured as
the P10/P90 ratio for the net rock volume, and compare
the resulting probability distribution to the actual net rock
volume. We then elaborate on the evaluation method used in
the absence of a CSEM anomaly and show how it truncates
the high end of the recoverable reserves distribution.

CSEM anomaly evaluation using the transverse


resistance equivalence principle
Marine CSEM is a low-frequency technique. Unconstrained
CSEM inversion therefore has a resolution that is typi-
cally above the reservoir thickness (Figure 1). A hydrocarbon
related resistivity anomaly in a CSEM inversion result is an
upscaled (‘averaged’) version of the resistivity anomaly at the
well log scale. Figure 2 The anomalous transverse resistance (ATR) of the reservoir describes
the cumulative resistivity contrast due to hydrocarbons, i.e., the green shaded
In case the only piece of available data is the CSEM area under the resistivity log curve. It is calculated by integrating the resistivity
inversion result, there are an infinite number of net pay and contrast over the pay zone.

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Given a 1D resistivity trace extracted from a 3D CSEM Assuming the background resistivity Rbg is known, equa-
inversion model, the transverse resistance equivalence princi- tions  (7) and (8) allow for calculating pairs of R and ∆Z
ple (Constable, 2010) suggests that that are consistent with the CSEM resistivity trace. This is
illustrated in Figure  3. If the average pay resistivity R was
,(4) known, the net pay ∆Z could be calculated from the CSEM
net-to-gross relationship. This, however, is not the case in
exploration. As we will show in the next section, a good way
where ∆Rcsem refers to the resistivity anomaly owing to to deal with lacking information and uncertainties is to run
hydrocarbons in the CSEM resistivity trace. In other words, a Monte Carlo simulation using the CSEM inversion result
the cumulative resistivity contrast of the CSEM resistivity as input.
trace and that of the resistivity well log are equal. So far we have only considered a single resistivity trace, i.e.,
Equation (4) can be rewritten in terms of average the 1D case. It is straightforward to extend the analysis to
resistivities as the full 3D CSEM inversion model. In this case, the averaging
over the anomaly results in an average CSEM resistivity map
.(5) (Figure 5), which may then be interpreted in terms of equa-
tions (7) and (8), i.e., we iterate over each cell in an area of
Here denotes the averaging operator, ∆Zcsem is the thick- interest to achieve a full net rock volume calculation.
ness of the CSEM anomaly in the CSEM resistivity trace and
∆Z is the actual thickness of the hydrocarbon charged reser- CSEM anomaly evaluation under uncertainty
voir interval, i.e. the net pay thickness required to evaluate We use a Monte Carlo method to handle the uncertainties
the reserve equation (2). in the evaluation of the CSEM anomaly. To do this, we must
Given a relatively uniform background resistivity varia- associate a random variable with a probability distribution
tion over the depth interval of interest defined by the CSEM to each source of uncertainty in the calculation. For net rock
anomaly, equation (5) can be simplified to volume calculations from an average resistivity map obtained
from a 3D CSEM inversion model, the main uncertainties
,(6) and corresponding random variables are the following:
n What is the background resistivity value? Variable: Rbg

where Rcsem is the average value of the CSEM resistivity trace n What resistivity values must be considered anomalous?

over the CSEM anomaly interval, R is the average hydrocar- Variable: Rcutoff
bon charged reservoir resistivity over the pay zone and Rbg is n What is the average pay resistivity? Variable: R

the average background resistivity.


Equation 6 can be rearranged to yield an expression for Suitable distributions for Rbg and Rcutoff should be defined
the “CSEM” net-to-gross ratio based on the average CSEM resistivity map itself. The R
distribution must be obtained from nearby wells, analogues,
,(7) or other a priori information.
The Monte Carlo algorithm (Figure 4) draws a random
which links the CSEM anomaly thickness ∆Zcsem to the net value for each of the above variables. The algorithm then
pay thickness ∆Z according to iterates over all cells of the input map with average resistivity
value Rcsem above Rcutoff and calculates their contributions to
.(8) the total net rock volume for the given combination of Rbg

Figure 3 A CSEM resistivity trace extracted from a 3D CSEM inversion result can be linked to average pay resistivity R and net pay thickness ∆Z via the transverse
resistance equivalence principle.

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Figure 4 Monte Carlo algorithm for generating a net


rock volume distribution from a CSEM anomaly.

Figure 5 Generation of an average resistivity map


from a 3D CSEM inversion model (vertical resistivity).
The contours mark the top of the averaging window,
which starts 400 m above the top reservoir horizon
and ends 300 m below it. The inversion result is from
the Troll West oil province (TWOP).

and R. The steps are repeated many times and a cumulative order to simulate an exploration setting. We only used the
probability distribution for the net rock volume is generated. reservoir top horizon from seismic and the results from an
So far, we have assumed that the ATR estimated by the unconstrained anisotropic 3D CSEM inversion.
CSEM inversion is a good approximation of the actual The following steps were followed to generate the input
anomalous transverse resistance of the reservoir. Following to the Monte Carlo simulation:
the derivation in the previous section, it is obvious that (1) Identify the CSEM anomaly in section view.
when the ATR is under- or overestimated, the net rock (2) Create two surfaces, one above the CSEM anomaly and
volume will be under- or overestimated in proportion to the one below by shifting the top reservoir horizon up and
error in the ATR. down respectively. (Figure 5)
CSEM inversion will typically underestimate the ATR of (3) Generate a map of the average CSEM resistivity Rcsem
the reservoir slightly. This can be accounted for in the Monte by averaging the vertical resistivity from the 3D CSEM
Carlo simulation by introducing an extra random variable inversion model between the two surfaces created in
describing the uncertainty in the estimated ATR. This is step 2. (Figure 5)
especially important when the CSEM sensitivity to the target (4) Calculate a thickness map of the averaging operator by
interval is low, e.g., for deep exploration objectives. The extra taking the difference between the two surfaces created in
random variable will naturally increase the uncertainty of step 2. In this case, the thickness was constant, but the
the resulting net rock volume probability distribution (P10/ algorithm equally applies to a laterally varying thickness.
P90 ratio). The uncertainty can be reduced by calibrating The thickness map serves to define the thickness of the
the ATR estimation by 3D forward modelling and synthetic CSEM anomaly, ∆Zcsem in equation (8).
data inversion for a representative target embedded in the (5) Define distributions for the background resistivity Rbg
background resistivity model obtained from the 3D inversion and the cut-off resistivity Rcutoff from the average CSEM
of the measured CSEM survey data. resistivity map generated in step 3.

Application to the Troll West oil province The Monte Carlo simulation tested possible reservoir scenarios
We demonstrate the performance of net rock volume esti- using the following resistivity ranges: 10 Ωm < R < 100 Ωm,
mation on the Troll West oil province (TWOP) over which 2.6 Ωm < Rbg < 3.2 Ωm, 3.3 Ωm < Rcutoff < 4.7 Ωm. To keep
a full-azimuth 3D CSEM survey was acquired in 2008 things simple, uniform probability distributions were chosen.
(Gabrielsen et al., 2009). Anisotropic 3D inversion of the Note that the range for the pay resistivity R is very large
survey data has been reported by Morten et al. (2009). since no well data were used to constrain this variable. The
No prior information about the pay resistivity, the limits for the Rbg and Rcutoff variables were chosen based on
net pay thickness, and the reservoir area was assumed in histograms derived from the average CSEM resistivity map.

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50,000 Monte Carlo samples were produced. The resulting mud line), geologic setting (e.g., water depth, overburden
cumulative probability distribution for the net rock volume is resistivity), and acquisition parameters (e.g., source current
shown in Figure  6 together with the actual volume defined amplitude and frequencies, available offset range, receiver
by the top reservoir horizon and the known oil-water contact sensitivity, ambient noise). If the geologic setting and acqui-
(OWC). The distribution is relatively narrow with a P10/P90 sition parameters are defined, the CSEM sensitivity can be
ratio of less than six, which is in the order of uncertainties established for assumed target characteristics by 3D forward
typical for development or near-field exploration (see Table 1). modelling. Such modelling is best performed using the back-
The actual net rock volume coincides with the 60th percentile. ground resistivity model obtained by anisotropic 3D inver-
Other information such as analogues or seismic interpreta- sion of the measured CSEM survey data.
tion could be used to condition the distribution, e.g., the As a result of the transverse resistance equivalence
higher end of the rock volume distribution could probably be principle, it makes sense to analyse the CSEM sensitivity as
ruled out using seismic interpretation. By cross-plotting the a function of ATR for a given reservoir area. An example of
Monte Carlo input variables against the resulting net rock such modelling is shown in Figure 7. The reservoir is located
volume samples, we found the main controlling factor in the 2200  m below mud line and has been modelled for three
net rock volume estimation to be the average pay resistivity R. different reservoir areas: 10, 30, and 75 km2. For each area,
a number of ATR values have been considered to generate a
Reserves estimation in the absence of a sensitivity curve. The displayed sensitivity metric is the nor-
CSEM anomaly malized magnitude versus offset (NMvO) attribute expressed
In the early days of CSEM for hydrocarbon exploration, the as a percentage for the offset and frequency combination that
absence of a CSEM anomaly was often equated with ‘no maximises the target response. Similar sensitivity curves can
hydrocarbons’. This simplified interpretation, however, does be generated for other sensitivity metrics, e.g., the hardware
not account for the volume sensitivity of CSEM. In other dependent sensitivity metric described in Barker et al. (2012).
words, the absence of a CSEM anomaly can only be used
to conclude that any hydrocarbon accumulation must be Detection criterion
smaller than the detection limit of CSEM for this particular For the NMvO sensitivity metric, it is common to assume
geologic setting and acquisition. By modelling the CSEM a limit of 10% for reliable target detection and imag-
sensitivity and defining a detection threshold, it is possible to ing. It is well known that the detectability depends on the
test whether a specific reservoir case is consistent or incon- geologic complexity and the quality of the CSEM data. Thus,
sistent with the CSEM observation, i.e., that no anomaly was for some CSEM surveys (e.g., shallow water surveys), the
reconstructed by 3D CSEM inversion. Such test in turn can NMvO detection criterion may have to be adjusted.
be used to condition a standard Monte Carlo simulation for Given a NMvO detection criterion of 10%, the sensitivity
recoverable reserves. curves of Figure 7 can be used to establish the minimum ATR
detected reliably for each modelled reservoir area, which we
CSEM sensitivity will call ATR10. The dependence of ATR10 on reservoir area
The sensitivity of CSEM data to a hydrocarbon accumula- A can be represented by fitting the functional
tion is known to be a function of target characteristics (e.g.,
reservoir area, net pay thickness, pay resistivity, depth below ATR10(A) = ATR10inf + r/(A-A0)(8)

Figure 6 Troll West oil province example: Estimated cumulative probability dis-
tribution for the net rock volume. The reference volume calculated from the
reservoir top and OWC coincides with the 60th percentile. The P10/P90 ratio is
less than six, which is low by common exploration standards.

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Figure 7 CSEM sensitivity curves obtained by 3D forward modelling: Maximum NMvO as a function of ATR for different reservoir areas. The prospect is located
2,200 m below mud line. Assuming a 10% NMvO detection criterion, the ATR threshold at which the NMvO value drops below 10% can be estimated for each
reservoir area. This threshold is called ATR10. The forward modelling uses the background resistivity model obtained by anisotropic 3D inversion of the meas-
ured CSEM survey data.

to the ATR10 samples as exemplified in Figure  8. Here, equation (2), which include the reservoir area A and the net
ATR10inf is the ATR10 value for an infinite reservoir area pay thickness ∆Z. In addition, for each reservoir scenario,
estimated from 1D modelling, A0 defines the minimum the average pay resistivity R and background resistivity Rbg
theoretical reservoir area detectable by CSEM and r is a needs to be established in order to calculate the correspond-
curvature parameter. For the example case considered, the ing ATR, ATR  =  ∆Z  *  (R-Rbg). As before, these resistivity
fitting parameters are ATR10inf = 540 Ωm2, A0 = 5.7 km2 and values need to be vertical resistivities. The algorithm works
r  =  2,000  Ωm2km2. Hydrocarbon accumulations with ATR according to the scheme outlined in Figure 9.
and reservoir area above this curve are most likely to be There are a number of ways in which the average pay
detected by CSEM, while those accumulations falling below resistivity R and the background resistivity Rbg can be intro-
the curve are more likely to remain undetected. duced into the calculation. The probability distribution for
Rbg can be derived from the 3D CSEM inversion model or
Reserves estimation nearby well control. The probability distribution for R can
In the absence of a CSEM anomaly, possible existing hydro- be obtained from analogues for which well data are avail-
carbon accumulations are most likely to be below the ATR10 able. Alternatively, pay resistivity can be calculated from
curve defined above. Therefore it makes sense to use this the porosity distribution and saturation distribution using
information in the reserves estimation. an Archie-like saturation equation and additional input
This can again be achieved through a Monte Carlo distributions defining the remaining Archie parameters
simulation. The algorithm uses the usual probability distri- such as pore water resistivity, cementation exponent, etc.
butions for the reservoir parameters entering the reserves Both approaches require a proper evaluation of expected

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Figure 8 Reservoir area and ATR combinations


that generate a 10% NMvO. The three points
have been picked from the modelled sensitivity
curves of Figure 7 and the curve was obtained by
fitting the points with the functional of equation
(8). Reservoir cases above the curve will generate
a NMvO > 10%; reservoir cases below the curve
generate a NMvO < 10%. The prospect is located
2200 m below mud line.

Figure 9 Monte Carlo algorithm for reserves esti-


mation in the absence of a CSEM anomaly.

electrical anisotropy in order to obtain meaningful vertical transverse resistance for all Monte Carlo samples. The sam-
resistivity values. ples corresponding to large reservoir area and/or high ATR
(red dots) have been removed as they would have produced
Example an anomaly in the 3D CSEM inversion result. Since large
Let us return to the prospect associated with the sensitivity areas and high ATR are more likely to be associated with
curves of Figure 7 and impose a NMvO detection criterion high recoverable reserves, we are removing mostly large
of 10%. The reservoir parameter distributions for this pros- fields from the recoverable reserves distribution. Therefore
pect are given by the P10 and P90 values in Table  2. All one would expect a large impact at the high end of the
distributions are assumed to be log normal. Figure 10 shows distribution (P10) and a smaller impact at the lower end of
the recoverable reserves distribution generated by Monte the distribution (P90). Figure  10 shows that this is exactly
Carlo simulation with and without CSEM conditioning. what happens: The P10 reserves are reduced by about 40%,
For the sake of simplicity, we have chosen to input the pay whereas the P90 reserves are only reduced by 23%. The
resistivity data directly instead of deriving it from a satura- resulting reduction in expected (average) reserves is fairly
tion equation. significant, about 38% from 104 MMbbl to 64 MMbbl. The
The Monte Carlo simulation was run for 100,000 uncertainty in the reserves as quantified by the P10/P90 ratio
iterations. Figure 11 shows the reservoir area and anomalous is reduced from 18 to 14.

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Figure  10 Recoverable reserves distribution in


the absence of a CSEM anomaly generated by
Monte Carlo simulation with and without CSEM
conditioning. The larger fields are more likely
to be detected by CSEM and thus the high end
of the distribution is more affected by the CSEM
result than the lower end. The prospect is located
2200 m below mud line. The reservoir parameter
distributions and other input to the Monte Carlo
simulation are taken from Table 2.

Variable P90 P10


Area [km ] 2
5 50
Thickness [m] 15 65
Porosity 0.23 0.33
HC saturation 0.5 0.75
Recovery factor 0.1 0.2
FVF 1.2 1.4
Rbg [Ωm] 2.15 2.5
R [Ωm] 10 50
Table 2 Inputs to the Monte Carlo simulation resulting in the recoverable
reserves distributions of Figure 10.

We presented two methods for reserves estimation incor-


Figure  11 Reservoir area and anomalous transverse resistance for all Monte porating anisotropic 3D CSEM inversion data to effectively
Carlo samples used to generate the recoverable reserves distributions of reduce the uncertainty associated with the net rock volume.
Figure 10. When using CSEM information, the samples corresponding to large The first method applies when the 3D CSEM inversion
reservoir area and/or high ATR (red dots) have been removed as they are
expected to produce an anomaly in the 3D CSEM inversion result; the samples reconstructed a resistivity anomaly at the prospect loca-
marked by blue dots are kept. tion; the second method is used in the absence of a CSEM
anomaly. Both algorithms are implemented as Monte Carlo
Conclusions simulations and are straightforward to integrate into existing
CSEM is sensitive to the reservoir area, net pay thickness, probabilistic reserve estimation processes.
and pay resistivity. Two of these variables, reservoir area The examples studied demonstrate that the uncertainty
and net pay thickness, constitute the main uncertainty in the reduction resulting from the use of 3D CSEM information
reserves calculation for a prospect: the net reservoir rock can be quite large. For the simulated exploration case in
volume. This fact makes CSEM a very useful exploration the Troll West oil province, the observed CSEM anomaly
tool for reducing the uncertainty in the estimated recover- resulted in a P10/P90 ratio for the net rock volume below six,
able reserves. which is extremely low by common exploration standards.

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In the negative case, i.e., absence of a CSEM anomaly, the Constable, S. [2010] Ten years of marine CSEM for hydrocarbon
impact on reserves in terms of P10/P90 ratio will generally exploration. Geophysics, 75, 5, A67–A81.
not be that strong, but the P10 and average reserves can Gabrielsen, P. T., Brevik, I., Mittet, R. and Løseth, L.O. [2009]
experience a significant reduction after the inclusion of the Investigating the exploration potential for 3D CSEM using a calibra-
3D CSEM information (~40% for the example studied). tion survey over the Troll Field. First Break, 27(6), 67–75.
Both results suggest that 3D CSEM can have a major Morten, J.P., Bjørke, A.K. and Støren, T. [2009] CSEM data uncertainty
impact on the estimated reserves and their uncertainty, which analysis for 3D inversion. 79th SEG Annual Meeting, Expanded
can lead to a great improvement in the prospect evaluation Abstracts, 28, 724–728.
and decision-making. Morten, J.P, Roth, F., Timko, D., Pacurar, C., Nguyen, A.K. and Olsen,
P.A. [2011] 3D reservoir characterization of a North Sea oil field
Acknowledgements using quantitative seismic & CSEM interpretation. 81st SEG Annual
We would like to thank Mårten Blixt from Blueback Meeting. Expanded Abstracts, 30, 1903–1907.
Reservoir for the interesting discussions about the algorithms Roden, R., Forrest, M. and Holeywell, R. [2005] The impact of seismic
and its implementation. amplitudes on prospect risk analysis. The Leading Edge, 24(7),
706–711.
References Rose, P.R. [2001] Risk analysis and management of petroleum explora-
Barker, N.D., Morten, J.P. and Shantsev D.V. [2012] Optimizing EM data tion ventures. AAPG, p. 26.
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Buland, A., Løseth, L.O., Becht, A., Roudot, M. and Røsten, T. [2011]. marine CSEM. 79th SEG Annual Meeting. Expanded Abstracts, 28,
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