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fcCKJI^S INSTITUTION OF OCEANOÜKAPHY HPKART
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, SAN DIFRO
LA JOMA. CALIFORNIA
Proceedings of a Workshop on
Development of Mineral, Energy, and
Water Resources and Mitigation of
Geologic Hazards in Central America
DEPOSITORY ITEM
FEB 1 9 1988
Proceedings of a Workshop on
Development of Mineral, Energy, and
Water Resources and Mitigation of
Geologic Hazards in Central America
INDICE
Introduction 1
Objectives 1
Participants 1
Specific subjects discussed 1
Agenda 2
Introducción 5
Objetivos 5
Participantes 5
Sujetos específicos 5
Agenda 6
Geological Situation in Guatemala, by Oscar Salazar 9
Situación Geológica en Guatemala, por Oscar Salazar 11
Current Geological Situation in El Salvador, by Ricardo Burgos 13
Situación Actual de la Geología en El Salvador, por Ricardo Burgos 19
Current Geological Situation in Honduras, by Carlo Hugo Rivera 25
Situación Actual de la Geología en Honduras, por Carlo Hugo Rivera 28
Use of Water, Energy, and Mineral Resources and the Reduction of Geologic Risks
in Panama, by Jose Saenz 31
Aprovechamiento de los Recursos Hidrológicos, Energéticos, y Minerales y la
Disminución de los Riesgos Geológicos en Panama, por Jose Saenz 33
Present Geological Situation in Costa Rica, by Rolando Castillo 35
Situación Actual de la Geología en Costa Rica, por Rolando Castillo 45
Report on Geological Work in Belize, by Prasada Rao and Clinton Gardiner 56
Reporte sobre el Trabajo Geológico Realizado en Belice, por Prasada Rao y
Clinton Gardiner 58
The Interamerican Development Bank and the Development of Minerals and Fossil
Fuels in Central America, by Bernardo F. Grossling 61
El Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo y el Desarrollo de Minerales y Recursos
Energéticos en America Central, por Bernardo F. Grossling 63
An Integrated Program of Energy and Mineral Resources Support for Central
America, by Ronald K. Lohrding and John T. Whetten 65
Programa de Asesoramiento Integrado de Recursos Minerales y Energéticos para
América Central, por Ronald K. Lohrding y John T. Whetten 67
Developing a Comprehensive Data Base for Mineral-Resource Planning and
Development in Central America, by Byron R. Berger, Dennis P. Cox, James E.
Case, Donald A. Singer, Carroll A. Hodges, John P. Albers, and Roger P.
Ashley 69
Creación de una Base de Datos Completos para el Planeamiento y Desarrollo de
Recursos Minerales en América Central, por Byron R. Berger, Dennis P. Cox,
James E. Case, Donald A. Singer, Carroll A. Hodges, John P. Albers, y Roger P.
Ashley 83
Coal Resource Assessment in Central America, by Edwin R. Landis 98
Contents III
Evaluación de Recursos Carboníferos en América Central, por Edwin R.
Landis 100
Offshore Resources, by N. Terence Edgar 102
Recursos de Aguas Afuera, por N. Terence Edgar 104
Minerals and Agriculture in Central America, by Thomas D. Fouch, James B.
Cathcart, Richard A. Sheppard, and David Z. Piper 106
Los Minerales y la Agricultura en América Central, por Thomas D. Fouch, James
B. Cathcart, Richard A. Sheppard, y David Z. Piper 109
Geothermal Resource Assessment for Central America, by Wendell A.
Duffield 113
La Evaluación de Recursos Geotérmicos en Centroamérica, por Wendell A.
Duffield 114
Selecting a Strategy for Reducing Landslide Losses, by Russell H. Campbell 115
Selección de Una Estrategia para Reducir las Pérdidas por Derrumbes, por Russell
H.Campbell 118
Volcano Hazards in Central America, by Wendell A. Duffield 122
Riesgos Volcánicos en Centroamérica, por Wendell A. Duffield 123
USGS Cooperative Earthquake Hazard-Reduction Programs in Central America:
A Review, Some Significant Results, and Recommendations, by Randall A.
White 124
Programas Cooperativos del Servicio Geológico de los Estados Unidos para
Reducción de Riesgos por Terremotos en Centroamérica: Una Revisión,
Algunos Resultados Significativos, y Recomendaciones, por Randall A.
White 129
The Bureau of Mines— Functions and Capabilities, by Harold J. Bennett 134
Oficina de Minas— Funciones y Aptitudes, por Harold J. Bennett 137
Management and Development of Surface and Ground Waters, by Ferdinand
Quiñones Márquez 140
El Manejo y Desarrollo de las Aguas Superficiales y Subterráneas, por Ferdinand
Quiñones Márquez 150
Water Resources Development—The Experience of the U.S. Bureau of
Reclamation, by.Richard H. Ives 160
Desarrollo de los Recursos Hídricos— Experiencia de la Oficina de Recuperación
de los Estados Unidos, por Richard H. Ivés 162
Regional Geological Framework Studies—A Necessary Foundation for Resource
Development Programs, by Robert C. McDowell 165
Estudios Regionales de la Estructura Geológica— Una Base Necesaria para los
Programas de Desarrollo de Recursos, por Robert C. McDowell 167
Library Resources, Information Management, and National Earth-Science
Programs, by George Goodwin 170
Recursos para Biblioteca, Manejo de Información, y Programas Nacionales de las
Ciencias de la Tierra, por George Goodwin 172
Precious-Metal Deposits in Volcanic Terranes, by Roger P. Ashley and Byron R.
Berger 174
Depósitos de Metales Preciosos en Terrenos Volcánicos, por Roger P. Ashley y
Byron R. Berger 183
Deposit Models in Resource Assessment and Mineral Exploration, by Dennis P. Cox
and Donald A. Singer 192
Modelos de Yacimientos en Distribución de Recursos y Exploración Mineral, por
Dennis P. Cox y Donald A. Singer 194
The Application of Electrical Geophysical Methods to Resource Assessment in the
Tropics, by Donald B. Hoover 196
La Aplicación de los Métodos Geofísicos Eléctricos en la Evaluación de los
Recursos en los Trópicos, por Donald B. Hoover 200
IV Content*
Geochemical Exploration for Mineral Resources in Tropical Environments of
Central America and the Caribbean, by Sherman P. Marsh 205
Exploración Geoquímica de Recursos Minerales en los Ambientes Tropicales de
Centroamérica y el Caribe, por Sherman P. Marsh 210
Expert Systems Research in Regional Resource Evaluation: Experiences in the
Application of Microcomputer Technologies, by Richard B. McCammon 216
Sistemas Idóneos de Investigación en Recursos de Evaluación Regional:
Experiencias en la Aplicación de Tecnologías Microcomputarizadas, por Richard
B. McCammon 217
Current Geobotanical Remote-Sensing Techniques for Humid Regions, by Nancy
Milton 218
Técnicas Geobotánicas Actuales de Percepción a Distancia para Regiones
Húmedas, por Nancy Milton 223
Discussion Group 1: The Role of Geologic Framework Studies in a National
Earth-Science Program 228
Grupo de Discusión 1: El Papel que Desempeñan los Estudios de Estructura
Geológica en un Programa Nacional de Ciencias de la Tierra 230
Discussion Group 2: Geologic Hazards 232
Grupo de Discusión 2: Peligros Geológicos 236
Discussion Group 3: Water-Resource Management 240
Grupo de Discusión 3: Manejo de Recursos de Agua 242
Discussion Group 4: Mineral Resource Assessment 244
Grupo de Discusión 4: Asesoría de Recursos Minerales 246
Discussion Group 5: Regional-Resource Assessment 248
Grupo de Discusión 5: Asesoramiento de Recursos Regionales 249
Discussion Group 6: The Future of Exploration in Central America 250
Grupo de Discusión 6: El Futuro de la Exploración en Centroamérica 252
Discussion Group 7: Training, Technology Transfer, and Information
Management 254
Grupo de Discusión 7: Entrenamiento, Transferencia de Tecnología y el Manejo
de Información 256
ICAITIs Role as a Regional Geological Center, by Gabriel Dengo 258
Función del ICAITI como Organismo Geológico Regional, por Gabriel Dengo 261
Conclusions 264
Conclusiones 265
Invited Participants 266
Participantes Invitados 266
Contents V
Development of Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources
Resource Development
INTRODUCTION
A meeting entitled, "Development of Mineral, and water-resource data; to identify the potential for
Energy, and Water Resources and the Mitigation of geologic hazards in the region; to identify opportunities
Geologic Hazards in Central America: A Workshop for resource development and hazards mitigation; to
Concerning Needs and Opportunities for Resource identify those factors that might inhibit resource develop
Development," was convened by the U.S. Geological ment; and to identify those programs needed to further
Survey (USGS) in Antigua, Guatemala, April 21-27, appropriate development.
1985. Funding was provided by the U.S. Agency for
International Development (USAID) and the U.S.
Department of the Interior; the USGS was assisted by the PARTICIPANTS
Instituto Centroamericano de Investigacion y Technologia
Industrial (ICAITI). Contributions to the workshop were
translated by ICAITI staff and supplemental translations Participants at the workshop included representa
were made by Mrs. Amalia Guerriero, USGS.
tives from Belizean, Guatemalan, Honduran, Salvadoran,
Costa Rican, and Panamanian governmental agencies
concerned with earth and water resources and geologic
OBJECTIVES hazards, officials of the Inter-American Development
Bank (IDB), specialists in resource development and
geologic hazards from the USGS, U.S. Bureau of Mines,
The workshop was conducted under the assumption
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, the Los Alamos National
that, in order to be effective, contributions to the eco
Laboratory, and interested persons from the private and
nomic self-sufficiency of the nations of Central America,
academic sectors.
and possibly to the political stability of the region, must
reduce the problems related to balance of payments in the
region, substitute local for imported commodities, aug
ment the availability of local jobs, increase the efficiency SPECIFIC SUBJECTS DISCUSSED
of agricultural production, and transfer technology, so
that local scientists can conduct future geoscience work
without dependence on outside assistance. The workshop Specific subjects discussed during the workshop
was designed to solicit the opinions of Central American included:
experts both as to the state of geoscience development in o Assessment of present knowledge of the basic geo
each of the participating countries and as to priorities for logic framework; mineral, energy, and water
resource development and hazards mitigation in the region resources; and geologic hazards for each of the
and in each country. participating Central American countries.
Objectives of the workshop were to make an initial 0 Examination of new technologies that could be
assessment of the nature, scope, and availability of earth- used to identify, explore, and exploit new or already
Introduction 1
known mineral, energy, and water resources and to personnel trained in the earth sciences, and the
mitigate hazards. needs for further training.
Discussion of new concepts for discovery and devel
opment of various mineral and energy commodi The workshop met in plenary session for 2 days,
ties. during which time Central American representatives pre
Examination of the potential and need for develop sented assessments of the state of and need for mineral-,
ment of energy resources such as coal, oil, gas, energy-, and water-resource development and hazards
geothermal power, and hydropower. mitigation in each of their countries and other partici
Review of the means to predict and mitigate geo pants presented topical papers on a large variety of
logic and hydrologic disasters. subjects related to resource development and hazard
Assessment of the availability and skills levels of mitigation.
AGENDA
Monday, April 22, 1985
0800-0900 Registration
0900-1030 Inaugural Ceremony
1030-1100 Coffee Break
Moderator: Richard D. Krushensky
1100-1130 The Situation in Guatemala Oscar Salazar (Instituto Geográfico Militar)
1130-1200 The Situation in El Salvador Ricardo Burgos (Centro de Investigaciones
Geotecnicas)
1200-1230 The Situation in Honduras Carlo Hugo Rivera (Dirección General de Minas
e Hidrocarburos)
1230-1300 The Situation in Panama Jose Saenz (Instituto de Geociencias)
1300-1430 Lunch— The Transfer of Technology, Its Gregorio Escalante (Independent Consultant)
Potential Benefits
1430-1500 The Situation in Costa Rica Rolando Castillo (Escuela Centroamericana
de Geología)
1500-1530 The Situation in Belize Prasada Rao (Ministry of Natural Resources)
1530-1600 Coffee Break
1600-1630 The IDB and the Development of Minerals and Bernardo F. Grossling (Interamerican
Fossil Fuels in Central America Development Bank)
1630-1730 An Integrated Program of Mineral and Energy Ronald K. Lohrding, (Los Alamos National
Resources for Central America Laboratory)
Tuesday, April 23
Moderator: Gregorio Escalante
0800-0900 Developing a Comprehensive Data Base for Byron R. Berger (USGS)
Mineral Resource Planning and Development
in Central America
0900-0930 Coal Resource Assessment in Central America Edwin R. Landis (USGS)
0930-1000 Coffee Break
1000-1030 Offshore Resources N. Terence Edgar (USGS)
1030-1100 Minerals and Agriculture in Central America Thomas D. Fouch (USGS)
1100-1130 Geothermal Resource Assessment for Central Wendell A. Duffield (USGS)
America
1130-1200 Selecting A Strategy for Reducing Landslide Russell H. Campbell (USGS)
Losses
1200-1230 Volcanic Risks in Central America Wendell A. Duffield (USGS)
1230-1300 USGS Cooperative Hazard-Reduction Randall A. White (USGS)
Programs in Central America
1300-1400 Lunch
1400-1430 An Integrated Program of Energy and Mineral Ronald K. Lohrding (Los Alamos National
Resources in Central America Laboratory)
1430-1500 The Bureau of Mines: Functions and Harold J. Bennett (U.S. Bureau of Mines)
Capabilities
1500-1530 Coffee Break
1530-1600 Management and Development of Surface and Ferdinand Quiñones M. (USGS)
Ground Water
1600-1630 Water Resources Development: The Bureau of Richard H. Ives (Bureau of Reclamation)
Reclamation Experience
2 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazard*, Central America
1630-1700 Regional Geologic Framework Studies: A Robert C. McDowell (USGS)
Necessary Foundation for Resource
Development Programs
1700-1730 Library Resources, Information Management, George Goodwin, Jr. (USGS)
and National Earth-Science Programs
Informal Paper
1930-2000 Hydrology in Central America Luis Garcia (Comitd Regional de Recursos
Hidraulicos de Amdrica Central)
Wednesday, April 24
0800-0830 Organization of the Discussion Groups Gabriel Dengo (ICAITD
0830-1200 Poster Sessions U.S. Department of the Interior-Los Alamos
National Laboratory participants
1200-1330 Lunch
1330-1700 Continuation of Poster Session Informal Papers
1930-2000 The Eruption of El Chichon 1982: Experience Wendell A. Duffield (USGS)
in Risk and Evaluation of Resources
2000-2300 Recent Microseismicity and Hazards Mitigation Randall A. White (USGS)
Studies in Central America
Thursday, April 25
0800-1300 Discussion Groups Meet
1300-1430 Lunch
1430-1730 Discussion Groups Meet
Informal Paper
1930-2000 Geological Problems in the Tunnels of the Rodolfo Alvarado (Hydroelectric Study of the
Chixoy Hydroelectric Project, Guatemala Usumacinta)
Friday, April 26
0800-1200 Preparation of Discussion Group Reports
1200-1330 Lunch
1330-1730 Plenary Session for Discussion Group Reports
1730-1800 The Function of ICAITI as a Regional Gabriel Dengo (ICATTI)
Organization
1800-1815 Closing Comment Francisco Aguirre (ICAITI)
Saturday, April 27
Departure of the Participants
Introduction 3
American School of Geology, University of Costa participating Central American countries, of all
Rica; geoscience activities.
Utilization of ICAITI as a unique Central Ameri
can center for geoscience and related technology; Summaries of the considerations and recommenda-
and tions by each discussion group are included as part of this
Centralization, in one institution within each of the report.
4 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America
Desarrollo de Recursos Minerales, Energía, y Agua y
INTRODUCCION
Un taller denominado "Desarrollo de Recursos Los objetivos del taller tuvieron como fin hacer una
Minerales, Energía, y Agua y Mitigación de Riesgos evaluación del carácter, propósito y disponibilidad de
Geológicos en Centroamérica: Un Taller Concerniente a datos sobre recursos de agua y tierra, identificar el
las Necesidades y Oportunidades para el Desarrollo de potencial de riesgos geológicos en la región, identificar
Recursos", fue presentado por el U.S. Geological Survey oportunidades para el desarrollo de recursos y mitigación
(USGS) en Antigua, Guatemala, desde el 21 al 27 de abril de riesgos, identificar aquellos factores que pudieran
de 1985. Los fondos fueron proporcionados por la Agen inhibir el desarrollo de recursos, e identificar aquellos
cia para el Desarrollo Internacional (USAID), y el USGS programas que pudieran favorecer el desarrollo
fue apoyado por el Instituto Centroamericano de Invest adecuado.
igación y Tecnología Industrial (ICAITI). Las contribuci
ones al taller fueron traducidas por el personal de ICAITI
y las traducciones suplementarias por la Sra. Amalia M. PARTICIPANTES
Guerriero del U.S. Geological Survey.
Introducción 5
agua y riesgos geológicos de cada uno de los países o Revisión del método para predecir desastres geoló
participantes de Centroamérica. gicos e hydrológicos y para su mitigación.
Estudio de nuevas tecnologías que puedan ser o Evaluación de la disponibilidad de personal entrena
utilizadas para identificar, explorar, y explotar recur do en las ciencias de la tierra, el nivel de habilidad
sos nuevos o conocidos de energía, minerales y adquirida y la necesidad de fomentar entrena
agua, como asi también para la mitigación de miento.
El taller estuvo en sesión plenaria durante dos días
riesgos.
durante los cuales los representantes centroamericanos
Análisis de conceptos nuevos que puedan afectar el presentaron evaluaciones del estado y requisitos para el
potencial para el descubrimiento y desarrollo de desarrollo de recursos minerales, energía y agua y
varios productos minerales y energéticos. mitigación de riesgos en cada uno de los países, como así
Estudio del potencial y necesidad para el desarrollo también la presentación de otros tópicos sobre el desarro
de recursos energéticos como carbón, petróleo y llo de recursos y mitigación de riesgos. Se adjunta la
gas, fuerza geotérmica e hydroeléctrica. agenda en español.
AGENDA
Lunes, Abril 22
0800-0900 Registro
0900-1030 Ceremonia Inaugural
1030-1100 Coffee Break
Moderador: Richard D. Kmshensky
1100-1130 Situación en Guatemala Osear Salazar (Instituto Geográfico Militar)
1130-1200 Situación en El Salvador Ricardo Burgos (Centro de Investigaciones
Geotecnicas)
1200-1230 Situación en Honduras Cario Hugo Rivera (Dirección General de Minas y
Hidrocarburos)
1230-1300 Situación en Panamá José Saenz (Instituto de Geociencias)
1300-1430 Almuerzo— Transferencia de Technología, sus Gregorio Escalante (Consultor)
Beneficios
1430-1500 Situación en Costa Rica Rolando Castillo (Escuela Centramericana
de Geología)
1500-1530 Situación en Belize Prasada Rao (Ministry of Natural Resources)
1530-1600 Coffee Break
1600-1630 El BID y el Desarrollo de Minerales y Bernardo Grossling (Banco Interamericano
Recursos Energéticos en América Central de Desarrollo)
1630-1730 Un Programa Integrado de Recursos Minerales Ronald K. Lohrding (los Alamos National
y Energéticos para America Central Laboratory)
Martes, Abril 23
Moderador: Gregorio Escalante
0800-0900 Una "Base de Datos" de Recursos Minerales Byron R. Berger (USGS)
Para la Planificación y desarrollo en
América Central
0900-0930 Evaluación de Recursos de Carbón de America Edwin R. Landis (USGS)
Central
0930-1000 Coffee Break
1000-1030 Evaluación de Recursos Geológicos Marinos N. Terrence Edgar (USGS)
1030-1100 Minerales y Agricultura en América Central Thomas D. Fouch (USGS)
1100-1130 Evaluación de Recursos Geotérmicos en Wendell A. Duffield (USGS)
América Central
1130-1200 La Selección de Estrategias para Reducir Russell H. Campbell (USGS)
Pérdidas por Derrumbes
1200-1230 Riesgo Volcánico en América Central Wendell A. Duffield (USGS)
1230-1300 Programa de Cooperación de USGS para Randall A. White (USGS)
Mitigación de Riesgos Sísmicos en América
Central
1300-1400 Almuerzo
1400-1430 Un Programa Integrado de Energía para Ronald K. Lohrding (Los Alamos National
América Central Laboratory)
1430-1500 Funciones y Capacidad Técnica del U.S. Bureau Harold J. Bennett (U.S. Bureau of Mines)
of Mines
6 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America
1500-1530 Coffee Break
1530-1600 Manejo y Desarrollo de las Aguas Ferdinand Quiñones M. (USGS)
Superficiales y Subterráneas
1600-1630 La Experencia del Bureau of Reclamation en Richard H. Ivés (U.S. Bureau of Reclamation)
el Desarrollo de los Recursos Hidráulicos
1630-1700 El Marco Geológico Regional Como una Base Robert C. McDowell (USGS)
Necesaria para Programas de Desarrollo
de los Recursos
1700-1730 Manejo de Información de Recursos en George Goodwin, Jr. (USGS)
Programas Gentílicos Nacionales
Trabajo Informal
1930-2000 Hidrología en América Central Luis García (Comité Regional de Recursos
Hidráulicos de América Central)
Miércoles, Abril 24
0800-0830 Organización de los Grupos de Discusión Gabriel Dengo ÍICAITI)
0830-1200 "Poster Session" Participación del U.S. Department of the Interior
y Los Alamos National Laboratory
1200-1700 Continuación del "Poster Session"
Trabajos Informales
1930-2000 La Erupción del Chichón de 1982^ Experiencia Wendell A. Duffield (USGS)
sobre Riesgos y Evaluación de Recursos
2000-2300 Estudios Recientes en Micro-Sismicidad Randall A. White (USGS)
y Mitigación de Riesgos Geológicos
Jueves, Abril 25
0800-1300 Grupos de Discusión
1300-1430 Almuerzo
1400-1730 Grupos de Discusión
Trabajos Informales
1930-2000 Problemas Geológicos en los Túneles del Rodolfo Alvarado (Estudio Hidroeléctrico del
Proyecto Hidroeléctrico Chixoy, Guatemala Usumacinta)
Hemes, Abril 26
0800-1200 Preparación del Informe
1200-1330 Almuerzo
Moderador: Gabriel Dengo
1300-1730 Sesión plenaria y presentación de los informes de
los Grupos de Discusión
1730-1800 Resumen del Seminario Gabriel Dengo (ICAITI)
1800-1815 Clausura Francisco Aguirre (ICAITI)
Sobado, Abril 27
Salida de los participantes
Extractos en Ingles y Español resumen las presen La Aplicación de los Métodos Geofísicos
taciones mencionadas en la agenda y están incluidos en Eléctricos en la Evaluación de los Recursos en Los
este informe como constancia. Documentos informales, Trópicos por Donald B. Hoover
los cuales no fueron suministrados con extractos no están Exploración Geoquímica de Recursos Minera
incluidos en este informe. Documentos "poster session" les en los Ambientes Tropicales de Centroamérica y
que no figuran en la agenda, pero están incluidos en este el Caribe por Sherman P. Marsh
documento incluyen lo siguiente: Sistemas Idóneos de Investigación en Recur
sos de Evaluación Regional: Experiencias en la
Depósitos de Metales Preciosos en Terrenos Aplicación de Tecnologías Microcomputarizadas por
Volcánicos por Roger P. Ashley and Byron R. Berger Richard B. McCammon
Modelos de Yacimientos en Distribución de Técnicas Geobotánicas Actuales de Percep
Recursos y Exploración Mineral por Dennis P. Cox y ción a Distancia para Regiones Húmedas por Nancy
Donald P. Singer Milton
Introducción 7
Posteriormente los representates participaron en ivadas de las discusiones en grupos fueron sumamente
grupos donde se llevaron a cabo debates para determinar variadas, todos concordaron en lo siguiente:
oportunidades y requisitos locales para el desarrollo de o Necesidad de entrenamiento (ambos para el desarro
recursos autóctonos. Los grupos, los cuales estaban pres llo profesional e instrucción básica) para ser llevada
ididos por representantes centroamericanos, incluyeron a cabo en la región y preferiblemente en la Escuela
temas tales como: Estudios de la Geología Básica, Central de Geología, Universidad de Costa Rica.
Riesgos Geológicos, Control de los Recursos de Agua, o Utilización de ICAITI como el único centro de
Evaluación de los Recursos Minerales, Evaluación de los América Central relacionado con geociencias y
Recursos Regionales de Energía, Exploración Futura en tecnología.
Centroamérica, y Entrenamiento, Tecnología, y Transfer o Centralizar por medio de un instituto en cada país
encia de Información. Aunque las recomendaciones der las actividades geocientíficas.
8 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America
GEOLOGICAL SITUATION IN GUATEMALA
By Oscar Salazar1
1 Inairulo Geográfico Militar. Avenida de las Americas, 5-76, Zona 13, Guatemala,
Existing
Ministry of Energy and Mines
10 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America
SITUACIÓN GEOLÓGICA EN GUATEMALA
Por Osear Salazar1
12 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologlc Hazards, Central America
CURRENT GEOLOGICAL SITUATION IN
EL SALVADOR
By Ricardo Burgos1
In 1955, the National Geological Survey was orga Geophysics: Training is needed in the techniques of
nized in El Salvador as an agency of the Ministry of Public geophysical prospecting, which includes operation
Works. This office was under the direction of German of equipment and interpretation of results obtained
geologists until 1963. During this time, a preliminary in the search for minerals, or ore deposits, and
geological map of El Salvador was prepared, geothermal underground water, as well as the geotechnical
fields were studied and a series of hydrogeological studies study of soils.
were carried out in different parts of the country. Geology: Training of personnel is needed in geo
In 1964, the National Geological Survey merged logic hazards, such as landslides, subsidence, set
with the Soil Laboratory, which gave rise to the the tling, etc., as well as in other problems which might
Geotechnical Research and Studies Center (Centro de arise as a consequence of floods. This includes
Estudios e Investigaciones Geotécnicas), which later corrective measures to avoid or diminish damage
changed its name to Geotechnical Research Center resulting from such phenomena.
(Centro de Investigaciones Geotécnicas). It has always Mining: Training of personnel at an artisan level is
been an entity of the Ministry of Public Works. Activities needed for the development of metallic mineral
of this organization consist of the engineering study of deposits.
sous and construction materials, and geological and seis
mic investigations.
Between the years 1968 and 1976, the German
Geological Mission was assigned to El Salvador; in 1972, MINING IN EL SALVADOR
it finished field work related to the geological cartography
of the country, and, in 1973, it delivered to the Salvador
ean Government geological maps at a scale of 1:500,000 The search for minerals, especially precious metals,
and sets of six sheets each at a scale of 1:100,000. has always aroused man's interest since ancient times;
During the past few years, the Geotechnical such minerals as gold and copper have been known since
Research Center has undertaken geological surveys in 18,000 and 12,000 B.C, respectively.
more limited areas where investigations regarding metal In El Salvador, mining development has undergone
lic and nonmctallic minerals have taken place. a series of ups-and-downs; that is to say, some fairly good
The small number of geologists in El Salvador times have alternated with other times of total inactivity;
presents problems in the development of government and thus, mining has never played an important role in the
private projects. It is, therefore, of the utmost importance national economy.
that the Central American School of Geology, in San Jose, The gold-silver mining industry in El Salvador is
Costa Rica, advertises and promotes itself in El Salvador. centralized in the eastern part of the country and occu
El Salvador needs geologists and civil engineers in pies an area of some 360 km2 in the provinces of San
the following areas: Miguel, Morazán, and La Unión. Less important centers
- Geochemistry: Training is needed in the techniques exist in the provinces of Cabanas and San Salvador. Gold
of sampling of rocks, soils, sediments, water, etc., as and silver minerals are found in epithermal veins of
well as in the interpretation of results obtained from Upper Tertiary rocks. Small iron-ore and base-metal
geochemical analyses. deposits exist in the jurisdiction of Metapán and immedi
ate vicinity at the farthest northeast side of the country.
During the colonial period (1525-1821), small
1 Dirtoor, Center for Geotechnical Studio, Calle la Chacra, contiguo Talleres el
amounts of iron ore were extracted. This ore was mainly
Coro. San Salvador. B Salvador. limonite and geothite, or contact metamorphic iron ore in
14 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America
- Nonmetallic minerals industry, and industrial use Instrumentation for the recording of seismic move
of rocks and soils in El Salvador. ments has been considerably increased. International
- Cement raw materials, caustic lime and pozzolana. cooperation has provided us with data-processing systems
- Rock beds for engraving stones in El Salvador. which open new possibilities and determine new priorities
- Raw material for fine ceramics. regarding areas needing study so as to actually reduce
- Raw material for glass manufacturing in El Salva risks.
dor. The following activities have been undertaken: com
- Road construction materials. pilation of a seismic catalogue; expansion of the seismo
- Perlite beds in El Salvador. logical network, data analysis and interpretation; investi
- Raw material for brick and roof-tile ceramics. gation of local geological effects; utilization of some
- Diatomite and sulfur beds in El Salvador. seismological stations in order to observe volcanoes; and
- Market research in El Salvador and neighboring improvement of observation and logging equipment.
countries. In spite of the fact that on September 19, 1982,
- Mineral wool, Salvadorean raw materials and Cen there was a mud flow in the San Salvador volcano and even
tral American markets. though there are risks originating from the uncontrolled
- Economic-geological investigations with regard to development of quarries located next to the metropolitan
the reopening of VIDESA. area of San Salvador (Area Metropolitana de San Salva
- Pozzolana: Beds and possibilities for its utilization. dor), as well as continuing hydrological risks, very little
- Salvadorean perlite: Beds and possibilities for its has been done to mitigate these risks except for the
utilization. emplacement of a seismological station in the San Salva
- Counseling in pumice stone, ceramics, pozzolana, dor volcano, which has the capacity to register the move
limestone, perlite. ments of future mud flows from this volcano.
- Raw material for ceramics, clays.
Historic Research
The majority of nations located in the world's
CURRENT SITUATION ON GOLD AND seismic zones understand seismic conditions in their ter
SILVER PRODUCTION IN EL SALVADOR ritories. In the western hemisphere, many countries have
already achieved this understanding or are in the process.
There exist in El Salvador some publications con
El Salvador has produced 65,769.46 Troy ounces of cerning seismicity, among which the most important are:
gold and 2,445,178.70 Troy ounces of silver from two "Cronología Sísmica y Eruptiva de la República de El
mines developed in the period 1971 through 1982. Salvador a partir de 1950" ("Seismic and Eruptive Chro
The Mining Commissioners indicate that ingots nology of the Republic of El Salvador as of 1950"), by
produced by the "Central Minera" at San Sebastián Maximiliano Hernández Martinez, 1978; a compilation
contain approximately 95 percent gold and 1.5 percent made by Jorge Larde in 1920, which was just recently
silver and trace impurities, whereas the San Cristobal condensed in one paper entitled "Obras Completas"
mine produced ingots containing 95 percent silver and 1.5 ("Complete Works"); and the 1985 work by the Montes-
percent gold and remaining impurities. sus de Bailore entitled "Earthquakes and Volcanic Erup
At the present, because of civil unrest, no mines are tions in Central America" ("Temblores y Erupciones
in operation. Volcánicas en Centro América").
Such publications constitute the reference frame
work for seismological studies. It is important to note that
SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS these focus on the theme from a chronological point of
view. Present work attempts to compile all data available
in such a way so as to use this compilation as support
Introduction material for more specific works in addition to discover
ing primary references.
Seismological investigations in El Salvador have Given the small size of our country and the seismic
been characterized by periods of advancement and complexity of the area, collaboration from other neighbor
retrenchment. At present, seismic studies show definite ing countries is most desirable.
development in spite of conditions prevailing in the coun
try.
Starting in 1983, the Geotechnical Research Center Seismic Engineering Studies
(CIG) began setting up an 11-station seismic telemetric After the earthquake of May 3, 1965, and at the
network. All stations are working as of April 1985. suggestion of foreign experts, a seismic network was
16 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resource* and Geologic Hazard*, Central America
The Rio Lempa Basin
Basin Lake Elevation
Natural lake area
(km3) area
(km3) , v.
(m) (masl) Type
This basin extends into Guatemalan and Hondur-
ean territory and makes up almost half of Salvadorean Ilopango 184.9 72.0 245 440.14 Dystrophic
Territory. The highest elevation along the basin is the Coatepeque 70.3 240 120.0 744.35 Ologotrophic
Guija 2,767.6 44.0 150.0 425.29 Eutrophic
"Cerro del Litoral" (2,730.06 m above sea level) located in Olomega 18.0
the Alotepeque-Metapan Cordillera. rson-usaDle
Along its course, the right margin of the Lempa Artificial lakes Area (km3) Storage (m8) volume
(m»)
receives domestic and industrial wastes from the most
Cerron Grande Reservoir 135 1,430 million 750 million
important population centers; along the left margin, the November 5 Reservoir 19 100 million
Lempa receives a high concentration of sediments from San Lorenzo (Sept. 15) 35 390 million
the deforested zones; waters entering from this forested Reservoir
area are oxygen-rich and contribute to water quality. Water Production and Consumption
Water production recorded by ANDA*
Sixty-eight percent of all hydraulic resources of the
country flow through the Lempa Basin. Its most impor Production** Consumption
tant present use is for the hydroelectric plant. Eighty-five 1982 4.7 m5/s 85.2 million m'
1983 4.3 m'/s 89.9 million m'
percent of the underground water and 48 percent of the
* Administracion Nacional de Acueductosy Alcantarillados
irrigated area of El Salvador lie within this basin. (Waterways and Sewerage National Administration).
More than 3 million cubic meters of sediments are ** Water production decreased from 1982 to 1983; however, it has
deposited in the Rio Lempa delta resulting in an annual recently increased as a consequence of the increment in public services
in San Salvador's metropolitan area.
loss of 0.17 mm of agricultural soil from its watershed
(without taking into account volumes retained at reser Water production per zone
voirs). Zones 1982 (LPS)* % 1983 (LPS)* %
The Lempa River, in its low zone, is sufficient to Metropolitan 2,300 48.3 2,983 68.3
supply irrigation for the agricultural development of the Central 710 15.0 613 14.1
Western 920 19.31 763 17.6
Coastal Alluvial Plateau. Eastern 829 17.4 —
Total 4,759 100.0 4,335 100.0
'Liters per second.
Median
Area Perimeter Length Eleva- Median
Grade
The AMSS (Metropolitan San Salvador) is the
(km3) (km) (km) tion percent most densely populated center of the country; it is esti
(masl)
mated that 841,000 inhabitants reside in this area, repre
Lempa River 18,240 933 389 665 11 senting 17 percent of the country's overall population, and
(56.2%)* 67.7 percent of the total urban population of the country.
Paz River 2,011 268.4 83 852.5 22.3
(42.9%)* Water Consumption in AMSS
San Francisco- 647 32.4 20.8 335 22.3
Copinula Rivers 1982 51.5 millions m*
San Pedro 875 342 25.6 450 15.2 1983 54.4 millions m*
Sensunapan-Banderas
Rivers The water consumption in Metropolitan San Salva
Pululuya-Comapala 1,400 53.9 26 393 28.6 dor, is estimated as follows:
Rivers 72.4% domestic
Jiboa River 575 139 50 513 22.9 15.9% industrial and commercial
Jiboa-Lempa 958 216 35.2 169 7 11.7% governmental and municipal institutions
Rivers
B Potrero-FJ 971 258 10 180 7 Water consumption per user's class in the country
Molino Rivers (1983) is estimated as follows:
Rio Grande de 2,247 232 127 279.6 12.5
San Miguel Private 86.1%
Between Grande 804 225 7 275 24 Government 8.0%
San Miguel- Municipal 3.2%
Sirami Rivers Irregular settlements 1.4%
Between 2,718 300 29.4 298 19.7 Autonomous institutions 1.1%
Guascoran-
Sirami Rivers Drinkable water Sewerage
( ' ) % of the basin that is in Sarvadoran territory. Urban Rural Urban Rural
72.6% 43.7% 52.8% - Domiciliary
Reservoirs in the country are classified as lakes and 32.2% 34.3% Lavatories and
lagoons. septic tanks
18 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America
SITUACIÓN ACTUAL DE LA GEOLOGÍA EN
EL SALVADOR
Por Ricardo Burgos1
La Geología comenzó a desarrollarse de una man Es conveniente que en El Salvador se lleve a cabo
era más intensiva en El Salvador a partir del año 1955, ciertos eventos que sirvan para capacitar a geólogos e
con la fundación del Servicio Geológico Nacional, adscrip- ingenieros civiles en las siguientes áreas:
to al Ministerio de Obras Públicas. Esta oficina estuvo, - Geoquímica: en las técnicas de muestreo de rocas,
hasta el año 1963, bajo la dirección de geólogos de suelos, sedimentos, aguas, etc.; así como también en
nacionalidad alemana. En este período se elaboró el la interpretación de resultados de análisis
mapa geológico preliminar de El Salvador, se comenzaron geoquímicos.
a estudiar los campos geotérmicos del país, así como - Geofísica: adiestramiento en prospección geofísica,
también se hizo una serie de estudios hidrogeológicos en lo cual implica técnicas de operación de aparatos e
diferentes partes del territorio. interpretación de los resultados obtenidos en la
En el año de 1964, el Servicio Geológico Nacional búsqueda de yacimientos minerales, aguas subter
fue fusionado con el Laboratorio de Suelos, originándose ráneas, así como también en el estudio geotécnico
de esta manera el Centro de Estudios e Investigaciones de los suelos.
Geotécnicas, que más tarde cambió su nombre a Centro - Geología: adiestramiento de personal en eventos
de Investigaciones Geotécnicas, siempre perteneciendo al relacionados con movimientos de tierra, tales como
Ministerio de Obras Públicas. Las actividades de esta deslizamientos, desprendimientos, hundimientos,
oficina consisten en el estudio ingenieril de los suelos, de asentamientos, etc. y otros problemas que puedan
los materiales de construcción y en investigaciones geo surgir como consecuencia de las aguas que corren
lógicas y sísmicas. sobre la superficie sin ninguna clase de control.
Entre los años de 1968 a 1976, estuvo destacada en Esto implica las medidas correctivas que deben ser
El Salvador la Misión Geológica Alemana. En 1972 consideradas, para evitar o disminuir los daños que
concluyó las labores de campo relativas a la cartografía resulten de estos fenómenos.
geológica del país, entregando al Gobierno Salvadoreño - Minería: adiestramiento de personal en la explo
en el año de 1973 cierta cantidad de mapas geológicos tación de yacimientos de minerales metálicos a nivel
1:500.000 y de juegos de seis hojas cada uno 1:100.000, artesanal, tomando en cuenta que los recursos
conteniendo también la geología de El Salvador. mineros de El Salvador son bien limitados.
En los últimos años, el Centro de Investigaciones
Geotécnicas ha realizado levantamientos geológicos en
áreas más limitadas, donde se han efectuado investigaci
ones de minerales metálicos y no metálicos. MINERÍA en el salvador
El número de geólogos es muy escaso en El Salva
dor, por lo que existen ciertos proyectos de carácter
gubernamental y privado que confrontan problemas para La búsqueda de minerales, especialmente de los
su desarrollo; por lo que es de imperiosa necesidad que la llamados preciosos, ha sido algo que desde tiempos muy
Escuela Centroamericana de Geología, con sede en San remotos ha despertado el interés del hombre, de tal
José, Costa Rica, se promocione más con el objeto de que manera que minerales como el oro y el cobre, ya se
la juventud salvadoreña se interese por la carrera de conocían unos 18.000 y 12.000 A.C. respectivamente.
Geología. En lo que respecta a El Salvador, el desarrollo de la
minería ha tenido una serie de altibajos, es decir, se han
combinado épocas bonancibles con otras de total inactiv
1 Director, Centro de I nvesl igactones Geotécnicas, Calle La Chacra, Contiguo idad en este campo, por lo que esta industria nunca ha
Tañeres E) Coro, San Salvador, B Salvador. desempeñado un papel decisivo en la economía nacional.
20 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazard*, Central America
últimos años la explotación de la caliza se ha incrementa plata, que representan 2.114.54 Kilogramos de oro y
do notablemente en la industria del cemento. 76.614.31 Kilogramos de plata.
En los últimos 20 años, la investigación minera se De acuerdo a los informes de los Comisionados de
vio favorecida a través de la cooperación y asistencia minas y de los ensayos de laboratorio, las barras de metal
técnica prestada por el Programa de Desarrollo Minero fundidas que produjo la Central Minera de San Sebastián,
de las Naciones Unidas y por la Misión Geológica contienen una proporción de más o menos 95% de oro,
Alemana destacada en El Salvador. 1.5% de plata y el resto de impurezas; en tanto—que la
La Naciones Unidas investigaron entre los años mina San Cristóbal produjo barras con un 95% de plata,
1967 a 1970, los recursos minerales existentes en la Zona 1.5% de oro y el resto de impurezas.
Norte del país, mediante estudios geológicos, geo El momento actual, debido a la situación anormal
químicos, geofísicos y de sondeos mecánicos. Los minera que se vive en el país, ninguna mina se encuentra en
les investigados fueron plomo, zinc, cobre, oro y plata en operación.
el proyecto "Evaluación de los Depósitos de Minerales en
el Norte de El Salvador", con el resultado de que la
minería podrá aportar más en el futuro, ya que se ESTUDIOS SISMOLÓGICOS
detectaron depósitos de plomo, zinc y plata favorables
para su explotación comercial. Introducción
La Misión Geológica Alemana destacada en El El desarrollo de las investigaciones sismológicas en
Salvador en la década de los años 70, contribuyó con las El Salvador se ha caracterizado por períodos de avance y
siguientes investigaciones: estancamiento. El actual, puede afirmarse que es un
- La industria de minerales no metálicos y de rocas y momento que inicia un claro desarrollo; esto a pesar de
de suelos de uso industrial en El Salvador. las condiciones prevalecientes en el país.
- Materia prima para cemento, cal caustica y puzo A partir de 1983, El Centro de Investigaciones
lana. Geotécnicas (CIG), comienza a trabajar en la instalación
- Yacimiento de rocas para piedras talladas en El de la Red Telemétrica Sísmica que al momento (Abril de
Salvador. 1985), cuenta con 11 estaciones instaladas y funcionando.
- Materia prima para cerámica fina. El instrumental para registro de movimientos violen
- Materia prima para la fabricación de vidro en El tos ha tenido una considerable ampliación. La coopera
Salvador. ción internacional nos ha provisto de sistemas de proce
- Materiales para construcción de carreteras. samiento de datos, que abren nuevas posibilidades y
- Yacimientos de perlitas en El Salvador. determinan nuevas exigencias. Con la idea clara de las
- Materia prima para cerámica de tejas y ladrillos. áreas necesarias de investigar, para poder disminuir los
- Yacimientos de diatomitas y azufre en El Salvador. riesgos de una manera real.
- Investigaciones de mercado en El Salvador, y países Se han emprendido las siguientes actividades: inves
vecinos. tigación histórica tendiente a la elaboración de un catálogo
- Lana mineral, materia prima salvadoreña y mer sísmico del país, ampliación de la red sismológica y de
cado en Centroamérica. movimiento violentos, análisis e interpretación de los
- Investigaciones geológica-económicas sobre datos obtenidos de ambas redes, investigación de los
reaperatura de VIDESA. efectos geológicos locales, utilización de algunas estacio
- Puzolana-Yacimientos y posibilidades de util nes sismológicas para la observación de volcanes y mejo
ización. ramiento del instrumental de observación y registro.
- Perlita salvadoreña-yacimientos posibilidades de A pesar de que el 19 de Septiembre de 1982 hubo
utilización. un flujo de lodo en el volcán de San Salvador y los peligros
- Asesoramientos en pómez, cerámica, puzolana, cal provenientes de la explotación incontrolada de las can
iza, perlita. teras cercanas al Área Metropolitana de San Salvador
- Materia prima para cerámica, arcilla. (AMSS) y en el interior de la República, así como los
peligros hidrológicos presentes, muy poco se ha hecho en
este sentido a excepción de la estación sismológica en el
SITUACIÓN ACTUAL DE LA PRODUCCIÓN volcán de San Salvador que seguramente registraría el
movimiento de un futuro flujo de lodo en ese volcán.
DE ORO Y PLATA EN EL SALVADOR
Investigación Histórica
El Salvador ha producido solamente en dos minas La mayor parte de naciones, en todas las zonas
oro y plata en explotación, desde 1971 a 1982 la suma de sísmicas del mundo, cuentan ya con una recopilación
65.769.46 onzas troy de oro y 2.445.178.70 onzas troy de histórica sísmica de su propio territorio. En el continente
22 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America
continuos por medio de una red de estaciones de medición Long. Elev. Pend.
de los parámetros que constituyen el ciclo hidrológico: Cuenca Area (Km3) Perímetro Cauce
(Km) (Km) Media Media
precipitación, evaporación, escorrentia e infiltración.
Tomando en consideración algunas características Río Lempa 18.240 933 389 665.SNM 11
como geología, la cobertura vegetal, la topografía y el (56.2%)'
clima, el territorio salvadoreño se ha dividido en 11 Río Paz 2,011 268.4 83 852.5 22.3
(42.9%)*
Grandes cuencas a saber. Entre Ríos San 647 32.4 20.8 335 22.3
Francisco-Copinula
1. Cuenca del Río Lempa Entre Ríos San 875 342 25.6 450 15.2
Pedro Sensunapan
2. Cuenca del Río Paz Banderas
3. Cuenca entre los ríos San Francisco-Copinula • % de la cuenca correspondiente al territorio salvadoreño
4. Cuenca entre los ríos San Pedro Sensunapan-
Banderas Long. Elev. Pend.
5. Cuenca entre los ríos Pululuya-Comalapa Cuenca Area (Km3) Perímetro
(Km) Cauce
6. Cuenca del Río Jibra (Km) Media Media
7. Cuenca entre los ríos Jalponga y otros Entre Ríos Pululuya 1,400 53.9 26 393 28.6
8. Cuenca entre los ríos El Potrero y El Molino Comalapa
Río Jiboa 575 139 50 513 22.9
9. Cuenca del Río Grande Entre Ríos 958 216 35.2 169 7
10. Cuenca entre los ríos Grande de San Miguel- Jiboa-Lempa
Siramá Entre Ríos El 971 258 10 180 7
Potrero-El Molina
11. Cuenca de los Goascorán-Siramá y otros Río Grande de San 804 225 7 275 24
Miguel-Siramá
Entre Ríos 2,718 300 29.4 298 19.7
Guaseoran-Siramá
Cuenca del Rio Lempa
En el país los embalses son clasificados en lagos y
lagunas.
Comprende parte de los territorios de Guatemala,
Honduras y casi mitad del territorio salvadoreño (13° 10'
y 14" 43' LM y 87° 45' y 90° 10' LWG). La mayor Area Area
elevación en el interior de la cuenca, es el cerro del litoral Lago Natural Cuenca Lago (nfsNM) Tipo
(Km3) (Km3)
(2730.06 mts. SNM) situado en la cordillera Alotepeque-
Ilopango 184.9 72 245 440.14 Distrófico
Metapán. Coatepeque 70.3 240 120 744.35 Ologotrófico
En su curso, el Lempa recibe numerosos afluentes, Guija 2767.6 44 150 425.29 Eutrófico
Olomega 18
los de la margen derecha están contaminados por ser
Area Almacenamiento Vol. no
receptores de desechos domiciliares e industriales de los Lagos Artificiales utilizable
centros poblacionados más importantes. Los afluentes de (Km3) («*) («n»)
la margen izquierda poseen alta concentración de sedi Embalse Cerrón Grande 135 1430 millones 750 millones
mentos en suspensión, provenientes de la zona deforest- Elbalse 5 de Noviembre 19 100 millones
ada; son ricos en oxígeno, contribuyendo a majorar la Embalse San Lorenzo 35 390 millones
(15 Sept)
calidad del agua.
Por la cuenca del Lempa, cuyo drenaje es dentrítico,
Producción y consumo de agua
fluye el 68% de los recursos hidráulicos del país; la La producción de agua registrada por ANDA (*)
utilización más importante es la hidroeléctrica, su abas
1982 4.7 M'/seg. 85.2 millones M'
tecimiento representa el 85% a base de aguas subter 1983 4.3 M3/seg. 89.9 millones
ráneas y el 48% del area regada del territorio salvadoreño (*) Administración Nacional de Acueductos y Alcantarillados
corresponde a esta cuenca. Se vio disminuida por comprender zonas conflictivas (M'/seg) sin
En el delta del río se depositan 3.16 millones m3 de embargo se ha dado un aumento como consecuencia del crecimiento
de los servicios en el área metropolitana de San Salvador.
sedimentos los que representa una pérdida anual de 0.17
mm de suelo agrícola, sin tomar en cuenta los vólumenes Producción de agua for zonas
retenidos en los embalses. Zonas 1982 (LPS) % 1983 (LPS) %
Metropolitana 2300 48.3 2983 68.3
El potencial hídrico del Lempa en su zona baja es Central 710 15.0 613 14.1
capaz de abastecer el desarrollo agrícola que pueda Occidental 920 19.3 763 17.6
inducirse en la Planicie Aluvial Costera, siempre y Oriental 829 17.4 V—
Total 4759 Toao 4335 Toao
cuando se haga un aprovechamiento integral del recurso.
24 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America
CURRENT GEOLOGICAL SITUATION IN HONDURAS
By Carlo Hugo Rivera1
26 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America
the identification of geothcrmal areas throughout the HUMAN RESOURCES
country, under the direction of United Nations in 1976, in
collaboration with the National Enterprise for Electric In Honduras there are few geologists, and all of
Power (ENEE) and the General Bureau of Mines and them completed their studies abroad, because in Hondu
Hydrocarbons. ras a degree in geology is not available. Most of these
ENEE negotiated a contract with an expert com geologists have been given scholarships by the General
pany, "Geonomics Inc." of Berkeley, California, U.S.A., Bureau of Mines and Hydrocarbons. Because this orga
which was to be responsible for carrying out preliminary nization cannot offer sufficient salaries, the geologists are
research in geothcrmal activity in different parts of the commonly employed by ENEE. The only existing mining
country, as well as for carrying out more detailed explo engineer works with private enterprise. The General
ration, in order to select sites for drilling and deep Bureau of Mines and Hydrocarbons has two geologists
exploration. This project was financed by ENEE. Because and two petroleum engineers. ENEE has two geologists
ENEE did not comply with its contract, the reports and the National University has two geophysicists.
remain incomplete.
28 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America
los cuales se han investigado casi 30, distribuidos en 7 de 10.800 km2, situado al noroeste de Honduras se
regiones: El Triunfo, Pavana, Nacaome, Comayagua, San levantaron fotogeológicamente, 21 mapas a escala
Ignacio, La Masica y Jutiapa. 1.50.000, en cuadrángulos de 500 km2 aproximadamente
los que se resumieron en un solo mapa a escala 1.250.000
que fueron publicados por Naciones Unidas, conjunta
SISMOLOGÍA volcánica mente con el folleto "Geología de la Región Nor-Oeste de
Honduras." La geología cubierta en el campo por Nacio
nes Unidas fué de 10.800 km2 y por fotointerpretación
Esta actividad no corresponde a ninguna institución fué de 9.367 km2.
gubernamental, sino al Departamento de Física de la En 1974-78, La Dirección General de Minas e
Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Honduras. Hidrocarburos con su propio personal dirigido por los
ingenieros geólogos Chilenos, hizo mapeo geológico
regional a escala 1.50.000 en la parte Oeste de O lancho,
HIDROLOGÍA habiéndose realizado geología de campo en 8.125 km2 y
geología por fotointerpretación 731 km2.
Mediante convenio suscrito con el Gobierno de
Esta función está a cargo de la Dirección General Japón se obtuvo asistencia técnica de ese país en el
de Recursos Hídricos, dependencia de la Secretaría de periodo 1977-79 el que cubrió un sector mineralizado
Recursos Naturales, quien es responsable por el estudio, dentro del área de Proyecto Minero de Naciones Unidas
diseño, y construcción de sistemas de riego, así como de la Sector de Minitas y Vueltas del Rio, con geología detalla
administración, operación, mantenimiento de proyectos y da a escala 1.50.000, el área cubierta por los japoneses es
la prestación de servicios técnicos de riego en los distritos de aproximadamente 1000 km2. El trabajo de la misma
estatales y particularmente que constituyan incremento a empresa culminó con una serie de perforaciones diaman
la producción nacional. tinas y sus resultados se encuentran en un informe de seis
volúmenes con sus mapas "Report of Geological Survey
of the Western Área."
AGUAS SUBTERRÁNEAS El área cubierta con geoquímica regional, hecho
por Naciones Unidas en el occidente del país, más lo
hecho en el Departamento de Olancho es del orden del
La Dirección General de Recursos Hídricos ha 19.27% del territorio nacional. Estos trabajos de
hecho estudios de investigación de aguas subterráneas, en geoquímica regional han sido la base de las investigaci
el sector de Alianza al Sur de la República y Comayagua, ones mineras en ambos proyectos, mediante cuyos estu
Siguatepeque, Choluteca, Jamastran, Talanga y Quimis- dios se logró determinar dos áreas mineralizadas impor
tran. Actualmente el Servicio Nacional de Acueductos y tantes como son la de Vueltas del Río y el sector de Petoa
Alcantarillados (SANAA) desarrolla un estudio de aguas (Minitas) en el Departamento de Santa Bárbara y el
subterráneas en el sector de Amarateca a unos 25 km de sector de la Gonce en el Departamento de Olancho.
la capital.
En 1974, La Dirección General de Irrigación, a
través de Cia Columbus de Badén Zuiza, realizó mapeo
Geológico y algunos perfiles geológicos en el sector de
ENSEÑANZA "Brasilar" y el "Bocón" en los Ríos Nacaome, Guacerope
y Semil, en el Sur de la República.
En Honduras no existe la carrera de geología, La Dirección General de Minas obtuvo también la
actualmente se imparte la clase de geología en la carrera cooperación del Gobierno de Canadá a través de CIDA,
de Ingeniería Civil de la Universidad Nacional Autónoma realizó varios trabajos. Diciembre 1977-Junio 1979
de Honduras. (Gold Placer in Honduras) estudio de oro de placer, Rio
Guayape, Patuca, etc. Estudios de minerales radioctivos
en el Departamento de Santa Bárbara, sectores de San
PROGRAMA DE ASISTENCIA TÉCNICA Nicolás, San José de Colinas y Yamalá, etc. Informe
relacionado con las regulaciones a seguir por parte de las
PASADA compañías con derechos de concesiones de Exploración y
Explotación (Informe John Glover Julio 1978). Real
izaron también perfiles geológicos en algunos sectores
En el período (1970-74) se recibió asistencia téc para determinar la estatigrafía del País. Organizó el
nica de Naciones Unidas que comprendió una superficie registro minero y donaron literatura y equipo Geofísico.
30 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resource* and Geologic Hazards, Central America
USE OF WATER, ENERGY, AND MINERAL
By Jose Saenz1
32 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resource» and Geologic Hazards, Central America
APROVECHAMIENTO DE LOS RECURSOS
HIDROLÓGICOS, ENERGÉTICOS Y MINERALES
Y LA DISMINUCIÓN DE LOS RIESGOS
GEOLÓGICOS EN PANAMÁ
Por José Saenz1
34 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America
PRESENT GEOLOGICAL SITUATION IN COSTA RICA
By Rolando Castillo1
36 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America
advice of the University of California in Santa Cruz. field related to the construction of roads, bridges, and
The coordination and execution of the project is several other types of public works.
invested in VSO into which all volcanologic and
seismologic functions have been merged. 1.8 Academic Education
As part of the volcanic surveying program, sys The Institution in charge of academic education
tematic measurement of temperature and analysis of
in the geological sciences, which awards degrees at the
fumarolic condensates are carried out, as well as Masters level, is the Central American School of
sampling of high-temperature gases, water geochem
Geology (ECG) of the University of Costa Rica
istry, gas traps (Sakrashima method), studies on the (UCR). Geological investigations of different techni
environmental impact of acid rain of volcanic origin,
cal and scientific nature are also performed, with the
measurement of radon, dry tilt and study of active
participation of teachers and students by means of
lavas, study of tephrites (tefras) for the evaluation of
theses.
volcanic risk, gravimetry, magnetometry, petrology, During geological meetings held in Costa Rica
gcomorphology, volcanic and seismicity studies. and Guatemala in 1965 and 1967, respectively,
This program is carried out on the Turrialba, emphasis was placed on the great need of training
Irazú, Poás, and Arenal volcanoes. However, applica
professionals in geological disciplines and on the great
tion of some of the methods noted are planned for
urgency of establishing a School of Geology. Repre
Barba, Planatar, and Rincón de la Vieja volcanoes.
sentatives of the governments of the region and of
In the area of seismology, a permanent and
Central American institutions for university education
nationwide seismologic net is being installed, with 18
participated in those meetings. They studied the prob
stations strategically distributed throughout the coun
lems and established the pertinent measures needed to
try. form a Central American School of Geology. Partici
At present, 10 short-period and vertical compo
pants at the meetings proposed the University of Costa
nent stations and one of three short-period compo
Rica as the site for the school. The UCR welcomed the
nents are installed and in operation. Three of these proposal and approved the establishment of a geology
stations are located in the northern part of the coun
degree program in April 1967. Afterwards, the Upper
try: the COBANO (CAO) station on the southern end
University Council (CSUCA) was asked to give the
of the Nicoya Peninsula, the JUAN DIAZ (JUD) program a regional character; at its 12th ordinary
station, 12 km west of Nicoya, and the RINCÓN
meeting, held in Managua in August 1967, its region-
(RIN) station, 5 km south of the crater of the Rincón
alization was approved. The Central American School
de la Vieja volcano.
of Geology opened its doors in March 1979, offering
In the central region, because of the large
the first courses pertaining to this curriculum. At
number of cities, seven stations have been installed:
present, the school offers a Masters degree in geology
the ESPARZA (EPA), PONTENCIANNA (PTCR)
and Masters degree in geology with emphasis on
at Puriscal, QUEPOS (QPS), POAS (POA), HER- mining geology. The Bachelors degree was eliminated
EDIA (HDC), CERRO DE LA MUERTE (CDM),
in 1983.
and IRAZU (IRZ) stations. The POAS and IRAZU
In order to fulfill the established program
stations are located near the craters of those volca according to Appendix I, 20 professors (9 full-time, 3
noes. The HEREDIA (HDC) station registers in half-time, 510 quarter-time) have been appointed.
three components with W-A response.
There are 9 professors with Academic Doctorates, 6
In the south, only one station has been installed: professors with Masters degrees, the other 5 special
the PUNTA BURICA (PBC) station, 25 km SE of ize in various fields; others are pursuing post
Golfito.
graduate studies. Furthermore, at present, there are
The remaining seven stations will be installed in
12 interim professors (5 with Masters degrees and 5
1985 and will be distributed as follows: three in the with Bachelors degrees).
south (Isle del Caño, Cerro Tigre, and Cotón), one on The student population is 244, of which 14 are
Turrialba Volcano, one at Limón, one on the North Central American. As of April 1985, the school has
Atlantic slope, and the last on Arenal Volcano. graduated 94 geologists (Bachelors and Masters), of
1.7 Hydrology and Geotechnics which 17 are Central American. The school is working
on the improvement of its academic program for
This task is principally carried out by ICE by which reason great efforts are being made to attract
means of its hydroelectric, geothermal, and water foreign specialized professors who can teach
projects, in connection with SENARA. advanced courses.
The Ministry of Public Works and Transporta The school is working on the implementation of
tion (MOPT) also carries out tasks in the geotechnical specialized specific courses and postgraduate courses
38 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resource* and Geologic Hazards, Central America
programs: PEMEX, YPF, University of British 2.1.6 School of Sciences of Land and
Columbia (UBC), ARPEL, OLADE, World Sea, National University, Volcanolo-
Bank, AID, USGS, Technical Cooperation gic and Seismologic Observatory
Agency of Japan (JICA), and the Los Alamos
National Laboratory, United States. Likewise, it This institution has received financial
has received the advise of several professionals assistance from AID since 1983, for the instal
and internationally well-known firms. lation of a national seismographic network, with
technical advise from the University of Califor
2.1.5 Development Corporation of Costa nia, Santa Cruz.
Rica (CODESA)
2.1.7 Electrical Institute of Costa Rica
CODESA has received technical assis
tance from the Geological Survey of Great Brit Sufficient information was not received
ain for alluvial, vein, and disseminated gold; for this section.
from the Canadian Foreign Administrative Ser
vice (CESO); from METARON Enterprise, 3. HUMAN RESOURCES
Rumania, on the Bauxite Project; from Kaiser Present and needed human resources by each insti
Enterprises, United States; from Asland, Spain, tution, according to their own estimates, are as follows:
on cement projects; and from ESI Engineering
of Canada on a sulphur field-evaluation project. 3.1 Bureau of Geology, Mining, and Hydro
In 1984, it also received technical assistance carbons
from the Government of Argentina, in order to
establish a mining data bank for the planning of 3.1.1 Existing human resources
mining development. CODESA, in 1985, 6 Geologists
received technical assistance from the Swedish 3 Assistant geologists
Government for the Alluvial Gold Project that 2 Lawyers
CODESA has initiated on the Osa Peninsula. 2 Assistant lawyers
Table 1 summarizes the technical assistance 2 Drillers
received. 2 Programming assistants
TABLE 1 .— International technical cooperation received by
CODESA
1 Biologist
3.1.2 Necessary human resources
Nemetof Government or
Type of Advising Duration Date
Personnel institution 6 Geologists
O. Frugoni Argentina Geological 2 months 1984 2 Program operators
Data Bank
J. B. Berrange British Photogeology 5 months 1984 3.2 Central American School of Geology
Geological of Osa
Institute
A. Stockmayer United Mining 6 weeks 1984
3.2.1 Existing human resources
Nations contracting
S. Simpson United Uranium 2 months 1983
a) Professors: 30
Nations analysis b) Administrative: 21
P. Donovan U.N. Revolv Gold veins 1 month 1982-83
D. Giles ing Fund 3.2.2 Necessary Human Resources
A. Beard Canada Gold refinery 3 months 1982
B. Amos British Mining explo 7 months 1981-82 a) Professors: 9-10 (approximately)
P. Rogers Geological ration at the Mining geology 1
Institute Tilaran
Mountains Sedimentary and petroleum geology 1
J. Syme Canada Gold veins 3 months 1981 Mineral benefit and mining economy 1
(CESO) Applied geophysics 1
D. Pringle Canada Gold veins 3 months 1981
(CESO) Geotechnics 1
A. Furiotti United Uranium 4 months 1980 Volcanology 1
Nations prospecting Seismology 1
N. Stanescu Rumanian Bauxite 4 months 1979
Government studies Palynology 1
Y.L. Roberts British Techniques 6 months 1979 Vertebrate paleontology 1
Geological of geochem- b) Administrative:
Institute ical analyses
A.G. Stratton United States Atomic 1 month 1979 Programmer 1-2
absorption Laboratory assistants (geochemistry, geo
analysis physics, mining geology, mineral beneficia
40 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America
3.7.2 Necessary Human Resources who are now working for various institutions noted above
and in the diverse specialized fields of geological sciences
20 Geologists
represented (for instance: stratigraphy, tectonics, paleon
5 Administrative
tology, petroleum, mining, geotechnics, hydrogeology,
4. KNOWLEDGE OF GEOLOGIC seismology, and volcanology).
RESOURCES AT PRESENT
5. NEEDS OF COSTA RICA
This subject is complex and difficult to deal with
inasmuch as there are several institutions in the country The estimate of present specific needs in order to
dealing in diverse geological studies. It seems to me that increase the geological knowledge of the country is some
this is a subject to be analyzed in joint participation with thing that must also be especially considered at this
the representatives of the various institutions attending seminar by all the different attending institutions.
this seminar. However, we might mention some of the needs that
In general terms, we can state that there does not the country will be required to resolve in order to improve
exist a definite and systematic program of geologic map its social-economic level, such as:
ping of the country (responsibility of DGMH) that could 1) Compilation of the geological map of the country,
produce a geological map at a scale more detailed than starting at 1:50,000 scale so that it can be used in fields
the l:200,000-scale map series published by DGMH. such as mining, petroleum, water, infrastructure
Geological mapping is conducted independently by each works, and so on.
of the institutions mentioned according to their project's 2) Development of a systematic mineral-resources explo
goals, and without coordination. ration program from initial exploration to develop
Nor is there a systematic mining exploration pro ment.
gram for Costa Rica. The efforts, even when valid, 3) Development of other geologic research programs,
performed by the involved institutions, are rather indepen intended for the use and development of various
dent and in accordance with the interests of each institu resources such as water for hydroelectric power and
tion.
irrigation projects, and for geothermal resources for
In regard to petroleum exploration initiated by
production of electric power, as well as water-supply
RECOPE in 1980, it would be of interest to hear the
views of the RECOPE representative as to the program as services.
well as the goals attained. The same should be said about 4) Development of technical and economic support for
the other specific tasks conducted by institutions such as the preparation of sufficient and qualified personnel,
SENARA in relation to the hydrogeological projects and trained in different fields of the geological sciences, at
CODESA in connection with its mine development graduate and postgraduate levels, in order to have
projects, especially in the area of gold. sufficient qualified professionals in charge of planning
Generally speaking, one could say that the knowl and execution of specific geological development pro
edge of geological resources has expanded since the '70s, grams in mining, petroleum, water, hydroelectric and
when the Central American School of Geology was estab geothermal projects, infrastructure works, and studies
lished. This is due to the academic training of students on the prevention and mitigation of geological hazards.
FIRST YEAR
Hours Credits
Theory P/Lab*
Hours Credits
Theory P/Lab* CYCLE IV
CYCLE I EG- Seminar national
EG-0000 Fine arts I 2 0 1 reality 2 0 2
EG-0001 Sports I 2 0 0 FS-0302 Laboratory, general
EG-0123 Integrated course physics I 0 3 1
on humanities I 6 0 6 FS-0303 General physics II 5 0 5
MA-0101 Mathematics 3 3 4 G-0315 Optical mineralogy 2 4 4
FS-0112 Basic physics 2 2 3 G-0316 Geomorphology 2 3 3
Q-0104 General chemistry I 4 0 3 G-3002 Geological
Q-0105 Laboratory, general drawing II 2 3 3
chemistry I 0 3 1 TOTAL 26 18
TOTAL 27 18
Hours Credits
Theory P/Lab* Hours Credits
Theory P/Lab*
CYCLE III
CYCLE VI
EG- Repertoire (Social EG- Seminar national
or Literature) 4 0 3
FS-0201 General physics reality II
5 0 4 G-0421 Introductory
MA-0301 Calculus II 5 0 4 geotechnics 2 4 3
G-0213 General geology II 3 2 3 G-0124 Applied geophysics 2 4 3
G-0224 General mineralogy 2 4 3 G-4110 Structural geology 4 2 4
G-3001 Geological
G-5117 Nonmetallic
drawing I
minerals 3 2 3
TOTAL 28 19 G-0023 Introductory
geochemistry 2 3 3
• Practice and/or laboratory, according to the professors' dictate.
TOTAL 30 18
42 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resource* and Geologic Hazards, Central America
FOURTH YEAR Hours Credits
Theory P/Lab*
Hours Credits
CYCLE X
Theory P/Lab*
G-0038 Micropaleontology 3 3 4
CYCLEVH Optional 2 3 3
G-
G-0020 Photogeology 2 3 3 G- Optional 2 3 3
G-4113 Stratigraphy 2 3 3 G- Optional 2 3 3
G-4222 Petrography G- Optional 2 3 3
sedimentary rocks 3 3 4 G-9502 Directed
G-0419 General research III 0 0 0
paleontology 3 3 4 16
TOTAL 26
G-4215 Metallic mineral
deposits 3 3 3 TOTAL CREDITS: 180
Hours Credits
Hours Credits
Theory P/Lab*
Theory P/Lab*
CYCLE IX CYCLE VIII
TOTAL 30 17 TOTAL 32 20
FIFTH YEAR
Hours Credits
Theory P/Lab*
CYCLE IX
G-5217 Field geology 0 5 2
G-4104 Prospection and
mining exploration 2 3 3
G-0021 Rock mechanics 2 4 3
G-0145 Mineral treatment
and metallurgy 2 3 3
G-0028 Metallography and
engraving 2 3 3
G- Optional 2 3 3
G-9501 Directed research __0 0 0_
TOTAL 31 17
Hours Credits
Theory P/Lab*
CYCLE X
G-4107 Economic geology 3 2 3
G-0143 Mining geology II 2 3 3
G-5125 Geological
legislation 3 0 2
G-5219 Mining economy 3 2 3
G- Optional 2 3 3
G-9502 Supervised
research III
TOTAL 23 14
44 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America
SITUACIÓN ACTUAL DE LA GEOLOGÍA
EN COSTA RICA
Por Rolando Castillo1
1. DISTRIBUCIÓN DE LA ACTIVIDAD cartografía geológica a diversas escalas, de
GEOLÓGICA POR INSTITUCIÓN acuerdo con sus actividades docentes y de inves
tigación, incluyendo los trabajos de tesis. El
A continuación se señalan las diversas instituciones Observatorio Vulcanológico y Sismológico de la
del Estado, que se encargan de desarrollar actividades Universidad Nacional efectúa estas labores a
geológicas por campos de acción. escalas desde luego de acuerdo con la naturale
1.1. Cartografía Geológica za de su proyecto de investigación vulcanológica
y sismológica.
1.1.1 Mapa Geológico De Costa Rica
1.2 Minería
Lo efectúa por ley la Dirección de Geo La DGMH (MIEM), cuya actividad principal
logía, Minas e Hidrocarburos (DGMH), Minis es la administración y control minero, además de la
terio de Industria, Energía y Minas (MIEM). elaboración del mapa geológico del país, de acuerdo al
1.1.2 Otras Labores De Cartografía Código de Minería, también desarrolla otras activi
Geológica dades de apoyo a las labores principales como por
ejemplo el plan de regionalización de la actividad
Diversas instituciones realizan labores de minera, la automatización del Registro Minero. Com
cartografía geológica, a diversas escalas, de plementariamente también impulsa algunos proyectos
acuerdo con los objetivos de los proyectos que de exploración y desarrollo minero en relación con oro
cada una de ellas desarrolle. y minerales industriales.
Es así como el Instituto Costarricense de La Corporación Costarricense de Desarrollo
Electricidad (ICE) efectúa cartografía geoló (CODESA) por medio del anterior Departamento de
gica en acorde con sus proyectos hidroeléctricos Desarrollo Geológico y Recursos Minerales, hoy
y geotérmicos. La Refinadora Costarricense de convertido en la empresa subsidiaria Minera Nacional
Petróleo (RECOPE) en relación con el proyecto S.A. (MINASA) se ocupa de impulsar y ejecutar
de exploración petrolera y carbón. La Corpo proyectos mineros a nivel de exploración, prin
ración Costarricense de Desarrollo (CODESA), cipalmente en el campo del desarrollo de los recursos
en la actualidad por intermedio de su subsi minerales en general, aunque en la actualidad se
diaría Minera Nacional S.A. (MINASA), efec ocupa principalmente de proyectos relacionados con
túa cartografía geológica más vinculada a labo la minería aurífera y de la prospección de minerales
res de exploración y evaluación de prospectos radioactivos, este último con la participación de las
minerales, en especial auríferos. El Servicio Naciones Unidas financiada por el Gobierno Italiano.
Nacional de Aguas Subterráneas Riego y Avena Con especial atención desarrolla los proyectos
miento (SENARA) se ocupa de trabajos de auríferos (tipo veta y diseminado) en la Cordillera de
cartografía geológica que tengan que ver con la Tilaran, y en la Península de Osa, proyectos de oro
investigación y aprovechamiento de las aguas aluvional con la asistencia técnica del Gobierno de
subterráneas y superficiales del país. La Escuela Suecia.
Centroamericana de Geología (ECG) efectúa
1 .3 Hidrocarburos Y Carbón
RECOPE es la entidad encargada por el Estado
1 Director, Ontroameriauía de Geología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San costarricense para efectuar la exploración y explo
Joae. Cbata Riol tación de los recursos hidrocarboríferos y carbón.
46 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologlc Hazard», Central America
dispone de un equipo para registro y análisis de POS (QPS), POAS (POA), HEREDIA (HDC),
microtemblores. CERRO DE LA MUERTE (CDM), e IRAZU
El Observatorio Vulcanológico y Sismológico (IRZ). Las estaciones POAS e IRAZU, se encuen
de la Universidad Nacional, con sede en Heredia, tran cerca del cráter de los volcanes del mismo nom
Costa Rica, viene realizando investigación en el área bre. La estación HEREDIA (HDC) registra
de la geociencias desde 1974. Desde ese año hasta en tres componentes con respuesta WOOD-
1983, trabajó en la recopilación y recolección de ANDERSON.
información de datos sísmicos en conjunto con el En la región sur se ha instalado únicamente una
Instituto Costarricense de Electricidad (ICE). estación: PUNTA BURICA (PBC), a 25 Km SE de
En 1977, se incorporó de lleno en el estudio y Golfito.
vigilancia volcánica a través del proyecto de estudio de Las restantes siete estaciones serán instaladas
los Volcanes de Costa Rica. En 1983, comenzó un en 1985 y distribuidas de la siguiente manera: tres en
proyecto entre la Universidad Nacional (UNA) y la el sur (Isla del Cano, Cerro Tigre y Cotón) en el
Agencia Para el Desarrollo Internacional (AID) a Volcán Turrialba, en Limón, en la Vertiente del Atlán
través de la Oficina para Desastres (OFDA), para la tico Norte y otra en el Volcán Arenal.
instalación de una red sismográfica de cobertura
nacional con la asesoría técnica de la Universidad de 1.7 Hidrología y Geotecnica
California en Santa Cruz. Por parte de la Universidad Esta labor la efectúa principalmente el ICE en
Nacional el coordinador y ejecutor del proyecto es el sus proyectos de desarrollo hidroeléctrico, geotérmico
OBSERVATORIO VULCANOLÓGICO Y SISMO y de riego, en conección con el SENARA, y básica
LÓGICO de dicha institución, organismo en el cual para las obras de infraestructura que construye.
se fusionaron todos los programas y proyectos de También el Ministerio de Obras Públicas y
vulcanología y sismología de dicha entidad. Transportes (MOPT) efectúa labor en el campo geo-
Como parte del programa de vigilancia volcánica técnico relacionada con la construcción de carreteras,
se efectúan mediciones sistemáticas de temperatura y puentes y diversos tipos de construcciones públicas.
análisis de condensados en fumarola, muestrario de
gases a alta temperatura, geoquímica de aguas, 1.8 Enseñanza Académica
trampa de gases (Método Sakurashima), estudios de
impacto ambiental de la lluvia acida de origen volcáni En lo que respecta a la enseñanza académica de
co, emanometría de gas radon, inclinometría seca y las ciencias geológicas en general con grados univer
lavas activas, estudio de tefras para evaluación de sitarios terminativos a nivel de Licenciatura, la
riesgo volcánico, gravimetría, magnetometría, petro Escuela Centroamericana de Geología (ECG) de la
logía, geomorfología y estudios de sismicidad volcáni Universidad de Costa Rica (UCR) es la encargada al
ca. respecto. También se desarrollan investigaciones geo
Este programa se viene desarrollando en los lógicas de diversa índole técnica y científica, con la
volcanes Turrialba, Irazu, Poas y Arenal, sin embargo participación de profesores y de estudiantes en sus
algunos de los métodos anteriores se planea aplicarlos tesis de grado.
a los volcanes Barba, Platanar y Rincón de la Vieja. En las reuniones geológicas de América Cen
En el área de sismología se está instalando una tral celebradas en Costa Rica y Guatemala en 1965 y
red sismográfica permanente y de cobertura nacional, 1967, respectivamente, se insistió en la apremiante
con 18 estaciones estratégicamente distribuidas en necesidad de formar profesionales en las disciplinas
todo el país. geológicas y en la urgencia de establecer una Escuela
Actualmente se tienen instaladas en todo el país de Geología para formar los recursos humanos que la
y en operación 10 estaciones de período corto y región necesitaba en estas disciplinas. En esos congre
componente vertical y una de tres componentes de sos participación representantes de los gobiernos
período corto. Tres de estas estaciones se encuentran de la región y de instituciones centroamericanas de
en la región norte del país: la estación COBANO educación universitaria, quienes estudiaron el proble
(CAO) en el extremo meridional de la Península de ma y establecieron las medidas pertinentes para crear
Nicoya, JUAN DÍAZ (JUD) a 12 Km al W de Nicoya una Escuela Centroamericana de Geología. Los par
y RINCÓN (RIN) a 5 Km al sur del cráter del volcán ticipantes en los congresos propusieron como sede de
Rincón de la Vieja. la Escuela, a la Universidad de Costa Rica; - esta
En la región central, dada la mayor cantidad de acogió la propuesta y aprobó la creación de la Carrera
ciudades y la consecuente concentración de la de Geología, en abril de 1967. Posteriormente se
población se han ubicado siete estaciones: ESPARZA solicitó al Consejo Superior Universitario, CSUCA, el
(EPA), PONTENCIANA (PTCR) in Puriscal, QUE- carácter regional de la carrera y en su XII reunión
48 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologlc Hazards, Central America
equipo que en la actualidad continúa, incluso Administativo Canadiense en el Exterior), de la
con una ampliación reciente (1985) del proyecto empresa METAROM de Rumania en el Proye
a nivel centroamericano. La OEA de 1973 a cto Bauxita, de las empresas Kaiser de los
1980, colaboró con equipo y becas en el área de Estados Unidos y Asland de España en los
sismología y vulcanología. El Gobierno Holan proyectos de cemento, de la empresa consultora
dés cooperó, mediante el envió de dos profeso ESI Engineering de Canadá en un proyecto de
res de 1973 a 1981. El Gobierno Japonés, por evaluación de un yacimiento de azufre. También
medio de la Agencia de Cooperación Internacio recibió en 1984, asistencia técnica del Gobierno
nal (JICA), desde 1980 al presente, ha venido Argentino, con el propósito de instaurar un
colaborando principalmente con equipo sismo sistema de información o Banco de Datos Geo
lógico y becas de adiestramiento. Últimamente, lógico Minero para la planificación del desar
se ha logrado la colaboración de la Facultad de rollo minero.
Ciencias Geológicas de la Universidad Complu A partir de este año (1985), CODESA ha
tense de Madrid. estado recibiendo asistencia técnica del Gobier
no Sueco en el Proyecto de Oro Aluvional que
2.1.3 Servico Nacional De Aguas dicha institución desarrolla en la Península de
Subterráneas, Riego Y Osa. Tabla 1 resume la asistencia técnica
Avenamiento (SENARA) recibida.
El SENARA ha recibido varias asistencias TABLA 1.— Corporación Costarricense De Desarrollo Cooperación
Técnica Internacional Gratuita Recibida En Los Proyectos Mineros
técnicas de diversas instituciones con las Nacio De Codesa
nes Unidas que dio lugar a su establecimiento
como Servicio Nacional de Aguas Subterráneas Nombre del Gobierno o
Tipo of Aseroría Duración Fecha
(SENAS). Personal Institución
Ha mantenido durante varios años conve O. Frugoni Argentina Banco de 2 meses 1984
nios de asistencia e investigación con el Servicio Datos
Geológicos
Geológico de Gran Bretaña (BGS) especifi- J. B. Berrange Inst. Geol. Fotogeologfa 5 meses 1984
camente orientados a las investigaciones hidro- Británico en Península
geológicas en el Área Metropolitana. (IGB) de Osa (Oro
Aluvional)
A través de organismos internacionales A. Stockmayer Naciones Contratación 6 semanas 1984
como OEA, UNESCO, British Council ha sido Unidas Minera
posible el entrenamiento de personal técnico y S. Simpson Naciones Análisis de 2 meses 1983
Unidas Uranio
profesional en el campo de la hidrogeología y P. Donovan Fondo Filones 1 mes 1982-83
geofísica. D. Giles Rotatorio Auríferos
A. Beard Canadá Refinería de 3 meses 1982
2.1 .4 Refinadora Costarricense De Oro
B. Amos Inst. Geol. Exploración 7 meses 1981-82
Petróleo (RECOPE) P. Rogers Británico Minera en la
Cordillera
Para la realización de las actividades de de Tilaran
exploración de hidrocarburos y carbón, J. Syme Canadá Filones 3 meses 1981
RECOPE ha contado, entre otros, con los sigui (CESO) Auríferos
D. Pringle Canadá Filones 3 meses 1981
entes programas de asistencia técnica: PEMEX, (CESO) Auríferos
YPF, Universidad de Columbia Británica A. Furlotti Naciones Prospección 4 meses 1980
(UBC), ARPEL, OLADE, Banco Mundial, Unidas Uranio
N. Stanescu Gobierno Estudios de 4 meses 1979
AID, USGS, Agencia de Cooperación Técnica Rumano Bauxita
del Japón (JICA), Laboratorio Los Alamos, Y. L. Roberts Inst. Geol. Técnicas de 6 meses 1979
Británico Análisis
Estados Unidos. Asimismo ha contado con la Geoquímicos
consultoría de varios profesionales y empresas A. G. Stratton Varían Análisis por 1 mes 1979
de prestigio internacional. Estados Absorción
Unidos Atómica
2.1.5 Corporación Costarricense De
2.1.6 Facultad De Las Ciencias De La
Desarrollo (CODESA)
Tierra Y Del Mar. Universidad
Esta institución ha recibido asistencia Nacional. Observatorio Vulcanoló-
técnica del Servicio Geológico de la Gran gico Y Sismológico.
Bretaña en los proyectos de oro aluvional y Esta institución ha recibido asistencia
Gloniano y/o diseminado, de CESO (Servicio financiera de la AID desde 1983, en cuanto a
50 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America
Operadores equipo pesado 7 3.7 Instituto Costarricense De Electricidad
Operarios de construcción 3 (ICE). Departamento de Geología.
3.7.1 Recursos Humanos Existentes
Recursos Humanos Existentes
Operarios de gravimetría 1 15 Geólogos
Soldadores 2 4 Administrativos
Mecánicos automotrices 3
Mecánico industrial 1 3.7.2 Recursos Humanos Necesarios
TOTAL 76 20 Geólogos
5 Administrativos
Personal administrativo 31
Personal no calificado 104 4. ESTADO ACTUAL DEL CONOCIMIENTO
DE LOS RECURSOS GEOLÓGICOS
TOTAL 135
Este tema es algo difícil de tratar en su real
3.5 Corporación Costarricense De magnitud, dado que en el país existen diversas instituci
Desarrollo (CODESA). Minera ones, como se ha podido determinar anteriormente, que
Nacional (MINASA). se dedican a muy diversos campos del estudio de los
recursos geológicos. Me parece que este punto deberá ser
3.5.1 Recursos Humanos Existentes analizado en conjunto con la participación de los repres
entantes de las diversas instituciones que asisten a este
6 Geólogos seminario.
2 Químicos Sin embargo en términos generales se puede
1 Abogado señalar que no existe, por ejemplo, un programa definido
2 Dibujantes y sistemático de cartografía geológica del país (de respon-
23 Administrativos sibilidad de la DGMH) que vaya a producir un mapa
geológico, a escalas de mayor detalle geológico que el de
3.5.2 Recursos Humanos Necesarios 1:200.000 publicado por la DGMH, es decir escalas como
1 Topógrafo 1:50.000. La cartografía geológica se realiza independi
1 Analista Financiero entemente en cada una de las instituciones mencionadas
de acuerdo con los objetivos de sus proyectos.
3.6 Facultad De Ciencias De La Tierra Y El Tampoco existe un programa sistemático de explo
ración minera del territorio nacional. Los esfuerzos,
Mar. Universidad Nacional. Observa valiosos al fin, que al respecto realizan las instituciones
torio Vulcanológico Y Sismológico involucradas, son más bien independientes y de acuerdo
3.6.1 Recursos Humanos Existentes con los intereses propios de cada institución.
En cuanto a la exploración petrolera del territorio
2 Lectores de sismogramas nacional iniciada por el Estado en 1980, sería interesante
1 Analista de datos, técnico en computación escuchar la participación del representante de esta insti
2 Técnicos en electrónica tución con el fin de evaluar la programación establecida y
1 Geodesta los objetivos logrados. Lo mismo habría que decir de las
1 Analista geoquímico otras labores específicas desarrolladas por instituciones
3 Investigadores en los campos de sismología y como SENARA en relación con los proyectos hidrogeo-
vulcanología lógicos, CODESA en conección con sus proyectos de
1 Secretaria desarrollo minero, especialmente en el campo aurífero.
En términos generales, se puede decir que el cono
Ademas dos miembros del Observatorio,
cimiento de los recursos geológicos ha avanzado mucho a
se encuentran cursando estudios de doctorado
partir de la década del 70, al establecerse la Escuela
en la Universidad de California en Santa Cruz,
Centroamericana de Geología. Esto por cuanto esta
uno en sismología y el otro en vulcanología. unidad académica ha preparado suficiente recurso
3.6.2 Recursos Humanos Necesarios humano el cual ha venido elaborando para las diferentes
instituciones mencionadas y en diversos - campos de
Podría ser conveniente aumentar el per especialidad de las Ciencias Geológicas (por ejemplo:
sonal científico investigador en los campos de estratigrafía, tectónica, paleontología, petróleo, minería,
sismología y vulcanología. geotécnica, hidrogeología, sismología, vulcanología).
52 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazarda, Central America
ANEXO NO. 1-PLAN DE ESTUDIOS, 1984, ASIGNATURAS PARA UCENCIATURA EN
GEOLOGIA
Horas Créditos
QUINTO AÑO
Theoría P/Lab*
Horas Créditos CICLO VIII
Teoría P/Lab*
CICLO IX G-5116 Geología
de Campo II 2 5 4
G-5217 Laboratorio G-0125 Geofísica Minera 2 4 3
Campana G-0142 Geología Minera I 3 3 4
Geológica 0 5 2 CI-202 Principios de
G-4114 Geotectónica 3 2 3 Informática I 4 0 4
G-4213 Mecánica de Suelos G-3270 Petrografía Rocas
p/Geólogos 2 3 3 Metamórficas 1 2 2
G-0233 Geoquímica G- Estratigrafía y
Aplicada 2 3 3 Sedimentología 2 4 3
54 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America
G-9500 Investigación
Dirigida I 0 0 0
TOTAL 32 20
Horas Créditos
Teoria P/Lab*
COSTO DE VERANO
G-5216 Campana
Geológica 0 0 2
QUINTO AÑO
Horas Créditos
Teorfti P/Lab*
CICLO IX
G-5217 Laboratorio
Campana
Geológica 0 5 2
G-4104 Prospección y
Exploración
Minera 2 3 3
G-0021 Mecánica de Rocas 2 4 3
G-0145 Tratamiento
Mineral y
Metalurgia 2 3 3
G-0028 Metalografía y
Calcografía 2 3 3
G- Optativa 2 3 3
G-9501 Investigación
Dirigida II 0 0 0
TOTAL 31 17
Horas Créditos
Teoría P/Lab*
CICLO X
G-4107 Geología
Económica 3 2 3
G-0143 Geología Minera II 2 3 3
G-5125 Legislación
Geológica 3 0 2
G-5219 Economía Minera 3 2 3
G- Optativa 2 3 3
G-9502 Investigación
Dirigida III 0 0 0
TOTAL 23 14
TOTAL DE CRÉDITOS: 181
TOTAL DE HORAS!: 285 (sin Campana
Geológica)
56 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resource* and Geologic Hazards, Central America
a year of processing and interpretation of seismic data in the aspect where we need it the most— namely,
accompanied perhaps by further seismic field work. At geologic mapping. The World Bank project, however,
least three wildcat wells are expected to be drilled this promised to help us in other fields like conversion of
year. One was already spudded-in on April 18. By 1986, seismograms to transparencies, digitization of logs, and
there should be a number of relinquishments and/or a holding of regional seminars. The IUGS has assisted us in
number of wildcat wells drilled. helping carry out gravity surveys in the country by donat
ing a gravimeter and by training personnel. A plan of work
has been made and will soon be submitted.
OTHER ACTIVITIES
Other activities in the country include preparation AREAS WHERE AID IS NECESSARY
of an oil spill contingency plan, preparation of an inven
tory of oil seepages, field work as and when necessity The rainfall in different parts of the country ranges
arises during the dry season, and helping the various from 50 to 150 inches per annum. There is a dry season of
departments like the United Nations High Commission at least 3 months during which time there is temporarily
for Refugees, the Directorate of Peace Corps, and the a shortage of potable water. Although many villages have
Army in exploring for underground water. lined wells and a few have protected water supply, a need
is obviously felt for a large-scale survey of the under
ground water resources. There is no department that has
CURRENT ACTIVITIES OF THE PETROLEUM been designated exclusively for this purpose. Whenever
the need arises, the Agriculture Department of the Min
OFFICE AND ITS RESPONSIBILITIES
istry of Natural Resources, the Ministry of W)rks, the
Petroleum Office, and other agencies and individuals do
the exploration. Consequently, there is no concerted and
The main responsibility of the Petroleum Office is organized effort. A groundwater section could be started
to act as a technical liaison between the Ministry of first in the Petroleum Geology Office and slowly could be
Natural Resources and the oil companies, other compa converted into a department.
nies, and individuals exploring for minerals. At present, A good geological map at a scale of 1:50,000 is an
there is a project of the UNDP for Petroleum Resources absolute necessity for the country, so that exploration for
Development with international staff and national coun minerals, groundwater, selection of dam sites, and so,
terparts. Three Belizian students underwent training in could be facilitated. Since most of the outcrops are
the U.S. in petroleum drafting, petroleum accounting, and covered by thick forests, equipment and funds are needed
geophysics, respectively, mainly with the help of the for making trails and for camping. A good four-wheel-
UNDP and the U.S. Agency for International Develop drive vehicle is also needed. Supplies such as topo sheets,
ment (USAID). International experts are working on the aerial photographs, sketch master, and other small equip
carbonate petrography of the samples of various wells, ment needed by a field geologist exists.
establishing foraminiferal biostratigraphy, structural and
stratigraphic interpretation of the seismic data, prepara
tion of rock stratigraphy with logs and samples, and basin TRAINING FACILITIES
analysis in collaboration with Belizean scientists. These
studies are to be integrated, and promotional reports are
to be presented soon for the benefit of the oil companies. Trained nationals are not available in geology. Only
All of this work hopefully would bring the country nearer two nationals with undergraduate qualifications are avail
to the goal of finding oil. able, but unfortunately these two are not in geology.
The Petroleum Office is involved in other geological Attempts are being made to attract these into the Petro
activities, as described above. The most important activity leum Office, but there is further need to attract young
that the office is going to take up is to prepare a good sters to geology, perhaps from "A" level students. These
country-wide geological map at a scale of 1:50,000. We could be sent abroad for higher studies. Simultaneously,
approached the International Union of Geological Sci they can work during vacation time back home. This is
ences (IUGS) for this purpose so that mapping of Belize what is being done in the case of a national who is doing
could be brought under an International Geological his undergraduate work in geophysics at Texas A&M
Correlation Program (IGCP) project. Unfortunately, the University.
IGCP was unable to support the proposal. The World Finally, we thank Dr. Dengo, the Director of
Bank is operating a UNDP project for the entire Carib ICAITI, the USGS, and the USAID for sponsoring our
bean studying the oil potential, but this would not help us trip to this beautiful country.
58 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America
intérprete de registros geológicos, un petrógrafo en enlace entre el Ministerio de Recursos Naturales y las
carbonatos, un micropaleontólogo, y un analista sísmico. compañías petroleras y otras compañías y personas indivi
A la Oficina de Petróleos se le encomendó la tarea de duales que están explorando minerales. Por el momento,
atraer compañías que estuvieran interesadas en explorar existe un proyecto de la UNDP para el Desarrollo de
petróleo en Belice. Recursos Petroleros con personal internacional y homó
Después del establecimiento de la Oficina de Petró logos nacionales. Tres de los profesionales nacionales
leo, la mayor parte del país está rentada a compañías asistieron a adiestramiento en los Estados Unidos en las
petroleras. Aún cuando hubo muchos especuladores y especialidades de dibujo en petróleo, contabilidad petrol
promotores que solo vinieron a "curiosear", cada año se era y geofísica, respectivamente, con la asistencia prin
están perforando por lo menos dos pozos exploratorios. A cipalmente de la UNDP y parcialmente de la USAID. Los
la fecha, el total de pozos perforados es de 44, muchos de expertos internacionales junto con los nacionales están
los cuales no han dado indicios de ser comerciales en la trabajando en petrografía carbónica de las muestras de
parte cretácea alta, pero por lo menos si ha habido un varios pozos, estableciendo la bio-estratigrafía foramini-
descubrimiento sub-comercial. Mientras que los años feral, la interpretación estructural y estratigráfica de los
1982 y 1983 fueron testigos de un período de negociacio datos sísmicos, preparación de la estratigrafía rocosa con
nes y firma de contratos con las compañías petroleras, en registros y muestras, y en análisis de la cuenca. Todos este
1984 cuatro compañías más importantes, como lo son, estudios deberán ser integrados y se espera que pronto
Pectén (la división internacional de Shell U.S.), Atlantic sean presentados los reportes promocionales para el
Richfield, Marathón y Occidental, llevaron a cabo beneficio de las compañías petroleras. Todo este trabajo,
trabajos costa afuera y en tierra sobre experimentos según se espera, hará que el país se acerque más a su
sísmicos y producción en un área que cubría 1.500 meta de encontrar petróleo.
kilómetros. Todavía en estos tres años se perforaron otros Además de lo anterior, la Oficina de Petróleos está
seis pozos exploratorios. Se espera que 1985 sea un año involucrada en otras actividades de tipo geológico como se
dedicado al procesamiento e interpretación de los datos describe anteriormente. La actividad más importante que
sísmicos, los cuales quizas sean acompañados de mayor la Oficina va a emprender, es la elaboración de un buen
trabajo de campo sísmico. Por lo menos se espera que se mapa geológico a una escala de 1:50.000. Nosotros nos
perforen tres pozos exploratorios más durante esta año. comunicamos con el IUGS (sic) con este propósito, con el
Por lo menos, el 18 de abril ya se inició la perforación de fin de que el mapeo de Belice pudiera realizarse bajo un
uno. En 1986 deberá haber un número de cesiones y/o un proyecto IGCP. Desafortunadamente no logramos
número de pozos exploratorios perforados. obtener ningún opoyo por parte de IUGS. El Banco
Mundial esta operando un proyecto de la UNDP para
toda el área del Caribe, estudiando el potencial petrolero,
OTRAS ACTIVIDADES pero esto no nos ayudaría en el aspecto en donde nosotros
más lo necesitamos, o sea, en el mapeo geológico. El
proyecto del Banco Mundial, no obstante, prometió
ayudarnos en otros campos, como lo son la conversión de
Otras actividades en el país incluyen la preparación
sismogramas a transparencias, la digitización de registros
de un plan de contingencia para el derrame de petróleo
y la celebración de seminarios regionales. El IUGS nos ha
con la ayuda de una Agencia de las Naciones Unidas, la
asegurado que nos ayudará en la realización de los
preparación de un inventario de filtraciones petroleras,
estudios de gravedad en el país, donando un gravímetro y
trabajo de campo respecto a cuando pueden originarse
adiestrando personal. Nosotros ya elaboramos un plan de
las necesidades en la estación seca, y la ayuda a varios
trabajo el cual estaremos presentando en breve. Confia
departamentos como la Alta Comisión de las Naciones
mos en que a tres o cuatro años plazo, los estudios de
Unidas para los Refugiados, el Directorio del Cuerpo de
gravedad habrán cubierto todo el país.
Paz y el Ejército en la exploración de las aguas sub
marinas.
ÁREAS EN LAS CUALES SERIA NECESARIA
ACTIVIDADES ACTUALES EN LA OFICINA
LA AYUDA
DE PETRÓLEO Y SUS
RESPONSABILIDADES (1) La precipitación en diferentes partes del país
varía de 50" a 150" por año. Hay una estación seca de por
lo menos tres meses durante los cuales se experimentan
Las responsabilidades principales de la Oficina de muchos problemas y dificultades en la obtención de agua
Petróleo incluyen el actuar como un oficial técnico de potable. Aún cuando muchas poblaciones cuentan con
60 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America
THE INTERAMERICAN DEVELOPMENT BANK
AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF MINERALS
AND FOSSIL FUELS IN CENTRAL AMERICA
By Bernardo F. Grossling1
First, I would like to thank the U.S. Geological 1984, 32 percent were granted to urban-, 28 percent to
Survey and the U.S. Agency for International Develop energy-, and 23 percent to agriculture-sector projects. It
ment for inviting me to this workshop. is expected that IDB may soon establish a new phase: the
In this speech, I will briefly refer to the following: Interamerican Investment Corporation, directed to the
1) nature of the Interamerican Development Bank (IDB); private sector.
2) IDB's performance in the fields of mining, coal, oil, as Policies concerning the mining field are extensive;
well as natural disasters; 3) policy and strategies for these they thus allow projects involving prospecting, exploration,
fields; and 4) reflections on the handicaps to the develop development, exploitation, mineral processing and con
ment of Central America's mining resources. By Central centration, refining, transportation, and shipping projects,
America, I mean the countries from Guatemala through as well as other infrastructure projects. In the bank there
Panama. is a great flexibility which adjusts to conditions at each
I brought with me copies of the material distributed stage, inasmuch as the policies do not specify priorities.
by the IDB, which might be of interest to you: guides for The policies of the IDB in the petroleum sector,
the preparation of mining and marine seismology located within broader energy policies, are likewise wide
projects, and a study of the legal regulations for hydro and flexible. They allow for projects that range from
carbons. In addition, Mr. Gustavo Calderón gave me geological studies through all intermediate stages up to
copies of guides to bio-energy and new and nonconventi- refining. In the process of analysis and approval by the
onal energy development projects, areas within his IDB directorate, priorities can be adjusted to needs at
responsibility in the IDB. each stage. IDB policies concerned with natural disasters
The IDB is an international organization founded allow for assistance to countries which have suffered
almost 25 years ago for the purpose of stimulating the damages brought about by earthquakes, tsunamis, hurri
economic and social development of Latin America. Such canes, volcanic eruptions, floods, droughts, plagues, forest
an institution, long desired by the Latin American coun fires, and soil erosion. In response to natural disasters, the
tries, finally obtained support from the Latin American bank reacts with maximum speed and flexibility.
nations and the United States. Work of Juscelino Kubits- The IDB examines each loan project proposal
chek, President of Brazil, finally brought the IDB into exhaustively. The examination assesses technical, eco
being. In the United States, it was President Dwight nomic, institutional, and financial feasibility. The potential
Eisenhower who understood the importance of the move profitability of the project, mineral prices on the world
ment, and proposed it to the U.S. Congress. market, the general situation of the world commodity
To the end of 1984, the IDB had approved loans for markets, and alternative sources of financing are exam
approximately 28 million dollars, corresponding to a total ined in particular.
project cost of around 100 million dollars. During the By the end of 1984, the bank had approved 30 loans
1984 fiscal year, loans were approved for an amount of for the mining sector for a total amount of 848 million
3.567 million dollars, and in addition, nonreimbursable dollars, which corresponds to a project cost of 3,000
projects for technical cooperation had been approved to a million dollars. These loans were chiefly destined to
level of 48 million dollars. Of the total loans approved in
mining countries of South America (Chile, Brazil, Mex
ico, Peru, Bolivia). In regard to minerals produced, 398
million dollars was directed to copper projects, 233
1 Inleramencan Development Bank. 1300 New York Avenue. Washington. D.C. million to coal, 72 million to iron, 33 million to lead/
The Interamerican Development Bank and the Development of Mineral* and Fossil Fuels In Central America 61
zinc/silver, and 12 million dollars to tin. The most signif institutional building loan of 1.2 million dollars was
icant projects were, perhaps, the rehabilitation of approved for Honduras.
nationalized mines of Bolivia (1961-1966), the expansion Even though priorities may not have been explicit, it
of the iron-mining capacity of the "Vale de Rio Doce" might be noted that strategy in the mining sector has
company of Brazil, and the support of small- and been: 1) selective support of mining activities in countries
medium-sized mining ventures in Bolivia and Peru. The which have a mining tradition; 2) encouragement of
rehabilitization of the Bolivian mining industry was in mining exploration in countries with potential for mineral
recognition of a critical situation, and had the support of resources, in which there has been no mining or in which
the United States, the Federal Republic of Germany, as mining is at an initial stage of development, and 3) the
well as the IDB. The support given to the Vale de Rio support of small- and medium-scale mining.
Doce was an important stage in the process of the In regard to hydrocarbons, two areas have been
expansion of this company, which has now become the emphasized: construction of gas pipelines and regional
largest exporter of iron ore in the world. Support to small seismic studies. Natural gas may be extremely important
and medium mining companies had helped resolve a to the internal economy of a country; for example,
situation, at times precarious, which might have had Argentina, which has large natural gas resources, has
important social repercussions. built an enormous network of gas pipelines, with the
By the end of 1984, IDB had approved 28 loans for financial cooperation of the IDB. Marine and on-land
the petroleum sector for a total of 730 million dollars seismic studies have contributed and will contribute to the
which corresponds to projects having a total cost of 1,600 discovery of hydrocarbons. In addition, these studies have
million dollars. These loans for technical cooperation helped to enlarge the exploration horizons and to over
were directed to 11 Latin American countries (Bolivia, come certain geological prejudices to exploration.
Argentina, Chile, Peru, Brazil, Jamaica, Ecuador, the A proposal for financing that has been submitted to
Dominican Republic, Colombia, Uruguay, and Haiti). the IDB has undergone several stages in its development:
These projects included 2 regional geologic assessment project identification, promotion, analysis, negotiation,
studies, 3 ore deposit assessment studies, 6 projects in execution, and assessment of the final results. Of these
seismicity, S projects in marine seismicity, 2 projects in stages, I would like to emphasize those which I consider
subsurface structural studies, 1 project in subsurface to be the most critical. In several countries there is not a
stratigraphic studies, 4 projects in subsurface exploration, good appreciation of the importance of the mining sector.
1 project in developmental wells, 15 gas and petroleum Existing legislature in certain countries may discourage
pipeline projects, 4 refinery projects, and 2 projects in gas private enterprises, and there may be insufficent financial
distribution. The most significant of these projects were: resources to produce a feasible project. The factor of
gas pipelines for Argentina and Bolivia, and marine greatest importance is to obtain a so-called natural pri
seismic studies in various phases. The IDB has financed ority, one that originates at a high level in the government
a total of 4.357 km of gas pipelines and 131 km of marine and not in the technical organizations of the mining and
seismic lines. As an example, the marine seismic project petroleum sectors. In a fiscal feasibility analysis of the
in Brazil led to the discovery of 530 million barrels of
proposed project there are certain critical questions that
petroleum.
Until the end of 1984, the IDB had approved about must be answered. These are: what is the role played by
12 operations in response to natural disasters at a cost of private enterprises; what is the role of private financing;
about 200 million dollars. Six operations were related to what is the macroeconomic impact of the project; what is
earthquakes (Peru, 1970; Nicaragua, 1973; Guatemala, the capacity to carry out and improve the project.
1976; Colombia,1980; Colombia, 1983), 2 operations were Finally, it is appropriate to say that a country, like a
in response to hurricanes (Honduras, 1977; the Domini man, has, without constraints, the right to know itself.
can Republic, 1980), and 4 operations were in response to That is to say, the comprehensive study of a country's
floods (Paraguay, 1981; Bolivia, 1982; Argentina, 1983; subsurface should be made easy. To prevent or inhibit this
and Peru, 1983). Technical cooperation projects that were self knowledge may place a country in a position of
approved as reimbursable loans or reimbursable contin ignorance or inferiority regarding their resources, if they
gency loans are worthy of note here. For example, an are to negotiate with external companies.
62 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resource* and Geologic Hazards, Central America
EL BANCO INTERAMERICANO DE DESARROLLO Y
EL DESARROLLO DE MINERALES Y RECURSOS
ENERGÉTICOS EN AMERICA CENTRAL
Por Bernardo F. Grossling1
En primer lugar quiero agradecer la invitación del Del total de préstamos acordado en 1984 los proyectos
Servicio Geológico de los Estados Unidos y de la Agencia para el sector urbano recibieron 32 por ciento, para
para el Desarrollo Internacional (US) para asistir a este energía 28 por ciento, para agricultura 23 por ciento del
Seminario. total prestado. Se espera que pronto el BID establezca
En esta charla me refiero brevemente a los sigui una nueva faceta: la Corporación Interamericana de
entes puntos: 1) que es el BID; 2) lo que ha hecho en los Inversiones, que está dirigida al sector privado.
sectores minería, carbón, petróleo y en cuanto a desastres Las políticas sobre el sector minero son amplias
naturales; 3) políticas y estrategias para esos sectores; y permitiendo hacer proyectos de prospección, exploración,
4) reflexiones sobre impedimentos al desarrollo de los desarrollo, explotación, beneficio y concentración de
recursos mineros de Centroamérica. Al decir Centro minerales, refinación, transporte y embarque y obras de
infraestructura. Hay una gran flexibilidad para adaptarse
America incluyo los países desde Guatemala hasta
a las condiciones de cada época, ya que las políticas, de
Panamá.
por si, no especifican prioridades.
Traje conmigo algunas copias de material de difu
Igualmente las políticas sobre el sector petróleo,
sión del BID, que puede ser de interés para ustedes: guias
que están dentro del marco de políticas sobre energía, son
para la preparación de proyectos de minería, sísmica
amplias y flexibles. Permiten hacer proyectos que abarcan
marina, y un estudio de los regímenes legales de hidro
desde estudios geológicos, y todas las etapas intermedias
carburos. Además, el Ing. Gustavo Calderón del BID me
hasta refinación. Las prioridades se pueden ajustar a las
dio copias de guías para proyectos de bio-energía, y
necesidades de cada época, en el proceso de análisis y
energías nuevas y no convencionales, que corresponden al
aprobación por el Directorio del BID.
sector de su responsabilidad.
La política sobre desastres naturales permite
El BID (Banco ínter-Americano de Desarrollo) es ayudar a los países cuando sufren daños por: terremotos,
un organismo internacional fundado hace casi 25 años maremotos, huracanes, erupciones volcánicas, inunda
atrás, con el objeto de estimular el desarrollo económico ciones, sequías, plagas, incendios de bosque, y erosiones
y social de la América Latina. Tal institución era una de suelos. En cuanto a estos desastres la respuesta del
aspiración de los paises latinoamericanos, que finalmen BID, es de máxima celeridad y flexibilidad.
te, logró el apoyo de los países latinoamericanos y los El BID hace un examen exhaustivo de cada pro
Estados Unidos. El Presidente de Brasil, Juscelino Kubits- yecto de préstamo, examen que abarca: factibilidad
chek hizo el llamado final que puso el proceso de técnica, factibilidad económica, factibilidad institucional,
formación del BID en marcha. En los Estados Unidos fué y factibilidad financiera. Se examina en especial la tasa de
el Presidente Dwight Eisenhower quien comprendió la rentabilidad del proyecto, precios del mineral en el mer
importancia de la iniciativa y la propuso a su Congreso. cado internacional, situación del mercado internacional y
Hasta fines de 1984 el BID habiá aprobado présta fuentes alternativas de financiamiento.
mos por alrededor de $28.000 millones de dólares, corres Hasta fines de 1984 el BID había aprobado 30
pondiendo a un costo total de proyectos por alrededor de prestamos en el sector de minería por un monto total de
S 100.000 millones de dólares. En el último ejercicio, $848 milliones de dolares, correspondiendo a proyectos
1984, se aprobaron préstamos por $3.567 milliones de por un costo total de $3.000 millones de dolares. Estos
dólares, y además proyectos de cooperación técnica no prestamos fueron dirigidos principalmente a países
reembolsable o contingente por $48 milliones de dólares. mineros de la región (Chile, Brasil, México, Perú,
Bolivia). En cuanto al mineral, a proyectos de cobre
Inlcnunencu» de Deiorollo, 1300 New York Avenue. Washington, D.C. correspondió $398 millones, de carbón $233 millones, de
64 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologíc Hazards, Central America
AN INTEGRATED PROGRAM OF ENERGY AND
MINERAL RESOURCES SUPPORT FOR CENTRAL
AMERICA
By Ronald K. Lohrding and John T. Whetten1
The Central American Energy Resources Project is 3. Through the activities identified in objectives 1 and
a new USAID project designed to assist Central Ameri 2, build technical and managerial skills so that a
can countries in finding, assessing, and developing indig self-sustaining economic development process is
enous natural resources—particularly in the areas of established. This objective will be achieved predom
energy and minerals. The project was formally inantly by on-the-job training associated with the
announced by USAID Director Peter McPherson and project components, training workshops, sponsored
.New Mexico Senator Peter Domenici on February 22, graduate student participation and visits by regional
1985, from the White House, after receiving very strong technicians to Los Alamos and other U.S. institu
endorsement by President Reagan on the same day. tions.
The project will be coordinated and managed by 4. Involve the local and U.S. private sector so that the
Los Alamos National Laboratory, a U.S. National Labo resource assessment and development activities
ratory operated by the University of California for the lead to job-creating investments in commercial and
U.S. Department of Energy. Los Alamos employs about industrial activities based on the energy and other
7,800 people, including many scientists and engineers who natural resources that will be identified:
work on energy-related research and development • Analysis and Assessment of Nontraditional Energy
projects. The Laboratory's strengths in geothermal
Resources. A team from Los Alamos, U.S. univer
resource assessment and development, geothermal instru
sities, and the Empresa National de Energía Eléc
mentation, peat-resource assessment, mineral-resource
trica (Honduras) has already begun a comprehen
assessment, energy-technology development, cost engi
sive geothermal resource assessment of Honduras,
neering, and economic analysis and forecasting in the
and later this year we intend to provide a modern
energy and mineral sectors fit remarkably well with
geothermal well-logging truck equipped with cable
opportunities and needs that exist in Central America. and logging tools capable of operating at tempera
The following are the objectives of the project:
tures up to 275°C for the exclusive use of Central
1. Identify, quantify, and assess the natural resources American countries.
of Central America. This includes energy resources • We will begin a study of the possible uses of low and
that can be used to substitute for presently medium heat from geothermal areas in Central
imported energy sources, predominantly petro America. Finally, we will assess the peat resources
leum, as well as energy and other resources that of Costa Rica, and at the same time, study possible
could be used to decrease import of nonenergy raw end-uses of Central American peat.
materials and increase revenues earned from export • Mineral-Resource Evaluation. Asystematicmineral-
of both energy and nonenergy materials. resource evaluation is being planned for Costa Rica.
2. Create an analytical framework that allows rapid A mineral sector profile will be compiled for each
comparisons of energy and mineral development of the Central American countries.
options in terms of balance of trade, import substi • Training. Specific areas of training have been iden
tution, direct cost, job creation, and so on.
tified in all of the above-mentioned subprojects.
The overall goal of this project is to improve the
economic condition in Central America and help create
1 Lh Alamos National Laboraloiy, Lot Alamos, New Mexico employment through increased and more efficient utiliza
An Integrated Program of Energy and Mineral Resource* Support for Central America 65
tion of the region's energy and mineral resources. The urgent priorities. The following subprojects have begun
project will introduce technologies into the region that or are in the planning stage:
will allow each of the participating future energy needs, to • Energy Situation Analysis. An update for each of
develop nontraditional sources of energy such as geother-
the Central American countries, including data
mal and fossil fuels, and to more efficiently utilize the
collection, computerization, economic analysis, and
energy resources found in the region. modeling.
Although Los Alamos will take the lead in this
project and use many of its technical personnel, it is We believe this project is an important new concept
expected that other highly qualified people from univer in U.S. foreign assistance programs which has the poten
sities, other national laboratories, the U.S. Geological tial for a large return-on-investment in terms of major
Survey, and the private sector will also participate. This benefits to Central American economies. The project is
will require close teamwork involving economists, tech an attempt to cure the chronic problem of under
development, instead of treating just the symptoms.
nologists, and geoscientists. Most importantly, the U.S.
The project is entirely in accord with the report of
team must work closely and effectively with Central
the U.S. National Bipartisan Commission on Central
American counterparts in order to enhance the science,
America, which states that "The United States and other
engineering, and management base of the region. It is
donor nations possess relatively inexpensive technology
expected that appropriate scientists, engineers, econo
that could be used in the region to identify and explore
mists, and technologists from the region will be full local energy resources." This could lead to "more diver
participants in the project. Furthermore, training to sified exports (which) would help insulate the region from
increase the highly capable but relatively small Central some of the swings in the international economy."
American technical community is an important priority We again emphasize the need for the support and
for this project. participation of technical, governmental, and private sec
Initial funding for this project is $10.2 million. It is tor personnel from Central American countries to help us
expected that additional funding will be made available implement this project. Suggestions for projects are
late in 1985 or 1986 and that the program will continue to needed, and we welcome your participation in all aspects
be incrementally funded for several years. We seek the of their execution. We urgently need— and call for— a
help of in-country experts to help us define the most team effort to carry this project forward.
66 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America
PROGRAMA DE ASESORAMIENTO INTEGRADO DE
RECURSOS MINERALES Y ENERGÉTICOS PARA
AMERICA CENTRAL
Por Ronald K. Lohrding y John T. Whetten 1
El Proyecto de Recursos Energéticos para América 2. Crear un cuadro de trabajo analítico que permita
Central es un proyecto nuevo de la USAID, diseñado para comparaciones rápidas de opciones de desarrollo
asesorar a los países centroamericanos en la búsqueda, energético y mineral, en términos de balance de
evaluación y desarrollo de los recursos naturales indíge intercambio, substitución de importaciones, costos
nas, particularmente, en las áreas de energía y minerales. directos, creación de trabajos, etc.
El proyecto lo dio a conocer formalmente el director de la 3. Estructurar, a través de las actividades identificadas
USAID, señor Peter McPherson y el Senador de Nuevo en los objetivos 1 y 2, destrezas técnicas y de manejo
México, señor Peter Domenici, desde la Casa Blanca para que un proceso autosuficiente de desarrollo
después de haber recibido todo el apoyo del Presidente económico sea establecido. Esto se logrará con
Ronald Reagan el mismo día. entrenamiento en el trabajo asociado con los com
El proyecto será coordinado y manejado por el ponentes del proyecto, talleres de entrenamiento,
Laboratorio Nacional Los Alamos, un laboratorio nacio participación de becados y visitas de técnicos
nal estadounidense operado por la Universidad de Cali regionales a Los Alamos y otras instituciones de los
fornia para el Departamento de Energía de los Estados Estados Unidos.
Unidos. Los Alamos emplea aproximadamente 7.800 4. Involucrar al sector local y sector privado estadouni
personas, incluyendo científicos e ingenieros que trabajan dense con el objeto de que la evaluación de recursos
en investigaciones relacionadas con la energía y desarrollo y desarrollo de actividades logren inversiones para
de proyectos. Los potenciales del laboratorio en recursos crear trabajos en actividades comerciales e indus
de desarrollo y evaluación geotérmica, instrumentación triales, basados en la energía y otros recursos
geotérmica, evaluación de recursos de turba, evaluación naturales que se identificarán.
de recursos minerales, desarrollo de energía tecnológica, • Análisis y Evaluación de Recursos Energéticos
costo de ingeniería asi como análisis económico y proyec
No-tradicionales. Un grupo de los Alamos, univer
ción de los sectores energéticos y minerales que encajan
sidades de los Estados Unidos y la Empresa Naci
bien con las oportunidades y necesidades en América
onal de Energía Eléctrica (Honduras) ya han comen
Central.
zado una evaluación geotérmica comprensiva de
Los objetivos de este proyecto son los siguientes:
Honduras y más tarde durante este año tendremos
1 . Identificar, cuantificar y evaluar los recursos natura como propósito proveer un equipo móvil geotér
les de Centroamérica. Esto incluye recursos mico, equipado con cables y herramientas para
energéticos que pueden ser utilizados para subs operar a temperaturas hasta de 275°C, única y
tituir las fuentes de energía que se importan exclusivamente para el uso de los países centro
actualmente, entre las cuales predomina el petró americanos.
leo, energía y otros recursos que podrían ser usados • Comenzaremos un estudio de los posibles usos de
para disminuir la importación de materia prima calor geotérmico, bajo y mediano, en las áreas de
no-energética y aumentar ingresos obtenidos de la América Central. Finalmente, evaluaremos la
exportación de materiales energéticos y no energé situación de recursos de turba en Costa Rica, así
ticos. como un estudio sobre los usos finales de la turba
centroamericana.
• Evaluación de Recursos Minerales. Una evaluación
1 Lo* Alimn National Labonuory, Loa Alamos. New México, EEUU sistemática de recursos minerales se está planeando
68 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America
DEVELOPING A COMPREHENSIVE DATA BASE FOR
MINERAL-RESOURCE PLANNING AND
DEVELOPMENT IN CENTRAL AMERICA
By Byron R. Berger, Dennis P. Cox, James E. Case, Donald A. Singer, Carroll A. Hodges,
John P. Albers, and Roger P. Ashley
70 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazard*, Central America
Figure 1 . Geologic terrane map of Colombia, South America.
methods and at the same time provides employment for a A decision to focus attention on the northern part of the
large number of people. By consulting cumulative Cordillera Central limits the appropriate ore-deposit
frequency-tonnage models for several different types of models to volcanogenic gold and epithermal, quartz-
gold deposits (fig. 5), it is apparent that carbonate-hosted, adularia precious-metal deposits. Table 3 and figure 4 list
quartz-adularia type, and volcanogenic-type gold deposits the best geochemical and geophysical exploration guide
offer the highest likelihood for a deposit of sufficient size lines that can be combined with the geologic attributes
to meet the initial economic criteria. The geological given in the ore-deposit model to establish an approach to
characteristics for each of these three deposit types are exploring the tracts.
determined from the appropriate ore-deposit model (Cox, The Cajamarca and Romeral geologic terranes
1983a; Hodges, Zambrano-Ortiz, and others, 1984). were determined from the input data for the assessment
Those mineral-resource tracts characterized by geologic (table 1) to have the appropriate geologic framework in
environments permissive for these gold-deposit types are which to explore for volcanogenic and epithermal
listed in table 4. If we assume that the known occurrence precious-metal deposits based on several descriptive cri
of high-grade lode-gold deposits enhances the chances of teria. These criteria and analogies elsewhere in the Amer
finding a large, open-pit mineable deposit, then the ican Cordillera are as follows:
Cajamarca and Romeral terranes (fig. 1) in the northern 1. The Romeral terrane contains an older, metamor
Cordillera Central region are the best geographic loca phosed melange of mafic, marine volcanic rocks,
tions in which to focus an exploration effort, because they ophiolite fragments, and blueschist and Mesozoic
contain a large number of lode-gold deposits near Ibague oceanic sediments (including shale and sandstone
and in the vicinity and to the north of Manizales (fig. 3). with calcareous beds; where metamorphosed, the
72 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resource* and Geologic Hazards, Central America
1.0
0.8 n = 117
0.6r-
0.4h
0.2h
J I •i •
0.0 _l_
10 2 10"1 1 101 102 103 104 0 4 9 16 25 36
Megatonnes Gold grade, g/t
1.0r»
n = 117
5l_l I
0 180 320 510 730 990 1300 0 1 4 9 16 25
Silver grade, g/t Zinc grade, %
1-Or
0.8 n = 1 17
n = 117
0.6
0 0.12 2 6 12 10"1 1
10'
Lead grade, % Copper grade, %
Figure 2. A grade-tonnage model for an epithermal precious-metal, base-metal, quartz-adularia type, ore deposit
(from Singer and Mosier, 1983a).
74 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resource* and Geologic Hazard*, Central America
TABLE 3.— Example of a tract write-up for the northern Cordillera Central region
Domain #4. -CAUCAPATIAROMERAL Terrenes: Cajamarca-Cauca-RomeraJ
Cyprus type Paso de Bobo, (Cauca), Pillow basalt, diabase, chert, Steep gravity gradients indicate that the
massive sulfide La Marina, (Valle) sedimentary rocks Cauca-Patia-Romeral zone serves as
boundary between oceanic crust to the west
and continental or transitional crust to the
east. Copper anomalies associated with
high calcium and magnesium.
Volcanogenic Mn Numerous occurrences La Loma, Copper anomalies from upper levels of
Santa Barbara (Antioquia) La Loma.
Porphyry Cu El Pisno Piedra, Sentada Felsic intrusive rocks Anomalous copper, molybdenum, lead, and
(Cauca), Alumbral (Narino) of Tertiary age zinc.
Epithennal Au Ag Marmato, Buenos Aires, Veins and stockworks in various Numerous anomalies Au, Ag, As, Sb in Cu,
Almaguer Districts rocks usually in or near Tertiary Pb, Ag, Zn.
intrusive stocks. Deposits cluster
around Tertiary-Quaternary
volcanic fields
Volcanic hosted None
massive replacement
Silica-carbonate Hg None Serpentine and siltstone Anomalies of mercury, arsenic, and thallium.
Disseminated Hg Aranzazu Cretaceous clastic rocks near Localized along Romeral fault zone
andesitic dikes Anomalous mercury, arsenic, antimony.
Podiform chromite Santa Elena, numerous small Dunite, peridotite, serpentinite Detailed gravity and magnetic data used in
occurrences prospecting in Medellin region.
Ni laterite None Peridotite underlying weathering High Ni, Cr, Co, Fe in soil.
surfaces of low relief
Porph. Mo La Teta (Cauca) Dacite porphyry Mo anomalies, peripheral Cu, Au; also zinc,
tungsten, bismuth.
Bauxite (7.1) Morales-Cajibio (Cauca) Laterites of Popayan Formation
Domain #5.-SEGOVlA REGION Terrane: Puqul-Campamento
Epithennal Au, Ag Segovia District Hornblende diorite host rocks Sparse gravity data suggest transitional
Quartz adularia (age 160 m.y.), metamorphic or continental crust.
wall rocks Anomalous gold, silver, arsenic antimony,
zinc, lead, and copper.
Domain #8. -CORDILLERA CENTRAL, NORTH Terrane: Cajamarca
Epithennal Au, Ag Numerous small veins, Alteration zones in Cajamarca Numerous anomalies Au, Zg, As, Sb in Cu,
generally rich in galena and Schist near dacitic stocks Pb, Sb.
stibnite, locally cinnabar. (5-6 m.y.). Also in Antioquia Veins localized along Palestine fault and
Guadalupe (Antioquia) batholith and near areas other northeast-trending faults.
of recent voleanism (QTv) in
south end of domain
Sedimentary exhalative Small chalcopyrite, Graphitic schist, metavolcanic Sparse gravity data suggest that crust is
Pb-Zn, Cu-Zn pyrrhotite occurrences volcanic rocks continental or transitional in this domain
Anomalous Zn, Pb, Ba.
rocks are mica schist and graphitic schist) intruded pelitic sedimentary rocks. Paleozoic quartz-sericite
by post-accretion Tertiary and Quaternary calc- schist, graphitic schist, greenschist, quartzite, and
alkaline igneous rocks (fig. 3). In other parts of the amphibolite overlie the Precambrian, the composi
Cordillera of the Americas, epithermal gold is tions being suggestive of an original composition of
found in such a setting (for example, McLaughlin intercalated andesite to rhyolitic marine volcanic
deposit, California). rocks, mafic intrusions, shale, chemical chert(?),
The Cajamarca terrane contains a Precambrian and carbonate-bearing rocks. Rocks of similar com
continental crust composed primarily of highly position in southeastern California, northern Mex
metamorphosed calc-alkaline igneous rocks and ico, and the Canadian Shield contain numerous
I 200 km |
Figure AA. Mineral-resource domain map for western Colombia. Patterns [used here as examples
and not explained] show those regions or mineral-resource domains deemed to have potential for
the occurrence of an epithermal precious-metal, base-metal type of deposit.
76 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America
Epithermal Precious Metal, Quartz-Adularla Type Domain*
OepoaK Description
Open-space vein filling and associated stockwork deposits of complex silver sulfides, simple base-metal sulfides, and some
native gold with pyrite— Large, open fissures are commonly filled with banded quartz (occasionally amethystine quartz and adularia).
Wallrock alteration consists mainly of illite, adularia, chlorite, epidote, and calcite. Deposits occur most commonly within or adjacent
to nonmarine volcanic rocks and (or) hypabyssal intrusions (Cox, 1983a).
Fifty percent of epithermal gold-quartz-adularia deposits contain 0.7 million tonnes or more; 10 percent contain 14 million
tonnes or more. Gold grades range from 4.3 g/t or more for the richest half of the deposits to 19 g/t or more in the richest tenth
of the deposits. Silver grades range from 130 g/t, or more, in the richest half of the deposits to 600 g/t or more in the richest 10
percent. Copper grades are low, and reported zinc grades are low for most deposits, but 10 percent of the deposits contain 5.1 percent
or more zinc (Singer and Mosier, 1983a).
Epithermal fissure-vein gold-silver deposits are widespread in South America, with the largest deposits occurring in
nonmarine intermediate to silicic volcanic rocks. Smaller deposits occur peripheral to and (or) within the upper parts of felsic igneous
stocks. Nonmarine volcanic environments favorable for epithermal deposits occur on the Guajira Peninsula, near Manizales, and in
the vicinity of Popayan.
The Tertiary-Quaternary volcanic fields should be the highest priority exploration areas. Areas of subvolcanic intrusions in
conjunction with through-going fracture systems are likely targets. Commonly favorable structures include large normal faults,
ring-fracture zones around calderas, and keystone grabens. Altered zones hundreds of meters wide commonly exist around these
deposits characterized by chlorite-epidote-pyrite and Fe-rich carbonates. Using wet chemical techniques, altered rocks should be
analyzed for gold, silver, arsenic, antimony and zinc; stream sediments should be analyzed for arsenic, antimony, zinc, and mercury.
Gold in these types of deposits is usually very fine grained and detectable only by chemical analysis, thus explaining why they were
often missed by early prospectors.
Figure AB. A summary of pertinent descriptive information, tonnage and grade characteristics, geologic
environments and exploration guidelines for epithermal-type precious-metal, base-metal deposits in Colombia.
large-tonnage gold deposits where Paleozoic and 4. Geochemical data from stream sediments and rocks
Mesozoic sedimentary rocks containing significant collected in these terranes contain specific elements
volcanogenic components overlie metamorphic such as silver and arsenic, thought to be, pathfind
rocks. Mesozoic and Tertiary plutonic rocks as well ers to gold deposits.
as Quaternary volcanic rocks intrude the older 5. The occurrence of many precious-metal deposits
complexes. (fig. 3) as well as deposits of mercury and antimony
3. Active and inactive geothermal areas are wide which are commonly spatially related to gold
spread throughout much of the region, probably deposits.
related to Pliocene to Recent intrusive and extrusive In summary, a comprehensive mineral resource
andesitic volcanic activity (fig. 3). Similar domal assessment in Colombia combined mineral deposit, geo
intrusions in subaerial volcanic complexes com logic, geochemical, geophysical, and mineral economic
monly contain significant gold deposits such as in data (fig. 6) to derive a geologic terrane map and mineral-
the western cordillera of Mexico and the United resource tract maps in order to identify areas favorable
States. for the occurrence of specific ore deposit types.
78 Mineral, Energy, and Water Reeourcea and Geologic Hazard*, Central America
Figure 5. Cumulative-frequency tonnage models for four types of gold deposits. The shaded areas show the
proportion of each deposit type inferred to have adequate tonnages to employ a large number of people in a low-cost
mining operation (from Singer and Mosier, 1983a).
S 0
Tectonics jC—'
MINERAL Metallogenic Data
Geochemist TERRANEMAP RESOURCE MAP
"i. • r
Geophysics
f
MINERAL RESOURCE
ASSESSMENT
Tract Deposits
1 Porphyry tvp»-^'
2
3 Lat*r
4 y
E
Land Guidelines
use tor new
h
Worldwide Data on
Grade and Tonnage of Deposit
Exploration
and
development
strategy
Figure 6. Data utilized and derived map products for the comprehensive mineral resource assessment of Colombia.
andesite lavas (Ferencic, 1971). There has been only detailed mineral-resource assessment of the region.
minor lead production in Panama where no older, thick Resultant products included in the assessment would be
continental crustal rocks occur; however, Panama con a) the concepts, technologies, and background informa
tains the large porphyry-type copper deposits at Cerro tion used to effect the assessment, b) up-to-date compi
Colorado and Petaquilla. lations of the geology and mineral resources of the region,
The published literature contains a considerable c) an outline of those geologic terranes (mineral-resource
amount of information on the regional geology, igneous tracts) permissive for the occurrence of a wide variety of
petrochemistry, and tectonics of Central America. In con strategic and critical minerals, and d) the geological,
junction with the available information on mineral depos geochemical, and geophysical exploration methods appli
its, these data permit the derivation of an excellent cable in the geological, geomorphic, and climatological
geologic terrane map on which to base a systematic, environments in Central America.
80 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America
Figure 7. Map of the geologic terranes in Central America (from Case, Holcombe, and Martin, 1984). The lined area
in the Yolaina and Chortis terranes shows the distribution of Cenozoic volcanic rocks.
82 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America
CREACIÓN DE UNA BASE DE DATOS COMPLETOS
PARA EL PLANEAMIENTO Y DESARROLLO DE
RECURSOS MINERALES EN AMERICA CENTRAL
Por Byron R. Berger, Dennis P. Cox, James E. Case, Donald A. Singer, Carroll A. Hodges,
John P. Albers, y Roger P. Ashley
Creación de una Base de Dato* Completos para el Planeamiento y Desarrollo de Recursos Minerales 83
TABLA 1.— Resumen de las clases de información de tes tipos de depósitos metalíferos (Cox, 1983a, 1983b),
entrada y salida de la evaluación de recursos minerales fueron reunidos para la evaluación, para (1) emplear un
realizada por USGS-INGEOMINAS en Colombia, America del
Sur
patrón uniforme para la clasificación de depósitos al cual
pudieran relacionarse los hallazgos mineralógicos, los
INFORMACIÓN DE ENTRADA ambientes favorables geológicos, las anomalías favorables
1. Mapa geológico recientemente necopilado a una escala de geoquímicas y los modelos de grado-tonelaje; (2) suminis
1:1.000.000 (no publicado) trar datos sobre los ambientes de los depósitos o yacimien
Z Mapas geológicos cuadrangulares y reportes disponibles tos metalíferos, con el fin de reconocer con la mejor
3. Mapas y reportes de depósitos minerales conocidos facilidad y rapidez las formaciones rocosas favorables,
4. Datos geofísicos disponibles
a. Mapas magnéticos regionales
estructuras, y posiciones tectónicas; y (3) relacionar,
b. Mapas regionales sobre la gravedad donde sea posible, las asociaciones de elementos en
c. Estudios sísmicos y sismicidad regional juegos de datos geoquímicos con tipos específicos de
d. Imágenes por satélite depósitos. Un ejemplo de un modelo de depósito para la
5. Información geoquímica regional sobre el sedimento en riós mineralización metálica epitermal con base oro-plata
6. Modelos conceptuales de depósitos metalíferos
7. Modelos del grado de tonelaje de los depósitos metalíferos
relacionada con las bóvedas volcánicas superficialmente
situadas, se proporciona en la Tabla 2.
INFORMACIÓN Y DATOS DE SAUDA Los modelos del tonelaje-grado para depósitos
1.Mapa del terreno geológico, a una escala de 1:1.000.000 (no metalíferos (Singer y Mosier, 1983a, 1983b) se obtuvieron
publicado) de tonelajes estimados premineria y grados promedio de
2. Tablas de evaluación de recursos minerales para cada territorio,
con base en el mapa del terreno
depósitos bien explorados. Los modelos tonelaje-grado se
a. Tipos de depósitos favorables en cada territorio presentan como lotes de frecuencia acumulativa x-y y
b. Depósitos tipo conocidos están diseñados para usarse junto con los modelos de
c. Ambientes rocosos depósitos metalíferos. Un ejemplo del modelo de tonelaje
d. Comentarios sobre aspectos especiales geológicos, geofísicos y grado para depósitos epitermales de ore-plata, tipo
geoquímicos
3. Mapas que muestran los territorios ya mencionados que contie
cuarzo-adularía, se proporciona en la Figura 2.
nen tipos selectos de depósitos Los depósitos metalíferos conocidos, los potencia
a. Descripciones de los depósitos les y los hallazgos fueron recopilados de una variedad de
b. Características del tonelaje y grados mapas, informes, y documentos científicos. La infor
c. Ambientes, o zonas geológicas esperadas en Colombia mación descríptica acerca de los depósitos se comparó
d. Guías y recomendaciones de exploración
4. Mapas que resumen las áreas donde existen los productos
con los modelos de depósitos metalíferos para poder
seleccionados (mapa matalogénico) clasificar correctamente los depósitos, y, a su vez, los
ejemplos de los depósitos colombianos fueron incorpo
rados a los modelos cuando así se juzgó apropiado. La
gravedad regional, y de información aeromagnética Figura 3 proporciona un ejemplo de una recopilación de
regional. Los datos geofísicos se recopilaron tomando hallazgos minerales.
como base una variedad de fuentes. Los estudios mag Los cursos o trayectorias de los recursos minerales
néticos y la información aeromagnética se obtuvieron con se obtuvieron del mapa geológico recopilado y del mapa
compañías petroleras y grupos académicos. Los datos de terrenos geológicos. Cada trayectoria consistió de uno
sobre la gravedad se obtuvieron en el Instituto Geográfico o más terrenos geológicos y se caracterizó por un ambien
Agustín Codazzi, compañías petroleras, y otras varias te geológico que permitía buscar, o localizar, tipos espe
fuentes extranjeras. El mapa del terreno geológico repre cíficos de depósitos metalíferos. Una tabla, o gráfica, para
senta un esfuerzo por identificar las provincias geológicas cada trayectoria o curso fue recopilada, la cual contiene
en forma coherente. Las provincias difieren en su estrat información sobre los tipos de depósitos potenciales más
igrafía, historia y estilos de deformación, actividad importantes, depósitos conocidos, y sobre características
magmática, y en ciertos tipos de depósitos minerales. geológicas de los ambientes rocosos. Se incluyeron comen
Los datos regionales geoquímicos sobre sedimento tarios pertinentes, conforme se estimaron apropiados,
en ríos, o pluvial, donde se encontraron disponibles, sobre características geoquímicas, geofísicas y geológicas.
fueron evaluados para (1) ayudar a identificar áreas con Los tipos de depósitos más importantes se encuentran
potencial de recursos metalúrgicos; (2) para suministrar relacionados, por medio de referencias cruzadas, con los
datos de apoyo respecto a diferencias entre los terrenos modelos de depósitos minerales.
geológicos; y (3) ayudar en el mapeo de las fronteras, o Se elaboraron mapas de los cursos para tipos de
límites del terreno debajo de áreas cubiertas tales como depósitos importantes, seleccionados, con información
valles rellenos por tierras provenientes de aluviones y por adiciona] sobre las descripciones de los depósitos, tone
rocas volcánicas jóvenes. laje y características del grado, incluyendo detalles apropia
Los modelos conceptuales descriptivos de diferen dos sobre los ambientes geológicos en Colombia, asi como
84 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologlc Hazards, Central America
75° 70°
Creación de una Base de Datos Completos para el Planeamiento y Desarrollo de Recursos Minerales BS
TABLA 2.— Modelo descriptivo, conceptual, de un depósito de tipo de metal-base, metal-precioso, epitermal (según Cox,
1983)
TIPO DE DEPOSITO: Metal epitermal de base Au-Ag (oro-plata) SUBTIPO: Cuarzo-Adularia
AUTOR: Byron R. Berger, Donald A. Singer, y otros FECHA: febrero de 1985
SINONIMO APROPIADO: Venas de metal base - metal precioso
DESCRIPCION: Metales preciosos (nativo, sulfuros, sulfosales) en venas abiertas rellenas de pirita, tetrahedritos, esfalerila, galena, y
arsenopirita
REFERENCIAS GENERALES: Buchanon (1980), Berger y Eimon (1983)
AMBIENTE GEOLOGICO
Oases de Rocas: Areas de rocas subáereas, andesita—volcánica cal-alcalina, decita, latita de cuarzo, riodacita, riolita; complejos batolfticos
cal-alcalinos
Texturas: Porfíricas
Estructuras: Bóvedas superficialmente situadas, diques
Epoca: Predominantemente Terciaria a Quaternaria para los depósitos bonanza, pero podría ser cualquier edad
Medios Circundantes de los Depósitos: Centros de actividad volcánica y asociada intrusiva, tal como fallas normales profundas de paso, zonas
agrietadas, y complejos de caldera para depósitos de vetas minerales; complejos batolfticos
Posiciones Tectónicas: Fallas y fracturas normales e importantes, relacionadas con las bóvedas, calderas (especialmente en zonas de fracturas en
cadena), enjambres en conjunto
Tipos de Depósitos Asociados: Placer (lavadero de oro); molibdeno de cobre pórfido (batolitos)
Concentraciones Metálicas: Au+As, Ag+Au+Pb+Zn+Cu, Ag+Pb+Zn+Cu+W+Bi
DESCRIPCION DE LOS DEPOSITOS
Minerales Metálicos: Oro natio +electro (oro argentftero)+pirita±arsenopirita±galena±esfaIerita en depósitos de alto contenido de oro
argentífero (Au:Ag). Oro natio+electro+tetrahedrita+argentita+pirita+galena+esfalerita±barita±rodocrosita en
depósitos de alto contenido de Au:Ag, en áreas de hipógeno oxidado de zonas supergene de oro+rubíy plata + plata natural
Textura/Estructura: Venas por fajas, rellenos al aire libre, cuarzo laminar, trabajos de bodega
Alteración: De arriba para abajo del sistema: cuarzo+caolinita+montmorillonita+ceolitas+barita+calcita; cuarzo+illite; cuarzo+ adularía
+ ilita; cuarzo-f clorita; la presencia de adularía es variable
Controles Metálicos: Sistemas profundos, sin interrupción de fracturas anastomizantes
Intemperismo: Roca descolorida del campo, goetita, jarosita, alunita-procesos supergenes que con frecuencia son factor importante en
incrementar el grado del depósito
Indicativo, o Identificación, Geoquímica: Superior en el sistema Au+Ag+ Sb+Hg; Au+Ag+Pb+Zn+Cu; Ag+Pb+Zn; Cu+Pb+Zn; en algunas
provincias geológicas Se, Te, y W
Ejemplos Referencias
Comstock, Nevada Becker, 1888
Guanajuato, México Buchanon, 1980, y Wandke y Martinez, 1928
Creede, Colorado Steven y Ratte, 1965
Comentarios: Cantidades menores de metales base en depósitos en las provincias geológicas con un basamento o fundamento de equivalentes
metamórficos y de rocas eugeoclinales o miogeoclinales pobres en carbonato. Cantidades mayores de metales base en depósitos
que yacen sobre rocas miogeoclinales productoras de carbonato, o evaporitas o en cualquier lugar donde el agua de mar sea una
fuente de solución.
86 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resource* and Geologic Hazard*, Central America
Lead grade, % Copper grade, %
Figura 2. Un modelo de los tonelajes-grado para un depósito metalífero de tipo epitermal de metal precioso, metal
bas, cuarzo-adularía. (Singer y Mosier, 1983a).
Creación de una Bate de Datos Completo* para el Planeamiento y Desarrollo de Recursos Minerales 87
75°30'
Figura 3. Mapa geol6gico de una porcion de la Cordillera Central en Colombia, mostrando las ubilicaciones de las
minas principales. Las areas sehaladas con ci'rculos negros constituyen ya sea yacimientos termicos activos o
alteraciones hidrotermicas relacbnadas con fuentes termicas inactivas en la actual idad. Las unidades del mapa
geoldgico son las siguientes: ; Pc - Esquisto paleozoico de Cajamarca; Pu - sedimentos y rocas volcanicas paleozoicas
no diferenciadas; P - Piedra caliza paleozoica de Payande; J^s - Sedimentos triasicos y jurasicos; H1 - Sedimentos
mesozoicos no diferenciados; Jt - rocas intrusivas jurasicas; Ksv - rocas volcanicas y sedimentarias cretaceas; Ky -
rocas volcanicas y sedimentarias cretaceas no diferenciadas; Kj - rocas intrusivas cretaceas; T( - rocas intrusivas
terciarias ; TQy - rocas volcanicas de la edad terciaria a la cuaternaria.
88 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resource* and Geologic Hazards, Central America
TABLA 3.— Ejemplo de una evaluación de la parte norte de la región de la Cordillera Central de Colombia
Sulfuro masivo Paso de Bobo, (Cauca), Rocas sedimentarias de basalto, Los gradientes empinadas de gravedad indican
Tipo Chipre La Marina, (Valle) diabasa, variedad de cuarzo que la zona Cauca-Patia-Romeral sirve de
límite entre la corteza oceánica hacia el oeste
y la corteza continental o transicional del este.
Mn Volca nólogico Numerosos hallazgos en La Loma, Las anomalías cupríferas asociadas con gran
Santa Barbara (Antioquia) cantidad de calcio y de magnesio de La Loma
Cu porfírico El Pisno Piedra, Sentada Rocas intrusivas félsicas Cobre anómalo, mobildeno, plomo y zinc
(Cauca), Alumbral (Narino) de la edad Terciaria
Au Ag Epitermal Marmato, Buenos Aires, Venas y trabajos en varias rocas Numerosas anomalías de Au, Ag, As, Sb,
Distrotos de Almaguer casi siempre o cerca de las en Cu, Pb, Ag, Zn
bases intrusivas Terciarias.
Los Depósitos se aglomeran
alrededor de terrenos volcánicos
terciarios-cuaternarios
Hg de Sílice carbonato Ninguna Serpentina y lodos de aluvión Anomalías de mercurio, arsénico, y talio
Hg diseminado Aranzazu Rocas clásticas cretáceas cerca Localizado a lo largo de la zona de la falla de
de diques de andesita Romeral. Mercurio, arsénico, antimonio
anómalo o irregular
Cromita podiforme Santa Elena, hallazgos Dunita, periodotita, serpentinita Gravedad detallada y datos magnéticos
pequeños numerosos utilizados en la búsqueda de minerales
en la región de Medellin
Laterita Ni Ninguna Superficies desgastadas por Alto contenido de Ni, Cr, Co, Fe en el suelo
tiempo e intemperie subyacentes
periodotitas de bajo relieve
Mo. porf. La Teta (Cauca) Dacita porfira No hay irregularidades, Cu, Au periférico; tam
bién zinc, tungsteno, bismuto
Au, Ag Epitermal; Distrito de Segovia Rocas huésped de diorita Información escasa sobre la gravedad sugiere
cuarzo-adularía hornablendifera (edad 160 m. una capa transicional o continental. Oro,
anos), roca estéril metamorfica plata,
arsénico, antimonio, zinc, plomo y cobre
irregulares
Au, Ag. Epitermal Numerosas vetas pequeñas, zonas alteradas en Cajamarca. Numerosas anomalías en Au, Ag, As, Sb en Cu,
generalmente ricas en galena y Esquiste cerca de bases dacíticas Pb, Sb. Vetas localizadas a lo largo de la Falla
estibnita, localmente cinabrio. (5-6 m. años) También en Palestina y otras fallas con ubicación noreste
Guadalupe Antioquia, batolito y en áreas
cercanas de volcanismo (QTv) en
el extremo sur del territorio
Pb-Zn, Cu-Zn exhaltivo Pequeños hallazgos de pirita de Esquisto grafitico, rocas Información escasa sobre la gravedad sugiere
sedimentario cobre (calcopirita) y pirrotita volcánicas, metavolcánicas que la corteza es continental o transicional en
este terreno. Zn, Pb, Ba irregular
anomalías o irregularidades planas o negativas, magnéti susceptible de ser trabajada con los métodos de minería
cas, y mediante anomalías de polarización inducida por de bajo costo y que sin embargo, proporciona trabajo a un
espectro (IP). gran número de personas. Consultando los modelos
Como un ejemplo de utilización de los datos de los acumulativos de la frecuencia-tonelaje para varios tipos
componentes a partir de la evaluación, asumamos que es diferentes de depósitos de oro (Figura 5), es aparente que
de lo más ventajoso explotar una mina de oro que es depósitos tipo de carbono-huésped, cuarzo-adularia, y
Creación de una Base de Dato* Completo* para el Planeamiento y Desarrollo de Recursos Minerales 89
10'
5o-
I 200 km |
75°
Figura AA. Mapa de territorio de recursos minerales para Colombia oeste. Las áreas sombreadas
muestran las regiones que se consideran tener un potencial para el hallazgo de un depósito de
metal-precioso epitermal, metal base.
90 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America
Tipos de Metala* Epitermales Preciosos, Cuarzo-Adularla. Territorios
Los depósitos de venas al aire libre y bases asociadas de sulfuros de plata complejos, sulfuras simples de metal-base, y algunas
fisuras abiertas de oro natural con pirita, están corrientemente rellenas con cuarzo en franjas (ocasionalmente cuarzo amatistino).
La alteración de la roca estéril consiste principalmente de iluta, adularía, clorita, epidota y calcita. Los depósitos se encuentran con
mayor frecuencia dentro de, o adyacentes a rocas volcánicas no marinas y(o) instrusiones "hypabyssal" (Cox, 1983).
El cincuenta por ciento de los depósitos epitermales de orocuarzo-adularía contienen 0.7 millones de toneladas o más; el diez
por ciento contiene 14 millones de toneladas o más. Los grados oro varían de 4.3 g/t o más para la mitad más rica de los depósitos
a 19 g/t o más en el décimo más rico de los depósitos. Los grados oro varían de 130 g/t o más en la mitad más rica, mientras que
el diez por ciento de los depósitos contiene 600 g/t o mas. Los grados cobre son bajos, y los grados zinc reportados son bajos en la
mayoría de depósitos, pero el diez por ciento de los depósitos contienen un 5.1 por ciento o más de zinc (Singer y Mosier, 1983a).
Los depósitos epitermales con vetas-fisura de oro-plata se encuentran muy esparcidos en la América del Sur, econtrandose
los depósitos más grandes en rocas volcánicas no-marítimas intermedias a silfcicas. Existen otros depósitos pequeños adyacentes o
periféricos a y/o dentro de las partes superiores de bases ígneas félsicas. Los ambientes volcánicos no-marítimos favorables para
depósitos epitermales se encuentran en la Península Guajira, cerca de Manizales, y en las zonas cercanas y vecinas de Popayan.
Los campos volcánicos de la era Terciaria-Cuaternaria deberían clasificarse como áreas de exploración de la más alta
prioridad. Áreas de intrusiones sub-volcánicas en conjunto con sistemas de disyunción directa son objectivos similares. Estructuras
comunmente favorables incluyen grandes fallas normales, zonas desyuntivas en cadena alrededor de calderas, y cuencas
fundamentales. Cientos de metros de zonas alteradas existen comunmente alrededor de estos depósitos caracterizados por
pinta-clorita-cpidc.ua y carbonates ricos en hierro. Utilizando técnicas químicas húmedas, debería analizarse a las rocas modificadas
en busca de oro, plata, arsénico, antimonio y zinc; los sedimentos pluviales deberían ser analizados en busca de arsénico, antimonio,
zinc y mercurio. El oro en estas clases de depósitos es, generalmente, de grano muy fino, que puede ser detectado únicamente
mediante análisis químicos, explicándose consecuentemente, el porque se les pasaba por alto en la antigüedad al ser vistos por los
investigadores primitivos.
Figura 45. Un resumen de información descriptiva pertinente, tonelaje y características de grado, ambientes
geológicos y guías de exploración para tipos de metales preciosos epitermales, depósitos de metal básico en
Colombia.
tipo volcanógeno de oro, ofrecen la probabilidad más y Romeral (Figura 1) en el norte de la Cordillera Central
grande de encontrar un depósito de tamaño suficiente constituyen las mejores localizaciones geográficas para
para cumplir con los criterios económicos iniciales. Las centrar el esfuerzo de la exploración, debido a que los
características geológicas para cada uno de estos tres mismos contienen un gran número de depósitos de vetas
tipos de depósito se determinan del modelo apropiado de auríferas cerca de Ibague y en los alrededores, y hacia el
depósitos metálicos (Cox, 1983a; Hodges, Zambrano-
norte de Manizales (Figura 3). Una decisión para centrar
Ortiz, y colaboradores, 1984). Los cursos de recursos
minerales caracterizados por los medio ambientes geoló la atención en la parte norte de la Cordillera Central
gicos permitidos para estos tipos de depósitos auríferos limita los modelos apropiados de depósitos metálicos a
están enumerados en la Tabla 4. Si asumimos que los los depósitos de oro volcanogénico y epitermal, de cuarzo-
hallazgos conocidos de depósitos de alto grado de oro en adularia metal precioso. La Tabla 3 y la figura 4
vitas aumenta las oportunidades de encontrar un gran enumeran las mejores directrices de exploración geo
depósito minero abierto, entonces los terrenos Cajamarca química y geofísica que pueden ser combinadas
Creación de una Base de Datos Completos para el Planeamiento y Desarrollo de Recursos Minerales 91
con los atributos geológicos dados en el modelo de TABLA A.—Extensions, o trechos, de los recursos minerales
depósito metálico para establecer un enfoque de como y de los terrenos geológicos permisivos para el hallazgo de
explorar los cursos. depósitos de metales preciosos de tipo vo/canogénico y de
cuarzo-adularía y como huésped del carbono
Los terrenos geológicos de Cajamarca y Romeral
fueron determinados a partir de la información de entra 1. Depósitos auríferos en carbono
da para la evaluación (Tabla 1) para poder tener el marco a. Extensión Sur de la Cordillera Central
de trabajo geológico adecuado donde explorar en busca de Terrenos: Cajamarca
Payando
depósitos volcanogénicos y epitermales de metales preci b. Tramo del Valle del Alto Magdalena
osos basados en varios criterios descriptivos. Estos crit Terreno: Payande
erios y analogías en cualquier otro lugar en la Cordillera c. Trecho de San Lucas
Americana son los siguientes: Terreno: San Lucas
1. El terreno Romeral contiene una mezcla muy 2. Depósitos de metales preciosos epitermales, del tipo cuarzo-
antigua transformada, de rocas volcánicas marinas, adularía
fragmentos ofiolíticos, y de sedimentos oceánicos de a. Extensión de la Cordillera Occidental
esquistos azules y mesozoicos (incluyendo lutita y Terrenos: Dagua
Canas Gordas
arenisca con estratos calcáreos; en los lugares Cauca
donde se han transformado, o sufrido alguna Romeral
metamorfosis, las rocas con esquistos de mica y b. Tramo Cauca-Patia-Romeral
esquistos grafiticos) con intrusiones de rocas Ígneas Terrenos: Cajamarca
cal-alcalinas post-acrecentamiento terciario y cua Cauca
Romeral
ternario (Figura 3). En otras partes de la Cordillera c. Trecho de la Región de Segovia
de las Américas, el oro epitermal se encuentra en Terrenos: Puqui
una localización tal (por ejemplo, el depósito Campamento
McLaughlin, en California). d. Trecho Norte de la Cordillera Central
Terreno: Cajamarca
2. El terreno Cajamarca contiene una corteza conti e. Extensión de Pasto y Norte a Popayan, Este de Manizales
nental Precambica, compuesta principalmente de Terrenos: Dagua
rocas Ígneas cal-alcalinas altamente transformadas Cauca
y de rocas sedimentarias políticas. Los esquistos Romeral
Cajamarca
paleozoicos de cuarzo -sericítico, esquisto grafitico, Payande
esquisto verde, cuarcita, y anfibolita descansan f. Tramo del Valle del Alto Magdalena
sobre la Precambica, sugiriendo tales composi Terreno: Payande
ciones la existencia de una composición original de g. Guajira 1 - Tramo Norte
Terreno: Alta Guajira
andesita intercalada a rocas volcánicas marinas h. Guajira - Tramo Sur
riolíticas, intrusiones máficas, lutita, variedad de Terreno: Cosinas
cuarzo químico (?), y rocas carboníferas. Rocas de i. Santa Marta Trecho SE
composición similar en la parte sudeste California, Terreno: Santa Marta - Sud-Este
j. Santa Marta Trencho Sur
en el norte de México y en la capa canadiense, Terreno: Santander
contienen numerosos depósitos auríferos de gran k. Extensión Masifa de Santander
tonelaje donde las rocas sedimentarias paleozoicas y Terreno: Santander
mesozoicas con componentes importantes volcano 3. Depósito aurífero volcanogénico
génicos descansan sobre rocas metamórficas. a. Trencho Baudo-Gorgona
Rocas plutónicas mesozoicas y terciarias, así como Terrenos: Baudo
Gorgona
rocas volcánicas cuaternarias se encuentran en b. Extensión de la Cordillera Occidental
otros complejos más antiguos. Terrenos: Dagua
3. Las áreas geotérmicas activas e inactivas están Canas Gordas
ampliamente diseminadas a lo largo de una gran Cauca
Romeral
parte de la región, probablemente relacionadas con c. Extensión Metida Andes
la actividad volcánica andesítica extrusive e intrusiva Terreno: Santander
desde la época pliocenica a la reciente (Figura 3). d. Cordillera Central
Intrusiones en forma de bóvedas similares en com Terreno: Cajamarca
92 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologlc Hazards, Central America
Oro epitermal, tipo quarzo adularía Oro epitermal, tipo quarzo alunita
n =s 36
1 10' 10
c
o Oro carbonatado Oro volcanogénico
Megatones
Figura 5. Modelos de tonelaje de frecuencia cumulativa para cuatro tipos de depósitos de oro. Las áreas
sombreadas indican la proporción de cada tipo de depósito inferido con tonelaje adecuado para el empleo de un gran
número de personas en una operación minera de bajo costo. (Según Singar and Mosier, 1983a)
Creación de una Base de Datos Completos para el Planeamiento y Desarrollo de Recursos Minerales 93
Geology Mineral Occurrences
•.* > • «■
n. • r
Geophysics
F Porphyry I "
Tonnage [J
MINERAL RESOURCE
ASSESSMENT
r T ^iec ■woe
Tract Deposits
1 Porphyry typ»^
2 Masalvju^
3 Lajjer Porphyry Í
Grade }i
4 ¿ II» \ .
;«
r. v.
I
Land Guidelines
usa tor new
decisions research
Worldwide Data on
Grade and Tonnage of Deposit
Explotatxxi
development
strategy
Figura 6. Datos utilizados y productos derivados del mapa para una evaluación completa de los recursos minerales
de Colombia.
como plata y arsénico de los que se cree son recursos minerales para poder identificar las áreas favo
pioneros en la búsqueda de sendas hacia depósitos rables al hallazgo de tipos específicos de depósitos de
de oro. minerales.
5. El hallazgo de muchos depósitos de metales precios
os (Figura 3) así como de depósitos de mercurio y EVALUACION DE LOS RECURSOS
antimonio que son comunmente relacionados en el MINERALES EN CENTRO AMERICA
aspecto especial con depósitos de oro.
En resumen, una evaluación completa de los recur
sos minerales en Colombia, combinada con datos sobre Un plan de desarrollo de largo alcance para la
depósitos minerales, geológicos, geoquímicos, geofísicos explotación de los recursos minerales en Centro América
y de economía metalúrgica (Figura 6) para dar lugar a un es un importante componente para la vitalidad económica
mapa de terreno geológico y mapas de extensiones de de la región. La industria minera no ha sido histórica
94 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America
mente una fuerza económica importante en CentroAmér- encic, 1971). Únicamente ha habido una producción
ica y, en la actualidad, exceptuándose a Honduras, la menor de plomo en Panamá, en donde no existen rocas
industria de los minerales contribuye en menos de un 1% gruesas, antiguas de la corteza continental; sin embargo,
al producto nacional bruto de cada país (Cunningham Panamá contiene depósitos muy grandes de cobre tipo
ycolaboradores, 1984). Debido, en cierta escala, a esta porfírico en Cerro Colorado y Petaquilla.
pequeña contribución de la minería, existe muy poca La literatura publicada contiene una cantidad con
información actualizada disponible sobre recursos mine siderable de información sobre la geología regional,
rales en la región (Salas, 1982). El método de evaluación petroquímica ígnea, y tectónica de la América Central.
de los recursos utilizado por el USGS en Colombia tiene Junto con la información disponible sobre depósitos
un valor considerable en el sentido de que establece una minerales, estos datos permiten inferir y realizar un
fuente de información actualizada completa mediante la excelente mapa del terreno geológico sobre el cual se
utilización de una recopilación de los datos existentes puede basar una evaluación sistemática y detallada de los
sobre los cuales puede fundamentarse la planificación y recursos minerales de la región. Los productos resultan
desarrollo de los recursos minerales. tes incluidos en la evaluación, serian: a) los conceptos,
El complejo marco de trabajo geológico en la tecnologías, e información básica empleados para los
América Central es, en muchos aspectos, similar al de propósitos de la evaluación; b) recopilaciones actuali
Colombia occidental. Las rocas en Centro América repre zadas sobre geología y los recursos minerales de la
sentan una extensión noroccidental de aquellas de los región; c) un esbozo de los terrenos geológicos (extensi
Andes del norte y cuencas que intervienen en Colombia, y ones de recursos minerales) permisivos para el hallazgo
la extensión sureste, de aquellas de México. Las rocas de una gran variedad de minerales estratégicos y críticos,
continentales Pre-mesozoicas de una base cratónica en la y; d) los métodos de exploración geológica, geoquímica y
parte norte de la América Central se extienden desde la geofísica aplicables en los ambientes geológicos, geomór-
parte sur de México hasta Guatemala, Belice, Honduras, ficos y climatológicos de Centro América.
la parte norte de El Salvador, y la parte norte de
Nicaragua (Kesler, 1978). Hacia el sur, el basamento
consiste de rocas oceánicas (Case, 1974). Los arcos RECONOCIMIENTOS
isleños se desarrollaron sobre esas mismas rocas base con
ocurrencia volcánica en varios ciclos desde la época tardía
mesozoica hasta el presente (Kesler, 1978). La actividad
Las metodologías utilizadas en la evaluación de los
volcánica más extensa tuvo lugar en las épocas oligocena
recursos minerales en Colombia fueron el resultado del
y miocena. La configuración tectónica completa actual
trabajo de numerosos geólogos de los Estados Unidos,
puede ser generalizada en una serie de distintas provin
pertenecientes y no pertenecientes al Servicio Geológico
cias geológicas a las cuales pueden relacionarse los hallaz
de los Estados Unidos. Los productos finales de la
gos metalíferos conocidos. (Figura 7).
evaluación de Colombia fueron el resultado de un inter
Los depósitos minerales conocidos en la América
Central muestran una variación sistemática en la com cambio amplio y cooperativo entre números científicos de
INGEOMINAS y el USGS. Deseamos agradecer a nues
posición metálica— (Kesler, 1978). Estas variaciones pare
tros amigos colombianos por su excelente ayuda y hospi
cen estar relacionadas con cambios en la composición
talidad.
química de rocas del basamento y próximas a la superficie
en los varios terrenos geológicos que comprenden los
depósitos. Cumming y Kessler (1976), indicaron que los
depósitos minerales en la América Central se agotaron en CITAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS
lo que al plomo se refiere, y relativamente están enrique
Becker, G. F., 1888, Depósitos de mercurio en la vertiente del
cidos en oro y cobre desde el noroeste hasta el sudeste. Pacífico: Monografía 13 del Servicio Geológico de los
Ellos indicaron que los distritos en el occidente de Gua Estados Unidos, 486 p.
temala, tales como Chiantla y Coban contienen prin Berger, B. R., y Eimon, P. I., 1983, Modelos conceptuales de
cipalmente plomo y zinc con bajas concentraciones de depósitos epitérmicos de metales preciosos: Simposio de
plata. Estas áreas cuentan con rocas subterráneas Camerún sobre Depósitos No convencionales: New York,
carboníferas de la época paleozoica temprana. La plata es Instituto Americano de Ingenieros en Minas y Metalúrgi
considerablemente más importante hacia el sudeste en El cos, p. 191-205.
Buchanon, L. J., 1980, Controles de minerales en depósitos
Mochito y El Rosario, en Honduras, y en Monte Cristo,
verticales, Guanajuato, México: Instituto Americano de
en El Salvador. Depósitos auríferos en la Libertad, y Ingenieros en Minas, Preimpresión 80-82, 26 p.
depósitos de cobre en Rosita, en Nicaragua, tienen un Case, J. E., 1974, Corteza oceánica forma el basamento de
basamento de sedimentos marinos clásticos desde la edad Panamá Este: Boletín de la Sociedad Americana de Geo
mesozoica a la terciaria, y lavas andesito-basáltico (Fer- logía, v. 85, no. 4, p. 645-652.
Creación de una Base de Dato* Completos para el Planeamiento y Desarrollo de Recurso* Minerales 95
Figura 7. Mapa de los terrenos geológicos en America Central (según Case, Holcombe, y Martin, 1984). El área de
lineas en los terrenos Yolaina y Chortis muestran la distribución de las rocas volcánicas cenozoicas.
Case, J. E., Holcombe, T. L., y Martin, R. G., 1984, Mapa de las Lee, M. P., Master, C. D., Miller, R. L., Quiñones M. F.,
provincias geológicas en la región del Caribe: Sociedad Peebles, R. W., Reinemund, J. A., y Russ, D. P., 1984,
Geológica de América, Memoria 162, 1-30 p. Recursos y peligros de agua y tierra en Centro América:
Cox, D. P., ed., 1983a., Evaluación de los recursos minerales de Servicio Geológico de los Estados Unidos, Circular 925, 40
Colombia por el Servicio Geológico de los Estados P-
Unidos-INGEOMINAS: Modelos de depósitos minerales: Ferencic, A., 1971, Provincias y épocas metalogénicas en el sur
Servicio Geológico de los Estados Unidos, Reporte de de la América Central: Deposito Mineralium, v. 6, p.
Archivo Abierto 83-423, 74 p. 77-88.
1983, Evaluación de los recursos minerales de Colombia Hodges, C. A., Cox, D. P., Singer, D. A., Case, J. E., Berger, B.
por el Servico Geológico de los Estados Unidos- R., y Albers, J. P., Zambrano-Ortix, F., Etayuo-Serna, F.,
INGEOMINAS: Modelos de depósitos minerales: Servicio Barrero-Lozano, D., Lozano-Quiroga, H., Espinosa-
Geológico de los Estados Unidos, Reporte de Archivo Baquero, A., Gonzales, Irequi, H., Orrego-Lopez, A.,
Abierto 83-0901, 32p. Arias-Tauta, A., Cedeno-Ochoa, C, Pullido-Ulloa, O.,
Cumming, G. L., y Kesler, S. E., 1976, Fuente de plomo en la Murillo-Rodrieguez, A., José-Dias, M., Duque-Caro, H.,
mineralización Centro Americana y del Caribe: Cartas Vargas-Higuera, R., Nunez-Tello, A., Alvarez-Aguadelo,
Científicas del Planeta Tierra, v. 31, p. 262-268. J., Ropain-Ulloa, C, Buenaventura-Arango, j., Mendoza-
Cunningham, C. G., Fary, R. W., Jr., Guffanti, M., Laura, D., Forero, H., Rodriguez-Sierra, G., y Jaramillo-Cortes, L.,
96 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resource* and Geologic Hazarda, Central America
1984: Servicio Geológico de los Estados Unidos — de los Estados Unidos, Reporte de Archivo Abierto
INGEOMINAS: Evaluación de los recursos minerales de 83-062, 102 p.
Colombia: Servicio Geológico de los Estados Unidos, Singer, D. A., y Mosier, D. L., editores, 1983b, Modelos de
Reporte de Archivo Abierto 84-0345, 348 p. depósitos minerales de tonelaje-grado, II: Servicio Geoló
Kesler, S. E., 1978, Metalogénesis de la Región Caribeña: gico de los Estados Unidos, Reporte de Archivo Abierto
Journal, Sociedad Geológica de Londres, v. 135, p. 83-0902, 103 p.
429-441. Steven, T. A., y Ratte, J. C, 1965, Control geológico y
Salas, G. P., 1982, Estudio preliminar de los recursos minerales estructural de los depósitos minerales en el Distrito de
de América Latina, en Whitmore, F. C, y Williams, M. E., Creede, Montañas de San Juan, Colorado: Servicio Geo
Editores, Recursos para el Siglo XXI: Servicio Geológico lógico de los Estados Unidos, Documento Profesional 487,
de los Estados Unidos, Documento Professional 1193, p. 90 p.
183-191. Wandke, A., y Martínez, J., 1928, El distrito minero de
Singer, D. A., y Mosier, D. L., editores, 1983a. Modelos de Guanajuato, Guanajuato, México: Geología Económica, v.
depósitos minerales de tonelaje-grado: Servicio Geológico 23, p. 1-44.
Creación de una Base de Dato* Completo* para el Planeamiento y Desarrollo de Recursos Minerales 97
COAL RESOURCE ASSESSMENT IN CENTRAL
AMERICA
By Edwin R. Landis
A coal-resource assessment is an analysis of all geographical area and the gathering, compilation,
data concerned with an area's coal resources and reserves and synthesis of enough information to allow reason
with the objective of reaching a judgment about the able inferences to be made about the location and
geologic nature and economic potential of the coal general distribution of potential coal-bearing rocks
resources and reserves of a particular area (Wood and and coal beds in the area.
others, U.S. Geological Survey Circular 0891, "Coal Early Exploration Stage. Once the presence of
Resource Classification of the U.S. Geological Survey", coal in an area has been established or reasonably
1983). inferred, a research stage is undertaken during which
An assessment is not the same as an estimate, the pre-existing data base is collated and evaluated to
which is a determination of the amount of coal in an area. determine the feasibility of proceeding with the
An estimate, or quantity judgment, is only one of many exploration using drill and geophysical survey tech
types of data needed for assessment. For example, infor niques. The aim of this stage, therefore, is to make
mation about the quality of the coal is generally vital to reliable assumptions as to the likely number, depth,
assessment. Because assessment is based on the data extent, quality, and commercial potential of coal
available at a particular time, a new assessment, or seams within the prospect. The existing information
reassessment, may be needed when a sufficient amount of may be supplemented by carrying out geological
new data becomes available. For this reason, many, or reconnaissance mapping, using both photogeological
most, assessments are dated. An example is U.S. Geolog studies and ground surveys, to assist in the selection
ical Survey Bulletin 1412 "Coal Resources of the United of drilling targets based on geological criteria.
States, January 1, 1974." Exploration Stage I (regional evaluation). Dur
An assessment can only be as complete as the data ing this stage, the correlation and lateral continuity of
used for the analysis. One of the virtues of an assessment the coal seams and strata is determined as well as the
is the fact that in addition to analyzing available data, the possible exploitation methods and utilization poten
assessment will usually show obvious deficiencies in the tial for various possible end uses. This is achieved by
data. Data bases may be deficient in types of data, in the drilling of a number of boreholes, mostly cored,
quantity and quality of data, and in the distribution of on a widely spaced drill pattern. Surface geophysical
available data. An example of an assessment that showed techniques may also be used, to assist in denning the
data deficiencies, and proposed methods that would rem geological structure. Down-hole instrumental log
edy the deficiencies, is U.S. Geological Survey Project ging techniques may also be used. The stage is
Report IR CS-25, "Coal in Costa Rica, A Progress completed when potentially economic coal beds have
Report (1981)." been positively located and defined and resources
In most cases, the sequence of coal exploration and calculated to indicated status.
the succeeding studies usually present the data needed for Exploration Stage 2 (precommercial evaluation).
coal assessment. The sequence of studies can begin with In Stage 1, the geological structure was delineated
a pre-reconnaissance stage, during which the presence or and seams correlated. Information obtained on the
absence of coal is established, and end with an exploita
quality and quantity of reserves as well as possible
tion, or mining stage. The coal exploration stages in which
mining and preparation methods was, however, indic
the U.S. Geological Survey has extensive experience can
ative only. In this next stage, the information must be
be defined as follows:
raised to higher confidence levels to provide the basis
Reconnaissance Stage. The objective of this for evaluation of mining methods, costs, and poten
stage is the establishment of the presence of coal in a tial markets by mining engineers and mining econo
98 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resource* and Geologic Hazards, Central America
mists. The aim of this stage is, therefore, to make a the authors knowledge, only a part of the Baja Talamanca
confident estimation of coal resources, coal quality, area of Costa Rica is, or soon will be, ready for an
mining conditions, and (for potential surface mines) Exploration Stage 2 study.
overburden quantities for preliminary mine and pro A preliminary unpublished coal resource estimate
duction planning, costing studies, and market survey. for Central America, made by G. H . Wood, Jr, of the U.S.
This is usually achieved by an increased density of Geological Survey, totals 355 million short tons, much of
drilling of small-diameter cored holes, the cores which is in the hypothetical resource category. No
being tested on a probable mining section calculation resources were estimated for many of the reported coal
of the resources to a higher status. localities because too little, or no, data are available. Peat,
the precursor to coal, is known to be present in Costa
Coal is known or reported to be present in many Rica and is very likely present in some other areas in
areas in Central America. In many, or most, of the areas Central America. To date, interest in exploration for peat
where coal is reported, pre-reconnaissance and (or) in Central America is practically nil, but may be war
Reconnaissance Stage studies are needed. In very few ranted, particularly from the standpoint of an overall
areas, Early Exploration Stage studies are warranted. To energy-resource inventory.
Una evaluación de recursos carboníferos consiste Geológico de los Estados Unidos tiene amplia experiencia
en un análisis de todos los datos relacionados con las pueden definirse de la manera siguiente:
reservas y los recursos carboníferos de una zona, con el
Etapa de reconocimiento. El objetivo de esta
objeto de determinar la naturaleza geológica y el poten
etapa es establecer la presencia de carbón en un área
cial económico de las reservas y los recursos carboníferos
geográfica y recoger, compilar y resumir suficiente
del área (Wood y otros, 1983).
información que permitan sacar deducciones
Una evaluación no es lo mismo que una estimación;
razonables sobre la ubicación y la distribución gene
esta última es una determinación de la cantidad de carbón
ral de las rocas portadoras de carbón y las capas de
en un área. Una estimación o una apreciación cuantitati
carbón en el área.
va, es solamente uno de los muchos tipos de datos que se
Etapa de exploración primaria. Una vez que se
necesitan para una evaluación. Por ejemplo, la infor
haya establecido o deducido razonablemente la pres
mación sobre la calidad del carbón, es, en general,
encia de carbón en un área, se emprende una etapa
esencial para una evaluación. Puesto que la evaluación
de investigación durante la cual los datos preexisten
está basada en los datos disponibles en un momento
dado, será necesaria una nueva evaluación, o reeval tes son cotejados y evaluados para determinar la
uación, cuando se logre obtener una cantidad de nuevos viabilidad de proseguir la exploración mediante el
datos. Por esta razón, muchas evaluaciones, si no la uso de métodos de perforación y de levantamientos
mayoría, no están al día. Un ejemplo de ello es el Boletín geofísicos. El objetivo en esta etapa es, por consigui
1412 del Servicio Geológico de los Estados Unidos: ente, establecer suposiciones confiables con respecto
"Recursos Carboníferos de los Estados Unidos, 1 de al número, profundidad, extensión, calidad y poten
enero de 1974." cial comercial de los filones dentro del área de
Una evaluación no puede ser más completa que los exploración. La información existente puede suple-
datos que se han utilizado en el análisis. Uno de los mentarse mediante el mapeo de reconocimiento geo
méritos de una evaluación es el hecho de que, además de lógico, empleando tanto estudios fotogcológicos
analizar los datos disponibles, la evaluación indica como levantamientos de suelos, con el fin de ayudar
usualmente las deficiencias obvias de los datos. Los en la selección de puntos de perforación basados en
bancos de datos pueden tener deficiencias en cuanto a criterios geológicos.
tipos de datos, cantidad y calidad de los datos, y en la Etapa de exploración 1 (evaluación regional).
distribución de los datos disponibles. Un ejemplo de una En el curso de esta etapa, se determinan la corre
evaluación que señaló deficiencias en los datos, y propuso lación y la continuidad lateral de los filones y las
métodos que deficiencias, es el Informe de Proyecto del capas de carbón y también los posibles métodos de
Servicio Geológico de los Estados Unidos (IR CS-25, explotación y el potencial de utilización para diversos
"Carbón en Costa Rica, un Informe de Progreso (1981)." usos finales. Esto se consique mediante la perfo
En la mayoría de los casos, la secuencia de explo ración de varios taladros, en su mayoría con testigo,
ración carbonífera y los estudios subsiguientes presentan, dentro de una amplia zona de perforaciones. Cabe
en general, los datos que se necesitan para la evaluación emplear, asimismo, técnicas geofísicas de superficie,
carbonífera. La secuencia de estudios puede iniciarse con con el fin de ayudar a determinar la estructura
una etapa de pre- reconocimiento, durante la cual se geológica. Se pueden emplear también técnicas de
establece la presencia o ausencia de carbón, y se termina registro por instrumentos en agujeros descedentes.
con una etapa de explotación o extracción minera. Las Esta etapa queda terminada cuando los yacimientos
etapas de exploración carbonífera en las que el Servicio de carbón que tienen posibilidades económicas han
100 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologlc Hazards, Central America
sido ubicados y determinados y cuando los recursos una probable sección de extracción minera que es
se calculan al nivel indicado. llevada a un estado superior.
Etapa de exploración 2 (evaluación precomer- Se sabe que hay o se ha informado que existe
cial ). En la Etapa 1 se ha determinado la estructura carbón en muchas áreas de América Central. En muchas
geológica y se han correlacionado los filones. Sin o en la mayoría de las áreas donde se ha informado que
hay carbón, se necesitan estudios en las etapas de pre-
embargo, solamente es indicativa la información
reconocimento y/o reconocimiento. En muy pocas áreas
obtenida sobre la cantidad y la calidad de las reservas se justifican estudios en la Etapa de Exploración Prelimi
y la posible explotación minera y métodos de extrac nar. Según el conocimiento de los autores, solamente una
ción. En la presente etapa la información debe parte del área de Baja Talamanca, en Costa Rica, está
llevarse a niveles de confiabilidad mayores para lista, o pronto lo estará, para un estudio de Etapada de
sentar las bases para la evaluación de los métodos de Exploración 2.
minería, los costos y los posibles mercados. Estas Una estimación preliminar inédita de los recursos
evaluaciones son realizadas por ingenieros mineros y carboníferos de Centroamérica, hecha por G. H. Wood,
economistas en minería. El objetivo de esta etapa es, Jr., del Servicio Geológico de los Estados Unidos, da un
por lo tanto, hacer una estimación confiable de los total de 365 millones de toneladas cortas, muchas de las
recursos carboníferos, la calidad del carbón, las cuales están en la categoría hipotética de recursos. No se
condiciones de minería y (para posibles minas de han estimado los recursos en muchas de las áreas donde
se ha reportado la existencia de carbón, debido a que hay
superficie) las cantidades excesivas para la minería
muy pocos, o no hay, datos disponibles. La turba, el
preliminar y el planeamiento de la producción, los precursor del carbón, se sabe que existe en Costa Rica y
estudios de costo y una investigación del mercado. muy probable que se encuentre en otras áreas de América
Esto se consigue usualmente mediante una mayor Central. A la fecha, casi no hay interés en Centroamérica
densidad de perforaciones de agujeros con testigo de en la exploración de la turba, pero si puede justificarse,
poco diámetro. Los testigos del sondeo se prueban especialmente desde el punto de vista un inventario global
en acción minera por un cálculo de los recursos de de recursos energéticos.
The experience gained by the U.S. Geological Sur The involvement of the USGS in offshore minerals
vey (USGS) in its evaluation of the offshore petroleum includes surveys in Alaska and off the west coast of the
potential in many geological settings can be applied to the United States during the 1960's and early 1970's (at
offshore in Central America. present, placer mineral deposits are being sought actively
The USGS has been engaged in marine research for off the U.S. Atlantic coast). The greatest potential in the
more than 20 years and has a demonstrated capability in Alaskan offshore is for gold, platinum, and tin. In Norton
investigations relating to oil and gas potential as well as to Sound, gold prospecting and mining permits cover the
minerals on the continental shelf. entire coastal area out to the limit of State jurisdiction, or
For more than a decade, the USGS has been 3 miles. Off the Pacific coast, the USGS has studied the
engaged in an intensive study of the sedimentary basins potential for gold in relict beaches, buried river channels,
offshore of the United States, including Alaska. A rela and in reworked Pleistocene gravels. In addition, major
tively broad grid of the order of 50 km line spacing of chromite deposits have been mined from modern and
multichannel seismic data has provided the basis for ancient beaches, but offshore resources have not yet been
interpretation of the regional geologic framework. Com evaluated.
plementary geologic information was derived from Recently, a systematic evaluation of placer-mineral
onshore geology, well data, piston cores, and dredging. concentrations has been initiated off the U.S. Atlantic
The combined data formed the basis for evaluation of the coast. The project deserves attention because of the
petroleum potential in terms of oil and gas resource application of computer analysis and other new mineral
estimates. extraction and processing techniques to the investigations.
The offshore areas of eastern Central America have For example, reconnaissance sampling is guided using
been explored, and about 30 wells have been drilled; only indirect evidence, available placer heavy-mineral deposi-
one well contains significant quantities of oil. The lack of tional models, and other statistical modeling techniques.
oil discoveries in this area has been attributed in part to New high-speed, highly efficient heavy-mineral separation
relatively low heat flow and poor porosity at depth. In techniques have been developed permitting the rapid
general, there has been relatively extensive exploration by processing of a large number of samples. The results of
industry, and additional extensive studies of a regional the processing and subsequent numeralogic analysis are
nature do not appear to be warranted. incorporated into data bases where the data can be easily
This is not the case for the Pacific margin of Central manipulated. This greatly facilitates evaluation of
America, where a major basin extends from Guatemala resource distribution and geologic interpretation. In addi
to northern Costa Rica. This basin contains as much as 15 tion, the data bases can be searched, sorted, and updated
km of sediment but has been tested by only a few wells. for a variety of applications, such as economic analysis of
Exxon has drilled a single well to about 3,750 m off the resource concentrations.
coast of Guatemala, but it was dry. No other wells have Separate procedures for reconnaissance analysis of
been drilled in that area, but several wells were drilled off regions and detailed analysis of regions are made where
Honduras in 1974. Although these wells apparently had quantitative resource estimates are justified. Analyses
significant shows, no additional wells were drilled. In view include determinations of mineral assemblages, mineral
of the extent of the area having petroleum potential, a concentration zones, cumulative concentrations, economic
systematic seismic survey of the region would provide the concentrations, spatial correlation, statistics of quantity
basis for understanding the geologic framework and for and distribution, and mapping. The results of the analysis
evaluating the subsidence and heat-flow history and pre are then used to qualitatively and quantitatively define the
paring oil and gas estimates based on all available data. placer heavy-mineral resources. In addition, the analyses
These data and interpretations may provide industry with will permit the development of an offshore placer heavy-
prospects for exploration activity. mineral class system to facilitate interpretation and
102 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America
extrapolation to deduce the origin and modes of occur mineral occurrence, in particular, gold. An initial review
rence and to apply computer models for forecasting of previous sampling results in the region would guide the
offshore placer heavy-mineral deposits using indirect overall structure of a reconnaissance high-resolution seis
evidence. mic and sampling program. The results of the analyses of
As in the case for petroleum, the experience the
the reconnaissance survey would be used as a guide to
USGS is gaining in the application of modern techniques
to the evaluation of offshore mineral concentrations can detailed sampling and surveying in selected areas. The
be applied to the continental shelf off Central America. detailed surveys would be planned in such a way that
The Pacific coast of Central America is a region that has results will be statistically valuable in estimating possible
potential for placer-mineral deposits based on onshore resources.
La experiencia adquirida por el Servicio Geológico extenso del área de potencial petrolero, una investigación
de los Estados Unidos en esta evaluación del potencial de sísmica sistemática de la región proveería las bases de
petróleo en recursos de aguas afuera en muchas estruc entendimiento del marco geológico y la evaluación del
turas geológicas pueden ser aplicadas a los recursos de bajo flujo de temperatura y la preparación de los
mar adentro en América Central. estimados de gas y petróleo basados en todos los datos
El Servicio Geológico de los Estados Unidos se ha disponsibles. Estos datos y las interpretaciones podrían
comprometido en investigaciones marinas por cerca de 20 proveer a la industria de probabilidades para la actividad
años y ha demostrado capacidad en investigaciones, de exploración.
relacionadas con potencial de petróleo y gas así como en El compromiso del Servicio Geológico de los
minerales en la plataforma continental. Estados Unidos en minerales aguas fuera incluye estudios
Pbr más de una década, el Servicio Geológico de los en Alaska y fuera de la costa oeste de los Estados Unidos
Estados Unidos se ha comprometido en un estudio inten durante los sesentas y principio de los setentas (en la
sivo de recursos de aguas afuera de las cuencas sedimen actualidad, depósitos de placeres minerales se buscan
tarias de los Estados Unidos, incluyendo Alaska. Una activamente fuera de la costa atlántica de los Estados
relativamente extensa red del orden de los 50 km de lineas Unidos). El gran potencial aguas fuera de Alaska es oro,
separadas de datos multicanales sísmicos ha suministrado platino y estaño. En Norton Sound, la exploración y
las bases para la interpretación de la estructura geológica minería de oro permite cubrir el área completa de la costa
regional. Información complementaria geológica se ha hasta el limite de la jurisdicción del estado, o 3 millas.
derivado de la geologíaá continental, datos de pozos, Fuera de la costa del Pacífico, el Servicio Geológico de los
sondeos de testigo y dragado. Los antecedentes combi Estados Unidos ha estudiado el potencial para oro en
nados forman la base para la evaluación del potencial del playas abandonadas, canales de rio enternados, y en
petróleo en términos de recursos estimados de gas y gravas pleistocenas retrabajadas. En adición, depósitos
aceite. mayores de cromita han sido explorados en playas
Las áreas aguas afuera del oriente de América antiguas y modernas, pero los recursos de aguas afuera
Central han sido exploradas, y cerca de 30 pozos han sido todavía no han sido evaluados.
perforados; solamente un pozo contiene cantidades Recientemente, una evaluación sistemática de las
significativas de petróleo. Los descubrimientos de la falta concentraciones de placeres minerales ha sido iniciada
de petróleo en esta área han sido atribuidos en parte al fuera de la costa atlántica de los Estados Unidos. El
flujo de temperatura relativamente bajo y la mala porosi proyecto merece atención por la aplicación del análisis
dad en la profundidad. En general, ha habido relativamen computarizado y la extracción de otros minerales nuevos
te extensa exploración por la industria, y no se justifican y técnicas de procesamiento para la investigación. Por
estudios adicionales extensos de naturaleza regional. ejemplo, muestreo de reconocimiento es guiado usando
Este no es el caso para margen Pacífico de América evidencia indirecta, placeres disposibles de modelos de
Central, en donde una cuenca mayor se extiende desde depósito de minerales pesados y otras técnicas estadísti
Guatemala hasta la parte norte de Costa Rica. Esta cas de modelos. Una técnica muy eficiente de alta velo
cuenca contiene mucho más de 15 km de sedimento pero cidad de separación de minerales pesados ha sido desarro
ha sido analizada mediante solamente algunos pozos. llada, lo que permite el rápido proceso de un gran
Exxon ha perforado un único pozo de cerca de 3.750 m número de muestras. Los resultados del proceso y los
fuera de la costa de Guatemala, pero estaba seco. No han subsecuentes análisis numeralógicos están incorporados
sido perforados otros pozos en esta área, pero varios dentro de las bases de los antecedentes, donde los datos
pozos fueron perforados lejos de Honduras en 1974. pueden ser fácilmente manipulados. Esta evaluación
Aunque estos pozos aparentemente mostraban ser facilita grandemente la distribución de recursos y la
significativos, no se perforaron más pozos. En vista de lo interpretación geológica. En adición, las bases de los
104 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resource* and Geologic Hazards, Central America
detalles pueden ser investigados, adaptados, y actuali depósito de minerales pesados de aguas afuera usando
zados para una variedad de aplicaciones, tales como evidencia indirecta.
análisis económico de recursos de concentración. Como en el caso del petróleo, la experiencia que el
Procedimientos separados para análisis de recono Servicio Geológico de los Estados Unidos está adquirien
do en la aplicación de técnicas modernas para la
cimiento de las regiones y análisis detallado de las
evaluación de concentraciones de mineral de aguas
regiones se han hecho en donde los estimados cuantita afuera, puede ser aplicable a las capas horizontales de
tivos de los recursos son justificados. El análisis incluye roca fuera del continente de America Central. La costa del
determinación de grupos de minerales, zonas de concen Pacífico de America Central es una región que tiene
tración de mineral, concentraciones acumulativas, concen potencial para depósitos de placeres minerales basados en
traciones económicas, correlación de espacio, estadísticas ocurrencia de mineral de aguas afuera, en particular, oro.
de distribución y cantidad, y mapeo. Los resultados del Una revisión inicial de los resultados de muestreo previos
análisis se usan entonces, para definir cual y cuantitati en la región guiarían a toda la estructura de un programa
vamente los recursos de placeres minerales pesados. En de resolución alta de reconocimiento de muestreo sís
mico. Los resultados del análisis del estudio de reconoci
adición, los análisis permitirán el desarrollo de un placer
miento podrián ser usado como una guía para detallar el
de minerales pesados de aguas afuera, clase de sistema muestreo y la topografía en áreas selectivas. Los estudios
para facilitar la extrapolación e interpretación para detallados serian planeados según el resultado sea valioso
deducir el origen y modos de ocurrencia y para aplicar estadísticamente para estimar posibles fuentes de
modelos de computadora para pronosticar placeres de recursos.
As agricultural workers throughout the world Large marine sedimentary phosphate deposits are
attempt to increase crop and animal production, greater known in rocks of Late Cretaceous age in Colombia and
attention is being given to various mineral materials that Venezuela, in rocks of Miocene age in Venezuela and
function as soil fertilizers, soil amendments, and dietary Peru, and in rocks of Oligocene age in Mexico (table 1).
supplements in animal husbandry. Mineral deposits of In this region of the world, marine sedimentary rocks of
chiefly agricultural importance to Central America are these ages should be primary exploration targets. An
phosphate, zeolite minerals, and sulfur. Phosphate is one attempt should be made to determine the paleogeogr-
of the primary compounds used in fertilizers. Sulfur is aphy of these time intervals. The next step could be to
needed in the synthesis of proteins, vitamins, enzymes and construct geologic maps of potentially favorable areas so
chlorophyll. The seemingly attractive properties of zeo that rock types characteristic of phosphate deposits could
lites, including cation-exchange capacity, nitrogen fixation, be outlined. Because marine phosphatic rocks commonly
adsorption, and reversible dehydration, promise increased contain uranium, radiometric surveys could be useful in
agricultural productivity, especially in regions where food delineating areas of interest.
production is generally low. Areas of marine sedimentary rocks of Cretaceous
The element phosphorus is a necessary growth or middle Tertiary ages are somewhat restricted in areal
element in all plants and animals. The world's supply of extent in Central America and the Caribbean islands;
phosphorus comes from mineral deposits, where it is thus, it is unlikely that phosphate deposits of very large
contained in one of the minerals of the apatite group— a size could be found in those areas. However, even small
calcium phosphate. About 90 percent of the phosphate mines and grinding plants, regardless of deposit type,
mined is used in the fertilizer industry; the rest is used to could produce usable phosphate fertilizer at an afford
produce a variety of chemical products. able price for local use and would decrease dependence
Phosphate deposits are of three basic types, which on expensive imports.
in order of importance are (1) marine sedimentary Igneous apatite deposits in the Caribbean region
deposits (phosphorites), (2) deposits of igneous origin are known only in the Precambrian Shield area of Vene
(apatite), and (3) deposits of guano or deposits derived zuela but may be present in Colombia. Airborne surveys
from guano. About 80 percent of the world's production should be helpful as an exploration tool.
of phosphate is from sedimentary deposits, 18 percent is Carbonatites are plug-like intrusive bodies of calcite
from igneous apatite deposits, and only about 2 percent is that commonly contain small amounts of apatite. The
from guano deposits. Certain factors are common to each apatite is residually enriched by chemical weathering in a
of the three types of deposits, and these factors can be tropical environment. The carbonatites of Brazil are excel
used to construct models that will aid in the search for lent examples of this type of material. According to Simon
undiscovered deposits. Rodriguez (written commun., 1984), in Venezuela
Marine sedimentary phosphate deposits are the apatite-rich zones associated with carbonatites have been
most important of these deposits. Large deposits have discovered in the Precambrian shield in Northern
formed on continental shelves at low to middle latitudes Amazonas Territory and Estado Bolivar.
where clastic sedimentation is minimal and oceanic upwell- Circular, pluglike bodies can be delineated by
ing is optimal. Areas having these characteristics have side-look radar, gravity, or radiometric surveys. Such
existed along the western continental shelves in the trade- surveys can cover large areas rapidly and are particularly
wind belts, along the eastern shelves of continents that effective in tropical areas that are jungle-covered.
experience poleward-moving marine coastal currents, and Guano is dried excrement of sea birds or bats and is
along the equatorial shelves of Mediterranean seas. a valuable fertilizer because of its high content of water
1 06 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America
Table 1 .—Known phosphate deposits-Caribbean area
at Formation name Location Deposit type and mineral type Resources (Ions)
soluble phosphorus and nitrogen. Most deposits are small eases. Zeolites are effective in deodorizing and increasing
and are found in bat caves or on islands that are or were the nutrient content of animal wastes, and they are useful
bird rookeries. Production is only a few thousand metric in the removal of toxic ammonia from fish-hatchery
tons per year. Deposits of bird guano are known from waters. Zeolites also have been used as adsorbents in
Venezuelan islands in the Caribbean-Los Roques and solar refrigeration units in areas where electricity is
Margarita. Deposits in bat caves are known from Oaxaca unavailable or very expensive, so that dairy and animal
in Mexico, and many deposits may be present elsewhere products can be stored.
in the Caribbean region. Deposits derived from guano are The use of natural zeolites in the various agricul
more abundant than are the deposits of guano itself. Such tural processes probably will not require a new technol
deposits on islands in the Pacific and Indian Oceans ogy or special equipment. Crushed zeolitic material can
contain as much as several score millions of tons of be applied directly to fields or to the manure accumula
phosphate rock. Where guano is underlain by carbonate tions or mixed with normal feedstuffs for livestock. Most
rock, the soluble phosphate combines with the carbonate applications could be done by hand with, of course,
to form apatite. Such deposits that contain apatite are instructions as to the correct amount to be applied and
known in the Caribbean from the island of Curacao, the timing of the applications.
where resources may be a few million tons, and from About eight zeolites occur in sufficient abundance
Mona Island, where deposits are small—probably tens of in sedimentary deposits to be considered mineable.
thousands of tons. Where the guano is underlain by Clinoptilolite, a generally siliceous and alkali-rich species,
igneous or volcanic rock, iron and aluminum phosphate is by far the most common zeolite in sedimentary deposits
deposits are formed; such deposits may contain resources throughout the world. Zeolites occur in rocks that are
of hundreds of thousands of tons. An example is the diverse in age, lithology, and depositional environment,
deposit of iron and aluminum phosphate on Malpelo but they are most common in sedimentary rocks that
Island off the Pacific Coast of Colombia. originally contained abundant volcanic glass. The zeolites
Guano or guano-derived deposits are known on generally formed during diagenesis by alteration of the
several islands in the Caribbean, but except for the deposit vitric material. Most zeolite deposits occur in rocks that
at Curacao, they are too small to be economic. Deposits are Cretaceous or younger in age. Because of their very
in caves are not known but may be present in the area. small crystal size (commonly less than 20 micrometers),
Small deposits could be useful as a local source of they generally cannot be positively identified in the field.
fertilizer phosphate. X-ray powder diffraction analysis of bulk samples is the
A group of silicate minerals, known as zeolites, has technique generally applied for their identification in
recently been shown to have high potential for applica sedimentary rocks. This method also permits a semiquan
tions in a variety of agricultural processes. Encouraging titative estimate of the abundance of the zeolites and
results have been obtained with zeolites that act as associated minerals in the sample.
slow-release fertilizers for nitrogen and potassium, as Zeolites were recognized in sedimentary deposits of
carriers for herbicides and pesticides, as traps for heavy Puerto Rico in the 1960's and in southern Mexico in 1972,
metals in soils amended with sewage sludge, and as but most of the reported or known zeolite deposits in the
decaking agents for feed and fertilizer storage. Zeolites Caribbean countries were discovered in the last decade
added to the diets of swine, poultry, and ruminants have (table 2). Three areas of Mexico are known to contain
resulted not only in increased body weights and feed large zeolite deposits: (1) clinoptilolite and phillipsite in
efficiencies but also in lower incidence of intestinal dis the Magdalena-Hermosillo area, (2) clinoptilolite in the
108 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resource* and Geologic Hazard*, Central America
LOS MINERALES Y LA AGRICULTURA EN AMERICA
CENTRAL
Por Thomas D. Fouch, James B. Cathcart, Richard A. Sheppard, y David Z. Piper
Mientras los agricultores de todo el mundo tratan con estas características han existido a lo largo de las
de aumentar las cosechas y la producción animal, cada plataformas continentales occidentales, en las fajas de los
vez se presta mas atención a los diversos materiales vientos alisios, a lo largo de las plataformas orientales del
minerales que se utilizan como fertilizantes de suelos y continente que están sujetas a corrientes marinas costeras
como suplemento dietético en la crianza de ganado. Los en dirección a los polos, y a lo largo de las plataformas
yacimientos minerales de mayor importancia en la agricul ecuatoriales del Mediterráneo.
tura de América Central son los fosfatos, los minerales de Grandes yacimientos de fosfato sedimentario
zeolita y el azufre. El azufre es uno de los componentes marinos se encuentran en rocas de la Edad Cretácea
principales de los fertilizantes. El azufre se emplea en la Tardía en Colombia y Venezuela, en rocas de la Edad del
síntesis de las proteínas, las vitaminas, las enzimas y la Mioceno en Venezuela y Perú, y en rocas de la Edad del
clorofila. Las propiedades útiles de las zeolitas inclusive la Oligoceno en México (tabla 1). En esta región del mundo,
capacidad de intercambio de cationes, la fijación de el objectivo de la exploración deberían ser las rocas de
nitrógeno, la absorción y la deshidratado n reversible, sedimentos marinos de esas Edades. Se debería hacer un
prometen una mayor productividad en la agricultura, intento para determinar la paleogeografía de estos
especialmente en regiones en que la producción alimen períodos de tiempo. El siguiente paso sería elaborar
taria es generalmente baja. mapas geológicos de áreas favorables de modo que se
El elemento fósforo es una substancia necesaria puedan delinear las características de tipos de rocas de
para el crecimiento de todas las plantas y animales. El yacimientos de fosfato. Debido a que las rocas de fosfato
abastecimiento mundial de fósforo proviene de yacimien marinas contienen uranio, las investigaciones radio-
tos minerales, donde se encuentra en un mineral del métricas son útiles para delinear las áreas de interés.
grupo de la apatita, a saber: un fosfato de calcio. Cerca del Las áreas de rocas sedimentarias marinas del Cret
90 por ciento de los fosfatos minados se emplea en la áceo o el Terciario Medio tienen una extensión un tanto
industria de fertilizantes; el resto se utiliza para producir restringida en Centroamérica y las islas del Caribe; por
una variedad de productos químicos. consiguiente, es poco probable que en estas áreas se
Los yacimientos de fosfatos se clasifican en tres encuentren grandes yacimientos de fosfato. Sin embargo,
tipos básicos, cuyo orden de importancia es como sigue: aún minas y plantas de pulverización pequeñas, sea cual
(1) yacimientos sedimentarios marinos (fosforitas); (2) fuere el tipo de yacimiento, podrían producir fosfato
depósitos de origen ígneo (apatita), y (3) depósitos de fertilizador a un precio razonable para uso local y
guano o derivados del guano. Aproximadamente un 80% disminuyendo así la dependencia de importaciones cos
de la producción mundial de fosfato de calcio proviene de tosas.
yacimientos sedimentarios, el 18% de depósitos ígneos de Los yacimientos ígneos de apatita en la región del
apatitas, y un 2% de guano. Algunos factores son Caribe se conocen solamente en el área del Escudo
comunes en los tres tipos de depósitos. Estos factores Precámbrico de Venezuela, pero pudieran existir en Vene
pueden ser utilizados para la construcción de modelos que zuela. Las investigaciones aereas serían muy útiles como
ayudarán a la investigación de yacimientos no descubier un instrumento de exploración.
tos. Las carbonitas son cuerpos intrusivos tipo tapón de
Los yacimientos sedimentarios marinos de fosfato calcita que comunmente contienen pequeñas cantidades
son los más importantes. Grandes yacimientos se han de apitata. La apatita es enriquecida en forma residual
formado en los lechos de roca continentales entre lati por intemperización en un ambiente tropical. Las
tudes bajas y medianas en donde la sedimentación clástica carbonitas del Brasil son excelentes ejemplares de este
es mínima y las marejadas del océano son óptimas. Áreas tipo de material. Según Simón Rodríguez (comunicación
escrita, 1984), en Venezuela se han descubierto zonas Un grupo de minerales de silicatos, que se conocen
ricas de apatita asociadas con carbonitas en el Escudo como zeolitas, han demostrado poseer un gran potencial
Precámbrico en el Territorio de Amazonas Septentrional para aplicaciones en una gran variedad de procesos
y en el Estado de Bolívar. agrícolas. Se han obtenido resultados alentadores con las
Cuerpos redondos como tapones pueden ser delinea zeolitas que actúan como fertilizantes de liberación lenta
dos por radar lateral, gravedad o investigaciones radiomé- en cuanto a nitrógeno y potasio, como portadores de
tricas. Estas investigaciones pueden cubrir rápidamente herbicidas y plaguicidas como trampas para metales
áreas grandes y son especialmente eficaces en áreas pesados en suelos compuestos con lodos de aguas servi
tropicales que están cubiertas por servas. das, y como agentes de descomposición para almacena
El guano es excremento seco de aves marinas o miento de alimentos para animales y de fertilizantes. Las
murciélagos y es fertilizante valioso por su alto contenido zeolitas agregadas a las dietas de porcinos, aves y rumian
de fósforo y nitrógeno solubles en agua. La mayoría de los tes han resultado no solo en aumento de peso corporal y
depósitos son pequeños y se encuentran en cuevas o en eficiencias alimentarias, sino también una menor inciden
islas que eran o son criaderos de aves. La producción cia de enfermedades intestinales. Las zeolitas son eficaces
alcanza solamente unos miles de toneladas métricas por para desodorizar y aumentar el contenido de nutrientes de
año. Los depósitos de guano de aves se conocen en las los desechos animales, y son útiles en la remoción del
islas de Venezuela en el Caribe, a saber: Los Roques y amoníaco tóxico de las aguas de criaderos de peces. Las
Margarita. Los depósitos en las cuevas de murciélago se zeolitas se han empleado, asimismo, como absorbente en
encuentran en Oaxaca, México, y muchos otros depósitos unidades de refrigeración solar en lugares donde no hay
se dan en otras partes de la región del Caribe. electricidad o es muy cara, de modo que se puedan
Los depósitos derivados del guano son más abun almacenar los productos lácteos y animales.
dantes que los propios yacimientos de guano. Tales El uso de zeolitas naturales en los diversos procesos
depósitos en islas en los Oceános Pacífico e Indico agrícolas no necesitará probablemente una nueva tecno
contienen millones de tonelades de rocas de fosfato. logía o equipo especial. El material zeolítico triturado
Cuando rocas de carbonatos están subyacentes al guano, puede utilizarse directamente en los suelos o en las
los fosfatos solubles se combinan con el carbonato para acumulaciones de estiércol o bien mezclado con alimentos
formar apatita. Esos depósitos que contienen apatita se corrientes para animales. La mayor parte de las aplica
encuentran en el Caribe en la isla de Curacao, en donde ciones se pueden efectuar a mano según instrucciones
los yacimientos podrían alcanzar millones de toneladas y respecto a la cantidad correcta que debe usarse y el
la isla Mona, en donde hay depósitos pequeños, probable momento apropiado de las aplicaciones.
mente décimos de miles de toneladas. Un ejemplo es el Unas ocho zeolitas ocurren en suficiente abundan
yacimiento de fosfato de hierro y de aluminio en la isla de cia en los yacimientos sedimentarios, por lo que se
Mapelo, en la costa del Pacífico en Colombia. consideran aptos para ser extraídos por minería. La
El guano o los depósitos derivados del guano se dinoptilolita, una variedad generalmente silícea y rica en
encuentran en varias islas del Caribe, pero salvo los álcalis, es la zeolita mas común en los yacimientos
depósitos en Curacao, son demasiado pequeños para ser sedimentarios en todo el mundo. Las zeolitas se encuen
económicos. Los yacimientos en las cuevas también son tran en rocas de diversas edades, litología y ambientes de
conocidos en esta área. Los depósitos pequeños podrían sedimentación, pero son más comunes en las rocas
ser útiles como una fuente local de fosfatos fertilizantes. sedimentarias que originalmente contenían abundantes
110 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America
al
vidrios volcánicos. Las zeolitas se formaron generalmente TABLA 2.—Zeolitas en Yacimientos Sedimentarios del
durante la diagénesis por la alteración del material vitreo. Caribe
La Mayoría de los depósitos de zeolita ocurren en rocas Deposílo Zeolita
que son de la edad Cretácea o más jóvenes. Debido al Antiqua Cerca de Tufas Terciarias Clinoptilolita
tamaño tan pequeño del cristal (corrientemente menos de Saint Johns marinas Mordenita
20 micrometros), no pueden ser identificadas positiva Cuba Cuba Central Tufas Terciarias Clinoptilolita
marinas Mordenita
mente en el campo. El análisis por difracción de rayos X Guatemala Guatemala Tufas Terciarias Clinoptilolita
de las muestras en bloque es el método que generalmente Surcentral tardías
se usa para su identificación en las rocas sedimentarias. México Magdalena- Tufas Terciarias Clinoptilolita
Hermosillo continentales filipsita
Este método también permite hacer una estimación San Luis Potosf- Tufas Terciarias Clinoptilolita
semicuantitativa de la abundancia de las zeolitas y los Guanajuato continentales
minerales asociados en la muestra. Oaxaca-Huajuapan Tufas Terciarias Clinoptilolita
de León continentales Mordenita
Las zeolitas se reconocieron en yacimientos Analcime
sedimentarios en Puerto Rico en 1960, y en el sur de Panamá Cuenca del río Tufas Terciarias Clinoptilolita
Chiriqui
México en 1927, pero la mayoría de los depósitos repor Puerto Rico Cerca de Coamo Cretáceo tardío y Clinoptilolita
tados o conocidos de zeolitas en los países de las Antillas rocas volcánicas Heulandíta
fueron descubiertos en la ultima década (tabla 2). En tres del Terciario Mordenita
temprano Analcime
zonas de México se sabe que hay grandes depósitos de Laumontita
zeolitas: (1) clinoptilolita y filipsita en el área de
Magdalena-Hermosillo; (2) clinoptilolita en el área de
San Luis Potosí-Guanajuato, y (3) clinoptilolita, morden-
ita y anaclime en el área de Oxaca-Huajuapán de León. nuevamente mediante difracción por rayos X, exploración
Los yacimientos de zeolita de Puerto Rico no han sido por microscopio electrónico, y análisis químicos.
estudiados suficientemente para determinar su tamaño y Además, deben determinarse las capacidades de inter
pureza, pero se ha reportado la existencia de clinoptilol cambio de cationes y de absorción en muestras de varios
ita, mordenita, analcime y laumontita. Al parecer Cuba gases. Estos datos se emplean para determinar el posible
tiene grandes depósitos de clinoptilolita y mordenita. Los papel que los materiales zeolíticos desempeñarían en el
otros países del Caribe en donde se han encontrado amplio campo de la agricultura.
zeolitas son Guatemala (clinoptilolita), Panamá (clino El azufre es uno de los elementos esenciales para la
ptilolita), y Antigua (mordenita y clinoptilolita). Todas las vida. Tanto las plantas como los animales contienen tanto
zeolitas en los países del Caribe ocurren en rocas volcano- azufre como fosfato, lo cual subraya la importancia del
elásticas que son de edad Cretácea o más jóvenes. Sola elemento. Los suelos en muchas partes de los Estados
mente los yacimientos de clinoptilolita y mordenita de Unidos y de América Latina son deficientes en azufre a
México y Cuba son viables de explotación minera. Un causa del deslave y la agricultura intensiva.
programa de evaluación y exploración de zeolitas en los Los recursos de azufre están ampliamente distrib
países del Caribe podría efectuarse en tres etapas. uidos. El azufre ocurre en las rocas volcánicas y en la roca
La Etapa I debería comprender visitas a dos o más superior de los domos de sal, en los minerales yeso y
países del Caribe en donde se sabe que hay zeolitas en anhidrita, que son minerales metálicos portadores de
depósitos sedimentarios. Esas visitas serían útiles para azufre, y en compuestos orgánicos e inorgánicos en la
determinar los patrones de alteración en las rocas mayoría de los combustibles fósiles. En el área del Caribe,
volcanoclásticas y para formular uno o más modelos de los recursos de azufre comprenden azufre elemental,
ocurrencia que ayudarán a la exploración de las zeolitas rocas tufáceas asociadas con los volcanes andinos en
en otros países del Caribe. Colombia, y como subproducto de los beneficios de
metales en México. El azufre se encuentra en los efluen
La Etapa II debería realizarse en varios otros
tes de las refinerías de petróleo y en las plantas de
países del Caribe en donde se sospecha la ocurrencia de
procesamiento de gases.
zeolitas. Con base en la geología conocida y con ayuda de
El empleo de fertilizantes químicos complejos que
geólogos locales, se tomarían muestras de rocas sedimen
no contienen azufre requiere la adición del azufre elemen
tarías volcanoclásticas del Cretáceo y el Cenozoico. Breves tal al producto fertilizador. Estos fertilizantes complejos
visitas suplementadas con estudios de laboratorio son son sumamente caros y, en consecuencia, muchas perso
necesarios para determinar la ocurrencia de zeolitas y nas no pueden emplearlos. El azufre no es solamente un
evaluar su ley y abundancia. ingrediente fertilizador necesario, sino también es esen
La Etapa III sería completamente un estudio de cial como ácido sulfúrico en la manufactura de fertilizan
laboratorio. Las muestras seleccionadas se evaluarían tes químicos.
112 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resource* and Geologic Hazards, Central America
GEOTHERMAL RESOURCE ASSESSMENT FOR
CENTRAL AMERICA
By Wendell A. Duffield
Geothermal resource assessment is the estimation tial. Such surface manifestations as hot springs and
of the amount of thermal energy that might be extracted fumaroles are obvious indications of geothermal
from the Earth, in economic competition with other resources, and other resources not directly expressed at
energy sources, and used by mankind at some future time. the surface undoubtedly exist along the volcanic chain.
Such resource assessment is regional in scope and is For sound national and multinational energy plan
intended to provide information that is needed by ning in Central America, an up-to-date geothermal
decisionmakers involved with establishing long-term resource assessment is required. A systematic and consis
energy policy. In contrast, geothermal reserves constitute tent methodology of assessment must be used throughout
the part of the resource that is known to be economically the region to avoid possible confusion in comparing
exploitable in the current marketplace. Knowledge of resources in one part of the region with those in another
reserves is needed to guide decisions that have immediate part. A first attempt at such an assessment will identify
or short-term impact. A logical and efficient sequence of areas where additional field data are needed, which in
geothermal studies is characterized by resource assess turn will lead to successive updating of a growing
ment that is periodically updated as new data become resource inventory. Meanwhile, definition and exploitation
available, and that is complemented by definition of of reserves can go forward as the marketplace and
reserves as actual development and exploitation of geoth national needs dictate. In view of the abundance of active
ermal energy becomes warranted. volcanoes and currently successful initial exploitation of
Geothermal resources occur at various tempera geothermal energy in El Salvador and Nicaragua, one can
tures and in a variety of geologic environments. reasonably speculate that geothermal energy may one day
Electrical-grade resources (temperatures of 150°C or provide energy for much or most of the electrical needs of
greater), however, generally are associated with geologi Central America; low-temperature uses of geothermal
cally young or active volcanoes. The magmatic roots of energy may also prove to be a significant factor in the
volcanoes serve as heat sources for hydrothermal- energy equation. The results of regional resource assess
convection systems. The chain of more than 80 active or ment could remove these ideas from the realm of specu
dormant volcanoes that links Central American countries lation and provide decisionmakers with information
in a zone about 50-100 km inland from the parallel to the needed to evaluate long-term options for energy in this
Pacific coast is clearly an area of high geothermal poten part of the world.
CENTROAMERICA
Una evaluación de recursos geotérmicos consiste males y las fumarolas son indicaciones evidentes de
en la estimación de la cantidad de energía térmica que recursos geotérmicos, y es indudable que a lo largo de la
pudiera extraerse de la tierra, en competencia económica cadena volcánica existen otros recursos que no se manifi
con otras fuentes de energía, y que la humanidad util estan directamente.
izaría en una fecha futura. Dicha evaluación de recursos Para formular un plan energético multinacional y
es de amplitud regional y tiene el propósito de proporci racional en Centroamérica, se necesita una evaluación
onar información que necesitan las personas que toman actualizada de los recursos geotérmicos. Una metodo
decisiones y están involucradas en formular políticas logía sistemática y consecuente de evaluación debe empl
energéticas a largo plazo. Por el contrario, las reservas earse a lo largo de la region toda para evitar la posible
geotérmicas constituyen la parte del recurso que se sabe confusión al comparar los recursos de una parte de la
que es económicamente explotable en el mercado actual. región con otra parte. Un primer intento de dicha
El conocimiento de las reservas es necesario para orien evaluación identificaría las áreas donde se necesitan datos
tar las decisiones con efectos inmediatos a corto plazo.
de campo adicionales, los cuales a su vez conducirán a
Una secuencia lógica y eficiente de los estudios geotér
una actualización sucesiva de un creciente inventario de
micos se caracteriza por la evaluación de recursos que es
recursos. Entretanto, se puede proceder a la determina
actualizada periódicamente a medida que se recaban
nuevos datos, y que es complementada por la definición ción y la explotación de las reservas según lo exijan las
de las reservas en cuanto se justifica el desarrollo y la necesidades nacionales y el mercado. En vista de la
explotación actuales de la energía geotérmica. abundancia de volcanes activos y la explotación inicial de
Los recursos geotérmicos ocurren a varias tem energía geotérmica que se ha realizado con éxito en El
peraturas y en una gran variedad de ambientes geológicos. Salvador y Nicaragua, se puede conjeturar racionalmente
Los recursos de categoría eléctrica (temperatura de que la energía geotérmica generará en lo futuro para
150°C o mayores) están asociados, por regla general, con satisfacer la mayor parte de la energía eléctrica de
volcanes geológicamente jóvenes o activos. Los orígenes Centroamérica; los usos a baja temperatura de la energía
magmáticos de los volcanes sirven como fuentes de calor geotérmica también podrían llegar a representar un fac
para sistemas hidrotérmicos de convección. La cadena de tor significativo en la ecuación energética. Los resultados
más de 80 volcanes activos o latentes que enlazan los de la evaluación de los recursos regionales podrían
países de Centroamérica en una zona de unos 50-100 km desalojar estas ideas del campo de las conjeturas y propor
tierra adentro del paralelo a la costa del Pacífico, es cionar a los que toman decisiones en la información
claramente una zona de mucho potencial geotérmico. Las necesarias para evaluar opciones de largo plazo para
manifestaciones superficiales tales como las aguas ter aprovechamiento de energía en esta parte del mundo.
114 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America
SELECTING A STRATEGY FOR REDUCING
LANDSLIDE LOSSES
By Russell H. Campbell
The development of land resources inevitably viewed primarily as a local responsibility. Whereas the
brings people face-to-face with active earth processes, Federal government plays a key role in research, in the
such as landslides, that can be hazardous to life and development of mapping techniques, and in landslide
property. Regional topographic, geologic, and hydrologic management on Federal lands, the reduction of landslide
information can be used to predict the likelihood that losses through land-use management and the application
proposed development will place people or property at of building and grading codes is a function of local
risk from landslides; such information is critical to cost- government. State, regional, and local community plan
effective land development in regions of potential land ning and land-use management programs in the United
slide risk. Of all the types of potentially hazardous active States vary considerably from one jurisdiction to another,
earth processes, landslides are probably the most readily and there are no widely accepted procedures or regula
amenable to loss-reduction measures. Petak and Atkisson tory approaches for taking landslide hazards into account
(1982) have estimated that if appropriate grading regula during, or prior to, the selection of sites for development.
tions were applied to new construction throughout the Building and grading codes are the chief regulatory
United States, about 60 percent of all U.S. building losses vehicles through which local governments ensure proper
from landslides could be avoided. (This 60-percent loss design and construction practices, but their provisions
reduction for landslides compares to 8 percent for earth generally apply to the stabilization of specific sites that
quakes, 24 percent for expansive soils, 27 percent for have already been selected. Collectively, U.S. efforts to
hurricanes, 18 percent for severe winds, 24 percent for reduce landslide losses lack a consistent strategy for
tornadoes, 64 percent for riverine floods, 59 percent for implementing appropriate mitigation approaches. How
storm surges, and 25 percent for tsunamis.) ever, many of the technological tools and scientific and
As with floods, earthquakes, and hurricanes, miti engineering skills needed for effective mitigation have
gation activities to reduce landslide losses can take vari been, or are being developed.
ous approaches, including hazard warning insurance, Landslide prediction and warning: Deaths and inju
disaster assistance, land-use restrictions (planning and ries due to rapidly moving large and small landslides have
zoning), and local building-code grading requirements. occurred all over the world. During the period 1971-74,
Public programs using these approaches, singly or in an average of nearly 600 people per year were killed by
combinations, can reduce an individual's risk of loss from slope failures (Varnes, 1981). About 90 percent of those
landslides. Public programs, however, generally assume a deaths occurred within the Circum-Pacific region. In the
broad exposure to the risk by society as a whole, which United States, the loss of life from landsliding is compar
may not represent the actual risk to individual sites within able to the total loss of life from floods, earthquakes, and
a specific community. Subsidy and adverse-selection hurricanes (Krohn and Slosson, 1976), or about 25 to 50
aspects of some programs have received increasing public deaths per year. Although some techniques for predicting
attention in the United States. Even where major loss life-threatening landslide occurrence have been proposed,
reductions have been demonstrated, their cost-effec and some research has been carried out on the use of
tiveness has come under question. It is becoming increas early warning systems to alert the public to individual
ingly clear, therefore, that the implementation of public local landslides, extensive implementation of an early
programs requiring individuals to undertake mitigation warning system awaits the successful completion of fur
activities should be based on a rational strategy for ther research and technological development. In any given
selecting the areas where those added costs will be region, however, the success of attempts to anticipate
imposed. catastrophic landslide activity, and to provide early warn
In the United States, reduction of landslide losses is ing, will depend greatly on basic regional information
116 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America
the United States, the Geological Survey has lead respon References Cited
sibility for 1) research on the mechanics and rates of
landslide processes and on the natural earth materials
involved; 2) research on techniques for hazards delinea Bernknopf, R.L., Brookshire, D.S., Campbell, R.H., Shapiro,
tion; 3) research on methods for prediction and early D., and Fleming, R.W., 1985, The economics of landslide
warning; and 4) providing national leadership in technol mitigation strategies in Cincinnati, Ohio, a methodology
ogy transfer and technical assistance. for benefit-cost analysis, chapter D in Feasibility of a
The objectives of the present USGS research pro nationwide program for the identification and delineation
gram in landslide hazards include a) field and laboratory of hazards from mud flows and other landslides: U.S.
studies of landslide processes focused on the identification Geological Survey Open-File Report 85-276-D, 35 p.
of topographic, geologic, and hydrologic factors that Krohn, J.P., and Slosson, J.E., 1976, Landslide potential in the
affect landslide activity and occurrence; b) landslide prob United States: California Geology, v. 29, no. 10, p.
ability studies to develop optimum landslide mitigation 224-231.
strategies through determination of those landslide pro Petak, WJ., and Atkisson, AA., 1982, Natural hazard risk
cess factors that most control regional landslide activity assessment and public policy: New York, Springer-Verlag,
and occurrence; c) development of computer-mapping 489 p.
Slosson, J.E., and Krohn, J.P., 1982, Southern California land
technologies to rapidly and cheaply identify landslide-
slides of 1978 and 1980, in Storms, floods and debris flows
prone areas where landslide mitigation techniques can
in southern California and Arizona, 1978 and 1980: Pro
most profitably be applied; and d) conducting demonstra
ceedings of a Symposium, National Research Council, and
tion projects in populous landslide-prone areas. Current Environmental Quality Laboratory, California Institute of
USGS research for new methods and technology, under Technology, Pasadena, California, September 17-18,
way at all three USGS centers, includes work on instru 1980: Washington, D.C., National Academy Press, p.
mentation and telemetry for early warning, computer 291-319.
manipulation of digital elevation models and their analy Varnes, DJ., 1981, Slope-stability problems of the circum-
tical use to identify landslide probability, experimentation Pacific region as related to mineral and energy resources, in
with computer-driven plotters for map reproduction, and Halbouty, M.T., ed., Energy resources of the Pacific
instrumentation for improved field investigation and inter region: American Association of Petroleum Geologists,
pretation of potential landslide hazards. Studies in Geology, no. 12, p. 489-505.
El desarrollo de los recursos de terreno inevitable público en los Estados Unidos. Aún cuando se ha demons
mente nos enfrenta con los procesos activos de la tierra, trado una gran reducción en las perdidas, su efectividad
tales como los derrumbes, que también pueden constituir económica ha sido puesta en tela de juicio. Por lo tanto,
un peligro para la vida y la propiedad. La información cada vez es más claro que la implantación de programas
topográfica, geológica e hidrológica regional puede ser públicos que requieren la intervención de individuos en
utilizada para predecir la posibilidad de que un proyecto las actividades de mitigación, debe estar basada en una
de desarrollo pueda poner a la gente o a la propiedad en estrategia racional al seleccionar las áreas donde estos
peligro, a causa de los derrumbes; tal información es costos adicionales serán impuestos.
crítica cuando se considera el desarrollo económico de En los Estados Unidos, la reducción de las pérdidas
terrenos, en regiones con riesgo potencial de derrumbe. por derrumbe es vista, principalmente, como una respon
De todos los tipos de procesos activos de la tierra potencial- sabilidad local. Aunque el gobierno Federal juega un
mente peligrosos, los derrumbes posiblemente son los que papel importante en la investigación, en el desarrollo de
con mayor facilidad pueden sujetarse a medidas para la las técnicas para levantamiento de mapas y en el control
reducción de pérdidas. Petak y Atkisson (1982) han de derrumbes de las tierras federales, la reducción de las
estimado que si se aplicaran las regulaciones adecuadas pérdidas por derrumbes, a través del control del uso de la
de nivelación a toda nueva construcción, a través de los tierra y de la aplicación de códigos de construcción y
Estados Unidos, podría evitarse cerca del 60 por ciento de nivelación, es una responsabilidad del gobierno local. En
todas las pérdidas por derrumbe, ocurridas en los los Estados Unidos, los programas estatales, regionales y
Estados Unidos. (Esta reducción del 60 por ciento en las locales de planificación y uso controlado de la tierra
pérdidas por derrumbe se compara con el 8 por ciento varían considerablemente de una jurisdicción a otra, y no
por terremotos, el 24 por ciento por suelos expansivos, el hay procedimientos ampliamente aceptados o enfoques
27 por ciento por huracanes, el 18 por ciento por vientos reguladores para considerar los peligros de derrumbe,
severos, el 24 por ciento por tornados, el 64 por ciento por con anterioridad o durante la selección de sitios a desarro
inundaciones fluviales, el 59 por ciento marejadas de llar. Los códigos de construcción y nivelación son los
tormenta y el 25 por ciento por tsunamis.) principales medios reguladores, a través de los cuales los
En igual forma que con las inundaciones, ter gobiernos locales se aseguran de que se apliquen las
remotos y huracanes, las actividades de mitigación para prácticas adecuadas para el diseño y la construcción, pero
reducir las pérdidas por derrumbe pueden ser enfocadas sus regulaciones generalmente se refieren a la estabili
desde diferentes ángulos, incluyendo avisos de peligro, zación de sitios específicos que ya han sido seleccionados.
seguro, asistencia por desastre, restricciones para el uso En forma colectiva, los esfuerzos de los Estados Unidos
de terrenos (planificación y /unificación) y requisitos de para reducir las pérdidas por derrumbes carecen de una
nivelación como parte de los códigos locales de construc estrategia consistente para implantar medidas de
ción. Los programas públicos que usan estos enfoques, en mitigación apropiadas. Sin embargo, ya se han desarro
forma individual o combinada, pueden reducir el riesgo llado o están en desarrollo muchos de los instrumentos
de una persona a sufrir pérdidas por derrumbes. Sin tecnológicos y conocimientos científicos y de ingeniería
embargo, los programas públicos generalmente conside necesarios para lograr una mitigación efectiva.
ran una amplia exposición al riesgo de la comunidad Predicción y advertencia de derrumbes : Las muertes
entera, lo cual puede no representar el riesgo real de sitios y daños personales, causados por derrumbes grandes y
individuales dentro de una comunidad específica. Los pequeños de rápido movimiento, han ocurrido en todas
subsidios y los aspectos de selección adversa de algunos partes del mundo. Durante el periodo de 1971-74,
programas han recibido un incremento en la atención del murieron aproximadamente 600 personas por año, como
118 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologlc Hazards, Central America
promedio, a causa de deslizamientos de laderas (Varnes, 92 a un 97 por ciento (Slosson y Krohn, 1982). Sin
1981). Cerca de un 90 por ciento de estas muertes ocurrió embargo, los códigos requieren que para cada sitio locali
dentro de la región circundante del Pacífico. En los zado en una ladera, en el cual se proyecta construir, se
Estados Unidos, la pérdida de vidas por derrumbes es lleve a cabo un examen profesional, tratando efectiva
comparable con la pérdida total de vidas a causa de mente todos los sitios como si tuvieran la misma posibili
inundaciones, terremotos y huracanes (Krohn y Slosson, dad inicial de falla. El examen del sitio determina si se
1976), o sea aproximadamente, 25 a 50 muertes por año. requieren diseño y construcción especiales para la esta
Aunque se han propuesto algunas técnicas para la predic bilización del sitio. Estos requisitos pueden imponer
ción de derrumbes peligrosos y aunque se ha llevado a costos de mitigación individuales que exceden la rentabil
cabo alguna investigación con respecto al uso de sistemas idad esperada de la propiedad y pueden no ser el enfoque
de advertencia anticipado para alertar al público sobre la más eficaz de mitigación, a nivel de la comunidad en
posibilidad de derrumbes locales, la implantación extensa cuestión. Los costos excesivos pueden evitarse si una
de un sistema de aviso anticipado está a la espera de que comunidad es capaz de discriminar entre los diferentes
se concluyan exitosamente las investigaciones adicionales niveles de susceptibilidad de las diferentes áreas dentro de
y el desarrollo tecnológico. En una región específica, sin su jurisdicción, utilizando la información regional.
embargo, el éxito de los intentos para predecir una Control y estabilización: Las medidas correctivas
actividad catastrófica de deslizamiento de tierra y propor para estabilizar deslizamientos activos de tierra son gener
cionar un aviso anticipado dependerá en gran parte de la almente demasiado caras en comparación con los costos
información básica regional con respecto al carácter de de las medidas preventivas de control, que pueden ser
los procesos de deslizamiento de tierras, que son comunes tomadas si la posibilidad de una falla es identificada antes
en el área, y de los factores que controlan su distribución. de iniciar la construcción. Si dicha posibilidad puede ser
Prevención del riesgo : La selección de sitios, ya sea determinada rápida y económicamente antes del inicio de
para residencias o para instalaciones importantes, es a la preparación del sitio, los recursos limitados de equipo
menudo una de las primeras en la secuencia de decisiones y mano de obra pueden ser eficientemente utilizados para
políticas y económicas, relacionadas con el uso y desarro controlar los factores que podrían provocar una falla en
llo de terrenos. Cuando se inicia la preparación del sitio, laderas marginalmcntc estables, o reactivar viejos desli
antes de haber reconocido el peligro potencial de der zamientos. A pesar de que las técnicas de análisis de
rumbe, los costos de construcción pueden aumentar con estabilidad permiten la evaluación cuantitativa de los
siderablemente, al presentarse movimientos inesperados sitios específicos, sí se consideran las necesidades de
del terreno, provocados por las actividades de construc terreno de la población en crecimiento, la recabación de
ción. En las primeras etapas de la preparación del sitio, se suficiente información geológica en cada sitio elegido
puede descubrir que algunos terrenos no son utilizablcs para la construcción, con todos los detalles necesarios
para los propósitos a los cuales estaban destinados, y el para evaluar adecuadamente el peligro potencial, es
traslado del proyecto a otro sitio puede ser el remedio más demasiado costoso y requiere demasiado tiempo. En
eficaz. En otros sitios la falla puede empezar lentamente, consecuencia, una decisión acertada debe ser tomada en
la pérdida potencial puede no ser reconocida hasta que la función de la información conocida, que pueda ser obten
construcción esté terminada (o casi terminada) y puede ida rápidamente (de preferencia a bajo costo), que pueda
ser necesario evitar el uso total del edificio. Aún en sitios ser manejada para un análisis rápido y económico y que
que por si mismos son estables, un derrumbe ocurrido en sea aplicable a regiones extensas o procesos predominante
una propiedad adyacente puede causar pérdidas desas mente peligrosos.
trosas. Las evaluciones regionales de la potencialidad de Estrategias de mitigación : Las decisiones que con
derrumbes proporcionan la información básica necesaria, trolan la forma en la cual las normas y regulaciones de
para orientar las decisiones con respecto al uso de tierras seguridad pública son implantadas para exigir medidas
y reducir las pérdidas por derrumbe estimadas, al evitar el diseñadas para reducir la posibilidad de pérdidas, tanto
desarrollo de proyectos en áreas altamente susceptibles personales como públicas, causadas por derrumbes, cons
de derrumbe. tituyen una estrategia de mitigación. Estas decisiones
Códigos de diseño, nivelación y construcción: Las serán influidas por los datos científicos de la región,
investigaciones de sitios pueden determinar el peligro relacionados con las estructuras naturales y los mecanis
potencial de un sitio específico y permitir el diseño de mos a través de los cuales ocurren los procesos de
medidas adecuadas para remediar los problemas de esta deslizamiento. Una estrategia efectiva de mitigación es
bilidad, en donde sea necesario. En la región de Los aquella que emplea las normas y regulaciones de una
Angeles, por ejemplo, la implantación de códigos de manera tal, que brinda a la comunidad positivos benefi
nivelación de laderas, basados en investigaciones especí cios socioeconómicos esenciales; es decir, los beneficios
ficas del sitio, ha tenido un éxito demostrado en la de implantar las medidas específicas de mitigación exce
reducción de pérdidas de las construcciones nuevas, de un den a los costos de poner a funcionar estas medidas. La
Selección de una Estrategia para Reducir la* Pérdidas por Derrumbes 119
estrategia óptima emplearía aquellas normas y regula el derrumbe; (b) estudios de probabilidad de derrumbe,
ciones que pudieran brindar los más altos beneficios para desarrollar óptimas estrategias de mitigación, a
netos positivos a la comunidad y, generalmente, incluiría través de la determinación de aquellos factores, dentro del
un proceso de decisión con respecto a la identificación de proceso de derrumbe, que por lo general controlan la
áreas en donde las medidas de mitigación determinadas actividad de deslizamiento y los derrumbes que ocurren
deben ser implantadas (Bernknopf y otros, 1985). Dentro en la región; (c) desarrollo de técnicas para levantamiento
de este proceso de decisión, es básica la abilidad para de mapas por computadora, con el objeto de identificar,
discriminar entre áreas con diferente potencialidad de de forma rápida y económica, las áreas con propensión a
peligro de derrumbe. La información geológica y topográf derrumbes, en las cuales es posible aplicar las técnicas de
ica de la región puede ser utilizada para proporcionar esa mitigación con la máxima utilidad, y (d) proyectos de
capacidad que, en la mayoría de las áreas, puede ser demonstración realizados en áreas populosas con propen
considerablemente mejorada a través de la investigación sión a derrumbes. En la actualidad, la investigación de
para obtener más rápidamente los datos básicos de la nuevos métodos y tecnología, llevada a cabo por el
región, de una mejor delineación de los materiales clave y "USGS" en cada uno de sus tres centros, incluye trabajos
de los factores causantes repetitivos, y a través de la sobre instrumentos y telemetría para advertencia anti
identificación exacta de la serie de procesos de desl cipada, manipulación por computadora de modelos digi
izamiento que son particulares de cada región. Para que tales de elevación y su uso analítico para identificar
una estrategia de mitigación pueda funcionar, se debe probabilidad de derrumbe, experimentación en la repro
proveer el mejoramiento continuado a través de la inves ducción de mapas por computadora, e instrumentos para
tigación, aun cuando para su implantación inmediata se mejorar la investigación de campo y la intrepretación de
tengan que utilizar los datos y procedimientos analíticos la potencialidad de riesgo de derrumbe.
ya existentes.
El papel de la investigación en una estrategia para
reducir las pérdidas por derrumbes: El objetivo de la REFERENCIAS CITADAS
investigación de derrumbes es una comprensión científica
de los procesos de deslizamiento de tierra, que permita el Bernknopf, R.L., Brookshire, D.S., Campbell, R.H., Shapiro,
uso de medidas de mitigación económicas y efectivas, CD., y Fleming, R.W., 1985, La economía de las estrate
para eliminar o invertir el crecimiento progresivo de las gias de mitigación de derrumbes en Cincinnati, Ohio, una
pérdidas por derrumbes. La investigación de derrumbes metodologiá para el análisis del costo-beneficio, capitulo
realizado por el "USGS" ha contribuido en gran parte a D en Posibilidad de un programa nacional para la identi
los esfuerzos actuales y en desarrollo, para lograr reducir ficación y delineación del peligro de corrientes de fango y
los peligros de derrumbe en los Estados Unidos. Está otros deslizamientos de tierra: Informe Abierto 85-276D
del U.S. Geological Survey, p. 35. ["The economics of
contribución comprende desde los mapas geológicos y
landslide mitigation strategies in Cincinnati, Ohio, a meth
topográficos esenciales hasta los datos hidrológicos para odology for benefit-cost analysis - Chapter D in Feasibility
el desarrollo de un entendimiento cuantitativo y analítico of a nationwide program for the identification and delin
de los sistemas geológicos de la superficie, en los cuales eation of hazards from mud flows and other landslides:
se presentan procesos específicos de derrumbe. Contando USGS Open-File Report 85-276D, 35 p."]
con los datos científicos adecuados y con los instrumentos Krohn, J.P., y Slosson, J.E., 1976, Potencialidad de derrumbes
analíticos, se pueden efectuar evaluaciones cuantitativas en los Estados Unidos: Geologiá de California, v. 29, no.
de estabilidad de laderas para las comunidades en peligro. 10, p. 225-231. ["Landslide potential in the United States:
En los Estados Unidos el "Geological Survey" tiene la California Geology, v. 29, no. 10, p. 22—231."]
principal responsabilidad en (1) la investigación de los Petak, WJ., y Atkisson, AA., 1982, Evaluación y política
mecanismos y grados de los procesos de derrumbe y de pública de los riesgos naturales y política pública: Nueva
York, Springer-Verlag, p. 489. ["Natural hazard risk
los materiales naturales de la tierra involucrados en estos;
assessment and public policy: New York, Springer-Verlag,
(2) la investigación de técnicas para la delineación de
489 p."]
peligros; (3) la investigación de métodos para predicción Slosson, J.E., y Krohn, J.P., 1982, Derrumbes del sur de
y advertencia anticipada, y (4) la dirección, a nivel nacio California en 1978 y 1980, en Tormentas, inundaciones y
nal, en la transferencia de tecnología y la asistencia corrientes de detrito en el sur de California y Arizona,
técnica. 1978 y 1980: Actas de un simposio, Consejo Nacional de
Los objectives del actual programa de investigación Investigación y Laboratorio de Calidad ambiental, Insti
del "U.S. Geological Survey" de los peligros de derrumbe tuto de Tecnologiá de California, Pasadena, California,
17-18 de Septiembre de 1980: "National Academy Press",
incluye: (a) estudios de campo y de laboratorio de los Washington D.C, p. 291-319. ["Southern California land
procesos de derrumbe, dirigidos hacia la identificación de slides of 1978 and 1980, in Storms, floods, and debris flows
los factores topográficos, geológicos e hidrológicos que in southern California and Arizona, 1978 and 1980: Pro
afectan la actividad de deslizamiento de tierra y propician ceedings of a Symposium, National Research Council, and
120 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America
Environmental Quality Laboratory, California Institute of energéticos de la región del Pacifico: Asosiacion Ameri
Technology, Pasadena, California, September 17-18, cana de Geólogos del Petróleo, Estudios de Geología, no.
1980: Washington, D.C., National Academy Press, p. 12, p. 489-505. ["Slope-stability problems of the Circum-
291-319."] Pacific region as related to mineral and energy resources,
Varnes, DJ., 1981, Problemas de establidad de laderas en la in Halbouty, M. T., ed., Energy resources of the Pacific
región circundante del Pacífico, relacionados con recursos region: American Association of Petroleum Geologists,
minerales y energéticos en Halbouty, M. T., ed., Recursos Studies in Geology, no. 12, p. 489-505."]
Selección de una Estrategia para Reducir las Perdidas por Derrumbes 121
VOLCANO HAZARDS IN CENTRAL AMERICA
By Wendell A. Duffield
Scores of volcanoes form a serrate spine along instances, worldwide, detailed studies have shown that the
nearly the entire Central American region; more than 80 volume and vigor of an eruption are a direct function of
are active or potentially so and are distributed 50-100 km the length of the preceding period of repose. The 1982
inland, parallel to the Pacific coast, from northern Pan eruption of El Chichón in Mexico, following a repose of
ama to the Guatemala-Mexico border. Many eruptions about 600 years, is a graphic reminder of this situation.
have occurred since mankind first settled in this region, In addition to systematic volcano-by-volcano geo
and some volcanic activity is almost always a part of logic mapping, day-to-day visual and instrumental moni
contemporaneous daily life. For example, Santiaguito toring of currently or recently active volcanoes provides
Volcano in Guatemala has been active continuously for information that might foretell of impending eruption. A
the past 62 years, during which it has produced lava minimum-level program of such monitoring should
domes and flows, block and ash flows, vertically directed include a network of seismometers that can record
pyroclastic explosions, and mudflows. Earthquakes are a changes in volcano-related seismicity and a cadre of
normal part of the volcanic process, and earthquake-
observers trained to evaluate the seismic records and to
induced landslides add to the list of potential volcano-
note visual changes in behavior (for example, vigor of
related hazards.
Human activities must accommodate themselves to fumaroles) that may give clues to impending eruption. A
volcanism and related hazards, and workable accommo more complete program of monitoring includes geodetic
dation comes through knowledge of volcanic behavior at a surveys to define rates and patterns of ground deforma
level that is sufficient to guide planning for mitigation of tion, determination of species and amounts of fumarolic
the hazards. A long-term program of systematic geologic gases, and the measurement of electrical and magnetic
mapping of individual volcanic edifices and their outlying fields. Recognition of repeated patterns of behavior of a
deposits will define types and time-related patterns of particular volcano may help guide decisions on appropri
past behavior that serve as a reasonable basis to forecast ate future use of undeveloped nearby land, and early
future activity. Lack of eruption for scores of years or recognition of signs of impending eruption may provide
centuries should not be mistaken to indicate that a sufficient lead time to minimize the impact of a volcanic
particular volcano poses little or no threat. In many event on life and property.
122 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America
RIESGOS VOLCÁNICOS EN CENTROAMERICA
Por Wendell A. Duffield
Múltiples volcanes forman una columna estriada a dios en detalle han indicado que la fuerza y el volumen de
lo largo de casi toda la región de Centroamerica. Más de una erupción están en función directa del largo del
80 volcanes son activos o potencialmente activos y están período precedente de reposo. La erupción de 1982 de El
distribuidos a 50-100 km tierra adentro, en linea paralela Chichón, en México, tras un reposo de 600 años, es una
a la costa del Pacífico, desde la parte norte de Panamá prueba fehaciente de esta situación.
hasta la frontera entre México y Guatemala. Muchas Además de un mapeo geológico sistemático de cada
erupciones han ocurrido desde que el hombre se estable volcán, una inspección visual diaria y una vigilancia por
ció en esta región, y alguna actividad volcánica es casi instrumentos de los volcanes activos o recientemente
siempre parte de la vida cotidiana. Por ejemplo, el volcán activos proporcionan información que puede predecir una
Santiaguito, en Guatemala, ha estado en continua activ inminente erupción. Un programa minimo de vigilancia
idad durante los últimos 62 años. En el transcurso de ese debería comprender una red de sismómetros que puedan
período ha producido domos y flujos de lava, flujos de registrar cambios en la sismicidad de los volcanes y un
bloques y cenizas, estallidos piroclásticos dirigidos verti- equipo de observadores entrenados para evaluar los
calmente, y corrientes de lodos. Los sismos son una parte registros sísmicos y advertir los cambios visuales en
normal de los procesos volcánicos, y los deslizamientos o comportamiento (por ejemplo, la fuerza o las fumarolas)
aludes de tierra causados por los sismos se suman a la que puedieran indicar posibles erupciones inminentes.
lista de posibles riesgos vulcanológicos. Un programa mas completo de vigilancia comprende
Las actividades humanas deben acomodarse al levantamientos geodésicos para definir la velocidad y los
vulcanismo y a los peligros relacionados con este
patrones de la deformación terrestre, la determinación de
fenómeno, y una acomodación viable se logra mediante el
las especies y las cantidades de los gases de las fumarolas,
conocimiento del comportamiento de los volcanes a un
y la medición de los campos eléctricos y magnéticos. El
nivel que es suficiente para guiar el planeamiento para el
reconocimiento de los patrones repetidos de comporta
alivio de los riesgos. Un programa a largo plazo de mapeo
miento de un volcán particular pueden ayudar a guiar las
geológico sistemático de los edificios de cada volcán y sus
depósitos salientes definiría los tipos y los patrones de decisiones sobre el uso apropiado en lo futuro de las
tiempo de comportamiento pasado que servirían de base tierras aledañas inexplotadas, y al temprano recono
para pronosticar futuras actividades. La falta de erupcio cimiento de indicios de erupciones inminentes pueden
nes durante años o siglos no debe tomarse como una proporcionar suficiente tiempo de avance para reducir al
indicación de que un volcan particular no pudiera ser mínimo los efectos de un evento volcánico en la vida y la
peligroso. En muchos casos en todo el mundo, los estu propiedad.
recommendations
By Randall A. White
Serious earthquakes are common in Central America installation of a 12-station seismograph network in
and Panama, causing heavy local damage at an average the northwestern part of the country. Technicians
rate of once every 4 years . Many people are familiar with were trained in station maintainance and scientists
the statistics of recent earthquakes in Central America: given hands-on training in basic seismology and data
the 1965 San Salvador earthquake killed 125 people and reduction. The network will be expanded during the
caused about $25 million in damage, the 1972 Managua next couple of years, but the observatory is now
earthquake killed 11,000 and caused $800 million in essentially autonomous, carrying out its own studies
damage, and the 1976 Guatemala earthquake killed of seismicity and site amplification,
23,000 and caused $1.1 billion in damage. Such figures c) A cooperative project between the government of
would be expected to be significantly larger for similar Guatemala and the USGS began in 1975 with the
future earthquakes because local populations are increas installation of a 6-station seismograph network
ing. It is less well known that seismic hazard reduction around Guatemala City. In 1979, the network was
programs have begun in each of these countries, through expanded to about 25 stations extending over most of
cooperative programs with the U. S. Geological Survey, to southern Guatemala. Technicians and scientists were
study such earthquakes and to mitigate their effects. I will trained, and the observatory, though understaffed
present a brief history of the recent USGS involvement in considering the high levels of seismicity, is nearly
seismic hazard-reduction work in Central America, some autonomous and produces its own yearly catalogs of
significant results of both the historical earthquake cata microseismicity.
loguing effort and the microearthquake cataloguing pro II. Results of the Historical Earthquake Cataloguing
grams, and a brief outline of the next steps that could be Program: The USGS has begun a program to catalog
taken to reduce the impact of future earthquakes in the historical earthquake documents and has determined the
region. location, magnitude, and occasionally the depth of more
I. History of recent USGS involvement in Central Amer than 50 destructive historical earthquakes in Central
ican seismic hazard-reduction work : America, many of which were previously unknown.
a) A cooperative project between the government of Results:
Nicaragua and the USGS began in 1975 with the a) The chain of active volcanoes is the area of greatest
installation of a 17-station seismograph network in seismic hazard because earthquakes are most fre
western Nicaragua. An observatory was established, quent here, because thick layers of volcanic ash
technicians trained in station maintainance, and sci amplify ground motions, and because the population
entists trained in basic seismology. By 1980, the is concentrated here. Shallow events with magnitudes
Nicaraguan observatory was operating autonomously, as great as 6.5 occur as often as 30 years apart at some
producing yearly catalogs of microseismicity and sites. Figure 1 shows the areas damaged by the
carrying out its own studies on such subjects as the shallow earthquakes of magnitude 6 or greater that
crustal structure and soil amplification of particular occurred within Central America during this century.
sites. Of a total of 23 such earthquakes, 18, or 78 percent,
b) A cooperative project between the government of El occurred along the chain of active volcanoes, and all
Salvador and the USGS began in 1983 with the but one of these caused heavy local damage. Sites of
124 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America
* \
Mixteo S 4i*
Figure 1. Areas damaged by shallow earthquakes of magnitude 6 or greater that occurred within Central America during this
century.
earlier volcanic-chain earthquakes are also shown. projects between the USGS and Nicaragua from 1975 to
Such heavily damaging earthquakes can be expected at 1978, Guatemala during 1982, and El Salvador during
an average rate of every 4 years somewhere in Central 1984. Notice that over 90 percent of the epicenters lie
America along the chain of active volcanoes, at the same locations
b) The region between the Pacific coast and the chain of as most of the recent damaging earthquakes in the region,
active volcanoes is a region of considerable hazard shown in figure 1.
because large subduction zone earthquakes, though a) Along the chain of active volcanoes we have recog
less frequent than volcanic-chain shocks, interact nized at least four different types of earthquakes, all
with thick coastal-plain alluvium to produce wide of which may produce damage.
spread damage. Earthquakes with magnitudes of 7.5 1) One type, called tectonic earthquakes, occurs at
to 8.0 occur as often every 70 to 200 years at most the offsets in the volcanic chain and is character
sites along the coast. ized by a mainshock followed by aftershocks.
c) Most of central Guatemala from the highlands to 2) A second type, called volcanic earthquakes,
Lago Izaba! is an area of high seismic hazard from occurs just beneath or within active volcanoes
numerous active faults associated with the Motagua and usually is accompanied by volcanic erup
and Chixoy-Polochic fault system. The Motagua and tions. These earthquakes occur in swarms char
Chixoy-Polochic faults appear to control a regional acterized by a slow growth of seismic energy and
cycle of seismic quiescence alternating with seismic later, volcanic activity, with the largest earth
activity that is terminated by an earthquake of about quakes near the middle of the period of seismic
magnitude 7.5 (and aftershocks) on either of the activity, preceeding or accompanying the initial
faults. eruption.
d) Most of Nicaragua northeast of the chain of active 3) The third and most common type may be called
volcanoes is aseismic or nearly so, and of very low tectono-volcanic earthquakes.- These earth
seismic hazard. quakes occur between the volcanoes as frequent
e) Most of El Salvador northeast of the chain of active swarms of (usually) low-level seismic energy.
volcanoes is an area of low seismic hazard with very These swarms are characterized by a short
infrequent earthquakes. period of rapidly increasing seismic energy, fol
f) Most of the Peten region of northern Guatemala is of lowed by a main shock, followed by large num
low seismic hazard. bers of small aftershocks. These earthquakes are
probably related to the subsurface movement of
in. Significant results of microseismicity studies : Figure magma beneath these volcanoes but are never
2 shows the epicenters of recent shallow (less than 15 km accompanied by eruptions. Occasionally a
deep) microearthquakes located during cooperative swarm will produce damaging earthquakes.
4) The last type is probably associated with the during this recent period. It has been so since at least
collapse or slumping of part of the caldera roof 1950 and continues to be quiet today. As it is known
and may be less frequent than the others. It to have been the location of a great earthquake
appears that many of the damaging earthquakes of (magnitude > 7 V*) in 1898, it is currently considered
types 2 and 3 may be forecast a few days in a high-order hazard.
advance because of the periods of growing pre
cursory seismicity that usually precede the main Recommended follow-on work: The results men
shock. One such earthquake was forecast in late tioned above go a long way toward an improved under
September 1979 by Ing. Eddy Sanchez of standing of the regional earthquake hazards yet consider
INSIVUMEH, Guatemala. Because of an alarm able follow-on work needs to be addressed in order to
ing increase in seismic activity, he advised local incorporate this information directly into the design of
homeowners to sleep outside, undoubtedly pre structures and communities.
venting many injuries when the main shock
struck a few days later. 1) Neighboring countries need to begin cooperative
b) Normal faults associated with the back side of the data exchange programs with each other in order
Nicaragua Depression appear to be the sites of to better understand the seismicity in the off
low-level seismic activity, whereas most of northeast shore areas. Also, technical exchange programs
ern Nicaragua is seismically quiet. are recommended as individual governments
c) Most of El Salvador northeast of the volcanic chain is may need help with the maintenance or renova
seismically quiet. tion of their microearthquake networks. Stand
d) Across central Guatemala, several mapped faults ardization of equipment and data processing
have been found to be active and several additional techniques would facilitate such cooperation.
active faults have been discovered. 2) Seismicity lineaments discovered by the micro-
e) Contouring of the subduction zone interface has earthquake networks should be investigated by
begun. Figure 3 shows the subduction zone earth geologists for evidence of as yet unmapped
quakes located during the 1975 to 1978 cooperative faults. Known faults discovered to be active
program with Nicaragua. Contrary to results from through the use of local microearthquake net
other studies, the contours of the subduction zone works, need to be investigated by trained geolo
seismicity vary smoothly through this region and no gists for evidence of recent movements.
evidence of any tears has been found. In some areas 3) For active faults that have associated micro-
where large earthquakes are known to recur, the level seismicity, the lateral extent and depth of the fault
of background seismicity has been observed to can be estimated from the distribution of the
decrease prior to the occurrence of a large event. microearthquakes. Combined with geologic evi
Section 2 of the subduction zone was ominously quiet dence for Holocene slip rates and amount of slip
126 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resource* and Geologic Hazards, Central America
ejnBy X uoipnpqng euoz se^enbiiuee peieooi 6uunp am eAijEJsdooo ujej6ojd MUM en6ejeojN wojj 1 9/6 o; '8/61-
128 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resource* and Geologic Hazards, Central America
PROGRAMAS COOPERATIVOS DEL SERVICIO
GEOLÓGICO DE LOS ESTADOS UNIDOS PARA
REDUCCIÓN DE RIESGOS POR TERREMOTOS EN
CENTROAMERICA: Una revisión, algunos resultados
significativos y recomendaciones
Por Randall A. White
Los terremotos fuertes son comunes en Centroamér- nicaragüense ya estaba operando autonómicamente,
icay Panamá, y causan severos daños a intervalos promedio produciendo catálogos anualmente sobre micro-
de una vez cada 4 años. Mucha gente se ha familiarizado sismología y llevando a cabo sus propios estudios
con las estadísticas de terremotos recientes en Centro- sobre tales aspectos como estructura de la capa
américa: el terremoto de San Salvador en 1965 causó 125 terrestre y ampliación del suelo en sitios privados.
victimas y daños por valor de casi $25 millones; el b) Un proyecto cooperativo entre el gobierno de El
terremoto de Managua en 1972 ultimó a 11.000 personas Salvador y el Servicio Geológico de los Estados
y causó un daño de $800 millones, y el terremoto de Unidos empezó en 1983 con la instalación de una red
Guatamala en 1976 tuvo a 23.000 victimas y causó un de 12 estaciones sismográficas en la parte noroeste
daño de $1.1 billones. Tales cifras se espera que sean más del país. Técnicos fueron entrenados en el manten
significantes en futuros terremotos similares, porque la imiento de la estación y científicos dieron una mano
población está creciendo. No se sabe bien que programas en el entrenamiento en sismología básica y reducción
de reducción de riesgos sísmicos se hayan emprendidos de datos. La redes serán ampliadas durante los
en cada uno de estos países, a través de programas siguientes dos años, pero el observatorio es ahora
cooperativos con el Servicio Geológico de los Estados esencialmente autónomo, llevando a cabo sus
Unidos, para estudiar tales terremotos y mitigar sus propios estudios de sismología y ampliación del lugar.
efectos. Presentaré una breve historia de los recientes c) Un proyecto cooperativo entre el gobierno de Gua
trabajos de reducción de riesgos sísmicos para América temala y el Servicio Geológico de los Estados Unidos
Central, en los que se ha involucrado el Servicio Geoló empezó en 1975, con la instalación de una red de 6
gico de los Estados Unidos, algunos resultados significa estaciones sismográficas alrededor de la ciudad de
tivos de ambos el esfuerzo de catalogamiento de ter Guatemala. En 1979, la red se amplió a unas 25
remotos históricos y programas de catalogamiento de estaciones que se extienden más hacia el sur de
microsismos, y un breve bosquejo de los siguientes pasos Guatemala. Técnicos y científicos fueron entrenados,
que podrían ser tomados para reducir el impacto de y el observatorio, aún con escaso personal consideran
futuros terremotos en la región. do los altos niveles sísmicos, es casi autónomo y
I. Historia reciente del trabajo en que se ha involucrado produce sus propios catálogos microsísmicos una vez
el Servicio Geológico de los Estados Unidos para reducir al año.
los riesgos sísmicos en Centroamérica ; II. Resultados del programa de catalogamiento de ter
a) Un proyecto cooperativo entre el gobierno de Nica remotos históricos : El Servicio Geológico de los Estados
ragua y el Servicio Geológico de los Estados Unidos Unidos ha empezado un programa para catalogar
empezó en 1975 con la instalación de 17 estaciones documentos de terremotos históricos y ha determinado el
sismográficas en el oeste de Nicaragua. Se estableció lugar, la magnitud, y ocasionalmente, la profundidad de
un observatorio, se entrenaron a ténicos en el man más de 50 terremotos históricos destructivos en Centro
tenimiento de la estación, y a científicos en sismolo américa, muchos de los cuales no fueron previamente
gía básica. Por el año de 1980, el observatorio detectados.
Programas Cooperativos del Servicio Geológico de los Estados Unidos para Reducción de Riesgos por Terremotos 129
Figura 1. Las zonas dañadas por terremotos de magnitud 6 o mayor que ocurrieron en America Central durante este
siglo.
Resultados :
nado con actividad sísmica que termina con un
a) La cadena de volcanes activos es el área más grande de
terremoto de magnitud cerca de 7.5 (y seguido de
riesgos sísmicos porque los terremotos son más
temblores) en cualesquiera de las fallas.
frecuentemente aquí, ya que capas gruesas de cenizas
d) La mayor parte de los volcanes activos en la cadena
volcánicas amplifican los movimientos de la tierra y
noreste de Nicaragua son asísmicos o parecidos, y de
que la población está concentrada alli. Temblores
un bajo riesgo sísmico.
superficiales con magnitudes hasta 6.5 ocurren frecuen
e) La mayoría de los volcanes activos de la cadena
temente a intervalos de 30 años en algunos lugares . La
noreste de El Salvador es un área de bajo riesgo
Figura 1 muestra las áreas damnificadas por terre
sísmico con no muy frecuentes terremotos.
motos de la magnitud de 6 o mas grandes que
f) La mayor parte de la region noreste de Peten, en
ocurrieron dentro de Centroamérica durante este
Guatemala, es de bajo riesgo sísmico.
siglo. De un total de 23 terremotos, 18 o 78% ocurrió
m. Resultados significativos de los estudios de micro-
a lo largo de la cadena de volcanes activos, y todos
sismología: La Figura 2 muestra el epicentro de micro-
salvo uno de estos, causo daños locales severos.
terremotos superficiales recientes (menos que 15 km de
También se han visto terremotos en lugares de cade
profundidad) localizados durante proyectos cooperativos
nas volcánicas nuevas. Se pueden esperar daños fuertes
entre el Servicio Geológico de los Estados Unidos y
por terremotos en un lapso de cada 4 años en alguna
Nicaragua del año 1975 a 1978; Guatemala durante el año
parte de Centroamérica.
1982, y El Salvador durante el año 1984. Nótese que
b) La región entre la costa pacífica y la cadena de
cerca del 90% de los epicentros están situados a lo largo
volcanes activos es una zona de riesgo considerable
de la cadena de los volcanes activos, en el mismo lugar que
porque la larga zona de subducción de terremotos,
muchos de los recientes terremotos que han causado
aunque menos frecuentes que los de las cadenas
daño en la región, que se muestran en la Figura 1.
volcánicas, interaccionan con aluvión de las planicies
a) A lo largo de la cadena de volcanes activos, hemos
costeras para producir daño en derredor. Los terre reconocido por lo menos cuatro diferentes tipos de
motos con magnitud de 7.5 a 8.0 ocurren frecuent terremotos, los cuales todos producen daños.
emente cada 70 a 200 años en muchos sitios a lo 1) Una clase llamada terremoto tectónico, ocurre
largo de la costa. fuera de la cadena volcánica y está characteri-
c) La mayoría de Guatemala central desde el altiplano zada por un temblor principal seguido de
al lago Izaba! es un área de riesgos sísmicos grandes temblores.
debido a numerosas fallas activas asociadas con el 2) Una segunda clase, llamada terremotos vol
sistema de fallas del Motagua y del Chixoy-Polochic. cánicos, ocurren solo debajo de los volcanes
Las fallas del Motagua y del Chixoy-Polochic parecen activos y dentro de ellos, y usualmente van acom
controlar un ciclo regional de quietud sísmica alter pañados de erupciones volcánicas. Estos terre-
130 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America
México
~V V
%
9 7*=T > V
Hondura! Nicaragua
X" Guataraala /j «'
¿
V! •• • • ^u-n/'-v, "r •••
*• /"" El Salvador **">- V .. ' -
Figura 2. Los epicentros de recientes terremotos de poca profundidad (menos de 15 km de profundidad) localizados
durante proyectos cooperativos entre el Servicio Geológico de Estados Unidos (USGS) y Nicaragua desde 1975 hasta 1978,
Guatemala durante 1982 y El Salvador durante 1984.
motos ocurren en multitudes caracterizadas por mayores daños cuando el principal temblor
un bajo crecimiento de energía sísmica y, luego, golpeara días más tarde.
actividad volcánica, con los mayores terremotos b) Fallas normales asociadas con la Depresión de Nica
cerca del medio de los periodos de actividad ragua, parecen ser los lugares de baja actividad
sísmica, precedentes o acompañados de sísmica, mientras que muchos del noreste de Nicara
erupción inicial. gua es sísmicamente tranquila.
3) El tercero y el tipo más común se puede llamar c) La mayor parte de la cadena volcánica del noreste de
terremoto tectónico-volcánico. Estos terremotos El Salvador es sísmicamente tranquila.
ocurren dentro de volcanes como frecuentes d) A lo largo de la parte central de Guatemala, muchas
multitudes de (usualmente) bajo nivel de energía fallas cartografiadas se han encontrado activas y
sísmica. Estas multitudes son caracteracter- algunas fallas adicionales activas.
izadas por un corto período de energía sísmica e) Se ha empezado el perfil de la zona de subducción.
que se incrementa rápidamente, seguido por un La Figura 3 muestra la zona de subducción de
temblor principal, seguido por largo número de terremotos localizados durante el año 1975 al 1978
pequeños temblores. Estos temblores son proba del programa cooperativo con Nicaragua. Al contra
blemente relacionados con el movimiento super rio de los resultados de otros estudios, el perfil de la
ficial de magma debajo de estos volcanes, pero zona sísmica de subducción varía muy poco a través
no son acompañados de erupciones. Ocasional de esta región y no se ha encontrado evidencia de
mente una multitud producirá daños por terre ningún desprendimiento. En algunas áreas en donde
motos. se conoce que han ocurrido terremotos grandes, el
4) El último tipo es probablemente asociado con el nivel de antecedentes sísmicos se ha observado que
colapso o hundimiento de parte del techo de la ha decrecido antes de la ocurrencia de grandes
caldera y puede ser menos frecuente que los eventos. La sección 2 de la zona de subducción
otros. Parece que muchos de los daños por ter estuvo ominosamente tranquila durante este reciente
remotos de los tipos 2 y 3 pueden serpronosticados periodo. Desde que se ha conocido la localización de
unos días antes porque hay periodos precursores un terremoto (magnitud mayor de IV*) en 1898, se
de crecimiento sísmico que usualmente preceden considera corrientemente un riesgo de orden supe
al principal temblor. Se predijo un terremoto a rior.
finales del mes de septiembre de 1979 por el Ing. Recomendaciones para el trabajo ha realizarse en el
Eddy Sánchez del INSIVUMEH, Guatemala. futuro : Los resultados mencionados arriba van encamina
Debido a un alarmante crecimiento de actividad dos hacia un entendimiento mejorado de los riesgos
sísmica, el advirtió a los habitantes locales a que regionales sobre terremotos ya considerados como un
durmieran afuera, indubablemente previniendo trabajo que seguirá las necesidades dirigidas para poder
Programa* Cooperativos del Servicio Geológico de los Estados Unidos para Reducción de Riesgos por Terremotos 131
Figura 3. La zona de subducción de terremotos localizada durante el programa cooperativo con Nicaragua de 1975 a 1978.
132 Mineral, Energy, and Water Reaourcea and Geologic Hazarda, Central America
incorporar esta información directamente al diseño de después ser usada para estimar el riesgo sísmico
estructuras y comunidades. de la falla.
1) Los paises vecinos necesitan empezar programas 4) Los intervalos de recurrencia necesitan ser
cooperativos de intercambio de datos con cada estimados para cada falla ya sea mediante los
uno para entender mejor la sismología en las catálogos históricos o mediante zanjas en el
áreas costaneras. También, programas de inter campo si fuera posible.
cambio se recomiendan en vista de que los 5) Instrumento de fuerte movimiento necesitan ser
gobiernos puedan necesitar ayuda con el man desplegados en todos los centros de mayor
tenimiento o renovación de sus redes de micro- población para determinar la respuesta de los
terremotos. La estandarización del equipo y sedimentos de la superficie durante los ter
ténicas de procesamiento de datos facilitarían tal remotos mayores locales.
cooperación.
2) Los lincamientos de sismología descubiertos por 6) Estimados de los lugares específicos de tiempos
las redes de microterremotos deberían ser inves de retorno para aceleraciones altas necesitan ser
tigados por geólogos para evidenciar las fallas calculadas según lo mencionado arriba.
que todavía no se encuentran en un mapa. 7) Se necesita formular códigos de construcción de
3) Para las fallas microsísmicas activas que han sido acuerdo con los estimados de tiempos de retorno
asociadas, la extensión lateral y la profundidad para aceleraciones altas.
de la falla puede ser estimada desde la distri 8) Muchos países necesitan más personal entren
bución de los microterremotos. Combinada con ado en ingeniería sismológica y en ingeniería
la evidencia geológica para rapidez de desli para ayudar con este trabajo y para revisar a la
zamientos del Holoceno y cantidades de desli fecha los códigos de construcción mientras que
zamiento por evento, esta información puede la nueva información esté al alcance.
Programas Cooperativo» del Servicio Geológico de lo* Estado» Unidos para Reducción de Riesgos por Terremotos 133
THE BUREAU OF MINES-FUNCTIONS AND
CAPABILITIES
By Harold J. Bennett1
The Bureau of Mines, U.S. Department of the and related information on minerals. Information is col
Interior, is the principal Federal Government agency lected from all government, commercial, industrial, and
responsible for conducting research and for collecting, consumer activities in and related to the minerals indus
interpreting, and analyzing information involving mineral tries, both domestic and, to the extent it is available,
reserves and production, consumption, and recycling of foreign. Program personnel include both commodity spe
mineral materials. The objectives are to assure the nation, cialists for the some 100 commodities and country area
at low human, social, and environmental cost, of adequate specialists for each of the world nations.
mineral supplies necessary to maintain national security, The objective of this program is to provide a reliable
employment, and continued economic growth, and to help data and information base to support development of
stimulate the private sector in the production of minerals. effective national minerals policy by interpreting and
Towards these objectives, the Bureau of Mines disseminating worldwide data and information on the
performs the following functions: (1) collects and inter production and consumption of nonfuel minerals. Current
prets information on minerals, the minerals industry, and activities encompass the producing/consuming minerals
sources of minerals throughout the world; (2) identifies companies for more than 100 commodities through more
and analyzes mineral problems relative to the nation's than 150 formal canvasses. The data obtained from these
requirements; (3) formulates policy options and recom canvasses are audited, tabulated, and interpreted by com
mendations to meet these needs; and (4) attempts to modity specialists and their statistical staffs to evaluate
provide technological advances to improve efficiency and developments in the nonfuel mineral industry and to
recovery from mineral deposits and processing systems, to assess the impact of these developments.
reduce undesirable environmental effects, and to improve This information is disseminated through an estab
health and safety, economic, and national security aspects lished series of publications, special papers and reports,
of producing, using, recycling, and disposing of mineral and through technical assistance and consultant services
materials. by the commodity specialists and foreign area specialists.
To address these functions, the Bureau is organized Services performed by commodity and country spe
into four principal program areas, which are (1) Miner cialists include responses to numerous data requests from
als Information; (2) Mineral Data Analyses; (3) Mining government, academia, and industry representatives.
Research; and (4) Minerals and Materials Research. Industry requests, representing mineral producers and
Each of these program areas has its own expertise and consumers and industry suppliers, address items such as
capabilities which assist in the development of minerals production patterns, changes in technology and areas of
policy, efficient use of natural resources and the abate competition. Perhaps the program areas that have the
ment of adverse environmental effects stemming from the greatest potential for assisting in the assessment of known
production and disposal of mineral-based materials. mineral resources are the Bureau programs of Minerals
To aid in understanding the type of expertise and Data Analysis, Minerals and Materials Research, and
capabilities that could be made available to the govern Mining Research. Within Minerals Data Analysis is the
ment representatives present at this workshop, each of the Minerals Availability Program which was established to
program areas will be discussed.
evaluate the availability of minerals to the U.S. economy
The Minerals Information Program area involves
from domestic and foreign sources. The program is
gathering, evaluating, and reporting statistical, economic,
designed to systematically measure and classify, on an
individual-deposit basis, identified domestic and foreign
mineral resources for 34 specific commodities. Evalua
1 US. Bureau of Mines, Bldg. 20. Denver, Colorado. tion of the resources takes into consideration the geo
134 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resource* and Geologic Hazard*, Central America
graphic location, quantity and quality, applicable technol information and profitability factors, such as net present
ogies for recovery, and the capital and operating costs value, rate-of-return on investment, or required commod
associated with production. The data obtained from these ity price also are provided. Sensitivity analyses can be
site-specific engineering and economic analyses can then performed, noting impacts in changes in input data,
be used to formulate both domestic and foreign mineral commodity prices, inflation, and tax structure.
policies and supply analyses, and can be of direct benefit Because of their specialized engineering and min
to programs concerned with stockpile assessment, min eral economic expertise and their access to the informa
eral exploration, extraction-technology research, tax struc tion developed due to the broad scope of the Minerals
turing, substitute-mineral studies, land utilization, and Availability Program, Bureau personnel are frequently
regulatory-impact analysis. involved in special engineering and mineral economic
Deposits subjected to this analysis are existing projects for domestic and foreign governmental agencies.
operations, developing deposits, and explored deposits; Such projects have included engineering and costing of
sufficient geologic and mineralogic data must exist to mineral properties, property economic analyses, analyses
develop a mining and processing method and to estimate of proposed tax regulations, and financing of mineral
the costs of producing and marketing the contained operations.
minerals. Considered in the analysis of the applicable If requested by the involved representatives of the
country are specific tax structures, depreciation sched various nations, engineering, economic, and production
ules, inflation and exchange rates, and productivity differ potential could be evaluated on a deposit basis. In the
ences. process, training of personnel and transfer of computer
Results, on a deposit basis, are presented as the software would take place.
average total production cost per unit of output and the Minerals and Materials Research Program pro
total units available. The cost can be determined at a vides fundamental scientific and technical information
break-even situation (return of invested capital with no essential to accelerate technological advances in the
profit) or at a specific return on invested capital. This Nation's nonfuel minerals industry. The program empha
average total production cost can then be compared to the sizes basic studies designed to determine new fundamen
current market price to indicate the viability of the tal scientific concepts in extractive metallurgy, materials,
project. Also, the current market price could be assigned and recycling technologies. Such work also provides the
to the commodity to determine the rate of return for the on-the-shelf technology that could be used in times of
operation. national emergency to treat otherwise uneconomic
Data for the deposits of a particular industry are domestic resources, thereby helping to offset shortfalls in
aggregated and provide a means of noting total availabil supply caused by the cutoff of foreign sources.
ity and the position of a deposit relative to others concern Concern over the Nation's dependence on foreign
ing costs of reproduction and quantity of commodity sources for certain mineral raw materials continues to be
available. Currently, data on 195,000 mineral occurrences a preeminent criterion for allocating resources to miner
reside as a computerized data base, more than 6,000 of als research. For critical and strategic minerals there are
which are foreign deposits including IS in the countries of three principal research-oriented approaches to address
Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras, Panama, and Nicara ing this national problem: (1) devise new extractive met
gua; by contrast, 205 and 138 are in Mexico and Colum allurgy for treating domestic low-grade and complex
bia, respectively. resources; (2) seek substitute and alternative materials;
Numerous products— including techniques, hand and (3) reduce imports through conservation and recy
books, and computer software— have been developed to cling. The Minerals and Materials Research Program
conduct the evaluations and analyses. A system has been actively pursues all three approaches with the fundamen
developed to provide estimates of capital and operating tal high-risk research necessary to provide solutions.
costs for nonfuel minerals. The system is available in a The Bureau's Mining Research Program seeks to
handbook and in a computerized version. Available, also, improve the health and safety of mineral-industry employ
are 13 country-specific indexes for 95 countries covering ees, and to develop, or refine, various practices in the
labor-wage rates, equipment, transportation, exchange mining operation to improve resource recovery and
rates, and other production-cost items. These indexes are increase productivity.
used in updating capital and operating costs and in The Bureau's Health and Safety Technology Pro
transposing equipment and production costs from nation gram seeks to provide information and technology which
to nation. will reduce health and safety hazards of mineral-industry
The computer software consists primarily of a workers.
mine-simulation (MINSIM) program which simulates the Despite the progress that as been made, health and
operation for a specified period of time utilizing input safety problems in mines remain very costly. Mining
parameters of capital and operating costs; production employs about 1 percent of the Nation's workforce, but
136 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resource* and Geologic Hazards, Central America
OFICINA DE MINAS-FUNCIONES Y APTITUDES
La Oficina de Minas, Departamento del Interior de El programa de información mineral del área
los Estados Unidos, es la agencia Federal Gubernamental incluye recabación, evaluación e información estadística y
principalmente responsable de dirigir investigaciones, así económica, relacionados con información sobre minera
como de recabar, interpretar y analizar información les. La información es recabada de fuentes gubernamen
relacionada con reservas minerales, producción, consumo tales, comerciales, industriales y actividades del consumi
y reciclaje de materiales minerales. El objetivo es propor dor, relacionadas con la industria mineral, tanto nacional
cionar a la nación, a un costo humano, social y ambiental como, si fuero posible, extranjera. El programa de per
bajo, abastecimientos minerales necesarios para man sonal incluye especialistas en la materia (para unos 100
tener la seguridad de la nación, empleos y un continuo productos) y especialistas del área de campo de cada una
desarrollo económico y ayudar al sector privado en la de las naciones del mundo.
producción de minerales. El objetivo de este programa es proveer datos e
Con estos objetivos en mente, la Oficina de Minas información confiables para poder amparar el desarrollo
tiene a su cargo las siguientes funciones: 1) Recabar e efectivo de la política mineral por medio de interpretacio
interpretar información sobre minerales, la industria de nes y diseminaciones de información y datos de la
minerales y fuentes de minerales de todo el mundo; 2) producción y consumo de minerales no-combustibles en
Identificar y analizar problemas minerales relacionados todo el mundo. Las actividades corrientes abarcan las
con los requerimientos de las naciones; 3) Formular compañías productoras/consumidoras de minerales para
opciones de políticas y recomendaciones para estas nece más de 100 productos a través de más de 150 encuestas
sidades; y 4) Procurar proporcionar avances tecnológicos (investigaciones) formales. La información que se
para mejorar la eficiencia y la recuperación de los obtiene de estas encuestas es auditada, tabulada e interpre
depósitos minerales y sistemas de proceso con el objeto tada por especialistas en la materia y por su personal
de reducir efectos ambientales no deseados; también, estadístico, con el fin de evaluar los desarrollos de la
mejorar los aspectos de salubridad, seguridad y protec industria de minerales no-combustibles y para asesorar el
ción nacional al producir, usar, reciclar y desechar materia impacto de estos desarrollos.
les minerales. Esta información es diseminada por medio de una
Para dirigir estas funciones, la oficina ha sido serie de publicaciones, papeles especiales y reportes
organizada en cuatro programas de áreas principales, las especiales a través de asistencia técnica y servicios con
cuales son: 1) Información mineral; 2) Análisis de infor sultores por los especialistas en la materia así como
mación mineral; 3) Investigación minera; y 4) Inves especialistas de área extranjeros.
tigación minerales y materiales. Cada uno de estos progra Los servicios llevados a cabo por especialistas de
mas de área tiene su propia especialidad y aptitud que productos y del campo incluyen dar respuesta a
ayuda al desarrollo de políticas minerales, uso eficiente de numerosas peticiones por parte de representantes del
recursos naturales y disminución de efectos ambientales gobierno, academia e industria. Los requerimientos
adversos provenientes de la producción y desecho de industriales de representantes de productores/consumi
materiales a base de minerales. dores minerales y abastecedores industriales se refieren a
Todos los programas de áreas serán discutidos con asuntos tales como patrones de producción, cambios en
los representantes gubernamentales presentes en el taller tecnología y áreas de competencia. Posiblemente el pro
de trabajo, con el objeto de darles a conocer las especia grama de área que tiene gran potencial para poder ayudar
lidades y aptitudes que podrían estar a su alcance.
en el asesoramiento de recursos minerales conocidos son:
Análisis de Información Mineral, Investigaciones de
Materiales y Minerales e Investigación Minera.
Dentro de los Análisis de Información Mineral se
1 US. Bureau of Minex, Blog. 20. Denver. Colorado, United Slates of America. encuentra el Programa de Disponibilidad de Minerales, el
138 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologlc Hazards, Central America
materiales se dedica a estos tres acercamientostratando petitivos en el mercado mundial. Todos los esfuerzos de
fundamentalmente de encontrar respuestas a los mismos. investigación están orientados a mejorar el entendimiento
La Oficina del Programa de Investigación Minera fundamental de procesos involucrados en la producción
se empeña en mejorar los aspectos de salubridad y de minerales. Las metas generales son llevadas a cabo por
seguridad de los empleados de la industria minera, así medio de investigaciones de métodos mineros alternativos
como desarrollar o refinar varios métodos en la operación para aumentar la producción nacional de minerales
minera con el objeto de mejorar la recuperación de estratégicos y críticos de depósitos de bajo grado;
recursos e incremento en productividad. expander la tecnología para la extracción económica y
El programa de Tecnología de Salubridad y Seguri eficiente de minerales estando de acuerdo con las regu
dad tiene como finalidad proveer información y tecno laciones ambientales; y avance de tecnologías necesarias
logía que reduzca peligros de salubridad y seguridad a los para asegurar el abastecimiento de carbón.
trabajadores de la industria minera. Tópicos de investigación actuales sobre Tecnología
A pesar del progreso obtenido, los problemas de Minera incluyen: tecnología en minas de carbón, tecno
salubridad y seguridad en las minas es muy costoso. La logía minera metal/no-metal y temas del ambiente tales
industria minera emplea aproximadamente un por ciento como: desechos sólidos, drenaje minero de ácidos, control
de la fuerza de trabajo nacional pero únicamente se hace de incendios minero abandonado y depósitos.
responsable del 10 por ciento de las fatalidades ocupacio- Reconociendo los beneficios de intercambiar infor
nales. El costo de fatalidades y lesiones mineras para el mación técnica y de compartir recursos de investigación,
año 1983 fue más de $232 millones, computarizado de así como facilidades, la Oficina de Minas se encuentra
costos de tratamientos médicos, compensaciones del comprometida en cooperación científica y tecnológica
seguro ocupacional, pérdidas de Seguro Social y sindicato internacional con organizaciones mineras de investi
de trabajadores (pérdidas debido a ineficiencias o cierre gación en varios países, incluyendo Canadá, Alemania
de mina debido a accidentes). La compensación por Oriental, Corea del Sur, Reino Unido y Yugoeslavia. Se
enfermedades de pulmón-negro (black-lung disease) en mantienen intercambios de información con muchos
los mineros abarca un costo anual de $1.7 billones. otros países.
Actualmente, el Programa de Seguridad y Salubri En resumen, la especialidad y aptitudes disponibles
dad se refiere a: polvo respirable, control de ruidos, en la Oficina de Minas abarcan todos los aspectos de la
peligros de radiación, higiene industrial, control de tierra, producción mineral desde el desarrollo a través de
peligros industriales y prevención de desastres. productos en el mercado. Se puede proprocionar asesoría
El objetivo del Programa de Tecnología Minera es en el muestreo y diseño de minería y técnicas de proceso,
proveer los avances tecnológicos necesitados para estimu así como en ingeniería y análisis económico para deter
lar los depósitos mineros nacionales que contienen minera minar costo y potencial comercial de la producción de
les críticos, estratégicos y esenciales, incluyendo el depósitos identificados. Asimismo, se puede proporcio
carbón. Al mismo tiempo, la minería se debe llevar a cabo nar entrenamiento en el uso de tecnología, ingenieros y
de conformidad con las regulaciones existentes y con científicos de las naciones participantes pueden tomar
costos suficientemente bajos para que puedan ser com parte en el análisis de los materiales.
The handling and development of water resources levels of superficial and ground water, meteorological
in any country requires a series of elements. Integration of data, and water quality. Personnel in this unit are also
these elements into an action plan necessitates the cre responsible for the processing and analysis of information
ation of organizations and infrastructure related to water received from hydrological networks, including prepara
resources. The organization of such a plan depends, at the tion of its publication. Publication of annual volumes
same time, on the source of such resources; that is to say, constitutes the culmination of the duties of the "Basic
whether superficial or ground waters should be predom Data Unit" as it is the source for many practical applica
inant. Problems with regard to water quality also depend tions and future investigations (fig. 2).
on the source to be used. In addition to the basic data unit, the USGS orga
The main element for the handling and optimum nizational model includes a unit for "hydrological investi
development of water resources is the existence or cre gations." This unit is responsible for designing, planning,
ation of a central agency responsible for determining the and implementing special investigation projects in specific
amount, quality, and occurrence of water resources. In disciplines or in regional areas. Personnel in this unit,
many countries, these responsibilities are unfortunately generally hydrologists, geologists, engineers, and hydrol
divided among several regional and national agencies. The ogy technicians' teams, are responsible for all investiga
need for one sole entity is based on the following: tions from their initial design, up to the publication of final
1. Economic factors: Avoids the duplication of person reports. A close coordination exists between this unit and
nel and efforts, optimizing the use of available that of the "Basic Data Unit" because special investiga
resources. tions require field information . The administrative unit,
2. Methodology and quality control: Sets forth methods through the Director, serves as the needed liaison.
and uniform proceedings for data collection, analy In mountainous countries similar to those of Cen
ses, and processing. tral America, superficial waters are the most common
3. Establishes a central deposit for all hydrologic infor water resource. The optimum handling of superficial
mation as well as for its distribution and disbursement water resources requires an investigation and develop
through publications. ment plan involving the following elements:
Several models for the central organization that will 1. Designing and setting up of optimum networks to
be responsible for hydrologic research exist. In some determine available flow or volume in the area of
countries, all work is divided into the two most important interest. The design of a hydrological network
branches of hydrology: surface and ground water. Even includes, generally, three types of gaging stations:
though there are instances in which the water-quality a. Short-term stations designed to obtain drafting
aspect appears to be a separate task, this practice is not data for water structures and water facilities.
desirable. Water quality is very closely related to its origin. This type of station may be automatic (instru
The organizational model used by the U.S. Geolog ments measure indirectly the continuous water
ical Survey (USGS) is based on a central structure where flow), or manual (an observer writes down the
research for ground and surface waters is combined, relative raising or water elevation several times a
integrating at the same time, the quality determination for day). Short-term stations are usually designed
such waters. In this structure (fig. 1), fundamental divi with specific purposes and a 2-5 year duration.
sions move around the collection of the so-called "basic One of the classic problems encountered with this
data" and hydrological investigations. A semi-independent type of station is the tendency to keep them
unit is responsible for the operation of all hydrological operating after their short-term objective has
networks, including flow determination in river beds, been accomplished.
140 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America
EXPLANATION
A High Plains
A, Southern High Plains
A2 Central High Plains
A3 Northern High Plains
B Central Valley
b. Long-term stations with statistical purposes. The sity of a business or industry to know the flow at
most important component of a hydrological a certain point so as to comply with legal or
network for superficial waters is long-term sta environmental requirements and dispositions.
tions. The long-term stations network provides all 2. The second component consists of data processing,
information needed for statistical analyses which analysis and publication. This calls for:
in turn serve as a basis for studies about flood a. Technically correct methods for data processing
frequency, average flows, maximum and mini and analysis. The basic problem in this area is the
mum flows, water dam and filtration plants diversity of methodologies used by different enti
design. The main problem in a long-term stations ties or agencies within the same country. It is
network is, usually, an excess of stations. Once necessary to produce uniform and standard man
again, reluctance or unwillingness to discontinue uals and guides in this respect, and to carry out
such stations is shown. There exist statistical practical training shops to implement such meth
methodologies, even applying economical com ods.
ponents, to optimize long-term networks. b. Equipment and modern facilities for data pro
c. Special-use stations. This type of station answers cessing, storage, handling, and withdrawal. Nor
unique demands for flow data, such as the neces mally, the volume of hydrological data becomes
AREA DE MANAT!
AREA DE CAMPANILLA
PUERTO RICO
Figure 2. Areas adversely affected by saline intrusion on the northern coast of Puerto Rico.
so large that it surpasses institutions' capacities minimize changes in flow patterns and sediment
for its processing and storage. A classical prob production.
lem in this area is storing data which later on is The optimum handling of ground-water resources
difficult or almost impossible to withdraw for calls for a series of measures and regulations similar to
use. Computers' systems provide the necessary those utilized for superficial waters:
tools for carrying out this task (fig. 3). Techno 1. The establishment of short- and long-term station
logical progress in microprocessors permits the networks so as to determine the levels of the phreatic,
installation processing and analysis systems with or subsurface, stratum as well as water quality. The
a minimum capital investment, design of networks should follow a logical process
c. Mechanisms for publishing and releasing infor based on the knowledge of hydraulics of ground
mation. In many countries, a great amount of waters and water-bearings involved. Similarly to the
hydrological data is stored in files and records of case of surface water stations, there exists a trend to
operate excess stations for long periods of time. This
the organizations which collect them. Such infor
trend is even more pronounced when taking samples
mation is unknown to researchers and engineers
from wells for chemical and physical analyses. Statis
due to lack of publications. It is thus necessary to
tical analysis provides a mechanism to optimize net
publish basic data promptly and frequently in
works at phreatic levels and to minimize the collection
annual books (for example, see figs. 4-9). of data with regard to well-water quality.
The third component for the handling of superficial 2. Determination of the amount, occurrence, and move
waters is the implementation of regulations for the ment of ground waters. In the USGS' system, this
use, extraction, and maintenance of the quality of duty belongs to the Hydrological Research Unit,
such waters. Traditionally, in countries where super where projects are designed for this purpose. The
ficial waters are abundant, this stage of the handling definition of ground-water resources in a basin or
of this resource is not considered important. How area undergoing special investigations requires
ever, international experience shows that it is of the important investments both in money and time. For
utmost importance to establish necessary mecha this purpose, it is necessary that agencies involved in
nisms to optimize the use of and to preserve water research activities should have:
resources even under conditions of abundant sup a. Highly qualified personnel in hydrogeology, geo
plies. With this purpose in mind, it is necessary to set chemistry, ground-water hydraulics, simulation of
up mechanisms for: water-bearing, or aquiferous systems, as well as in
a. Regulating the volume of extractions from each other sciences related to hydrology.
basin, so as to warrant existing rights and future b. Field equipment and office and laboratory instal
needs. lations and facilities for the collection and pro
b. Regulating the quality of discharges to super cessing of field data. Normally, equipment for
ficial water bodies so as to reduce to a minimum wildcat drilling is needed, as well as equipment
their pollution. for aquiferous sampling, and well and geo-
c. Regulating the use of basin terrains in order to phyaical testing, together with computers for data
142 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resource* and Geologic Hazards, Central America
DISTRICT
DIRECTOR
ADMINISTRATION
DATA
PROCESSING
PUBLICATIONS
COMPUTING
ANALYSIS
Figure 3. A typical organization chart of an office in the Division of Water Resources of the U.S. Geological Survey.
processing and simulation of ground-water flow reasonable use and benefit. In many countries,
c. Facilities and personnel for the preparation, pub special "water laws" have been passed, including
lication, and release of basic data and results systems for designing permits and well drilling,
obtained from special investigations in the area of water extraction, as well as tariff systems for
ground water. Publication of basic data may be different kinds of uses.
put together with those of superficial water in one b. Regulations for protection of ground waters,
sole annual book, which should also include the especially those water-bearings which are mainly
quality of both types of waters. Special projects used for potable water. These regulations control
require separate volumes at the end of the inves domestic discharges, as well as agricultural and
tigation. industrial discharges into water-bearing basins,
Development and implementation of structures, minimizing the pollution thereof.
mechanisms, and regulations so as to optimize the c. Design and implementation of systems such as
use of ground-water resources. This element should mathematical models to maximize the use of
comprise: ground waters. Modern technology permits the
a. Legal mechanisms for the possession of ground implementation of such models at a minimum
waters in accordance with existing rights and the cost.
Figure 4. Typical publication giving basic data on the flow, quality of water, and phreatic levels.
144 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resource* and Geologic Hazard*, Central America
WATER RESOURCES IN
A REVIEW
Figura 5. Boletín informativo del U.S. Geological Survey en Puerto Rico resumiendo condiciones hidrometereológicas.
b. Reglamentos para la protección de las aguas c. Diseño e implementación de sistemas tales como
subterráneas, especialmente aquellos acuíferos modelos matemáticos para optimizar el uso de las
que son utilizados principalmente para agua
aguas subterráneas. La tecnología moderna per
potable. Estos reglamentos controlan las
descargas domésticas, agrícolas e industriales a mite la implementación de dichos modelos a un
los acuíferos, minimizando su contaminación. costo mínimo.
146 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America
Caribbean District
Open-File Report:
UNITED STATES
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
Geological Survey
by
Miquel A. López and Fred K. Fields
U. S. Geological Survey
August 1970
San Juan,
1985
Puerto Rico
Para El
APPROVECHAMIENTO, USO,
CONSERVACION Y
ADMINISTRACION DE LAS
Septiembre, 1984
DEPARTAMENTO
DS RECURSOS
NATURALES
148 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America
3000
o 500
.*- "-^ . T"í"T i i i > i . ¡ i
1 lililí , ! I !
i : ! SURFACE WATER
i ! !
1960 1965 1970 1975 1680
RECLAMATION
By Richard H. Ives1
The original title of this presentation, "Hydrologic The Boulder Canyon Project on the Colorado River,
Resources in Hydroelectric Power Assessment," reflected which includes Hoover Dam, was Reclamation's first and
a topic that would be extremely limited when compared to probably most notable multipurpose project. The com
the overall water-resources development program of the pletion of Hoover Dam in 1936 did much to change the
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (hereafter referred to as unruly Colorado River into a natural resource and the
Reclamation). Thus, the topic has been expanded to Boulder Canyon Project became the model for later
discuss a range of topics related to Reclamation's domes multipurpose projects.
tic and international programs. While Reclamation was developing a reputation as
the major developer of multipurpose projects in the
western United States, it continued to produce innovative
BACKGROUND
designs for smaller, mostly agricultural projects. Some
projects were designed to store streamflow and then
When many people think of the opening of the arid permit diversion of water to irrigate relatively small
lands of the American West, they frequently think of the service areas. Other projects have been developed which
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation. At the turn of the century, rely totally on available ground water supplies to provide
private water-resources development projects in the arid water for irrigation as well as for municipal needs.
western United States were struggling and frequently Unlike other public works programs, the Reclama
failing. Thus, Reclamation was formed in 1902 to provide tion program has from the beginning been based upon the
a Federal program to assist farmers in the 17 western principal of repayment by direct beneficiaries (irrigation
states in developing irrigated agriculture. The original districts, municipalities, and power customers). Repay
intent of Reclamation was to provide water to irrigate ment of the public investment is designed to recover all
family farms, and it is still the central focus of the statutory reimbursable costs. Some of the project costs
Reclamation program. assigned to specific functions such as flood control, rec
It was recognized that substantial regulation of reation, and environmental enhancement are nonreimbur
western rivers was required to store the melting snowpack sable.
that became the spring runoff. In many areas of the
Reclamation deals with all phases of the planning,
western states, the spring snowmelt is a substantial
design, construction, and operation and maintenance of
amount of the annual streamflow. Thus, at its outset, the
water-resource projects. To respond to the diverse com
role of Reclamation was to evaluate opportunities to
plex issues associated with the development of water and
develop water-resources projects and then to design,
construct, and ultimately operate and maintain the most related land resources in arid lands, Reclamation employs
promising projects to provide irrigation water to thirsty a professional staff with broad-ranging talents. Reclama
lands. The initial Reclamation projects were primarily tion has civil, mechanical, electrical, and chemical engi
designed solely to provide for irrigation, but the concept neers, scientists in various disciplines, technicians, cul
evolved to multipurpose as power, flood control, munici tural and environmental specialists, and economists to
pal and industrial water supply, and recreation became cover all facets of project development and operations.
recognized as project functions. Reclamation has actively sought to use new cost-
effective techniques, materials, and equipment in project
planning and construction. The Reclamation planning
1 US. Bureau of Reclamation, Department of the Interior. Washington. D C. process has been used as a model for planning multipur
160 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America
pose water projects worldwide. The planning process, primary source for irrigation and in some cases is merely
involving appraisal, reconnaissance, and feasibility levels a supplemental water supply enabling farmers to have
of study, requires greater levels of detail in each subse more than one growing season. However, the common
quent stage of the investigation. The most detailed infor denominator between the Reclamation and the Central
mation is contained in the feasibility stage which provides American water-resource development programs is the
the basis for the decision on proceeding into the construc need to design and implement a program that adequately
tion phase. manages the available water resources. The successful
Over the years, Reclamation has been involved in development of a nation's water resources can contribute
much innovative research such as the use of new concrete to its economic self-sufficiency. The two principal
mixes with fly-ash waste products, sterilized carp to eat responses to water-management problems are either (1)
aquatic weeds, power-system stabilizers now used world to design and construct engineering solutions or (2) to
wide, and plastic pipe used in varying climatic conditions. achieve more efficient use of water with existing facilities.
Several new processes or techniques have been recently Engineering solutions are oftentimes selected because
utilized in construction of water-project facilities which programs designed to provide for better water manage
show great promise for other applications. These include ment with existing facilities seem to be more difficult to
roller-compacted concrete as a less costly method of conceive and can require changing water user habits.
construction, reinforced earth technology on a dam to Water-management problems are worldwide, and they
alleviate a safety concern by raising the height of the dam challenge us to find innovative solutions to meet our
to surcharge the spillway and accommodate possible needs.
larger floods, and using a labyrinth spillway on a dam In general, the Central American region has been
which increased the spillway capacity without costly blessed with an abundance of hydropower potential that
expansion of the existing structure. has been barely tapped. The development of this resource
Reclamation is using a considerable amount of requires careful evaluation of the energy-generation
resources to rehabilitate projects constructed in an earlier alternatives, country load growth forecasts, power-
era and is attempting to use state-of-the-art materials and transmission opportunities, site-development costs, and of
equipment both to reduce the cost of rehabilitation and to course, the hydrologic regime at the proposed damsite.
ensure their long-term productive life. On some water The review of these requirements will ultimately deter
projects, radio- or satellite-linked data-collection plat mine the viability of developing the resource on a site-by-
forms collect meteorological and hydrological data in site basis.
remote areas. The ability to monitor watershed conditions
on a real-time basis has greatly improved project opera
tions. Other techniques such as remote sensing have
proved useful in a variety of ways including monitoring TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE AND TRAINING
snowpack conditions and agricultural production. In the
area of total water management, Reclamation has inves
tigated evaporation suppression and weather modification Since its inception, Reclamation has had a program
techniques. to assist others in developing their water resources in a
variety of ways. The international reputation of Reclama
tion in the field of water-resource development has
EXPERIENCE IN CENTRAL AMERICA resulted in many requests for technical assistance to other
nations both directly and through such organizations as
the Agency for International Development, the Inter-
The Central American region has a vastly different american Development Bank, and the World Bank. Assis
climatic regime than the American West where precipita tance can include sending individuals or teams abroad on
tion is perhaps one-tenth of that received in the tropics. various engineering or resource-development assign
The seasonal nature of precipitation in the tropics requires ments, or training visitors from other nations in pertinent
some carryover storage of streamflow although not the water-resource development techniques and procedures.
extent that the arid American West has required. Although Reclamation is not authorized to fund any technical
water in Central America is generally abundant, there can assistance or training programs, and reimbursement must
be problems due to the location of water in relation to be provided. The training program offered by Reclama
population and economic activity. tion is extremely extensive and covers the following facets
In many areas of the western United States, the of water-resource development: planning, design, opera
water provided from Reclamation storage reservoirs is the tion and maintenance, geology, and construction.
Mientras que el título original para la presentación veer agua para regadíos a las tierras áridas. Los proyectos
de esta oficina de Recuperación era "Recursos hidroló iniciales de la Oficina de Recuperación fueron diseñados
gicos en la evaluación de distribución de la energía primera y únicamente para proveer regadío, pero el
hidroeléctrica," podría reflejar un tema que podría ser concepto desarrollado para multiples usos como la
extremadamente limitado cuando se compara con los energía, el control de los ríos, el abastecimiento del agua
recursos hídricos que abarcan el desarrollo del programa municipal e industrial, fue reconocida como una función
de Recuperación. De este modo, el tema se ha ampliado de proyecto.
para abarcar una variedad de temas relacionados con los El proyecto del Canon Boulder en el río Colorado,
programas de Recuperación internacionales y nacionales. que incluye la presa Hoover, fue el primero y probable
mente el más notable proyecto de múltiples propósitos de
la Oficina de Recuperación. La finalización de la presa
ANTECEDENTES Hoover en 1936 hizo mucho para cambiar el caudaloso
río Colorado en una fuente natural, y el proyecto del
Canon Boulder se convirtió en un modelo para proyectos
Cuando mucha gente piensa en orificios de tierras
de múltiples propósitos después.
áridas del oeste americano, frecuentemente piensan en la Mientras que la Oficina de Recuperación se gran
Oficina de Recuperación. En el curso del siglo, se hacían
jeaba una reputación como el mejor realizador de proyec
esfuerzos para realizar proyectos privados de desarrollo
tos de múltiples propósitos en el oeste de los Estados
de recursos hídricos en el oeste americano de los Estados
Unidos, continuó produciendo diseños innovativos para
Unidos y estos frecuentemente fracasaban. De este modo,
pequeños proyectos, especialmente de agricultura.
la Oficina de Recuperación se formó en 1902 para
Algunos proyectos fueron diseñados para almacenar
proveer un programa Federal para asistir a los granjeros
caudales de agua y luego permitir su desviación para
en los 17 estados del oeste para desarrollar agricultura regar relativamente pequeñas áreas de servicio. Se han
por regadió. El propósito original de la Oficina de
desarrollado otros proyectos que cuentan totalmente con
Recuperación fue proveer agua para regadios a las fami
suministros de agua subterránea para proveer agua para
lias de granjeros y es todavia el foco principal del progr
regadíos, así como para satisfacer necesidades munici
ama de Recuperación.
pales.
Se reconoció que se necesita un regimen substan
cial de los riós del oeste para almacenar las grandes masas A diferencia de otros programas de trabajo
de hielo que se derriten y se convierten en escorrentía en públicos, el programa de la Oficina de Recuperación se
la primavera. En muchas áreas de los estados del oeste, la fundamentó desde el principio en el retorno de costo para
nieve que se derrite en primavera es una cantidad anual los beneficiarios directos (distritos de regadío, municipali
substancial de escorrentía. De este modo, a su salida, el dades, y clientes de energía). El retorno de la inversión
papel de la Oficina de Recuperación fue evaluar las pública está diseñado para recobrar todos los costos
oportunidades para desarrollar proyectos de recursos reembolsables establecidos por la ley. Algunos de los
hídricos y luego diseñar, construir y por ultimo operar y costos del proyecto asignados para funciones específicas
mantener los mejores proyectos prometedores para pro- tales como control de crecientes, recreación, y mejora
miento de ambiente, no son reembolsables.
La Oficina de Recuperación se ocupa de todos las
1 US. Bureau of Reclamation, Departmem of the Interior, Washington. D.C. fasas de planeamiento, diseño, construcción, manteni
162 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America
miento y operación de los proyectos de recursos hídricos. Oficina de Recuperación ha investigado supresión de la
Para responder a los resultados complejos asociados con evaporación y técnicas para modificación del tiempo.
el desarrollo de agua y recursos de la tierra relacionados
en tierras áridas, la Oficina de Recuperación emplea a
personal profesional con una amplia variedad de talento.
La Oficina de Recuperación tiene ingenieros civiles, EXPERIENCIA EN CENTROAMERICA
mecánicos, eléctricos y químicos, científicos de varias
disciplinas, técnicos, y especialistas en el ambiente y
culturas, y economistas para cubrir todas las fases del Se reconoce que Centroamérica tiene un amplio y
desarrollo y operación del proyecto. diferente régimen de condiciones climáticas que el oeste
La Oficina de Recuperación ha visto activamente el de los Estados Unidos en donde la precipitación es tal vez
uso de nuevas técnicas de costo efectivas, materiales y de uno a diez de la que recibe el trópico. La naturaleza de
equipo en el planeamiento y construcción del proyecto. El las estaciones de precipitación en el trópico requiere
proceso de planeamiento de la Oficina de Recuperación algunos almacenamientos continuados de una corriente
ha sido usado como modelo para planear proyectos de agua, si bien no como ha requerido las extensiones del
hidricos de multiuso de alcance mundial. El proceso de oeste estadounidense. Mientras que el agua en América
planeamiento que implican avaluó, exploración y posibil Central es generalmente abundante, pueden haber proble
idad de niveles de estudios, requiere grandes niveles de mas debido a lo localización del agua en relación a la
detalle en cada subsecuente grado de investigación. La población y la actividad económica.
información más detallada está contenida en el grado de En muchas áreas del oeste de los Estados Unidos, el
posibilidad que proveen las bases para la decisión para un agua almacenada de los depósitos de la Oficina de
procedimiento dentro de la fase de construcción. Recuperación es una fuente primaria para regadíos y en
A través de los años, la Oficina de Recuperación ha algunos casos es simplemente un abastecimiento de agua
sido involucrada en muchas investigaciones innovativas
suplementaria que permite a los finqueros tener más que
tales como el uso de nuevas mezclas de concreto con
de una estación de crecimiento. De cualquier modo, el
productos de desechos de cenizas, carpas esterilizadas
para atrapar hierbas acuáticas, sistemas estabilizadores común demoninador entre la Oficina de Recuperación y
de energía que se usan en todo el mundo, y tubería los programas de desarrollo de recursos de agua
plástica que se emplean condiciones de clima variables. centroamericanos es que necesitan diseñar y ejectuar un
Varios procesos o técnicas nuevas han sido recientemente programa que maneje adecuadamente las fuentes de
utilizadas en construcción de facilidades de proyectos agua disponibles. El desarrollo satisfactorio de los recur
hídricos los cuales deparan una gran esperanza para otras sos de agua de una nación puede contribuir a su sufici
aplicaciones. Estas incluyen: cilindro compactado de con encia económica. Cabe hacer hincapié en que hay dos
creto como un método de bajo costo para la construcción, repuestas principales a los problemas del manejo del
technología de tierra reforzada en una presa para reducir agua, uno u otro (1) diseñar y construir soluciones de
los riesgos levantando el alto de la presa para sobrecargar ingeniería, o (2) ejectuar más eficientemente el uso del
el vertedero y acomodar posibles grandes efluentes, y usar agua con facilidades existentes. Las soluciones de ingeni
un laberinto de vertedero en una presa que aumenta la ería son muchas vecas seleccionadas porque los pro
capacidad del vertedero sin aumentar el costo en la gramas diseñados para proveer el mejor manejo del agua
estructura existente. con facilidades existentes parecen ser más difíciles de
La Oficina de Recuperación está usando una con concebir y pueden requerir cambios en los hábitos del uso
siderable cantidad de recursos para rehabilitar proyectos del agua. Los problemas del manejo del agua son mundi
construidos anteriormente y está intentanto el uso de ales y no exigen encontrar soluciones innovativas para
materiales y equipo modernos, ambos para reducir el satisfacer nuestras necesidades.
costo de rehabilitación y asegurar su vida útil a largo En general, la región centroamericana ha sido
plazo. En algunos proyectos hídricos, el uso de radio - o dotada de un potencial abundante hidroenergético que ha
plataformas de datos vinculados via satélite se usan para sido escasamente aprovechado. El desarrollo de este
reunir datos meterológicos e hidrológicos en áreas remo recurso requiere evaluación cuidadosa de opciones de
tas. La habilidad de escuchar en un receptor las condi generación de energía, plan de crecimiento de carga
ciones de una cuenca en una base real de tiempo ha eléctrica de un país, oportunidades de transmisión eléc
mejorado grandemente las operaciones del proyecto. trica, situación del desarrollo de costos y, por supuesto, el
Otras técnicas tales como la percepción a distancia ha régimen hidrológico en el sitio de la cuenca propuesta. La
probado ser útil en una variedad de maneras, incluso revisión de estos requisitos determinará la viabilidad del
condiciones de percepción de nieve apretada y produc desarrollo del recurso en un lugar por bases de localiza
ción agrícola. En el área de manejo total de agua, la ción.
Resarrollo de los Recursos Hídricos— la Experiencia de la Oficina de Recuperación de los Estados Unidos 163
ASISTENCIA TÉCNICA Y ENTRENAMIENTO Banco Mundial. La asistencia puede incluir envios individ
uales o equipos por todas partes para varias asignaciones
de desarrollo de recursos de ingeniería, o entrenamiento
Desde su comienzo, la Oficina de Recuperación ha para visitantes de otras naciones en técnicas de desarrollo
tenido un programa para ayudar a otros en al desarrollo pertinentes a los recursos hídricos y procedimientos. La
de sus recursos hídricos, en forma variada. La reputación Oficina de Recuperación no está autorizada para finan
internacional de la oficina de recuperación en el campo ciar asistencia técnica o programas de entrenamiento y los
del desarrollo de recursos hídricos ha resultado en muchas beneficiarios deben sufragar los gastos. El programa e
peticiones de asistencia técnica para otras naciones, ambas entrenamiento ofrecido por la Oficina de Recuperación
directamente y a través de tales organizaciones como la es extremadamente extensa y cubre las siguientes fases
Agencia de los Estados Unidos para el Desarrollo Inter del desarrollo de recursos hídricos: planeamiento, diseño,
nacional, el Blanco Interamericano de Desarrollo, y el operación y mantenimiento, geología y construcción.
164 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazarda, Central America
REGIONAL GEOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK STUDIES-A
NECESSARY FOUNDATION FOR RESOURCE
DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS
By Robert C. McDowell
Effective planning for the development of natural carefully prepared geologic map is a powerful tool for the
resources and for reducing the ill effects of geologic solution of many geologic problems. It constitutes the
hazards depends on the availability of basic geological foundation for most of the research carried out in frame
information. Establishment of the geologic framework of work studies. Detailed geologic maps show the structure
a region and determination of the processes that shaped it and distribution of rock types at the Earth's surface.
provide the fundamental data on which to base programs Knowledge about the temporal relationships of these
directed toward the discovery and assessment of mineral units, combined with an understanding of geologic pro
resources, analysis of environmental problems, and avoid cesses, makes it possible to project what lies below the
ance of geologic hazards. surface. The preparation of geologic maps, especially in
The geologic framework of a region is the arrange unexplored areas, although time-consuming and labori
ment in space and time of the geologic materials; their ous, is a critical step in providing fundamental geologic
distribution, nature, origin, and interrelationships. Frame data for the region.
work studies involve field and laboratory investigations of Preparation of a good geologic map is not simple.
the geology, geochemistry, and geophysics of the region. Unlike a topographic map, which is generally a routine
Careful and thorough research, leading to a broad under compilation of mechanically acquired data, a geologic
standing of the regional geologic framework, provides map requires a skillful combination of observation and
various direct and indirect benefits. In addition to fur interpretation; it is somewhat subjective. The best and
nishing a data base for resource and hazards evaluations most useful geologic maps are products of high-level
by various governmental agencies, academic institutions, research.
or private industry, such studies can increase scientific In planning a program of geologic mapping, several
expertise in the local scientific community. They also may factors must be considered: the complexity of the geology
stimulate continuing research projects within the commu and degree of exposure of the map units; supplementary
nity by revealing challenging new geological problems. information available from drill holes, mines, geophysical
Initial findings always pose new questions, the investiga surveys, and the like; amount and quality of previous
tion of which leads to further research. Many important work; type of base map available; time and manpower
geologic discoveries have had their roots in basic frame available; and in some cases, the specific purposes of the
work investigations. map. This combination of factors determines the scale of
Geologic framework studies involve three main the map. At a large scale, more information can be
areas of research: 1) geologic mapping, 2) age determi presented, but less area can be covered with a given
nations, and 3) study of geologic processes. These areas amount of effort. Most detailed general-purpose geologic
are commonly interrelated. For example, compilation of a mapping in the United States is done today at a publica
geologic map generally requires knowledge of the relative tion scale of 1:24,000. Intermediate-scale maps are now
ages of the map units, and information on ages may produced by the U.S. Geological Survey at 1:62,500 and
provide clues to rates or sequences of rock-forming 1:100,000. Reconnaissance maps at 1:125,000 and espe
processes. Such research thus requires expertise in a cially 1:250,000 are common. The latter represent about
variety of fields: stratigraphy, structural geology, paleon the smallest scale at which the relationship between map
tology, isotope geology, petrology, geochemistry, geophys units and topography can be shown. Maps at scales
ics, and others. smaller than 1:250,000 are best adapted for broad
Geologic mapping is basic to framework studies. A regional planning, or for depicting interregional to global
Regional Geological Framework Studies— A Necessary Foundation for Resource Development Programs 165
relationships in dealing with such subjects as the compo structural framework of the United States was established
sition and evolution of continental plates and ocean basins. by mapping at 1:62,500 in the early 1900's.
Knowledge of the age of rock units and the timing Recent work by the U.S. Geological Survey has
and sequence of geologic events is fundamentally impor included extensive detailed mapping in many areas of the
tant in establishing the geologic framework of an area. country. For example, the entire State of Kentucky, an area
Determination of numerical age (sometimes referred to in east-central United States of 104,636 km2, about the
as absolute age) is based on the rate of decay of radioac size of Guatemala, was mapped in detail between 1960
tive elements in rocks and minerals, or much less com and 1978. This program required 661 professional man-
monly upon amino acid racemization or upon counting years and resulted in the production of 707 geologic
such features as varves and tree rings. Relative age is quadrangle maps at 1:24,000. The total cost of the
determined from the interrelationship of geologic units, program was 21 million dollars. Rough estimates of the
which in some cases is revealed only by detailed mapping, benefits of the mapping program have suggested a return
or from the fossils in the strata, which can be related to of about a billion dollars, based on the value of mineral
established evolutionary sequences of plant and animal deposits discovered and savings realized by engineering
life. Age determinations and the associated correlation of and environmental planners. This is about 50 times the
rock units or geologic events lead to many useful appli total cost of the program. The maps are widely used in
cations. Among these are the determination of rates of exploration for coal, oil, gas, fluorspar, limestone, and
accumulation of sediments, the frequency of earthquakes clay, and for planning highways and dams, in evaluating
or volcanic eruptions, and rates of change of geologic foundation and excavation conditions, and in land-use
processes and of environmental factors such as climate or planning.
sea level. An important benefit of age dating is a fuller Another significant example is the geologic map of
understanding of the geologic history of the region. the Wenatchee quadrangle in the western State of Wash
An understanding of the processes by which geo ington, published in 1982 at 1:100,000. The map shows
logic units and structures have been produced and mod 131 map units with an exceptionally complex history,
ified is also important in determining the geologic frame including 60 Quaternary units. This map, which forms the
work of a region. This area of research includes basis for engineering studies as well as for development of
determination of depositional environments, provenance, sand and gravel resources, has been in great demand by
and paleogeography of sedimentary strata; of the pro the minerals-exploration industry. Other geologic map
cesses of formation of igneous and metamorphic rocks; ping, together with geochemical sampling, in the States of
and of the way in which chemical reactions between Washington and Idaho, has established an association
various rock units take place and are affected by heat and between tungsten-molybdenum-gold-silver mineralization
pressure. and several plutons of a particular granitic rock type.
There are many examples of the successful appli A review of framework-type studies conducted by
cation of geologic framework studies. Geologic explora the U.S. Geological Survey clearly shows that such stud
tion of the western United States in the 1870's by several ies provide the basic data that are needed by both govern
small scientific parties, later consolidated to form the U.S. mental agencies and the private sector. These data are
Geological Survey, led to many important discoveries and necessary for the efficient application of geological prin
to the development of new principles of geology, as well as ciples to the location and use of natural resources, as well
to the cataloguing of the natural resources of a vast, as to various scientific problems and thus are a necessary
largely unknown area. Much of the stratigraphic and foundation for resource development programs.
166 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resource» and Geologic Hazards, Central America
ESTUDIOS REGIONALES DE LA ESTRUCTURA
GEOLOGICA-UNA BASE NECESARIA PARA LOS
PROGRAMAS DE DESARROLLO DE RECURSOS
Por Robert C. McDowell
La planificación efectiva para el desarrollo de los mente se requiere el conocimiento de las edades geológi
recursos naturales y para la reducción de los efectos cas relativas de las unidades del mapa y la información
dañinos de los riesgos geológicos depende de la disponi sobre las edades geológicas puede proveer claves sobre
bilidad de la información geológica básica. El estable los grados o secuencias de los procesos de formación de
cimiento de la estructura geológica de una región y la rocas. Por lo tanto, tal investigación requiere experiencia
determinación de los procesos que le dieron forma pro en una variedad de campos: estratigrafía, geología estruc
veen los datos fundamentales sobre los cuales se basan tural, paleontología, geología isotópica, petrología, geo
los programas dirigidos hacia el descubrimiento y la química, geofísica y otras.
evaluación de los recursos minerales, el análisis de los El levantamiento de mapas geológicos es básico
problemas ambientales y la prevención de los riesgos para los estudios de las estructuras. Un mapa geológico
geológicos. cuidadosamente preparado es un instrumento poderoso
La estructura geológica de una región es la para la solución de muchos problemas geológicos. Con
disposición, en el espacio y en el tiempo, de los materiales stituye la base para la mayoría de las investigaciones
geológicos, su distribución, naturaleza, origen e interre- llevadas a cabo dentro de los estudios de las estructuras.
laciones. Los estudios de la estructura involucran inves Los mapas geológicos detallados muestran la estructura y
tigaciones de campo y de laboratorio de la geología, la la distribución de los tipos de roca en la superficie de la
geoquímica y la geofísica de la región. La investigación tierra. El conocimiento de las relaciones temporales de
cuidadosa y concienzuda, dirigida hacia un amplio enten estas unidades, hace posible la proyección de lo que yace
dimiento de la estructura geológica regional, provee div debajo de la superficie. La preparación de mapas geoló
ersos beneficios directos e indirectos. Además de propor gicos, especialmente en áreas no exploradas, a pesar de
cionar una base de datos para las evaluaciones de los que requiere mucho tiempo y esfuerzo, es un paso
recursos y de los riesgos, realizadas por diferentes agen importante para la obtención de datos geológicos fun
cias gubernamentales, instituciones académicas, o por la damentales de la región.
iniciativa privada, estos estudios pueden incrementar la La preparación de un buen mapa geológico no es
experiencia científica en la comunidad científica local. simple. A diferencia de un mapa topográfico, el cual es
También pueden estimular la continuación de proyectos generalmente una recopilación rutinaria de datos adquiri
de investigación dentro de la comunidad, al revelar nuevos dos mecánicamente, un mapa geológico requiere una
problemas geológicos que constituyen un reto. Los combinación hábil de la observación y la interpretación;
descubrimientos iniciales siempre plantean nuevas es en cierta forma algo subjetivo. Los mejores y más útiles
preguntas, cuya investigación lleva a una mayor investi mapas geológicos son producto de un alto nivel de
gación. Muchos descubrimientos geológicos importantes investigación.
han tenido sus raices en las investigaciones de las estruc Para la planificación de un programa de levanta
turas básicas. miento de mapas geológicos, diversos factores deben ser
Los estudios geológicos de las estructuras involu considerados: la complejidad de la geología y el grado de
cran tres áreas principales de investigación: 1) levanta exposición de las unidades del mapa; la información
miento de mapas geológicos, 2) determinación de edades suplementaria disponible, obtenida de las perforaciones,
geológicas y 3) estudio de los procesos geológicos. Estas minas, investigaciones geofísicas, etc.; la cantidad y cali
áreas están usualmente interrelacionadas. Por ejemplo, dad del trabajo previo; el tipo de mapa base disponible; el
para lograr la recopilación de un mapa geológico, general tiempo y la fuerza humana disponibles; y en algunos
Estudios Regionales de la Estructura Geológica— Una Base Necesaria para los Programas de Desarrollo de Recursos 167
casos, los propósitos específicos del mapa. Esta combi que estas reacciones son afectadas por el calor y la
nación de factores determina la escala del mapa. Una presión.
gran escala, puede mostrar mayor información, pero Hay muchos ejemplos de aplicación exitosa de los
cubrir un area menor con una cantidad dada de esfuerzo. estudios geológicos de las estructuras. La exploración
En los Estados Unidos, la mayoría de los mapas geológi geológica del oeste de los Estados Unidos en la década de
cos detallados para propósitos generales son hechos hoy 1870, realizada por varios pequeños grupos científicos,
en una escala de publicación de 1:24.000. Los mapas a más tarde consolidados para formar el Servicio Geológico
escala intermedia son producidos ahora por el Servicio de los Estados Unidos, condujo a muchos descubri
Geológico de los Estados Unidos a 1:62.500 y 1:100.000. mientos importantes y al desarrollo de nuevos principios
Son comunes los mapas de reconocimiento a una escala de geología, asi como a la catalogación de los recursos
de 1:125.000, y principalmente de 1:250.000. Este último naturales de una vasta area desconocida en su mayor
representa aproximadamente la escala mas pequeña en la parte. Mucho de la estratigrafía y del sistema estructural
que puede mostrarse la relación entre las unidades de los de los Estados Unidos fué establecido a través del levanta
mapas y la topografía. Los mapas a escalas menores de miento de mapas a una escala de 1:62.500, a principios de
1:250.000 se adaptan mejor a una amplia planificación la década de los 1900.
regional o a una representación de las relaciones inter El trabajo reciente del Servicio Geológico de los
regionales y globales con respecto a materias tales como Estados Unidos ha incluido el levantamiento amplia
la composición y evolución de las placas continentales y de mente detallado de mapas en muchas áreas del país. Por
las cuencas oceánicas. ejemplo, todo el Estado de Kentucky, una área del centro-
El conocimiento de la edad geológica de las oeste de los Estados Unidos con 104.636 km2, aproxi
unidades de roca y la cronología y secuencia de los madamente del tamaño de Guatemala, fué presentada en
eventos geológicos es fundamentalmente importante para mapas detallados entre 1960 y 1978. Este programa
establecer la estructura geológica de un área. La deter requirió de 661 años-hombre profesional y dió como
minación de una edad numérica (algunas veces denomi resultado la producción de 707 mapas geológicos cuadran
nada edad absoluta) está basada en la tasa de deterioro de glares a una escala de 1:24.000. El costo total del
los elementos radioactivos en las rocas y los minerales, o, programa fue de 21 millones de dólares. Un cálculo
en forma menos común, en la racemización aminoácida y aproximado de los beneficios del programa de levanta
en la consideración de características tales como varves y miento de mapas ha sugerido una utilidad de más o
anillos de árboles. La edad relativa es determinada por la menos un billón de dolares, basado en el valor de los
interrelación de las unidades geológicas, la cual es en depósitos minerales descubiertos y en los ahorros obten
algunos casos revelada solo por un levantamiento detall idos por los planificadores ambientales y de ingeniería.
ado de mapas, o por los fósiles en los estratos, que pueden Esto representa aproximadamente 50 veces el costo total
ser relacionados para establecer secuencias evolutivas de del programa. Los mapas son ampliamente usados para la
la vida de las plantas y de los animales. La determinación exploración de carbón, petróleo, gas, fluorita, piedra
de la edad geológica y la correlación resultante de las caliza y arcilla, y para la planificación de carreteras y
unidades de roca o de los eventos geológicos conducen a presas (evaluando las condiciones de cimentación y
muchas aplicaciones útiles. Entre estas está la determin excavación), así como para la planificación del uso de las
ación de las tasas de acumulación de sedimentos, de la tierras.
frecuencia de los terremotos o de las erupciones Otro ejemplo significativo es el mapa geológico del
volcánicas y de las relaciones de cambio tanto de los cuadrángulo Wenatchee en el Estado occidental de Wash
procesos geológicos como de los factores ambientales, ington, publicado en 1982 a una escala de 1:100.000. El
como el clima o el nivel del mar. Un importante beneficio mapa muestra 131 unidades de mapa, con una historia
logrado a través de la determinación de la edad geológica excepcionalmente compleja, incluyendo 60 unidades cua
es un conocimiento más completo de la historia geológica ternarias. Este mapa, que constituye una base para los
de la región. estudios de ingeniería, así como para el desarrollo de los
Una comprensión de los procesos a través de los recursos de arena y grava, ha tenido gran demanda de
cuales las unidades geológicas y las estructuras han sido parte de la industria de la exploración de minerales. Otro
producidas y modificadas es también importante para levantamiento de mapas geológicos, a la par de un
determinar la estructura geológica de la región. Esta área muestreo geoquímico, realizado en los Estados de Wash
de investigación incluye la determinación de los ambientes ington y Idaho, ha establecido una asociación entre la
propicios para la formación de sedimentos, del origen de mineralización de tungsteno-molibdeno-oro-plata y varias
la paleogeografía de los estratos sedimentarios; de los rocas plutónicas de un particular tipo granítico.
procesos de formación de rocas ígneas y metamórficas, y Una revisión de los estudios de tipo estructural,
de la forma en la cual ocurren las reacciones químicas llevados a cabo por el Servicio Geológico de los Estados
entre varias unidades de roca, así como de la manera en Unidos, muestra claramente que tales estudios propor
168 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America
donan datos básicos que son requeridos, tanto por las uso de los recursos naturales, así como hacia la solución
agencias gubernamentales como por el sector privado. de varios problemas científicos, constituyendo asi una
Estos datos son necesarios para la aplicación eficiente de base necesaria para los programas de desarrollo de
los principios geológicos dirigidos hacia la localización y recursos.
Estudios Regionales de la Estructura Geológica— Una Base Necesaria para los Programas de Desarrollo de Recursos 169
LIBRARY RESOURCES, INFORMATION
MANAGEMENT, AND NATIONAL EARTH-SCIENCE
PROGRAMS
By George Goodwin
Books, periodicals, maps, photographs, and field Mexico, all of Central America, Colombia, and the Carib
notes are among the principal assets of an earth-science bean area? Library resources which included retrospec
library. Information managers or librarians, skilled in tive and current materials covering such a large geo
searching bibliographies, catalogs, online databases, and graphic area would provide a strong information base.
other reference works, are the key with which the scientist Further assume that each participant country has
is able to unlock this storehouse of knowledge. determined that its national program aspirations are best
No national earth-science program is likely to meet supported by a regional-size information base. What
the expectations of its sponsors, planners, and managers if then?
the geoscicntist is unable to transform his raw data into a To achieve responsive library service and effective
report because library resources are unsatisfactory or information management, each of the following must be
information managers are ineffective. National program addressed: (1) physical facilities, (2) space, (3) trained
goals stand little chance of being fully realized if there is staff, (4) collection development and acquisition, (5) cat
no clear and early recognition of the need to plan for, aloging and classification, and (6) user services. Success
develop, and sustain a strong information base. ful resolution of those critical areas will enable the infor
Assume that (1) a Central American country in this mation center to achieve its ultimate objective of
workshop has decided to embark upon a national earth- providing the geoscicntist with what he wants, when he
science program, (2) long-term goals and short-term wants it.
objectives of such a program have been identified, (3) How can participant countries develop or be
funding commitments have been received from govern assured of access to an information center which incor
ment agencies, banks, or other financial institutions, (4) porates all or most of the criteria noted above? Four
information and easy access to it has been deemed critical options are offered for consideration.
to the ultimate success of that national program, and (5) • First, each country could decide to build, staff, equip,
it has been determined that the available information base stock, fund, and operate its own center without regard
is inadequate and that remedial action is needed. What to what other participant countries do.
next? • Second, each participant country could contract inde
The first requirement is to decide if the information pendently for the full range of information services to
base should be worldwide, regional, or national in scope. be provided by established geoscience libraries or
For an earth-science program in a participant country, a commercial vendors.
worldwide, in-depth collection would be too large, unnec • Third, one facility could be identified as best qualified
essarily expensive, and require a large staff. A national to function as the regional center of excellence for
collection - that is, one containing only material about a geoscience information throughout all of Central
country's own geology - might be too small and extremely America.
limited in its usefulness. It is upon a regional collection, • Fourth, participant countries could opt for some com
one whose holdings would, at minimum, include the bination of the three choices just described.
equivalent of several national collections, that attention Before evaluating these options, each participant
should be focused. country must determine how much of the funding avail
How can the term regional be defined within the able to carry out its national program is required to
context of Central American geoscience information establish an effective geoscience information center and
needs? Can regional be broadened to include all or part of to provide for its continuing operation. Identifiable costs
170 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America
include, but may not be limited to (1) facility planning, (2) should acquire a comprehensive collection of its own
space, (3) equipment, (4) retrospective acquisitions, (5) earth-science literature. Augmenting these holdings
staff, (6) binding and collection preservation, (7) equip would be a core collection of international monographs,
ment maintenance, (8) staff training, (9) current acquisi journals, and up-to-date textbooks intended to keep the
tions, and (10) recurring expenses. Having calculated the geoscientist informed about current developments in his
approximate level of funding required to establish and specialty. Collectively, such materials are the foundation
maintain an information center, participant countries of a country's geoscience information base.
should be better able to evaluate the options. In the second place, each participant country
The first option, while providing the full range of should support the concept of a center of excellence for
services, would require substantial financial outlay for geoscience information. Although the center undoubt
facilities, equipment, collections, and staff. The initial edly would contain much of the information to be found
thrust of any national earth-science program could gen in the library of any given participant country, the attrac
erate only modest use of in-depth library resources, and a tiveness and strength of a regional center would be the
national program could find it difficult to justify the diversity and depth of its other holdings and the ability of
expenditures to acquire such material given competing a trained staff to promptly identify, locate, and deliver
demands for funding. Establishment in any participant information which is not available within the requesting
country of a regional-size information center intended to country.
meet only that country's needs is not recommended. Because its collections and acquisitions mandate
The second option, establishment of contractual would be limited by the definition applied to regional, a
agreements with geoscience libraries or independent con Central American regional information center cannot
tractors outside Central America to provide a pre hope to satisfy all the demands placed upon it by partici
determined range of services, has much to recommend it. pant countries. In such cases, access to library resources
Participant countries might contract for online searching outside Central America, as a result of interlibrary coop
of specific databases, the acquisition, cataloging and erative programs and (or) contractual agreements with
processing of publications, the hiring of trained special qualified vendors, would be the most effective, efficient,
ists, or the complete package of all functions necessary to and economical resolution.
successfully operate an information center. A consultant should be engaged to work with and
The third option, selecting one Central American assist participant countries and funding agencies inter
library to serve as the regional center of excellence for ested in developing an information services system. A
geoscience information, merits serious consideration. Any consultant could, for example (1) define and develop the
assessment of existing information centers must (1) eval requirements for a national information center, (2) iden
uate each facility's strengths and weaknesses in the vital tify and evaluate existing facilities to determine the best
areas of collections, staff, and services, (2) calculate if site for a regional center, (3) generate guidelines for
significant growth in any or all of these areas is acceptable collection building, (4) develop minimum qualification
to and can be assimilated by the facility, its staff, and the requirements for staffing, (5) devise plans for an inter
parent organization, and (3) judge if the facility, given active, microcomputer-supported, Central American
additional resources and an expanded mandate for ser geoscience information network, (6) contract for essential
vice, can function successfully. Such evaluations would services to be provided by selected and qualified libraries
culminate in the identification of one facility to serve as and contractors, and (7) monitor all outstanding contracts
the regional center and clearing-house for Central Amer to insure that appropriate services are being provided.
ican geoscience information and to be funded and staffed What has been proposed would provide Central
accordingly. America with library resources and information manage
The fourth option is a recommendation that partici ment sized to national and regional requirements and
pant countries use a dual approach in improving their fully capable of supporting and complementing national
information capability. In the first place, each country and regional earth-science programs.
Libros, publicaciones, mapas, fotografías y archivos mínimo, incluyendo el equivalente de varias colecciones
de notas están dentro de los principales elementos de una nacionales, en que esa atención debería ser enfocada.
biblioteca de ciencias de la tierra. Gerentes de infor Como podrían ser definidos los términos regionales
mación o bibliotecarios, altamenta calificados en la dentro del contexto de la información de geociencia
búsqueda de bibliografía, catálogos, datos de referencia necesaria para Centroamérica? Puede ser ampliamente
en linea y otros trabajos de referencia, son la llave con la regional para incluir toda la parte de México, toda
cual se les facilita a los científicos abrir esta bodega de Centroamérica, Colombia y el área del Caribe? Los recur
conocimientos. sos de biblioteca incluyen retrospectivamente y materiales
No se encuentran programas prometedores de la actuales que cubren esa gran área geográfica y que
ciencia de la tierra que deparen esperanzas de sus patro proveería una fuerte información base.
cinadores, tracistas y gerentes, si el geocientífico no es Suponiendo adicionalmente que cada país parti
capaz de transformar sus datos nuevos en un informe, cipante haya determinado que sus aspiraciones al progra
porque los recursos bibliográficos son insatisfactorios o la ma nacional son bien amparadas por una base de info
información de los gerentes es inefectiva. Las metas del rmación de tamaño regional. Después que?
programa nacional tienen pocas probabilidades de reali Para llevar a cabo el servicio responsable de biblio
zarse a cabalidad si no hay un pronto y claro recono teca e información y manejo efectivo, cada uno de los
cimiento de la necesidad para planear, y desarrollar una siguientes aspectos debe considerarse: (1) facilidades
base de información fuerte. físicas, (2) espacio, (3) personal entrenado, (4) desarrollo
Suponiendo que (1) un país centroamericano en de colección y adquisición, (5) clasificación y cataloga-
este seminario hubiera decidido embarcarse en un pro gación, y (6) servicios para el usuario. Resoluciones
grama nacional de ciencias de la tierra, (2) metas a largo favorables para esas áreas críticas permitirán llevar a cabo
plazo y objetivos a corto plazo de tal programa han sido al centro de información sus últimos objetivos de proveer
identificados, (3) compromisos de fondos se han recibido al geocientífico con lo que el quiera, y cuando el lo quiera.
de las agencias de gobierno, bancos y otras instituciones Como pueden los países participantes desarrollar o
financieras, (4) el fácil acceso e información se ha con estar asegurados del acceso a un centro de información
siderado decisivo para el buen resultado final de ese que incorpore todo o parte de todos los principios
programa nacional, y (5) se ha determinado que la mencionados arriba?
información base accesible es inadecuada y que son • Primero, cada país puede decidir construir, proveer
necesarias acciones para remediarlo. Que sigue? personal, equipo, abastecer, financiar y manejar su
El primer requisito es decidir si la información base propio centro independientemente de lo que los otros
debería ser de alcance mundial, regional o nacional. Para países participantes hacen.
un programa de ciencia de la tierra en un país parti • Segundo, cada país participante podria contratar
cipante, una colección profunda y mundial sería muy independientemente para la completa duración del
grande, innecesariamente cara y requiere de mucho per servicio de información que serían proporcionados
sonal. Una colección nacional que contiene solamente por bibliotecas de geociencia establecidas o vende
material acerca de la geología del propio país, podría ser dores comerciales.
muy pequeña y extremadamente limitada en su uso. Es • Tercero, una institución podría ser identificada como
sobre una colección regional, cuya tenencia seria el la mejor calificada para funcionar como centro
172 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America
regional de excelencia de información geocientífica a centro regional y bolsa de compensación para la infor
través de toda Centroamérica. mación de geociencia Centroamericana y puede ser con
• Cuarto, los países participantes podrían optar por solidado y en efecto proveído de personal.
alguna combinación de las tres opciones acabadas de La cuarta opción, es la recomendación de los países
mencionar. participantes a usar una doble vía de acceso para mejorar
Antes de evaluar estas opciones, cada país parti su capacidad de información. En primer lugar, cada país
cipante debe determinar cuanto hay de sus fondos aprov debería adquirir una amplia colección de su propia
echables para llevar a cabo su programa nacional, para literatura de la ciencia de la tierra. Al aumentar estas
establecer un efectivo centro de información de geocien posesiones habría una colección central de monografías
cia y para mantener su operación continua. Los costos internacionales, revistas y libros de texto actualizados
identificables incluyen, pero no pueden ser limitados a (1) encaminados a mantener informados a los geocientíficos
facilidades de planeamiento, (2) espacio, (3) equipo, (4) acerca del actual desarrollo en su especialidad. Colectiva
adquisiciones retrospectivas, (5) personal, (6) encuader mente tales materiales son la fundación de la base de
nado y preservación de las colecciones, (7) manteni información de geociencia de un país.
miento de equipo, (8) entrenamiento de personal, (9) En segundo lugar, cada país participante debería
adquisiciones actuales, y (10) gastos periódicos. Habien mantener el concepto de un centro de excelencia de
do calculado el nivel aproximado de los fondos deseados información de geociencia. Mientras que el centro
para establecer y mantener un centro de información, los indudablemente debería contener mucha de la infor
países participantes deberían ser más capaces de evaluar mación que debería ser encontrada en la biblioteca de
las opciones. cualquier país participante dado, el atractivo y la confian
La primera opción mientras se provee la completa za de un centro regional debería ser la diversidad y la
duración de los servicios requeriría financiamiento de profundidad de sus otras posesiones, y la habilidad de un
desembolso substancial para facilidades, equipo, colec personal entrenado para identificar de inmediato, colocar
ciones y personal. El paso inicial de cualquier programa y enviar información que no está al alcance dentro de los
nacional de ciencias de la tierra podría generar solamente países solicitantes.
un uso moderado de recursos bibliográficos en el fondo, y Debido a que el mandato de adquisición de colec
un programa nacional podría encontrarlo difícil de justi ciones debería ser limitado por el término regional, un
ficar los gastos de adquirir tal material, dando exigencias centro de información centroamericano no puede esperar
adecuadas para los fondos. No se recomienda el estable satisfacer todos los pedidos hechos por los países parti
cimiento en cualquier país participantes de un centro de cipantes. En tales casos, el acceso a las fuentes de
información de tamaño regional, encaminado a encontrar biblioteca fuera de Centroamérica, como un resultado de
solamente las necesidades de ese país . programas cooperativos inter biblioteca y/o convenios
La segunda opción, se recomienda el estableci contractuales con vendedores calificados, debería ser la
miento de convenios contractuales con bibliotecas de solución más efectiva y económica.
geociencia o empresarios independientes fuera de Améri Un consultor debería comprometerse a trabajar y
ca Central para proveer una predeterminada gama de asistir a los países participantes y agencias financieras
servicios. Los países participantes deberían contratar interesadas en desarrollar sistemas de servicios de infor
para búsqueda en linea de antecedentes de publicaciones, mación. Un consultor podría, por ejemplo, (1) definir y
la contratación de especialistas entrenados, o el paquete desarrollar los requerimientos para un centro nacional de
completo de todas las funciones necesarias para operar información, (2) identificar y evaluar facilidades existen
tes para determinar el mejor sitio para un centrol
satisfactoriamente un centro de información.
regional, (3) establecer pautas para construir colecciones,
La tercera opción, la selección de una biblioteca
(4) desarrollar requerimientos mínimos de calificación
centroamericana que sirva como centro regional de exce
para personal, (5) proyectar planes para un sistema de
lencia para información geocientífica, merece una conside
información interactivo de asistencia microcomputar-
ración seria. Cualquier distribución de un centro de izada de geociencia en América Central, (6) contratar
información existente debe (1) evaluar cada facilidad de servicios vitales que serían proporcionados por biblio
seguridad y debilidad en las areas vitales de colecciones, tecas seleccionadas y calificadas y contratistas, y (7)
personal y servicios, (2) calcular si el crecimiento signifi analizar todos los contratos principales para asegurar que
cante en cualquiera o en todas estas áreas es aceptable y se están dando los servicios apropriados.
puede ser asimilado por los medios, su personal y por la Lo que ha sido propuesto proveería a Centro
organización principal, y (3) juzgar si los medios, dando América con recursos de biblioteca y manejo de infor
recursos adicionales y un mandato para servicio, puede mación con capacidad nacional y regional y completa
funcionar satisfactoriamente. Tales evaluaciones deberían mente capaz de soportar y complementar programas de
culminar en la identificación de un medio que sirva como ciencia de la tierra nacionales y regionales.
Recurso* para Biblioteca, Manejo de Información, y Programa» Nacionales de las Ciencias de la Tierra 173
PRECIOUS-METAL DEPOSITS IN VOLCANIC
TERRANES
FEATURES OF QUARTZ-ADULARIA
FEATURES COMMON TO ALL DEPOSITS
DEPOSIT-TYPE
Volcanic-hosted epithermal precious-metal depos The distinction between the two major deposit-
its are associated with volcanic centers of all types, types described here is based on important differences in
including stratovolcanoes, dome fields, calderas, and maars fluid chemistry, which are reflected in ore, gangue, and
(Sillitoe and Bonham, 1984). Ore bodies occur in perme alteration mineral assemblages, and principal by-product
able zones including regional and local fault systems (such base metals. In the quartz-adularia deposit-type, potas
as caldera ring fractures), fragmental volcanic and sium feldspar (adularia) is present with quartz as a
volcaniclastic deposits, volcanic explosion breccias associ gangue mineral in the veins. Other gangue minerals
ated with both domes and maars, and hydrothermal include carbonate (calcite, ankerite, siderite, rhodochros-
explosion breccias. Volcanic host rocks range in composi ite), barite, fluorite, or manganese oxides. Altered rocks
tion from intermediate (andesite or rhyodacite) to silicic immediately adjacent to the veins often have the assem
(rhyolite) and are rarely basaltic. Ore deposition occurs blage quartz-adularia. The quartz-adularia zone grades
during waning volcanism or shortly after volcanism ceases outward into a quartz-sericite (illite) zone, which grades
in the host volcanic center. The vertical extent of the in turn into an argillic zone that includes various combi
productive ore horizon, whether it is found in veins, nations of kaolinite, illite, montmorillonite, and mixed
stockworks, or breccia bodies, is most commonly between layer illite-montmorillonite. The argillic alteration is
200 and 600 m. Most districts show an abrupt bottoming superimposed on widespread propylitizau'on.
174 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resource* and Geologic Hazards, Central America
Several subtypes of the quartz-adularia deposit- adularia deposit type, including the closed-cell convection
type may be defined based on ore mineralogy, which model, the stacked-cell convection model, and the hot-
determines the dominant precious metal and the impor springs deposition model. The closed-cell convection
tance of by-product base metals. Silver-rich deposits model (fig. 1) treats the relatively simple case of meteoric
(Ag:Au > 30:1) usually contain acanthite as a major silver water heated at depth (most likely by a subvolcanic
mineral, and may contain silver sulfosalts or electrum. intrusion) and rising buoyantly in a large, open,
The accompanying base-metal sulfides are typically moderately- to steeply dipping structure (usually a fault).
sphalerite, galena, chalcopyrite, sometimes tetrahedrite, In this situation hydrostatic pressures prevail over a large
and pyrite. In deposits that are relatively base-metal rich, vertical range, but at shallow to intermediate depths silica
these same base-metal sulfides are simply more abun deposition, owing to temperature decrease, produces epi
dant. In gold-rich deposits, native gold is important, and sodic self-sealing and boiling. The changes in solution
acanthite and electrum may also be present. The suite of chemistry produced by boiling (mainly by loss of H2S and
base-metal sulfides remains the same, but these minerals C02) are important in causing deposition of precious
are usually unimportant economically. metals, and, along with temperature decline and mixing
are also important in producing vertical zoning in veins.
Implications of this model regarding wall-rock alteration
FEATURES OF QUARTZ-ALUNITE have been considered in detail by Buchanan (1981).
DEPOSIT-TYPE Quartz-adularia and quartz-sericite assemblages are asso
ciated with the vertical interval in which boiling occurs.
Above this interval is a vapor-dominated zone character
In the quartz-alunite deposit-type, adularia is ized by illitic or argillic alteration, where condensation of
absent, and alteration adjacent to ore bodies is advanced steam and oxidation of H2S to H2S04 produce acid
argillic rather than potassic. The most intensely altered conditions. The most important aspect of this model is the
rocks, which always host the ore, contain quartz and any unrestricted vertical flow of fluid, resulting in vertical
combination of the following: alunite, pyrophyllite, zoning patterns that are much more prominent than
diaspore, kaolinite (dickite), or zunyite. The advanced lateral variations.
argillic assemblages give way outward to argillic (quartz- The stacked-cell convection model (fig. 2) treats a
kaolinite) or phyllic-argillic (quartz-sericite-kaolinite) situation similar to the closed-cell model, but takes into
assemblages. These kaolinite-bearing rocks grade into account the possibility that relatively cold fresh meteoric
argillic rocks bearing montmorillonite or mixed layer water may cap the circulating cell of relatively hot, weakly
illite-montmorillonite, or both. The argillic rocks give way to moderately saline metal-bearing fluid. As in the closed-
to propylitized rocks that predate the main episode of cell model, chemical changes associated with boiling
alteration. beneath the cap are important in precious-metal deposi
Unlike the quartz-adularia deposit-type, ore- tion. Here, however, fluid flow will not be predominantly
mineral assemblages of the quartz-alunite deposit-type vertical throughout the system, but will be predominantly
always include copper sulfosalts, the most prominent lateral along the top of the ore-fluid cell. In this zone of
being enargite or luzonite-group minerals. Tetrahedrite lateral flow, fluid mixing and possibly spatially-associated
and tennantite are also important, as are native gold, boiling form complex high-grade base- and precious-
silver sulfosalts, covellite, bismuthinite, and occasionally metal ores with conspicuous lateral zonation.
tellurides. Pyrite is always abundant. Although this Hydrothermal systems that develop conditions of
deposit-type includes distinct silver-rich (Ag:Au>3:l) rapid upflow and voluminous surface discharge may
and gold-rich subgroups, copper is almost always a by deposit precious metals very near the surface. The hot-
product. Gangue minerals other than quartz include springs deposition model (fig. 3) is an attempt to describe
alunite, kaolinite, and sometimes barite. Carbonates are such systems. Here, rapid temperature decrease near the
absent. Limited fluid-inclusion data indicate that temper surface combined with rapid upflow causes dumping of
atures and salinities of fluids were generally in the same silica at and near the surface. Fluid overpressures develop
ranges as in the quartz-adularia type deposits, but maxi beneath the sealed cap, which, when broken, produces
mum temperatures and salinities may have been some violent flash boiling and hydrothermal explosions.
what higher. Evidence for boiling is common. Repeated episodes of sealing and flash boiling result in
complex brecciation and rebrecciation. Precious-metal
deposition results mainly from changes in fluid chemistry
GENETIC MODELS
produced by boiling. Ore bodies consist of fine-grained to
microcrystalline quartz or chalcedony filling the explosion
Berger and Eimon (1983) present three conceptual breccias or forming stockworks. Carbonate or adularia
genetic models to encompass all variants of the quartz- may accompany the silica, sulfide minerals (mostly pyrite
Siliclllcation
_Qtz ♦ illlte ♦ pyrita ♦ native
: metals ♦ sulfosalts
Vein atructure
Figure 1 . A schematic cross section of open-vein deposition in the closed-cell convection model including two
levels of mineralization resulting in stacked ore bodies, in this case separated by a barren zone. From Berger
and Eimon (1983).
176 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America
'Barren* qtz + calcite tfluorite ± barite
Sfliclfication
_ Qtz + illite + pyrite +
. native metals + sulfosalts
Qtz + barite ♦ native metals + Qtz + Illite ♦ native metals +
sulfosalts + pyrlte as y sulfarsenides ± sulfantlmonides ♦
replacements \ argentite + pyrite + base-metal sulfides
Figure 2. A schematic cross section of open-vein deposition in the zone of fluid mixing in the stacked-cell convection
model including areas of stockwork fracturing and replacement-type deposits. From Berger and Eimon (1983).
or marcasite) are scarce, and precious metals are its must be taken into account in modelling. First, the
accounted for by extremely fine-grained native gold, elec- characteristic intense acid-sulfate alteration and the
trum, and silver sulfosalts. The ore zone is always char sulfosalt-bearing ore bodies are always closely related
acterized by pervasive and intense silicification, zoned spatially and temporally to porphyritic domes or flow-
outward to quartz-illite alteration, montmorillonite- dome complexes. The second important feature is the
alteration, and finally pervasive propylitization. Zones of highly sulfidized character of both hydrothermally altered
acid leaching marked by kaolinite, porous opaline silica, rocks and ores. Clearly, sulfur was abundant in the fluids,
and alunite veins occur above, within, and laterally and a relatively large proportion of the sulfur was present
around ore zones, and are sometimes locally super as sulfate. The third important feature is common brec-
imposed on the ore horizon. ciation of advanced argillic alteration zones, which are
A general picture of the environment of deposition sites for ore deposition (fig. 4).
of quartz-alunite-type deposits has been presented by Although not all features of these deposit-types and
Bethke (1984). Several important features of these depos the processes that formed them are presently understood,
Acid leaching
Kaolinite.alunite, silica, Jarosite
Breccia dikes
Hydrothermal brecciation
(low-angle veins)
Au, Ag, As, Sb, Tl sulfides and qtz
Qtz-sulfide veins
Au. Ag. As. (Cu, Pb.Zn) in sulfides with adularia
Qtz-sulfide veins
Cu. Pb. Zn. (Au. Ag) in sulfides with chlorite
Figure 3. Schematic cross section of the hot-springs deposition model showing the spatial relationships of alteration
and trace-element geochemistry and some of the more important structural features of this deposit type. From Berger
and Eimon (1983).
the characteristics described above can be explained in a are needed to delineate the conditions of ore sulfosalt and
preliminary model. Igneous bodies intrude a volcanic sulfide deposition.
center such as a dome field or stratovolcano at shallow Advanced argillic alteration and associated copper
levels, releasing plumes of S02-rich magmatic gas which sulfosalt veins and masses have been recognized in the
move upward and mix with ground water to establish a upper parts of several porphyry copper systems, raising
hydrothermal circulation system characterized by strong the possibility that some quartz-alunite-type deposits may
vertical temperature gradients and a high sulfur flux. With be related to porphyry-copper mineralization at depth, as
declining temperature, S02 disproportionates to yield discussed by Wallace (1979) and Sillitoe (1973).
S04 and with further temperature decrease, H2S04 dis
sociates to produce the highly acid solutions responsible
for hypogene leaching and advanced argillic alteration. OCCURRENCE MODELS FOR EXPLORATION
Episodic sealing, hydrofracturing, and flash boiling are AND REGIONAL ASSESSMENT
important in quartz-alunite type systems as well as quartz-
adularia type systems (Ashley, 1982). The mode of evo Geological, geochemical, and some geophysical
lution from the acid-sulfate-alteration stage to the ore- attributes of quartz-adularia-type deposits are given by
deposition stage is not well understood. Detailed studies Berger and Eimon (1983), Berger (1982), Barton (1982),
178 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazard*, Central America
Hydrothermal explosion
breccia • Silica sinter
Propylitic alteration
Propylitic alteration
Figure 4. Schematic cross section of the quartz-alunite deposit model showing the spatial relationships between
alteration zones, ore bodies, and other features.
Silberman (1982), and Giles and Nelson (1982). silver, arsenic, antimony, and lead are the elements most
Attributes of quartz-alunite-type deposits are given by likely to be seen in anomalous amounts in regional
Ashley (1982). Useful summary lists of attributes are stream-sediment geochemical surveys where these depos
given by Berger for quartz-adularia-type (excluding hot- its are present.
springs type deposits), quartz-alunite-type, and hot- In exploration, the attributes listed in the deposit
springs-type deposits in Cox (1983), and are reproduced description sections of the summary lists are most useful.
here (tables 1-3). In regional assessment, the geological The first stage of exploration is to identify intermediate to
environment attributes are most useful, along with evi silicic volcanic centers that have been slightly to no more
dence of hydrothermal alteration obtained through field than moderately eroded. Favorable features within volca
or remote-sensing studies. Regional aeromagnetic and nic centers include permeable volcanic and sedimentary
gravity data may be useful in recognizing volcanic centers, units, ring-fracture zones, and fractures related to dom
subvolcanic intrusions, and significant fracture systems; ing; exposures of hydrothermally altered rocks, veins, or
Table 2.— Summary occurrence model for quartz—a/unite-type deposits, from Cox (1983)
DEPOSIT TYPE: Epithermal Gold SUBTYPE: Quartz-alunite
AUTHOR: Byron R. Berger DATE: December 1982
APPROXIMATE SYNONYM: Enargite gold OF (REFERENCE)
DESCRIPTION: Gold, pyrite, and enargite in vuggy veins and breccias in zones of advanced argillic alteration related to felsic volcanism
GENERAL REFERENCE:
GEOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT
Rock Types: Volcanic: dacite, quartz latite, rhyodacite, rhyolite. Hypabyssal intrusion or domes
Textures: Porphyritic
Age Range: Generally Tertiary, but can be any age
Depositional Environment: Within the volcanic edifice, ring-fracture zones of calderas, or areas of igneous activity with sedimentary evaporites
in basement
Tectonic Setting(s): Through-going fracture systems; keystone graben structures, ring-fracture zones, normal faults, fractures related to doming,
joint sets
Associated Deposit Types: Porphyry copper, active or fossil acid-sulfate hot springs, hydrothermal clay
Metal Concentrations: Copper, arsenic, antimony
DEPOSIT DESCRIPTION
Ore Minerals: Native gold + enargite+pyrite+silver-bearing sulfosalts±chalcopyrites±bornite±precious-metal tellurides. May have hypogene
oxidation phase with chalcocite+covellite±luzonite with late-stage native sulfur
Texture/Structure: Veins; breccia pipes, pods, dikes; replacement veins often porous, vuggy
Alteration: Highest temperature assemblage: quartz+alunite+pyrophyllite; may be early stage of quartz+ alunite with pervasive alteration of host
rock and veins of these minerals; zoned around quartz-alunite is quartz+alunite+kaolinite+montmorillonite; pervasive propylitic
alteration
Ore Controls: Through-going fractures, centers of intrusive activity
Weathering: Abundant yellow jarosite and geothite, white argillization with kaolinite, fine-grained white alunite veins, hematite
Geochemical Signature: Higher in system Au+As+Cu with increasing base metals at depth. Also Te
Examples References
Goldfield, Nevada
Summitville, Colorado
Kasuga mine, Japan
180 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resource* and Geologic Hazards, Central America
Table 3— Summary occurrence model for hot-springs gold subtype of quartz-adularia-type deposits, from Cox (1983)
DEPOSIT TYPE: Epithennal Gold SUBTYPE: Hot Springs gold
AUTHOR: Byron R. Berger DATE: December 1982
APPROXIMATE SYNONYM: OF (REFERENCE)
DESCRIPTION: Fine-grained silica and quartz in silicified breccia with gold pyrite, and Sb and As sulfides
GENERAL REFERENCE:
GEOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT
Rock Types: Areas of volcanic activity: rhyolite
Textures: Porphyritic
Age Range: Mainly Tertiary
Depositional Environment: Rhyolitic volcanic centers, rhyolite domes
Tectonic Setting(s): Through -going fracture systems
Associated Deposit Types: Quartz veins, breccia pipes
Metal Concentrations: Mo, W, Ag-sulfosalts, placer gold
DEPOSIT DESCRIPTION
Ore Minerals: Native gold+pyrite+stibnite + realgarorarsenopyrites±sphalerite+chalcopyrite±fluoriteornative gold +Ag-selenideortellurides+
pyrite
Texture/Structure: Banded veins, stockworks, breccias (uncemented or cemented with silica)
Alteration: Top to bottom of systems: chalcedonic sinter, massive silicification, stockworks and veins of quartz + adularia and breccias cemented
with quartz, quartz + chlorite. Veins generally chalcedonic
Ore Controls: Through-going fracture systems, brecciated cores of intrusive domes; cemented breccias important carrier of ore
Weathering: Bleached country rock, yellow jarosite and goethite, fine-grained alunite, hematite
(ieochemical Signature: Au+As+Sb+Hg+Tl higher in system, increasing Ag with depth, decreasing As+Sb+Tl + Hg with depth
Examples References
McLaughlin, California
Round Mtn., Nevada
Delamar, Idaho
surface sinters; and shows of mineralization. Vein and Berger, B.R., and Eimon, P.I., 1983, Conceptual models of
altered rock exposures must be sampled in detail to epithermal precious-metal deposits, Chapter 15, in Shanks,
confirm whether a geochemical signature typical of the W.C., III, ed., Cameron volume on unconventional min
higher parts of one of these deposits is present. If so, eral deposits: Society of Mining Engineers of the Ameri
further detailed geological and geochemical surface inves can Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum
tigations should be carried out to delineate permeable Engineers, Inc., p. 191-205.
rock units and structures, alteration zoning, and geo Bethke, P.M., 1984, Controls on base and precious-metal
chemical zoning. Drill holes can then be located to intersect mineralization in deeper epithermal environments: U.S.
zones of maximum alteration intensity and enclosed veins Geological Survey Open-File Report 84-890, 14 p.
Buchanan, L.J., 1981, Precious-metal deposits associated with
or stockworks at a level where maximum concentration of
volcanic environments in the Southwest: Arizona Geolog
precious metals is likely. Exploration geophysical methods ical Society Digest, v. 14, p. 237-262
may be of some use in tracing faults and veins and Cox, D.P., editor, 1983, U.S. Geological Survey—INGEO-
detecting alteration minerals and sulfides at depth. MINAS mineral resource assessment of Columbia, ore
deposit-models: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File
Report 83-423, 49 p.
Giles, D.L., and Nelson, C.E., 1982, Principal features of
REFERENCES CITED
epithermal lode gold deposits of the Circum-Pacific rim:
Ashley, R.P., 1982, Occurrence model for enargite-gold depos Presented at Circum-Pacific Energy and Minerals
its, in Erickson, R.L., compiler, Characteristics of mineral- Resource Conference, Honolulu, Hawaii, August 22-28,
deposit occurrences: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File 1982: Lakewood, Colorado, Cimarron Exploration, Inc.,
Report 82-795, p. 144-147. 12 p.
Barton, Paul, 1982, Silver/base metal epithermal deposits, in Silberman, M.L., 1982, Hot-spring type, large tonnage, low-
Erickson, R.L., compiler, Characteristics of mineral- grade gold deposits, in Erickson, R.L., compiler, Charac
deposit occurrences: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File teristics of mineral deposit occurrences: U.S. Geological
Report 82-795, p. 127-130. Survey Open-File Report 82-795, p. 131-143.
Berger, B.R., 1982, The geological attributes of Au-Ag-base Sillitoe, R.H., 1973, The tops and bottoms of porphyry copper
metal epithermal deposits, in Erickson, R.L., compiler, deposits: Economic Geology, v. 68, p. 799-815.
Characteristics of mineral-deposit occurrences: U.S. Geo Sillitoe, R.H., and Bonham, H.F., Jr., 1984, Volcanic landforms
logical Survey Open-File Report 82-795, p. 119-126. and ore deposits: Economic Geology, v. 79, p. 1286-1298.
182 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America
DEPOSITOS DE METALES PRECIOSOS EN
TERRENOS VOLCANICOS
184 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologlc Hazards, Central America
Barren qtz ♦ calcita ♦
(tuorlte i barita
V
Qtz ♦ kaollnlte ♦
alunita *■ zeolites .
A0T SUicIfleatlon
' Qtz ♦ ¡Hita ♦ pyrita ♦ nativa
g metals ♦ sullosalts
Vein structure
Figura 1 . Un corte transversal esquemático de depósito de veta abierta en el modelo de convección de celda
cerrada, incluyendo dos niveles de mineralización en forma de cuerpos minerales apilados, en este caso
separados por una zona estéril. De Berger y Eimon (1983).
Slllclfication
_ Qtz + illite + pyrlte +
native metals ± sulfosalts
Qtr + barite + native metals +
Qtz + illite + native metals +
sulfosalts + pyrlte as y - sulfarsenides ± sulfantimonides +
replacements \ argentite + pyrite + base-metal sulfides
El modelo de convección de celda apilada (fig. 2) se En este zona de flujo lateral, la mezcla del fluido y,
refiere a una situación similar a la del modelo de celda posiblemente, la ebullición espacialmente asociada
cerrada, pero toma en consideración la posibilidad de que forman una base compleja de alto grado y mineral
el agua meteórica fresca, relativamente fría, pueda cubrir metálico precioso con conspicua zonificacion lateral.
la celda circulante de fluido metálico ligero a moder Los sistemas hidrotérmicos que desarrollan condi
adamente salino, el cual está relativamente caliente. Al ciones de raudal de flujo ascendente y la voluminosa
igual que en el modelo de celda cerrada, los cambios descarga superficial pueden depositar metales preciosos
químicos asociados con la ebullición debajo de la capa de muy cerca de la superficie. El modelo de depósito de
cubrimiento son importantes para el depósito del metal aguas termales (fig. 3) intenta describir tales sistemas. En
precioso. En este caso, sin embargo, el fluido no correrá este caso, el descenso de la temperatura cerca de la
en forma predominantemente vertical a través del sistema, superficie, combinado con el flujo ascendente del raudal,
sino que lo hará en forma predominantemente lateral, a provoca la descarga de silice en y cerca de la superficie del
lo largo de la parte superior de la celda de mineral fluido. sistema. Debajo de la capa sellada de cubrimiento se
186 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resource* and Geologic Hazards, Central America
Hydrothermal explosion breccia
/Bedded fallout material .Silica sinter
Sb, As, Au, Ag. Hg in seams
O-«-0pallzed rock or porous, vuggy silica
Native S, cinnabar
Pervasive silicification
Dispersed As, Sb, Au, Ag, Tl
y
Acid leaching
Kaolinite.alunite, silica, jarosite
Breccia dikes
Hydrothermal brecciation
(low-angle veins)
Au. Ag. As, Sb, Tl sulfides and qtz
Qtz-sulfide veins
Au. Ag. As. (Cu. Pb.Zn) in sulfides with adularía
_^_Qtz-sulfide veins
Cu¿ Pb. Zn. (Au. Ag) in sulfides with chlorite
Figura 3. Corte transversal esquemático del modelo de depósito de aguas termales, mostrando las relaciones
espaciales de la geoquímica de alteración y elementos-pista, y algunas de las características estructurales de mayor
importancia de este tipo de depósito, De Berger y Eimon (1983).
Propylitic alteration
Propylitic alteration
Figura 4. Corte transversal esquemático del modelo de depósito de cuarzo-alunita, mostrando las relaciones
espaciales entre las zonas de alteración, los cuerpos de mineral y otras características.
sulfurosa tanto de las rocas como de los minerales cuerpos ígneos se introducen, a niveles de poca profun
alterados hidrotérmicamente. Se ve con claridad que el didad, en centros volcánicos como los campos de demos o
azufre era abundante en los fluidos y que una proporción los estratovolcanes, liberando fumarolas de gas magma-
relativamente grande de azufre estaba presente en forma tico rico en S02, el cual se mueve hacia arriba y se mezcla
de sulfato. La tercera característica importante a consid con el agua subterránea, estableciendo un sistema de
erar es la brechación común de las zonas con alteración circulación hidrotérmica caracterizado por fuertes
argilosa avanzada, las cuales son sitios para la acumu graduaciones verticales de temperatura y alto flujo de
lación de mineral (fig. 4). azufre. Con el descenso de temperatura el S02 se
A pesar de que no todas las características de estos desproporciona para producir S04 y, con una reducción
depósitos ni los procesos que los formaron son compren adicional de temperatura, el H2 S04 se separa y produce
didos en la actualidad, las características descritas arriba las soluciones altamente ácidas que dan lugar a la
pueden ser explicadas en un modelo preliminar. Los lixiviación hipogénica y a la alteración argilosa avanzada.
188 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resource* and Geologic Hazards, Central America
Tabla 1 .—Resumen del modelo de depósito tipo cuarzo-adularía, de Cox (1983).
El sellado episódico, las hidrofracturas y la ebullición Berger (1982), Barton (1982), Silberman (1982), y Giles
instantánea son importantes en los sistemas del tipo de y Nelson (1982). Las características de los depósitos del
cuarzo-alunita, así como en los del tipo de cuarzo- tipo de cuarzo-alunita son proporcionados por Ashley
adularia (Ashley, 1982). Aún no se ha comprendido bien (1982). Útiles listas resumidas de características son
como se efectúa el desarrollo desde la etapa de alteración proporcionadas por Berger para el tipo de cuarzo-
acidosulfática hasta la de acumulación del mineral. Se adularia (excluyendo los depósitos del tipo de aguas
necesitan estudios detallados para delinear las condicio termales); las características del tipo de cuarzo-alunita y
nes de los depósitos de sulfosales minerales y sulfuro. del tipo de aguas termales se encuentran en Cox (1983) y
En las partes superiores de varios sistemas de cobre aparecen reproducidas a continuación (tablas 1-3). En la
porfirítico se han reconocido alteraciones argilosas evaluación regional, son muy útiles las características del
avanzadas, asociadas con vetas y masas de sulfosales ambiente geológico, junto con la evidencia de alteración
cúpricas, lo cual presenta la posibilidad de que algunos hidrotérmica obtenida a través de estudios de campo o de
depósitos del tipo de cuarzo-alunita puedan estar relacio detección remota. Los datos regionales aeromagnéticos y
nados con la mineralización porfirocúprica a niveles de gravedad pueden ser útiles para reconocer centros
profundos, según discutido por Wallace (1979) y Sillitoe volcánicos, intrusiones subvolcánicas y sistemas importan
(1973). tes de fracturas; plata, arsénico, antimonio y plomo son
los elementos que con mayor seguridad pueden ser vistos
en cantidades anómalas, al realizar estudios geoquímicos
MODELOS DE DEPÓSITOS PARA regionales de sedimento fluvial, en el cual estos depósitos
EXPLORACIÓN Y EVALUACIÓN REGIONAL están presentes.
Para la exploración son muy útiles las características
detalladas en las secciones de descripción de depósitos de
Las características geológicas, geoquímicas y las listas resumidas. La primera etapa de exploración es la
algunas geofísicas de los depósitos del tipo de cuarzo- identificación de los centros volcánicos, de intermedios a
adularia son proporcionadas por Berger y Eimon (1983), silícicos, que han sufrido erosión de liviana a no más que
moderada. Las características favorables dentro de los de ocurrencias de depósitos minerales: Servicio Geológico
centros volcánicos incluyen unidades volcánicas per de los Estados Unidos, Reporte de Archivo Abierto
meables y sedimentarías, zonas de fracturas anulares y 82-795, p. 144-147.
fracturas relacionadas con la formación de domos; Barton, Paul, 1982, Depósitos epitermales de plata y metales
exposición de rocas alteradas hidrotérmicamente, vetas o bajos, en Erickson, R.L. recopilador, Características de
tobas superficiales, e indicios de mineralización. Las ocurrencias de depósitos minerales: Servicio Geológico de
exposiciones de vetas y rocas alteradas deben ser some los Estados Unidos, Reporte de Archivo Abierto 82-795,
tidas a un muestreo detallado para confirmar la existencia p. 127-130.
de una señal geoquímica típica de las partes más altas de Berger, B.R., 1982, Los atributos geológicos de depósitos de
Au-Ag y de metales bajos epitermales en Erickson, R.L.
uno de estos depósitos. Si así fuera, se deben realizar recopilador, Características de ocurrencias de depósitos
detalladas investigaciones geológicas y geoquímicas adicio minerales: Servicio Geológico de los Estados Unidos,
nales de la superficie para delinear las unidades y estruc Reporte de Archivo Abierto 82-795, p. 119-126.
turas de roca permeable, la alteración por zonas y la Berger, B.R. y Eimon, P.I., 1983, Modelos conceptuales de
zonificación geoquímica. Se pueden localizar perforacio depósitos de metales preciosos epitermales, Capitulo 15 en
nes para cortar transversalmente las zonas con máxima Shanks, W.C. III, ed., tomo de Cameron sobre depósitos
intensidad de alteración y las vetas o intrusiones encerra minerales no convencionales: Sociedad de Ingenieros
das, a un nivel en el cual es posible encontrar la máxima Mineros del Instituto Americano de Minería, Metalúrgica
concentración de metales preciosos. Los métodos de e Ingenieros de Petróleo, Inc. p. 191-205.
exploración geofísica pueden ser de alguna utilidad para Bethke, P.M., 1984, Controles en la mineralización de
descubrir las fallas y vestas y determinar los minerales y yacimientos bajos y preciosos en ambientes epitermales
profundos: Servicio Geológico de los Estados Unidos
sulfuras alterados, a niveles profundos.
84-890, 14 p.
Buchanan, LJ., 1981, Depósitos de metales preciosos asociados
CITAS BIBLIOGRAFICAS con ambientes volcánicos en el Sudoeste de los Estados
Ashley, R.P., 1982, Modelo de ocurrencia para depósitos de Unidos: Compendio de la Sociedad Geológica de Arizona,
oroenergita en Erickson, R.L., recopilador, Características t. 14, p. 237-262.
190 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resource* and Geologic Hazard*, Central America
Tabla 3.— Resuman del modelo del subtipo aurífero hidrotérmico de depósito tipo cuarzo-adularía, de Cox (1983).
TIPO DE DEPOSITO: Oro Epitermal SUBTIPO: Oro hidrotérmico
AUTOR: Byron R. Berger FECHA: Diciembre de 1982
SINONIMO APROXIMADO: DE (REFERENCIA)
DESCRIPCION: Sílice y cuarzo de grano fino en brecha silicificada con oro, pirita y sulfures de Sb y As
REFERENCIA GENERAL:
AMBIENTE GEOLOGICO
Tipos de Rocas: Areas de actividad volcánica: Riolita
Texturas: Porfirfticas
gasificación de Era: Principalmente Terciaria
Ambiente del Deposito: Centros volcánicos riolíticos, domos de riolita
Marcofsl Tectonicofsl: Sistemas de fracturas continuas
Tipos de Deposito Asociados: Vetas de cuarzo, brechas cilindricas
Concentraciones Metálicas: Mo, W, Sulfosales de Ag, oro placerico
DESCRIPCION DEL DEPOSITO
Minerales: Oro natural + pirita +estibnita+rejalgar, o arsenopirita±esfalerita+calcopirita±fluorita, u oro natural + Ag-seleniuro, o telururos+
pirita
Textura/Estructura: Vetas estratificadas, intrusiones, brechas (cementadas o no con sílice)
Alteración: De la parte superior al fondo del sistema: sinter calcedónica, silicificación fuerte, intrusiones y vetas de cuarzo + adularía y brechas
cementadas con cuarzo, cuarzo+clorita. Las vetas son generalmente calcedónicas
Controles del Mineral: Sistemas de fracturas continuas, núcleos brechados de domos intrusivos; las brechas cementadas son importantes por
tadoras de oro
Meteorización: Roca madre blanqueada, jarosita amarilla y goetita, alunita de grano fino, y hematita
Señal Geoquímica: Au+As+Sb+Hg+Tl más altos en el sistema; con la profundidad aumenta el Ag y disminuye el contenido de As+ Sb+
Tl+Hg
Ejemplos Referencias
McLaughlin, California
Round Mtn., Nevada
Delamar, Idaho
Cox, D.P., editor, 1983, Servicio Geológico de los Estados minerales: Servicio Geológico de los Estados Unidos,
Unidos— Evaluación de recursos minerales de Colombia Reporte de Archivo Abierto 82-795, p. 131-143.
por INGEOMINAS, modelos de yacimientos minerales: Sillitoe, R.H., 1973, Parte superior e inferior de los depósitos de
Servicio Geológico de los Estados Unidos, Reporte de cobre porfirio: Geología Económica, t. 68, p. 799-815.
Archivo Abierto 83-423, 49 p. Sillitoe, R.H., y Bonham, H.F., Jr., 1984, Formas terrestres
Giles, D.L., y Nelson, CE., 1982, Características principales de volcánicas y yacimientos minerales: Geología Económica,
depósitos veteados de oro epitermales del circum-pacífico: t. 68, p. 1286-1298.
Wallace, A.B., 1979, Posibles indicaciones de depósitos de
Presentado en la Conferencia de Recursos de Energía y
cobre porfirio subterráneos en rocas volcánicas de la Etapa
Minerales, Honolulu. Hawaii, Agosto 22-28, 1982: Lake- Terciaría media a tardía de la zona oeste de Nevada, en la
wood, Colorado, Cimarron Exploración, Inc., 12 p. Asociación Internacional para el Génesis de Yacimientos
Silberman,m M.L., 1982, Tipo fuente de aguas termales, gran Minerales (IAGOD), Quinto Simposio Cuadrienal de
tonelaje, depósitos de oro de bajo ley en Erickson, R.L., Procedimientos, Tom II: Oficina de Minas y Reporte
recopilador, Características de ocurrencias de depósitos Geológico 33, p. 69-76.
The data needed to carry out a mineral-resource interpretation of incomplete data from mineral occur
assessment or to design a mineral-exploration program rences enabling the user to classify some occurrences into
include geologic maps, mineral-occurrence data, geo- probable deposit types. The models' greatest use is in
chemical and geophysical data, and a history of previous delineating areas within the region being assessed that
exploration efforts. Also needed is a detailed description have the greatest likelihood of containing undiscovered
of the deposit or deposits being assessed or explored for. deposits of a given type.
This description, here referred to as a deposit model, Finally, at the conclusion of a resource assessment,
consists of three interrelated parts: the attributes of the deposit models are used to describe the probable tonnage
lithologic-tectonic-geochemical environment of the and grade of undiscovered deposits within the region
deposit; the attributes of the deposit itself, namely miner being assessed. This enables the user to make a prelimi
alogy, texture, alteration, ore controls, weathering charac nary determination of the probable economic value of the
teristics, and geochemical and geophysical signature; and undiscovered resources.
the tonnage and grade distributions of known deposits of The following examples of manganese, tin, and
the same type. copper deposits illustrate the manner in which deposit
Deposit models are useful in all stages of resource models have been used in understanding mineral
assessment and mineral exploration. At the planning resources. Of the various types of manganese deposits,
stage, preliminary geologic and tectonic information sedimentary and volcanogenic deposits can be compared
about the area being assessed can be matched with in terms of geologic environment and tonnage. Sedimen
attributes of favorable environments for a number of tary deposits are associated with margins of euxinic shale
deposit types. For example, if the region is known to basins, and volcanogenic deposits are associated with chert
contain ophiolitic rocks, then podiform chromite, placer and marine volcanics in eugeosynclinal environments.
platinum, and Cyprus-type massive sulfide deposits might Median tonnage of sedimentary manganese deposits is
be expected because ophiolites are favorable environ about 20 million tons and of volcanogenic deposits about
ments of these deposits. Advanced knowledge of possible 1 million tons. In the assessment of Colombian manga
deposits makes it possible to plan geochemical sampling nese deposits, it was concluded that, if employment of
methods and analytical procedures in such a way as to test large numbers of miners was an important goal, volcano
for the presence of these deposits. For example, in an genic deposits, which are abundant in the Western Cor
ophiolite terrane, one might wish to collect heavy-mineral dillera, should be developed. If metal production for
concentrates from stream sediments and analyse them for foreign trade was important, then exploration for sedi
platinum. mentary deposits should be carried out. Sedimentary
In planning mineral-exploration programs one may deposits have not been discovered to date in Colombia but
wish to compare tonnage and grade distribution for are believed to exist in the Cretaceous basins of the
various deposit types in order to select deposits which Eastern Cordillera.
could be mined to the greatest economic advantage. In North America, rhyolite-hosted type of tin
Then, having selected the deposits, one can use the model deposit is widespread and has attracted considerable
to provide data useful in selecting the most appropriate attention as a future source of tin. Data on the tonnage of
exploration methods and in narrowing the area of search known deposits of this type show, however, that discovery
to the most favorable host rocks and tectonic environ of such deposits will not affect tin supply because the
ments for the deposits. tonnage of the richest 10 percent of a sample of 131
During the course of a mineral-resource assess deposits is only 4,000 to 10,000 tons of ore.
ment program, deposit models are used as an aid in Analysis of gold and molybdenum grades of por
192 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America
phyry copper deposits has made it possible to divide this in granitic terrane whereas porphyry copper-gold deposits
deposit-type into three subclasses having different geo are emplaced at higher levels in the crust and are com
logic characteristics. Porphyry copper-molybdenum monly associated with coeval volcanic rocks. High gold
deposits have molybdenum values in percent that are less grades in porphyry copper deposits are also associated
than one third of the gold grade in grams per ton (g/t). with high magnetite to pyrite ratio in the potassic alter
Porphyry copper-gold deposits have gold grades (in g/t) ation zone. Intermediate between these end-members is a
30 times the molybdenum grade (in percent). Porphyry subtype that contains important amounts of both gold and
copper-molybdenum deposits are emplaced at deep levels molybdenum.
Los antecedentes requeridos para llevar a cabo la rocas hospederas y ambientes tectónicos para los
distribución de recurso mineral o para designar un pro depósitos.
grama de exploración mineral incluye mapas geológicos, Durante la marcha del programa de la distribución
antecedentes de ocurrencia mineral, antecedentes de recursos de un mineral, los modelos de depósito son
geoquímicos y geofísicos, y una historia de esfuerzos usados como una ayuda en la interpretación de antece
previos de exploración. También se necesita una descrip dentes incompletos de ocurrencias minerales, la que
ción detallada de depósitos que necesitan ser evaluados o permite al usuario clasificar algunas ocurrencias en
explorados. Esta descripción aqui se refiere a un modelo probables tipos de depósito. En adición, los modelos
de depósito, que consiste de tres partes interrelacionadas: encuentran su máximo uso trazando áreas dentro de la
las características de la cercanía litológica-tectónica- región que está siendo evaluada que tienen el máximo de
geoquímica del depósito; las características del depósito probabilidad de contener depósitos no descubiertos de un
en si, es decir mineralogía, textura, alteración, controles tipo dado.
minerales, características de desgaste, y signatura geofís Finalmente, a la conclusión de una distribución de
ica y geoquímica; y el tonelaje y grado de distribución de recurso, los modelos de depósito son usados para descri
los depósitos conocidos del mismo tipo. bir el grado y tonelaje probable de depósitos no descubier
Los modelos de depósito son útiles en todas las tos dentro de la región que está siendo evaluada. Esto
etapas de distribución de recursos y exploración mineral. permite al usuario obtener una medida del valor económi
En la etapa de planeamiento, información geológica y co probable de los recursos no descubiertos.
tectónica preliminar acerca de áreas a ser evaluadas Ejemplos de cómo han sido usados los depósitos
pueden ser igualadas con las características de ambientes modelo para conocer los recursos minerales incluyen
favorables para un número y tipo de depósitos. Por depósitos de manganeso, estaño y cobre. De los varios
ejemplo, si la región es conocida por contener rocas tipos de depósito de manganeso, depósitos vulcanológicos
ofiolíticas por consiguiente cromita podiforme, se y sedimentarios pueden ser comparados en términos de
podrían prever depósitos sulfurosos de placeres de platino ambiente geológico y tonelaje. Los depósitos sedimen
y Chipre porque las ofiolitas son favorables en los ambi tarios se encuentran asociados con márgenes de pizarra
entes de este depósito. Un conocimiento adelantado de euxinita de cuencas y los depósitos vulcanológicos están
los posibles depósitos hace posible el planeamiento de asociados con variedades de calcedonia y depósitos
métodos de muestreo geoquímicos y procedimientos volcánicos marinos en ambientes eugeosinclinales. El
analíticos en tal forma como para ensayar la presencia de tonelaje de los depósitos sedimentarios de manganeso
estos depósitos. Por ejemplo, en una serie continua de promedia alrededor de 20 millones de toneladas y los
rocas ofiolíticas, uno podría desear coleccionar concent depósitos vulcanológicos cerca de 1 millón de toneladas.
rados minerales pesados de sedimentos de corrientes de En el avalúo Colombiano se concluyó que sí empleaban
agua y analizarlos para determinar si contienen platino. un gran número de mineros era una importante meta,
En programas de planeamiento de exploración mine depósitos vulcanológicos, que son abundantes en la cor
ral uno podría desear comparar tonelaje y grado de dillera occidental, deberían ser desarrollados. Si la
distribución para varios tipos de depósito para seleccionar producción de metales para el comercio extranjero es
depósitos que podrían ser explotados con la mayor ventaja importante, entonces la exploración para depósitos
económica. Luego, habiendo seleccionado los depósitos, sedimentarios deberán ser llevados a cabo. Estos
el modelo puede proveer antecedentes útiles en la selec depósitos no han sido descubiertos a la fecha en Colom
ción de los más apropiados métodos de exploración y bia, pero se cree que existen en las cuencas Cretáceas de
limitando el área de búsqueda para las más favorables la Cordillera oriental.
194 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologlc Hazards, Central America
En medio de los depósitos de estaño, el tipo hospe menor que una tercera parte del grado de oro en gramos
dero riolita está esparcido en Norte América y ha atraído por tonelada. Depósitos pórfidos de Cu-Au tienen grados
considerablemente la atención como una futura fuente de de oro (en g/t) treinta veces más que el grado de Mo (en
estaño. Antecedentes sobre el tonelaje de los depósitos porciento). Los depósitos pórfidos de Cu-Mo están
conocidos de este tipo muestran, de cualquier modo, que emplazados en niveles profundos de series de rocas
el descubrimiento de tales depósitos no afectara el sumin
graníticas en donde como depósitos de Cu-Au están
istro de estaño, porque el tonelaje del gran 10 porciento
emplazados a altos niveles en la capa y son comúnmente
de una muestra de 131 depósitos es solamente de 4.000 a
10.000 toneladas de mineral. asociados con rocas volcánicas contemporáneas. Altos
Los análisis de oro y grados de molibdeno de grados de Au en depósitos pórfidos de cobre también se
depósitos de cobre pórfido ha hecho posible que se pueda asocian con alta magnetita para una porción de pirita en
dividir este tipo en tres subclases que tienen característi la zona de alteración de potásicas. Intermedio entre estos
cas geológicas diferentes. Depósitos pórfidos de Cu-Mo miembros finales hay un subtipo que contiene cantidades
tienen valores de molibdeno en un porcentaje que es importantes de ambos Au y Mo.
196 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resource* and Geologic Hazards, Central America
different abilities to transport electric current, which may conductive and acts like a short-circuit, masking the
be measured as conductivity or as its reciprocal, resistivity. response from deeper horizons.
Resistivity is measured by galvanic and inductive methods. Access problems are best addressed by the use of
In galvanic methods, electrical current is transmitted into airborne methods, which, by necessity, are all electromag
the ground, and the resulting voltage is measured at netic rather than just electrical. Airborne electromagnetic
various distances and directions from the source elec (AEM) techniques can be used with either fixed-wing or
trode, revealing a spatial pattern of voltage variations. helicopter aircraft. This flexibility permits the collection of
Inductive methods use currents which are induced to flow data in all but the most rugged terrain. Low-level (100 m)
in the Earth. These induced currents can be created from flying is required, and the sensors are often flown at a
naturally flowing currents in the Earth's ionosphere or by ground clearance of 50 m or less. Two distinct modes of
a controlled source, such as currents injected into a loop operation are available: one is designed to detect narrow,
of wire just above and insulated from the ground surface. conductive, vertical structures, and the other is used in a
The ability of Earth materials to store electrical charge is resistivity mapping mode. Magnetic data are normally
measured by induced polarization (IP) methods, which obtained as an integral part of any airborne EM program.
measure the strength and duration of electrical currents The major disadvantages of AEM techniques are
that remain in the ground after the electrical source is their high cost per line-mile (about $50-$150 U.S.) in
switched off. These measurements are usually made comparison with aeromagnetic data (about $12 U.S.) and
galvanically, but inductive methods are applicable in some their limited depth of exploration. Although the cost
geologic environments. appears high, in comparison with ground-acquired data it
Electrical geophysical surveys can be made from is quite reasonable, particularly in tropical areas (for a
aircraft or on the ground. Only inductive electrical meth breakdown of actual costs by area and method in a recent
ods can be used in airborne surveys. Ground surveys can year, see Senti, 1984). The limited exploration depth of
be used to estimate the vertical electrical structure of the AEM techniques and the thick conductive cover in many
Earth (sounding mode) or to detect lateral variations in tropical areas require the use of the deeper penetrating
resistivity (profiling mode). Combinations of sounding AEM methods such as DHEM, INPUT and TURAIR
and profiling are possible. Sounding and profiling induc (see fig. 1), which explore to depths of 100 m or more
tive electrical measurements can be made either in the beneath the surface. Airborne AFMAG, a method using
frequency domain or the time domain. In frequency- natural fields, may have distinct advantages in the tropics
domain techniques, changes in the amplitude and phase where signal sources are stronger. AFMAG, although not
of the received signal relative to the source signal are now much used, is the deepest looking of all AEM
measured as a function of frequency. Time-domain meth methods and warrants further research.
ods measure the amount of time taken for the transient Most ground-electrical methods are applied to
decay of voltage at the end of a transmitted pulse. deposit-scale exploration, after other geological,
Figure 1 lists some of the different types of electri geophysical, and geochemical evidence has identified
cal geophysical-survey methods. An explanation of each restricted target areas. Induced polarization (IP) can
of these is beyond the scope of this brief discussion. The provide a direct measure of polarizable minerals in the
main point is not to understand each method but to subsurface (that is, minerals that retain an electric charge,
illustrate that geophysicists have a wide selection of tech such as clays, metallic luster sulfides, graphite, zeolite)
niques to apply in mineral-resource appraisal programs. and is probably the most important electrical method in
Keller and Frischknecht (1966) give the basic theory of defining drilling targets for metallic ore deposits, partic
electrical methods, and Telford and others (1976) illus ularly of the disseminated type. IP is a promising tool for
trate many applications. detailed assessment in areas of intermediate to acidic
volcanism in Central America. IP and resistivity measure
ments have recently been applied by the USGS to identi
ELECTRICAL TECHNIQUES FOR TROPICAL fication and grade estimation of bauxite deposits in Hun
ENVIRONMENTS gary (Smith and others, in press). Additional research is
needed in tropical areas on the geophysical signature of
bauxite to determine if the results from Hungary may be
There are two principal problems in the application extended to these regions. An example of IP work on
of electrical methods in a tropical environment. First is the deposits in the tropics is reported by Pelton and Smith
problem of access, because of a lack of roads for transport (1976).
of equipment and the presence of heavy vegetation that In the past, only gravity and magnetic methods were
can make the deployment of electrodes, cables, and other generally applied on a regional or semiregional scale;
equipment difficult. Second is the presence in many areas electrical methods were not, in part because of the cost
of a thick weathered surface layer that is electrically and the limitations of the techniques. Recently, however,
The Application of Electrical Geophysical Method* to Resource Assessment In the Tropics 197
198 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resource* and Geologic Hazard*, Central America
regional-scale electromagnetic surveys have been con Geophysicists. A clear need exists for both university and
ducted, particularly using natural-source methods. practical training of personnel for exploration geophysics.
Magnetotelluric (MT) methods measure the natural mag Airborne electrical methods should have particular
netic and electrical fields of the Earth and compare the importance in tropical regions because of the ease of data
values obtained at different sites. These methods have acquisition. The need for deeper looking AEM methods
become important in regional studies related to petro is an obvious area where added research is needed.
leum, geothermal, and broad structural investigations Further development of airborne AFMAG may be war
(Stanley, 1984, and Stanley and others, in press). Besides ranted. The USGS is also currently working on an air
being capable of giving broad regional cover, MT sound borne system using signals from power lines. This method
ings also measure to great depth, 20 km or more, provid has the potential for deeper exploration and should be
ing information about the full thickness of the Earth's considered for application in tropical environments.
crust. Telluric and audio-magnetotelluric (AMT) tech The electrical nature of the conductive overburden
niques are variants of the basic MT method and also may needs to be better understood. Both laboratory and
be used for regional-scale studies. AMT exploration uses in-situ studies are needed to better determine the mech
higher frequencies than MT methods and typically anisms of conduction and the mineralogy of lateritic soils.
achieves exploration depths of 2 km or less. The USGS In particular, we need to know how the characteristics of
has used AMT surveys extensively in geothermal and weathered overburden are affected by underlying rock
mineral resource-assessment programs (Hoover and oth type. These problems greatly affect the application of the
ers, 1984). These natural-source methods have distinct various electrical methods and the interpretation of
advantages over other electromagnetic methods in that geophysical data. A multidisciplinary team is needed to
large artificial sources and great lengths of wire are not study all aspects of lateritic soils in detail.
required for deep exploration. This advantage is very
important in areas where vegetation and topography
make most controlled-source methods impractical REFERENCES CITED
(Hoover and others, 1984). The principal disadvantage of
the natural-source methods is the scattering of data due Hoover, Donald, da Silva, Rodrigues, Pierce, Herbert, and
to the weak and random nature of the signal sources used. Umaral, Roberto, 1984, The application of audio-
Tellurics, AMT, and MT methods are best used for magnetotelluric surveys on Sao Miguel Island, Azores,
reconnaissance investigations or where information about Portugal: Geothermal Resources Council Transactions, v.
deep structure is required. 8, p. 499-503.
For site-specific resource assessment, one of several Keller, G.V., and Frischknecht, F.C., 1966, Electrical methods
controlled-source electrical techniques may be selected. in geophysical prospecting: London, Pergamon Press,
Here again, a demonstrated ability to accurately detect 523 p.
Pelton, W.H., and Smith, P.K., 1976, Mapping porphyry copper
formations under the conductive overburden is of primary deposits in the Philippines with IP: Geophysics, v. 41, no.
importance. Other factors— such as the availability of
1, p. 106-122.
equipment and trained personnel, need for and experi Senti, RJ., 1984, Special report—Geophysical activity in 1983:
ence of contracting groups, and availability of service and Geophysics—The Leading Edge of Exploration: Tulsa,
maintenance—will help determine which particular Oklahoma, Society of Exploration Geophysicists, p. 49-69.
method should be used. In particular, some of the time- Smith, B.D., Vera Laszlo, Ujszaszi, Jozsef, and Bardossy,
domain methods are important because they can function Gyorgy, in press, Electrical properties of karst bauxite
with shorter lengths of cable and produce higher resolu deposits of Hungary: European Association of Exploration
tion than conventional galvanic methods. Of course, Geophysicists, 47th meeting, Budapest, Hungary, 1985,
where operational considerations allow, galvanic methods Abstracts.
Stanley, W.D., 1984, Tectonic study of Cascade Range and
will continue to be used because of the simplicity of Columbia Plateau in Washington State based upon mag
equipment and operations. netotelluric soundings: Journal of Geophysical Research,
v. 89, no. B6, p. 4447-4460.
Stanley, W.D., Saad, Antonio Roberto, and Ohofugi, Walter, in
Problems and Opportunities press, Regional magnetotelluric surveys in hydrocarbon
exploration, Parana Basin, Brazil: American Association
of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin.
Besides the physical problems of exploration in
Telford, W.M., Geldart, L.P., Sheriff, R.E., and Keys, P.A.,
tropical countries, technology transfer may be hampered 1976, Applied Geophysics (3d ed.): New York, Cambridge
by the scarcity of people trained in geophysical methods. University Press, 860 p.
Among the Central American countries, Panama, Guate Ulriksen, C.P.F., 1982, Application of impulse radar to civil
mala, the Dominican Republic, and Costa Rica presently engineering: PhD thesis, Department of Engineering
have one member each in the Society of Exploration Geology, Lund University of Technology, Sweden, 175 p.
The Application of Electrical Geophysical Methods to Resource Assessment in the Tropics 199
LA APLICACIÓN DE LOS MÉTODOS GEOFÍSICOS
ELÉCTRICOS EN LA EVALUACIÓN DE LOS
RECURSOS EN LOS TRÓPICOS
Por Donald B. Hoover
200 Mineral, Energy, and Water Reeources and Geologlc Hazards, Central America
TÉCNICAS GEOFÍSICAS ELÉCTRICAS de esta breve discusión. El punto principal no es com
prender cada método sino ilustrar que los geofísicos
tienen una amplia selección de técnicas a aplicar en los
Los métodos geofísicos eléctricos miden la habili programas de evaluación de los recursos minerales. Keller
dad de los materiales de la tierra para: (1) crear natura y Frischknecth (1966) dan la teoría básica de los métodos
lmente circulación de corriente; (2} transportar corrien eléctricos y Telford y otros (1976) ilustran muchas
tes eléctricas y (3) almacenar carga eléctrica. El desarrollo aplicaciones.
de las corrientes por oxidación de la mineralización
metálica o por el movimiento de fluidos dentro de las
rocas conduce a una variación espacial en el voltaje TÉCNICAS ELÉCTRICAS PARA LOS
(potencial) que puede ser medido en la superficie de la AMBIENTES TROPICALES
tierra, usando el método autopotencial ("SP" por su
nombre en inglés). Los diferentes tipos de roca tienen
habilidades diferentes para transportar la corriente eléc Hay dos problemas principales en la aplicación de
trica, la cual puede ser medida como conductividad o métodos eléctricos en una zona tropical. En primer lugar
como su recíproca, resistividad. La resistividad se mide está el problema del acceso, porque la carencia de caminos
por métodos galvánicos e inductivos. En los métodos para - transportar el equipo y la presencia de vegetación
galvánicos, la corriente eléctrica es transmitida hacia la espesa pueden hacer que el desplazamiento de electrodos,
tierra y el voltaje resultante se mide a varias distancias y cables y otro equipo se vuelva dificultoso. En segundo
direcciones del electrodo fuente, revelando un patrón lugar, está la presencia, en muchas áreas, de una gruesa
espacial de variaciones de voltaje. Los métodos inductivos capa superficial, alterada por la intemperie, la cual es
usan corrientes que son inducidas a fluir en la tierra. conductora de electricidad y actúa como un cortocircuito,
Estas corrientes inducidas pueden ser creadas por corrien encubriendo la respuesta de los horizontes más profun
tes que fluyen naturalmente en la ionosfera de la tierra o dos.
por medio de una fuente controlada, como las corrientes Los problemas de acceso son enfrentados de mejor
inyectadas en un aro de alambre colocado encima y manera con el uso de los métodos aéreos, los cuales, por
aislado de la superficie de la tierra. La capacidad de los necesidad, son todos electromagnéticos en lugar de sólo
materiales de la tierra para almacenar carga eléctrica se eléctricos. Las técnicas aero-electromagnéticas (AEM)
mide por métodos de polarización inducida ("IP" por su pueden usarse con naves aereas de alas fijas o con
nombre en inglés), los cuales miden la intensidad y helicópteros. Esta flexibilidad permite la recopilación de
duración de las corrientes eléctricas que permanecen en datos en todos los terrenos, excepto en los más esca
la tierra después de haberse apagado la fuente eléctrica. brosos. Se requiere un vuelo a baja altura (100 m) y los
Estas medidas generalmente son hechas por métodos - sensores generalmente se llevan a una distancia de la
galvánicos; sin embargo, los métodos inductivos son tierra de 50 m o menos. Se utilizan dos diferentes
aplicables en algunos ambientes geológicos. modalidades de operación: Una está diseñada para detec
Las investigaciones geofísicas eléctricas pueden tar angostas estructuras verticales que son conductivas; y
hacerse desde una nave aerea o en la tierra. En las la otra es usada en una modalidad de elaboración de
investigaciones aereas solamente se pueden usar los mapas de resistividad. Los datos magnéticos se obtienen
métodos inductivos eléctricos. Las investigaciones en usualmente como una parte integral de cualquier pro
tierra pueden utilizarse para calcular la estructura eléc grama aero-electromagnético.
trica vertical de la tierra (modalidad de sondeo) o para Las desventajas principales de las técnicas AEM
detectar variaciones laterales en la resistividad (modali son su alto costo por milla de cable (aproximadamente
dad de perfil). Es posible hacer combinaciones de los US$50-US$150) en comparación con los datos aero-
métodos de sondeo y de perfil. Las medidas eléctricas magnéticos (aproximadamente US$12) y su profundidad
inductivas de sondeo y de perfil pueden hacerse ya sea en limitada de exploración. A pesar de que el costo parece
el dominio de la frecuencia o en el dominio del tiempo. En alto, comparado con los datos adquiridos en tierra es
las técnicas del dominio de la frecuencia, los cambios en la bastante razonable, particularmente en las áreas tropi
amplitud y fase de la señal recibida en relación a la señal cales. (Para obtener un detalle de los costos reales por
fuente son medidos en función de la frecuencia. Los área y método en un año reciente, vea Sentí, 1984.) La
métodos del dominio del tiempo miden la cantidad de profundidad limitada de exploración de las técnicas AEM
tiempo necesario para la caída transitoria del voltaje al y la espesa cubierta conductiva en muchas áreas tropi
final de un impulso emitido. cales hacen necesario el uso de los métodos AEM de
La figura 1 detalla algunos de los diferentes tipos de penetración más profunda, como los métodos "DHEM",
métodos de investigación geofísica eléctrica. Una "INPUT" y "TURAIR" (vea la figura No. 1), los que
explicación de cada uno de éstos está más allá del alcance exploran a profundidades de 100 m o más bajo la super-
La Aplicación de los Métodos Geofísicos Eléctricos en la Evaluación de los Recursos en los Trópicos 201
202 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America
ficie. El método aéreo "AFMAG", que usa campos Estos métodos, basados en fuentes naturales, tienen
naturales, puede tener ventajas precisas en los trópicos, - ventajas precisas sobre otros métodos electromagnéticos,
donde las fuentes de señal son más fuertes. De todos los puesto que no se requiere de grandes fuentes artificiales
métodos AEM, el método "AFMAG", a pesar de que no ni de grandes cantidades de cable para la exploración a
se utiliza mucho, es el que alcanza mayor profundidad y profundidad. Esta ventaja es muy importante en las áreas
garantiza investigación adicional. donde la vegetación y la topografía pueden causar que los
La mayoría de los métodos eléctricos de tierra se métodos de fuentes controladas no sean prácticos
aplican en la exploración a escala de depósitos, después de (Hoover y otros, 1984). La desventaja principal de los
que alguna otra evidencia geológica, geofísica y geoquími métodos de fuentes naturales es el esparcimiento de
ca ha identificado las áreas-objetivo restringidas. El datos, debido a la naturaleza débil y casual de las fuentes
método "IP" puede proveer una medida directa de minera de señal utilizadas. Los métodos telúricos AMT y MT son
les polarizables en la subsuperficie (es decir, minerales más efectivos en las investigaciones de reconocimiento o
que retienen una carga eléctrica, tales como arcillas, cuando se requiere información acerca de las estructuras
sulfuras metálicos de lustre, grafito, ceolita) y es proba profundas.
blemente el método eléctrico más importante al definir Puede seleccionarse una de varias técnicas eléctri
los objetivos de excavación para los depósitos minerales cas de fuente controlada para la evaluación de recursos en
metálicos, particularmente del tipo diseminado. El un sitio específico. También, en este caso, una capacidad
método "IP" es un medio prometedor para la evaluación probada para determinar con certeza las formaciones
detallada en las áreas centroamericanas de volcanismo bajo la sobrecapa conductiva es de importancia primor
desde intermedio hasta ácido. El "USGS" ha aplicado dial. Otros factores (tales como la disponibilidad de
recientemente el método "IP" y las mediciones de resis equipo y personal entrenado, la necesidad y la experiencia
tividad para identificar y estimar el grado de los depósitos de contratación de grupos y la disponibilidad de servicio y
de bauxita en Hungría (Smith y otros, en imprenta). Se mantenimiento) ayudarán a determinar cuál método en
requiere investigación adicional en áreas tropicales sobre particular debe ser usado. En especial, algunos de los
las señales geofísicas de la bauxita, para determinar si los métodos del dominio del tiempo son importantes porque
resultados de Hungría pueden extenderse a estas pueden funcionar con menores cantidades de cable y
regiones. Un ejemplo de la aplicación del método "IP" en producir una resolución más alta que la obtenida con los
los depósitos tropicales es presentado por Pelton y Smith métodos galvánicos convencionales. Por supuesto,
(1976). cuando las condiciones de operación lo permitan, los
En el pasado, únicamente los métodos de gravedad métodos galvánicos seguirán siendo utilizados, debido a
y magnetismo eran aplicados en forma general a niveles la sencillez del equipo y de las operaciones.
regionales o semiregionales; los métodos eléctricos no
eran aplicados, en parte debido al costo y a las limita Problemas y Oportunidades
ciones de las técnicas. Sin embargo, recientemente se han Además de los problemas físicos de la exploración
llevado a cabo investigaciones electromagnéticas a nivel en los países tropicales, la transmisión de tecnología
regional, usando, particularmente, los métodos de recur puede dificultarse por la escasez de personas entrenadas
sos naturales. Los métodos magnetotelúricos (MT) en los métodos geofísicos. Entre los países centroameri
miden los campos eléctricos y magnéticos naturales de la canos, actualmente Panamá, Guatemala, la República
tierra y comparan los valores obtenidos en diferentes Dominicana y Costa Rica tiene un miembro cada una en
sitios. Estos métodos han cobrado importancia en los la "Society of Exploration Geophysicists" (Asociación de
estudios regionales relacionados con el petróleo, la Exploradores Geofísicos). Existe una evidente necesidad
energía geotérmica y las amplias investigaciones estruc de adiestramiento, tanto académico como práctico, de
turales (Stanley, 1984, y Stanley y otros, en imprenta). personal para la exploración geofísica.
Además de ser capaces de dar una cobertura regional Considerando la facilidad en la recopilación de
amplia, los sondeos MT también miden a gran profun- datos, debería darse particular importancia a los métodos
didd, 20 Km. o más, proveyendo información acerca del aeroeléctricos en las regiones tropicales. La necesidad de
espesor completo de la corteza terrestre. Las técnicas métodos AEM que permitan una búsqueda a mayor
audio-magnetotelúricas (AMT) son variantes del método profundidad constituye una área en la cual se requiere
básico MT y también pueden usarse para los estudios a mayor investigación. El desarrollo ulterior del método
nivel regional. La exploración con técnicas AMT utiliza aereo AFMAG puede ser garantizado. El "USGS" está
frecuencias más altas que las de los métodos MT y trabajando actualmente en un sistema aéreo que utiliza
usualmente logran profundidades de exploración de 2 las señales provenientes de las líneas eléctricas. Este
Km. o menos. El - "USGS" ha utilizado extensamente las método tiene el potencial para realizar una exploración
investigaciones AMT en los programas de evaluación de más profunda y debería ser considerado para su aplicación
recursos geotérmicos y minerales (Hoover y otros, 1984). en ambientes tropicales.
La Aplicación de lo» Métodos Geofísicos Eléctricos en la Evaluación de los Recursos en los Trópicos 203
La naturaleza eléctrica de la sobrecapa conductiva report— Geophysical activity in 1983: Geophysics-The
necesita comprenderse mejor. Para una mejor determina Leading Edge of Exploration. (Society of Exploration
ción de los mecanismos de conducción y de la mineralogía Geophysicists), Tulsa, OK, p. 49-69."]
de los suelos de laterita, se necesitan estudios tanto de Smith, B.D., Vero Laszlo, Ujszaszi, Jozsef y Bardossy, Gyorgy,
laboratorio cómo de campo. En particular, necesitamos en imprenta. Propiedades eléctricas de los depósitos de
bauxita karst en Hungría: Asociación Europea de Explo
conocer como son afectadas las características de la
radores Geofísicos. Asamblea No. 47, Budapest, Hungría,
sobrecapa expuesta a la intemperie por el tipo de roca 1985. Extractos. ["Electrical properties of karst bauxite
subyacente. Estos problemas afectan grandemente la deposits of Hungary: European Association of Exploration
aplicación de diversos métodos eléctricos y la interpreta Geophysicists, 47th meeting, Budapest, Hungary, 1985,
ción de los datos geofísicos. Se necesita de un equipo Abstracts."]
multidisciplinario para estudiar en detalle todos los aspec Stanley, W.D., 1984. Estudio téctonico de la Sierra "Cascade" y
tos de los suelos de laterita. de la Meseta "Columbia" en al Estado de Washington,
basado en sondeos magnetotelúricos: Revista de Investi
gación Geofísica, v. 89, no. B6, p. 4447-4460. [Tectonic
REFERENCIAS study of Cascade Range and Columbia Plateau in Wash
ington State based upon magnetotelluric soundings. Jour
Hoover, Donald, da Silva, Rodrigues, Pierce, Herbert, y nal of Geophysical Research, v. 89, no. B6, p. 4447-4460."]
Umaral, Roberto, 1984. La aplicación de las investiga Stanley, W.D., Saad, Antonio Roberto, y Ohofugi, Walter, en
ciones audio-magnetotelúricas en la Isla Sao Miguel, Azo imprenta. Investigaciones regionales magnetotelúricas en
res, Portugal: Actas del Consejo de Recursos Geotérmicos, la Exploración de hidrocarbuos, Cuenca del Parana, Brasil:
v. 8, p. 499-503. ["The application of audio- Boletín de la Asociación Americana de Geológos del
magnetotelluric surveys on Sao Miguel Island, Azores, Petróleo. ["Regional magnetotelluric surveys in hydrocar
Portugal: Geothermal Resources Council Transactions, v.
bon exploration, Parana Basin, Brazil: American Associa
8, p. 499-503."] tion of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin."]
Keller, G.V., y Frischknecht, F.C., 1966. Métodos elétricos de
prospección geofísica: Londres, "Pergamon Press", 523 p. Telford, W.M., Geldart, L.P., Sheriff, R.E. y Keys, PA, 1976.
["Electrical methods in geophysical prospecting: London, Geofísica Aplicada (3a. Edición): New York, Cambridge
Pergamon Press, 523 p."] University Press, 860 p. ["Applied Geophysics (3d. Edi
Pelton, W.H., y Smith, P.K., 1976. Levantamiento de mapas de tion): New York, Cambridge University Press, 860 p."]
depósitos de cobre pórfido en las Filipinas con el método Ulriksen, C.P.F, 1982. Aplicación del radar de impulsos en la
"IP": Geofísica, v. 41, no. 1, p. 106-122. ["Mapping ingeniería civil: Tesis de Doctorado. Departamento de
porphyry copper deposits in the Philippines with IP: Ingeniería Geológica. "Lund University of Technology",
Geophysics, v. 41, no. 1, p. 106-122."] Suecia, 175 p. ["Application of impulse radar to civil
Senti, R.J., 1984. Informe especial (Actividad geofísica en 1983: engineering: Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Engineering
Geofísica) Las fronteras de la exploración. (Asociación de Geology. Lund University of Technology, Sweden, 175
Exploradores Geofísicos), Tulsa, OK, p. 49-69. ["Special p."].
204 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resource* and Geologic Hazards, Central America
GEOCHEMICAL EXPLORATION FOR MINERAL
RESOURCES IN TROPICAL ENVIRONMENTS OF
CENTRAL AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN
By Sherman P. Marsh
Geochemical Exploration for Mineral Resources In Tropical Environments of Central America and the Caribbean 205
indicates that several types of sample media are com whereas on the leeward side a semi-arid environment may
monly necessary in order to adequately evaluate these exist. In many mountainous areas it is possible to ascend
climatically complex areas. The chemical techniques used from a tropical rain forest at sea level, through several
in the analyses of these diverse samples are also varied intermediate climatic environments, to an alpine environ
and complex and require an understanding of their geo ment at 2,000-3,000 m. This rapid change of climatic
logic environment, mineralogic composition, and chemi environment in relatively small areas complicates the
cal properties. design of a geochemical exploration program.
The geochemical exploration program can be Four main types of climatic environments are
divided into two phases. The first phase involves a present in the Central American and Caribbean tropical
regional sampling program to define the geochemical environment: (1) rain forest, (2) savannah, (3) alpine, and
character of the area, to identify areas of known (4) semi-arid.
resources, and to delineate areas of mineral-resource Rain Forest. —A deeply weathered and densely veg
potential. The second phase involves a more detailed etated terrane usually with thick lateritic soils. These are
sampling of the areas of identified resources and mineral- generally areas of low relief having dendritic stream
resource potential in order to focus on the potential for patterns. Rainfall is abundant.
the occurrence of ore deposits. Savannah. —Gently rolling grasslands and open for
Geochemical exploration can provide a direct link ests having moderate relief. This terrane is often deeply
to mineral resources because traces of mineralization weathered, and rock outcrops are sparse. Lateritic soils
detected in the samples collected (stream sediment, prevail. Streams have dendritic patterns but often are
panned concentrate, soil, rock, water, and vegetation) may deeply incised. Rainfall is moderate with distinct wet and
reflect a mineralized source. That is, the samples may be dry seasons.
derived from weathered mineral occurrences or from Alpine. —Alpine environments exist in the tropics at
leakage of mineralization from hidden or buried deposits the higher elevations of mountainous areas. Although the
along faults and fractures. An accurate interpretation of plant species differ from their temperate counterparts,
the geochemical data is needed to focus additional studies their physical aspects are similar. These areas commonly
on areas that have the greatest potential for mineral have high relief, with deeply incised, straight flowing
resources. However, because the geochemical data is streams. Rock outcrops are abundant, especially along
directly influenced by the types of sample media collected streams. Soils are developed mainly along ridgetops.
and the chemical analyses used, it is extremely important Rainfall is variable.
that the initial sampling program be designed correctly. Semi-arid.— Semi-arid areas are commonly found
Three major factors that influence the design of on the leeward side of islands that have high topographic
geochemical exploration programs for mineral resources relief and in the rain shadow of mountain ranges. Some
are (1) the geologic terrane, (2) the topographic terrane, coastal deserts are caused by cold ocean currents. Vege
and (3) the climatic environment. All three factors must tation is sparse, and the relief may be low to steep.
be carefully considered when planning, executing, and Streams, when there is sufficient water, tend to flow
interpreting the exploration geochemical portion of a straight and are incised. Soils are poorly developed and
mineral-resource assessment in Central America and the rainfall is sparse.
Caribbean because any of these factors may change
dramatically over a relatively small area. The selection of
the best representative sample media, the preparation of SAMPLE MEDIA AND TECHNIQUES
the sample, and chemical analysis is of vital importance to
the correct interpretation of the resulting data.
Six major types of samples should be considered
when planning an exploration geochemical program, and
TROPICAL ENVIRONMENT any or all could be applied in the tropical environment of
Central America and the Caribbean. These sample types
are: (1) stream sediment, (2) panned concentrate, (3) soil,
Tropical environments are essentially confined (4) rock, (5) water, and (6) vegetation.
between latitudes 23 °N. and 23 °S. (the tropics of Cancer In the tropical environment of Central America and
and Capricorn), and they constitute a large portion of the' the Caribbean hydromorphic weathering and dispersion
Earth's land area. Nearly 23 million square kilometers of are more intense than they are in more temperate envi
the tropics is rain forest (Singh, 1982). The tropical ronments where clastic weathering and dispersion are
environment of Central America and the Caribbean can more important. The type of sample medium collected
be extremely varied over a relatively small area. A tropical and its analysis are consequently different than that from
rain forest may exist on the windward side of an island, a more temperate environment.
206 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America
Stream Sediment— Stream sediment is a traditional define the suspected mineral resource. Rock samples are
sample medium that has been widely used with good also used to determine the trace-element content of the
success for many years in geochemical exploration pro rock units in the area as part of the overall geochemical
grams. There are, however, some interpretive problems. exploration program. In the tropical environment, rock
In temperate and desert climates having high relief, samples are often difficult to obtain as surficial rock
stream sediments contain large amounts of common rock exposures are often weathered and chemically leached.
forming mineral detritus that can mask or dilute elements Wilier—Water can be a particularly useful sample
related to mineralization. In the rain-forest climate, the medium in the tropical environment because of the deep
deep lateritic soils contribute large amounts of secondary weathering, abundant rainfall, and high temperatures.
iron and clay minerals to streams (Von Gaertner, 1963), Ground water in this environment is chemically active and
and this may mask other elements. In addition, a rain has high leaching power (Pasquali and Lopez, 1982).
forest environment is one of rapid chemical weathering, Water passing through a weathered zone above an ore
and elements derived from mineralized rocks are com deposit may contain high concentrations of sulfate and
monly adsorbed onto grains of secondary iron and man trace metals related to ore deposits and can be used as a
ganese minerals. Consequently, special chemical treat diagnostic factor in the geochemical-exploration program.
ment of these stream-sediment samples is often necessary Vegetation. —Dense vegetation is common in tropi
to extract ore-related elements. Stream-sediment samples cal environments, and biogeochemical methods of explo
from a tropical environment often consist of clays and ration can be useful. Growth of vegetation in tropical
silica and resístate minerals, as other mineral species environments is rapid, and major concentrations of soil
susceptable to chemical weathering have been removed. minerals are held in the living vegetation (Hans Shack-
Panned Concentrate. —The panned-concentrate lette, written commun., 1984). The rapid growth and
sample can be a more diagnostic sample medium of death of plants in tropical environments tends to concen
mineralization than stream sediments, especially if metal trate and hold metallic elements near the site where they
lic sulfide grains are present. In the tropical environment, were weathered by recycling them into new plant growth.
weathering breaks down surficial rocks to tens of meters The concentrations of the metallic elements may be higher
deep, and this deep zone of weathering often obscures in the vegetation than in the soils in which the plants are
mineralization. The panned-concentrate medium is par growing. Species identification may also be an important
ticularly useful as it takes advantage of this deep weath indicator of potential mineral resources. Certain plants
ering which liberates heavy and resístate minerals com will not grow in soils enriched in certain elements,
monly associated with mineral resources (Overstreet, whereas other plants thrive in soils enriched in specific
1963). elements. The observed abundance or scarcity of a par
The panned concentrate consists of the heavy, resís ticular plant species is another factor that can be used in
tate fraction of soil-derived stream sediment that com the assessment of mineral resources.
monly contains the minerals associated with ore deposits. Pilot studies are recommended prior to the selec
Special attention must be given to the interpretation of tion of any sample media. Pilot studies are tests to
panned-concentrate data as the analytical determinations determine the relative effectiveness of various sample
represent a many-fold enhancement of elements related to media in areas that contain known mineral resources.
heavy minerals. It is also important to know the mineral- These pilot studies should emphasize the detection of the
ogical composition of the concentrate, as it has a direct various types of mineralization and ore deposits that are
relationship to known ore deposits and ore deposit- anticipated in the study area. An evaluation of the pilot
models. studies is based on knowledge of ore-deposit models and
Soil— In a tropical environment, soils generally elemental associations known to be related to mineral
represent the in-place weathering of bedrock (Bradshaw resources. Pilot studies should also examine soil profiles
and Thomson, 1982). The trace elements found in soil to determine horizons, or layers, of optimum metal
samples generally reflect the composition of the bedrock content, examine the length of metal dispersion trains in
beneath. In deeply weathered areas, metallic elements are sediments and water, and examine the extent and compo
often concentrated at deep levels through the weathering sition of metal zoning patterns around known deposits . It
process, and they also may be removed and transported by is not uncommon to find that several sample media are
ground water. Soil sampling is most effectively used as necessary to satisfactorily assess the mineral-resource
part of a follow-up study in areas having mineral-resource potential of a large area.
potential as defined in the regional surveys. Stream-sediment, panned-concentrate, and water
Rock— Rock samples provide information about samples are more often used in broad regional studies to
very specific areas. Analysis of rock samples is used most define areas of mineral potential that warrent further,
effectively in areas where potential mineral resources more detailed, study. These studies have a relatively low
have been identified where more information is needed to cost per unit area. Soil, rock, and vegetation samples are
Geochemical Exploration for Mineral Resource» In Tropical Environments of Central America and the Caribbean 207
used in more detailed studies of small areas that usually analytical results should be considered semiquantitative.
have some identified mineral potential. These studies For some elements, the sensitivity of this method is not
have a relatively high cost per unit area. sufficient for exploration work, and for these few elements
other analytical techniques must be used.
The induction-coupled plasma spectrographic tech
CHEMICAL ANALYSES AND TECHNIQUES nique involves dissolving the sample and analyzing the
resulting solution. As in most solution techniques, not all
the sample is dissolved, and the interpretation of the
The chemical techniques used in the geochemical analytical results must take into account the mineralogi
cal composition of the original sample. This method has
exploration for mineral resources are many and varied,
good precision.
and are chosen on the basis of sample medium and the
nature of the exploration environment. Usually the best Atomic-absorption methods are used to determine
several elements that cannot be determined with sufficient
analytical method is one that gives maximum contrast
sensitivity on the emission spectrograph, and to obtain
between background and anomaly. Background is the
normal elemental concentration of a given rock unit, and more precise analyses for other elements important in the
exploration for ore deposits. In using this method, the
an anomaly is a significant deviation from the back
sample is dissolved, and a portion of the resulting solution
ground.
is sprayed into a flame atomizer and burned. The
The extraction of metallic elements of interest is one
of the concerns in the chemical analysis. A much greater absorbed spectrum is analyzed and the concentration
contrast between background and anomaly can often be measured. Both the precision and accuracy of this method
achieved by selectively dissolving the sample. Many disso are high.
lution techniques are used, some totally dissolve the
sample, whereas others involve only partial dissolution. A RESULTS OF MINERAL-RESOURCE
partial extraction (or leaching) may be particularly useful
ASSESSMENT
in the tropical environment of Central America and the
Caribbean where metals are concentrated in secondary
oxides and the oxides are preferentially adsorbed onto No regional mineral-resource assessment can delin
mineral grains in a sample. Ground waters in the tropical eate the exact limits or determine the economic worth of
environment are commonly acidic and can carry dissolved an ore deposit. It can, however, define the areas of
metallic elements until changing physical and chemical greatest mineral-resource potential, estimate the proba
conditions cause precipitation as oxides or hydroxides. bility for ore deposits, and recommend further, more
Interpretation of the resulting partial dissolution data is detailed, studies. None of the three earth-science disci
dependent on an understanding of the chemistry of the plines of geology, geochemistry, or geophysics can, by
technique used. itself, give an accurate assessment of the mineral resources
Some chemical techniques do not require dissolu of an area. The integration of results of studies from the
tion of the sample, but rather use the whole sample in the three disciplines is required to generate a single compre
analysis. In dealing with vegetation, the sample is often hensive interpretive report. Without input from all three
ashed prior to the dissolution process. disciplines the information available to make an evalua
There are numerous procedures for analyzing geo tion would not be adequate. The following factors should
logic materials (Ward and others, 1963, and Allcott and be included in a mineral-resource assessment report: (1)
Lakin, 1978). Three of the most commonly used are recognition criteria for mineral occurrences, (2) geo
emission spectrographic analyses, induction-coupled chemical character of the various geologic terranes, (3)
plasma spectrographic analyses, and atomic-absorption discussion of suites of elements related to mineralization,
analyses. and (4) resource assessment of the area studied outlining
Emission spectrographic analysis involves vaporiz and describing areas of mineral-resource potential. An
ing a very small measured portion of a powdered sample integral part of the report should consist of maps showing
in an electric arc and recording the emitted spectra on the geology of the area, results of geochemical analyses
film. A trained operator then "reads" the film and records that support the areas of resource potential, and
the concentration of the elements observed. This method geophysical maps that describe some of the subsurface
is fast and is very useful for reconnaissance work, but characteristics of the area. Recommendations for further
because the analysis is total, elemental concentrations studies should be included in the report, focusing on areas
must be interpreted with the mineralogical composition of of sufficient resource potential to warrant the additional
the sample in mind. Many minerals contain metallic work. Topical studies in selected areas and the delineation
elements in their structure that are not indicative of of exploration targets would result from the mineral-
mineral resources. This method is not precise, and the resource assessment as the next phase of exploration.
208 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America
REFERENCES CITED rocks, in Proceedings of the seminar on geochemical
prospecting methods and techniques: United Nations Min
eral Resources Development Series No. 21, p. 57-66.
Allcott, G.H., and Lakin, H.W., 1978, Tabulation of geochemi- Pasquali Z, J., and Lopez E, CJ., 1982, Geochemical prospect
cal data furnished by 109 laboratories for six geochemical ing in humid tropical climates, in Laming, D.J.C., and
exploration reference samples: U.S. Geological Survey Gibbs, A.K., eds., Hidden wealth: exploration techniques
Open-File Report 78-163, 199 p. in tropical forest areas: Association of Geoscientists for
Bradshaw, P.M.D., and Thomson, I, 1982, Geochemical explo International Development Report No. 7, p. 75-79.
ration for mineral deposits in tropical rain-forest environ Singh, S., 1982, Mineral exploration in tropical rain forests:
ments, in Laming, DJ.G, and Gibbs, A.K., eds., Hidden practical problems and directions, in Laming, D.J.C., and
wealth: exploration techniques in tropical forest areas: Gibbs, A.K., eds., Hidden wealth: exploration techniques
Association of Geoscientists for International Develop in tropical forest areas: Association of Geoscientists for
ment Report No. 7, p. 62-75. International Development Report No. 7, p. 22-27.
Brobst, D.A., and Goudarzi, G.H., 1984, Introduction, in Von Gaertner, H.R., 1963, Geochemistry of lateritic deposits:
Marsh, S.P., Kropschot, SJ., and Dickinson, R.G., eds., some general patterns of lateritic weathering, in Proceed
Wilderness mineral potential— Assessment of mineral- ings of the seminar on geochemical prospecting methods
resource potential in U.S. Forest Service lands studied and techniques: United Nations Mineral Resources Devel
1964-1984: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper opment Series No. 21, p. 67-75.
1300, p. 1-10. Ward, F.N., Lakin, H.W., Canney, F.C., and others, 1963,
Overstreet, W.C., 1963, Heavy-mineral reconnaissance: Analytical methods used in geochemical exploration by the
regional heavy-mineral reconnaissance as a guide to ore U.S. Geological Survey: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin
deposits in areas underlain by deeply weathered crystalline 1152, 100 p.
Geochemical Exploration for Mineral Resources In Tropical Environments of Central America and the Caribbean 209
EXPLORACIÓN GEOQUÍMICA DE RECURSOS
MINERALES EN LOS AMBIENTES TROPICALES DE
CENTROAMERICA Y EL CARIBE
Por Sherman P. Marsh
210 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologlc Hazards, Central America
semiáridos, selváticos, tipo sabana y alpinos pueden todos AMBIENTE TROPICAL
estar presentes en una pequeña isla; por lo tanto, se
necesita desarrollar un programa de exploración geo
Los ambientes tropicales están esencialmente com
química para cada zona climática diferente. Los medios
prendidos entre las latitudes 23 norte y 23 sur (los
de muestreo y el método químico adecuado para la
trópicos de Cáncer y Capricornio) y constituyen una gran
evaluación de una zona climática pueden no ser
porción de las áreas de tierra firme del planeta.
adecuados para una zona adyacente, que es, sin embargo,
Aproximadamente 23 millones de kilómetros cuadrados
diferente. La experiencia lograda en los programas de
de las zonas tropicales son selvas (Singh, 1982). El
exploración geoquímica realizada a través de varias
ambiente tropical de Centroamérica y el Caribe puede ser
décadas, indica que varios tipos de medios de muestreo
extremadamente variado dentro de un área relativamente
son generalmente necesarios para evaluar en forma
pequeña. En una isla puede existir una selva tropical en el
adecuada estas áreas de complejidad climática. Las lado expuesto al viento, mientras que en el lado no
técnicas químicas usadas en el análisis de estas diversas
expuesto al viento el posible encontrar un ambiente
muestras son también variadas y complejas y requieren
semiárido. En muchas áreas montañosas es posible ascen
una compresión de su ambiente geológico, de su com
der desde una selva tropical, situada al nivel del mar,
posición mineral y de sus propiedades químicas.
pasando por diversos ambientes climáticos, hasta un
El programa de exploración geoquímica puede ser
ambiente alpino situado entre los 2.000 y los 3.000 metros
dividido en dos etapas. La primera etapa involucra un
de altura. Este rápido cambio de ambientes climáticos en
programa de muestreo regional para definir el carácter
áreas relativamente pequeñas complica el diseño de un
geoquímico del área, identificar las áreas de recursos ya
programa de exploración geoquímica.
conocidos y delinear las áreas con existencia potencial de Hay cuatro tipos de ambientes climáticos que pue
recursos minerales. La segunda etapa involucra un mue den encontrarse en las áreas tropicales de Centroamérica
streo más detallado de las áreas con recursos minerales ya y el Caribe: (1) selva, (2) sabana, (3) alpino, y (4)
identificados o potenciales, para enfocar la potencialidad semiárido.
de existencia de depósitos minerales. Selva — Un terreno intensamente alterado por la
La exploración geoquímica puede proporcionar un intemperie y densamente cubierto de vegetación, usual-
vínculo directo con los recursos minerales, porque los mente con gruesas capas de suelo laterítico. Estas son
vestigios de mineralización encontrados en las muestras generalmente áreas de bajo relieve, con patrones fluviales
reunidas (sedimento fluvial, concentrado aurífero, tierra, ramificados. La precipitación pluvial es abundante.
roca, agua y vegetación) pueden reflejar la existencia de Sabana— Prados ligeramente ondulados y bosques
un recurso mineralizado. Es decir, las muestras pueden abiertos, con relieve moderado. Este terreno a menudo
derivarse de existencias minerales alteradas por la intem está intensamente alterado por la intemperie y la presen
perie o por mineralización filtrada desde depósitos escon cia de rocas es escasa. Predominan los suelos lateríticos.
didos o subterráneos, a lo largo de las fallas y fracturas. Las corrientes fluviales tienen patrones ramificados, pero
Para poder enfocar los estudios adicionales en áreas que a menudo se encuentran profundamente cortados. La
tienen la mayor potencialidad de existencia de recursos precipitación pluvial es moderada, con dos distintas esta
minerales, es necesaria una interpretación precisa de los ciones: una húmeda y una seca.
datos geoquímicos. Sin embargo, debido a que los datos Alpino. — Los ambientes alpinos existen en los trópi
geoquímicos están directamente influidos por los tipos de cos en las zonas más altas de las áreas montañosas. A
muestras reunidos, es de suma importancia que el pro pesar de que las especies de plantas difieren de sus
contrapartes en las zonas templadas, sus aspectos físicos
grama de muestreo inicial sea correctamente diseñado.
son similares. Estas áreas generalmente tienen alto
Los tres factores principales que influyen en el
relieve, con ríos, profundamente cortados, que fluyen
diseño de los programas de exploración geoquímica de
rectos. Hay abundancia de rocas, especialmente a lo largo
recursos minerales son: (1) el terreno geológico, (2) el de los ríos. La tierra se desarrolla principalmente a lo
terreno topográfico y (3) el ambiente climático. Todos largo de los cerros. La precipitación pluvial es variable.
estos tres factores deben ser cuidadosamente consider Semiárido.— Las áreas sem ¡áridas generalmente se
ados al planificar, ejecutar e interpretar la parte geoquími encuentran en el lado no expuesto al viento de las islas
ca de la exploración al evaluar un recurso mineral en que tienen una topografía de alto relieve y a la sombra de
Centroamérica y el Caribe, ya que cualquiera de estos las cordilleras. Algunas zonas desérticas son provocadas
factores puede cambiar dramáticamente dentro de una por las corrientes frías del océano. La vegetación es
área relativamente pequeña. La selección de las muestras escasa y el relieve puede ser desde bajo hasta escarpado.
más representativas, su preparación y su análisis químico Los ríos, cuando hay suficiente agua, tienden a fluir rectos
son de vital importancia para la correcta interpretación de y son cortados. La tierra tiene un pobre desarrollo y la
los datos resultantes. precipitación pluvial es escasa.
212 Mineral, Energy, and Water Reaource» and Geologic Hazarda, Central America
tación en los ambientes tropicales es rápido y las plantas y han sido escogidas en función del tipo de muestra y de
guardan altas concentraciones de minerales del suelo la naturaleza del ambiente de exploración. Usualmente el
(Shacklette, "written communo."). La rapidez de creci mejor método analítico es el que proporciona el máximo
miento y muerte de las plantas en los ambientes tropicales contraste entre la información básica y la irregularidad.
tiende a concentrar y conservar elementos metálicos cerca La información básica es la concentración normal de
del lugar en donde fueron meteorizadas, al reciclarlas y elementos de una unidad de roca determinada y una
convertirlas en nuevas plantas. Las concentraciones de los irregularidad es una desviación significativa de esta infor
elementos metálicos pueden ser más altas en la vegetación mación básica.
que en los suelos en los cuales las plantas han crecido. La La extracción de elementos metálicos de interés es
identificación de especies puede ser también un impor uno de los objetivos del análisis químico. Un contraste
tante indicador de la existencia potencial de recursos mucho mayor entre la información básica y la irregulari
minerales. Ciertas plantas no crecerán en suelos enrique dad puede, a menudo, ser logrado diluyendo la muestra
cidos con ciertos elementos, mientras que otras prosper en forma selectiva. Muchas técnicas de dilución son
arán en suelos ricos en elementos específicos. La obser utilizadas, algunas diluyen totalmente la muestra mientras
vación de la abundancia o escasez de una especie de que otras involucran solamente una dilución parcial. Una
planta en particular es otro factor que puede ser utilizado extracción parcial (o lixiviación) puede ser particular
en la evaluación de los recursos minerales. mente útil en los ambientes tropicales de Centroamérica y
Se recomiendan estudios guía antes de seleccionar el Caribe, en donde los metales están concentrados en
cualquier tipo de muestra. Los estudios guía son pruebas óxidos secundarios y los óxidos están especialmente
para determinar la efectividad relativa de varios tipos de adheridos a partículas de mineral en una muestra. Las
muestra en áreas que contienen recursos minerales cono aguas subterráneas en el ambiente tropical son general
cidos. Estos estudios guía deben enfatizar el descubri mente acidas y pueden arrastrar elementos metálicos
miento de los diversos tipos de mineralización y depósitos disueltos, hasta que los cambios en las condiciones físicas
minerales que se espera encontrar en el área de estudio. y químicas causan precipitación de óxidos o hidróxidos.
Una evaluación de los estudios guía se basa en el cono La interpretación de los datos resultantes de una dilución
cimiento de los depósitos minerales modelo y de las parcial depende de la comprensión de la química de la
asociaciones elementales que se saben relacionadas con técnica empleada.
los recursos minerales. Los estudios guía deberían tam Algunas técnicas químicas no requieran la dilución
bién examinar los perfiles del suelo para determinar de la muestra, sino que utilizan la muestra completa en el
horizontes o capas de óptimo contenido metálico, análisis. Cuando se trata de vegetación, la muestra es a
examinar la longitud de las secuencias de dispersión
menudo convertida en ceniza antes del proceso de
metálica en sedimentos y agua y examinar la extensión y
dilución.
composición de los patrones de zonificación, alrededor de
Existen numerosos procedimientos para el análisis
depósitos conocidos. Es común encontrar que varios tipos
de materiales geológicos (Ward y otros, 1963, y Allcott y
de muestra son necesarios para evaluar satisfactoria
mente la existencia potencial de recursos minerales de Lakin, 1978). Tres de los más usados son los análisis
una extensa área. espectrográficos de emisión, los análisis espectrográficos
Las muestras de sedimentos fluviales, concentrado de plasma de acoplamiento inductivo y los análisis de
aurífero y agua son utilizadas con más frecuencia en absorción atómica.
amplios estudios regionales para determinar las áreas de Los análisis espectrográficos de emisión se realizan
existencia potential de minerales, que garanticen un por medio de la vaporización en un arco eléctrico de una
estudio ulterior, más detallado. Estos estudios tienen un porción medida muy pequeña de una muestra en polvo, y
costo relativamente bajo por área. Las muestras de suelo, el registro en film del espectro emitido. Un operador
roca y vegetación son utilizadas en estudios más detella- entrenado "lee", entonces, el film y registra los elementos
dos de áreas pequeñas que usualmente tienen alguna de concentración observados. Este método es rápido y es
existencia potencial de mineral que ha sido determinada. muy útil para realizar trabajos de reconocimiento, pero
Estos estudios tienen un costo relativamente alto por debido a que el análisis es total, las concentraciones
área. elementales deben ser interpretadas tomando en cuenta la
composición mineralógica de la muestra. Muchos minera
les contienen elementos metálicos en su estructura que no
ANAUSIS Y TÉCNICAS QUÍMICAS son indicativos de la existencia de recursos minerales.
Este métado no es preciso y los resultados analíticos
deben ser considerados scmicuantitativos. En el caso de
Las técnicas químicas utilizadas en la exploración algunos elementos, la sensibilidad de este método no es
geoquímica de recursos minerales son muchas y variadas, suficiente para llevar a cabo un trabajo de exploración y,
Exploración Geoquímica de Recursos Minerales en los Ambientes Tropicales de Centroamérica y el Caribe 213
para estos pocos elementos, se deben utilizar otras dos hacia las áreas con suficiente existencia potencial de
técnicas analíticas. recusos para garantizar trabajos adicionales. El desarrollo
En la técnica de análisis espectrografía) de plasma de estudios temáticos en áreas seleccionadas y la delinc
de acoplamiento inductivo, la muestra se diluye y la ación de objetivos de exploración constituyen la siguiente
solución resultante es analizada. Como en la mayoría de fase en el proceso de exploración, como resultado de la
técnicas que utilizan dilución, no toda la muestra se diluye evaluación del recurso mineral.
y la interpretación de los resultados analíticos debe tomar
en cuenta la composición mineralógica de la muestra
original. Este método es muy preciso.
Los métodos de absorción atómica son usados para REFERENCIAS CITADAS
determinar un número de elementos que no pueden ser
determinados con suficiente sensibilidad en el análisis Allcott, G.H., y Lakin, H.W., 1978, Tabulación de datos
espectrográfico de emisión, asi como para obtener anál geoquímicos suministrados por 109 laboratoríes de mues
isis más precisos de otros elementos importantes en la tras referencia provenientes de seis exploraciones
exploración de depósitos minerales. Al utilizar este geoquímicas: Informe abierto 78-163 del "U.S. Geological
Survey", p. 199. ["Tabulation of geochemical data fur-
método, la muestra se diluye y una parte de la solución
nished by 109 laboratoríes for six geochemical exploration
resultante se roda en un atomizador de llama y se quema.
reference samples: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File
El espectro absorbido es analizado y se mide la concen Repon 78-163, 199 p."]
tración. Tanto la precisión como la exactitud de este Bradshaw, P.M.D., y Thomson, I., 1982, Exploración geoquími
método son altas. ca de depósitos minerales en ambientes selváticos tropi
cales, en Laming. DJ.C, y Gibbs, A.K., eds., Riqueza
Inexplorada: Técnicas de exploración en áreas selváticas
RESULTADOS DE LA EVALUACIÓN DE tropicales: Informe No. 7 de la Asociación de Geocientí-
fícos para el Desarrollo Internacional, p. 62-75. ["Geoch
RECURSOS MINERALES emical exploration for mineral deposits in tropical rain
forest environments, in Laming, DJ.C, and Gibbs, A.K.,
eds., Hidden Wealth: exploration techniques in tropical
Ninguna evaluación regional de recursos minerales forest áreas: Association of Geoscientists for International
puede delinear los límites exactos o determinar el valor Development, Report No. 7, p. 62-75."]
económico de un depósito mineral. Sin embargo, puede Brobst, D.A., y Goudarzi, G.H., 1984, Introducción en Marsh,
determinar las áreas con mayor potencialidad de existen S.P., Kropschot, SJ., y Dickinson, R.G., eds., Existencia
cia de recursos minerales, estimar la probabilidad de que potencial de mineral en las servas vírgenes— Evaluación de
existan depósitos minerales y recomendar estudios adi existencia potencial de recursos minerales en las tierras del
cionales más detallados. Ninguna de las tres disciplinas de "U.S. Forest Service", realizada en 1964-1984: Docu
la ciencia de la tierra (geología, geoquímica, o geofísica) mento Científico 1300 del "U.S. Geological Survey", p.
puede, por si misma, proporcionar una evaluación exacta 1-10. ["Introduction in Marsh, S.P., Kropschot, SJ., and
de los recursos minerales de una área. Se requiere la Dickinson, R.G., eds., Wilderness mineral potential—
integración de los resultados de los estudios bajo las tres Assessment of mineral-resource potential in U.S. Forest
disciplinas, para producir un solo informe amplio e Service lands studied in 1964-1984: U.S. Geological Sur
interpretativo. Sin el aporte de datos obtenidos de las tres vey Professional Paper 1300, p. 1-10."]
disciplinas, la información disponible para efectuar una Overstreet, W.C., 1963, Reconocimiento de minerales pesados:
evaluación no sería adecuada. En un informe de Reconocimiento regional de mineral pesado como una
guía para determinar los depósitos minerales en áreas con
evaluación de recursos minerales, deben ser considerados
una capa subyacente profunda de rocas cristalinas meteo
los siguientes factores: (1) los criterios para reconocer la
rizadas, en Las actas del seminario sobre métodos y
presencia de minerales, (2) carácter geoquímico de los
técnicas de prospección geoquímica: Desarrollo de Recur
diversos terrenos geológicos, (3) discusión de las series de
sos Minerales de las Naciones Unidas, Serie No. 21, p.
elementos relacionados con la mineralización y (4) 57-60. ["Heavy-mineral reconnaissance as a guide to ore
evaluación de recursos del área estudiada, esbozando y deposits in áreas undcrlain by deeply weathered crystaline
describiendo las áreas con existencia potencial de recursos rocks, in Proceedings of the seminar on geochemical
minerales. Parte integral del informe debería estar cons prospecting methods and techniques: United Nations Min
tituida por mapas que muestren la geología del área, eral Resources Development, Series No. 21, p. 57-60."]
resultados de los análisis geoquímicos que respaldan las Pasquali Z, J., y López E, C.J., 1982, Prospección geoquímica
áreas de existencia potencial de recursos y mapas en climas tropicales húmedos en Laming, DJ.C, y Gibbs,
geofísicos que describan algunas de las características A.K., eds., Riqueza Inexplorada: Técnicas de exploración
subterráneas del área. Dicho informe debería también en áreas selváticas tropicales: informe No. 7 de la Asocia
incluir recomendaciones para estudios ulteriores, dirigi ción de Geocientíficos Para el Desarrollo International, p.
214 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America
221. ["Geochemical prospecting in humid tropical cli Von Gaertner, H.R, 1963, Geoquímica de los depósitos laterí-
mates, in Laming, DJ.C., and Gibbs, A.K., eds., Hidden ticos: algunos patrones generales de la meteorízación
Wealth: exploration techniques in tropical forest areas: laterítica, en Las actas del seminario sobre métodos y
Association of Geoscientists for International Develop técnicas de prospección geoquímica: Desarrollo de Recur
ment, Report No. 7, p 221."] sos Minerales de las Naciones Unidas, Serie No. 21, p.
Singh, S., 1982, Exploración mineral en las selvas tropicales: 67-75. ["Geochemistry of laterític deposits: some general
Problemas e instrucciones practicas, en Laming, D.J.C., y patterns of laterític weathering, in Proceedings of the
Gibbs, A.K., eds., Riqueza Inexplorada: Técnicas de explo seminar on geochemical prospecting methods and tech
ración en areas selváticas tropicales: Informe No. 7 de la niques: United Nations Mineral Resources Development
Asociación de Geocientíficos para el Desarrollo Interna Series No. 21, 202 p."]
cional, p. 22-27. ["Mineral exploration in tropical rain Ward, F.N., Lakin, H.W., Canney, F.C., y otros, 1963, Métodos
forests: practical problems and directions, in Laming, analíticos utilizados en la exploración geoquímica por el
DJ.C., y Gibbs, A.K., eds., Hidden Wealth: exploration "U.S. Geological Survey": Boletín 1152 del "U.S. Geol
techniques in tropical forest areas: Association of Geosci ogical Survey", p. 100. ["Analytical methods used in geo
entists for International Development, Report No. 7, p. chemical exploration by the U.S. Geological Survey: U.S.
22-27."] Geological Survey Bulletin 1152, 100 p."]
Exploración Geoquímica da Recursos Minerales en los Ambientes Tropicales de Centroamériea y el Caribe 215
EXPERT SYSTEMS RESEARCH IN REGIONAL
RESOURCE EVALUATION: EXPERIENCES IN THE
APPLICATION OF MICROCOMPUTER
TECHNOLOGIES
By Richard B. McCammon
muPROSPECTOR, patterned after SRI's expert sys having telephone access to a panel of experienced eco
tem PROSPECTOR, is designed to aid the geologist in nomic geologists, each an authority on a particular type of
evaluating the potential mineral resources within a given deposit.
geographic area. The central idea is the encoding of The experience with muPROSPECTOR has indi
deposit models by expert economic geologists that can be cated that improvements in designing future expert sys
matched against observations made by field geologists. tems for regional resource evaluation are needed in 1)
muPROSPECTOR is a microcomputer-based system that knowledge representation, 2) reasoning mechanisms, and
can be applied to problems in regional mineral-resource 3) knowledge acquisition.
evaluation. To date, the knowledge base that has been Current limitations in knowledge representation are
incorporated in muPROSPECTOR consists of deposit the result of insufficient expressiveness of the language
models constructed as part of the mineral-resource used to encode deposit models. The lack of sufficient
assessment in the Sherbrooke-Lewiston 1° X 2° quadran general geologic knowledge for most of the models that
gles in New England. Included are models for volcanoge- have been constructed is also a major problem. What is
nic massive sulfide, sediment-hosted lead-zinc-silver, tin needed are methods for matching observations volun
griesen, porphyry copper, vein-type uranium, uraniferous teered by geologists about the general geologic, geo-
peat, and tin-placer deposits. These models are repre chemical, and geophysical setting in an area with the
sented in the knowledge base as a set of rules derived from attributes of existing models.
recognition criteria developed for each deposit type. With respect to reasoning mechanisms, control
In a normal consultation with muPROSPECTOR, strategies are needed to take into account the fact that the
the geologist is asked a series of questions that relate to characteristics of one deposit type grades more or less
various pieces of evidence that might be present in an imperceptibly into those of other types. Current control
area. Answers to these questions lead muPROSPECTOR strategies make restrictive assumptions about the interde-
to an evaluation of the potential mineral resources in an pendency of multiple sources of evidence and the manner
area. The evaluation consists of a probabilistic estimate in which they combine.
for one or more deposits occurring in the area for each of With respect to knowledge acquisition, methods are
the deposit types being considered and the reasons upon needed for a) screening data bases compiled for ore
which the evaluation for each deposit type is based. At any deposits, b) formulating less-than-perfect models that
time during the consultation, the geologist can ask for others can subsequently modify easily, and c) computer-
muPROSPECTOR to summarize and make an evaluation assisted instruction in deposit modeling. Future develop
based on the current information. The intent is to provide ments in muPROSPECTOR will require a close working
the geologist with services that could be provided by relationship with economic and field geologists.
216 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resource* and Geologic Hazards, Central America
SISTEMAS IDONEOS DE INVESTIGACION EN
EXPERIENCIAS EN LA APLICACION DE
TECNOLOGIAS MICROCOMPUTARIZADAS
El PROSPECTOR, que tuvo como modelo el sistema dan ser dados mediante acceso telefónico a un panel de
idóneo SRI PROSPECTOR, está disenado para ayudar al geólogos con experiencia en economía, cada integrante es
geólogo a evaluar los recursos potenciales de mineral una autoridad en un tipo particular de depósito.
dentro de un área geográfica dada. La idea central es La experiencia con el PROSPECTOR ha indicado
codificar los modelos de depósito por geólogos expertos que el progreso en el diseño de sistemas idóneos futuros
en economía que puedan ser comparadas con observa para evaluación de recursos regionales, se necesitan para
ciones hechas por geólogos de campo. El PROSPECTOR 1) representación de conocimiento, 2) mecanismos de
es un sistema de base microcomputarizada que puede ser rezonamiento y 3) adquisición de conocimientos.
utilizado para resolver problemas en la evaluación de Las limitaciones actuales en la representación de
recursos minerales regionales. A la fecha, el cono conocimientos son el resultado de la insuficiencia de la
cimiento base qua ha sido incorporado en El PROSPEC expresión del lenguaje usado para codificar modelos de
TOR consiste en modelos de depósito construidos como depósito. La falta de conocimientos geológicos generales
parte de recursos minerales distribuidos en el cuadrán suficientes para muchos de los modelos que han sido
gulo Sherbrooke-Lewiston Io X 2o en Nueva Inglaterra. construidos es también un gran problema. Lo que se
Hay incluidos modelos para sulfuro masivo vulcanológico, necesita son métodos para observaciones que cotejen las
sedimento hospedero de zinc-plata, estaño, cobre pórfido, observaciones hechas por los geólogos acerca de geología
uranio tipo veta, turbas uraníferas, y placeres de depósito general, geoquímica, y geofísica, en un área con los
de estaño. Estos modelos son representados en la base de atributos de modelos existentes.
conocimiento como un grupo de reglas derivadas de Con respecto a los mecanismos de razonamiento, se
criterios de reconocimiento desarrollados para cada tipo necesitan estrategias de control para tomar en cuenta el
de depósito. hecho de las características del grado de un tipo de
En una consulta normal con el PROSPECTOR, se le depósito más o menos imperceptibles dentro de aquellos
pregunta al geólogo una serie de preguntas, que rela otros tipos. La estrategias de control actuales hacen
cionan las varias piezas de evidencia que se puedan suposiciones restrictivas acerca de la interdependencia de
presentar en un área. La respuestas a estas preguntas los recursos múltiples de evidencia y en la manera de
conduce al PROSPECTOR a una evaluación de recursos como se combinan.
minerales potenciales en un área. La evaluación consiste Con respecto a la adquisición de conocimientos, se
en un estimado de probabilidades para uno o más necesitan métodos para a) poner en pantalla los datos
depósitos que aparezcan en un área para cada uno de los básicos recopilados para depósitos minerales, b) la
tipos de depósitos que se consideran y son las razones en formulación de modelos de depósito menores que otros
las cuales se basa la evaluación de cada tipo de depósito. puede ser modificada fácil y subsecuentemente, y c)
En cualquier tiempo durante la consulta, el geólogo instrucción para la asistencia computarizada de modelos
puede preguntar al PROSPECTOR, que resuma y haga de depósito. Los futuros desarrollos en el PROSPECTOR
una basada evaluación en la información presente. El requerirán una relación muy estrecha de trabajo con
propósito es proporcionar al geólogo servicios que pue geólogos de campo y economistas.
In the humid regions of the world, bedrock and soils distribution of one plant community, characterized by the
are often obscured by several layers of forest canopy, dominance of chestnut-oak, coincided with several litho-
subcanopy, groundcover, and leaf litter. A variety of logic types, including a gold-bearing metavolcanic unit
geobotanical techniques have been developed to aid in (ME, fig. 1; Milton and Krohn, 1982). In North Carolina,
geologic mapping and mineral exploration in such areas. the same community was associated with hydrothermally
These techniques take advantage of the natural tendency altered, potentially mineralized andesites, and with topo
of plants to respond to growth factors in the environment graphically high felsite ridges, also potentially mineral
that are controlled by substrate. Theoretical information ized (R.G. Schmidt and M.H. Koslow, written communi
from plant ecology, phytogeography, plant physiology, cation). Thematic Mapper data of Virginia were used to
biogeochemistry, and biophysics is used to predict changes separate three different coniferous communities (Krohn
in vegetation with respect to substrate, or empirical and Milton, 1983) by using spectral differences in TM
observations are used with some prior knowledge of band 4 (fig. 2).
"normal" conditions for a given area to detect differences High-resolution data from the Mark IV spectroradi-
in substrate by means of anomalous variations in vegeta ometer have been used to delineate mineralized zones
tion. through the effect of heavy metals on spectral reflectance
Current geobotanical techniques can be catego of plants in the chlorophyll absorption region centered
rized according to the size of the area being investigated near 680 nanometers. Such an effect has also been
and the scale of the remote-sensing imagery. The geolog observed by Power and others (in press) and Milton and
ical applications possible will depend upon the scale used. others (in press) in greenhouse-grown and metal-stressed
Low-resolution data include images acquired by the Land- plants (fig. 3). The presence of heavy metals in the leaves
sat Multispectral Scanner (MSS) and Thematic Mapper of canopy trees growing over mineralized zones has been
(TM); these two image types are generally appropriate reported for many areas of the world (Brooks, 1983). At
for regional geologic mapping applications. High- Pilot Mountain, Randolph County, North Carolina, the
spectral-resolution data are available from the Shuttle spectral shift seen in airborne data was closely associated
Multispectral Infrared Radiometer (SMIRR) and several with the presence of anomalous metals in soils and leaves
aircraft instruments, including the Mark IV spectroradi- of canopy trees (Milton and others, 1983).
ometer, developed by Collins and others (1983), and the Two other high-resolution instruments, SMIRR and
Airborne Imaging Spectrometer (AIS). The high- AIS, have been used to demonstrate the use of high-
resolution data are used for mineral exploration by mea resolution infrared data for identification of clay minerals
suring spectral changes in vegetation associated with and for separation of plant communities based on their
mineral deposits, or the data are used for detection of water content, respectively. Spectra of plant communities
changes in plant communities expressed spectrally in the in Virginia were extracted from SMIRR data, but the
near-infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum. difficulties of instrument calibration, identification of the
At the U.S. Geological Survey, both high- and precise geographic position of the measurement on the
low-resolution spectral reflectance data are used for min ground, and the experimental nature of the instrument
eral exploration and geologic mapping. Landsat MSS and make these data essentially unavailable for geobotanical
TM data have been used to identify plant communities work. The application of AIS data to geobotany depends
associated with specific lithologics in the Piedmont prov upon better availability of the data, but its potential is
ince of Virginia and North Carolina. Before analysis, the especially promising. Preliminary results from a test site
data were enhanced by using a principal-component in southwest Oregon have shown a correspondence
transformation (Krohn and others, 1981). In Virginia, the between AIS and ground spectral data for detecting
218 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resource* and Geologic Hazard», Central America
SC SCHIST
• CHESTNUT-OAK
ROAD TRANSECTOCCURRENCE
Figure 1. Occurrence of chestnut-oak with respect to lithologic types on transects across the Virginia
Piedmont (from Milton and Krohn, 1982).
.4.
55
WHITE PINE
50 LOBLOLLY PINE
XXX X
XXX
VIRGINIA PINE
XX XXX
X$XX$X X
X
45 X X
<
ffl
40 o o
ooo
oSoDO
008000
008 00
35
30 h
25 ±
10 15 20 25 30 35
TM BAND 3 (DN)
Figure 2. Scatter plots of three coniferous forest types from Landsat-4 Thematic Mapper data (from fig. 3 in
Krohn and Milton, 1983).
220 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resource* and Geologic Hazards, Central America
-CONTROL
WAVELENGTH (MICROMETERS)
Figure 3. Change in reflectance near 700 nanometers in heavy-metal-stressed greenhouse-grown plants (from
Power and others, in press).
222 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resource* and Geologic Hazards, Central America
TECNICAS GEOBOTANICAS ACTUALES DE
HUMEDAS
En las regiones húmedas del mundo, los lechos de utilizan los datos de reflectártela de baja y alta resolución
roca y los suelos están frecuentemente ocultos por capas para exploración mineral y mapeo geológico. Datos del
de cubierta forestal, subcubierta, cubiertas subterráneas y Landsat MSS y el TM se han empleado para identificar
desechos de hojas. Se ha desarrollado una gran variedad comunidades de plantas relacionadas con litologías espe
de técnicas geobotánicas para ayudar en el mapeo geoló cíficas en la provincia Piedmont en Virginia y Carolina del
gico y la exploración mineral en esas áreas. Estas técnicas Norte. Previo al análisis, los datos se abonaron con el uso
de crecimiento en ambientes regidos por substratos. La de una transformación principal de componentes (Krohn
información teórica proveniente de la ecología de plantas, y otros, 1981). En Virginia, la distribución de una comun
la fitogeografía, la fisiología de plantas, la bioquímica y la idad de plantas, caracterizada por la predominancia de
biofísica se utilizan para predecir los cambios en la castaños y robles, coinciden con varios tipos litológicos,
vegetación de plantas, la fitogeografía de plantas, la incluso un cuerpo petavolcánico portador de oro (ME,
bioquímica y la biofísica se utilizan para predecir los fig. 1; Milton y Krohn, 1982). En Carolina del Norte, la
cambios en la vegetación con respecto al substrato, o bien misma comunidad litológica estaba asociada con andesi-
las observaciones empíricas se usan, con conocimiento tas hidrotérmicamente alteradas y posiblemente mineral
previo de las condiciones "normales" de una área dada izadas, y con serranías de felsita, también potencialmente
para detectar las diferencias de substrato mediante las mineralizadas (R.G. Schmidt y M.H. Koslow, comuni
variaciones anómalas de la vegetación. cación escrita). Los datos obtenidos con el Thematic
Las técnicas geobótanicas actuales se pueden Mapper en Virginia se emplearon para separar tres
catalogar de acuerdo con el tamaño del área que se diferentes comunidades de coniferas (Krohn y Milton,
investiga y la escala de la imagen de la percepción a 1983), mediante las diferencias del aspecto en la banda 4
distancia. Las posibles aplicaciones geológicas depen TM (fig. 2).
derán de la escala que se utilice. Los datos de baja Los datos de alta resolución obtenidos con el espec
resolución comprenden las imágenes obtenidas con el tro radiómetro Marca IV se han empleado para delinear
Landsat Multispectral Scanner (MSS) y el Thematic zonas mineralizadas por medio de los efectos de metales
Mapper (TM); estos dos tipos de imágenes son apropi pesados en la reflectancia espectral de plantas en la
ados generalmente para aplicaciones de mapeo geológico región de absorción de la clorofila centrada cerca de los
regional. Los datos de alta resolución espectral se pueden 680 nanometros. Tales efectos también han sido obser
obtener con el Shuttle Multispectral Infrared Radiometer vados por Powers y otros (en impresión) y Milton y otros
(SMIRR) (Radiómetro Infrarrojo Multiespectral) y (en impresión) en plantas que crecen en invernaderos y
varios instrumentos de aeronaves, incluso en espectro- sujetas a esfuerzos de metales (fig. 3). La presencia de
radiómetro Marca IV, desarrollado por Collins y otros metales pesados en las hojas de los árboles que cubren
(1983), y el Airborne Imaging Espectrometer (AIS). Los zonas mineralizadas han sido señaladas en muchas partes
datos de alta resolución se utilizan para la exploración del mundo (Brooks, 1984). En la Montana Pilot, condado
mineral por medio de la medición de cambios del espectro de Randolph en Carolina del Norte, el corrimiento espec
en la vegetación afin a los depósitos minerales, o bien los tral advertido en los datos aéreos tenía relación directa
datos se emplean para detectar los cambios en las comuni con la presencia de metales anómalos en los suelos y hojas
dades de plantas que se manifiestan en la parte cerca del de los árboles de cubierta (Milton y otros, 1983).
infrarrojo del espectro electromagnético. Otros dos instrumentos de alto resolución, el
En el Servicio Geológico de los Estados Unidos, se SMIRR y el AIS, se han empleado para demostrar el uso
| ME | METAVOLCANICS
| GN I GNEISS
KDKILOMETERS
SC SCHIST
• CHESTNUT-OAK OCCURRENCE
—— ROAD TRANSECT
Figura 1. Ocurrencia de castaño-roble con respecto a los tipos litológicos a lo largo de Piedmont - Virginia
(de Milton y Krohn, 1982).
224 Mineral, Energy, and Water Reaourcee and Geologic Hazarda, Central America
60
.4.
55
WHITE PINE
50 LOBLOLLY PINE
XXX X
XXX
VIRGINIA PINE
XX XXX
XXXXXX X
X
X X
o 45
<
CD
40 o o
ooo
OODO
008000
008 00
35
30
25 -L
10 15 20 25 30 35
TM BAND 3 (DN)
Figura 2. Lotes dispersos de tres tipos de bosques de coniferas a partir de datos del Landsat-4 Thematic
Mapper (de la figura 1 en Krohn y Milton, 1983).
20
-CONTROL
10
-10
lu 50
o
z
o 40
ÜJ
_J
Li.
Lü
or 30 CONTROL
20
10
CONTROL^
i ± J
0,40 0.45 0,50 0.55 0.60 0.65 0.70 0.75 0.80
WAVELENGTH (MICROMETERS)
Figura 3. Cambios de reflectance cerca de 700 nanometres en plantas de invernadero con metales pesados (de
Power otros, en impresión).
Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America
de los datos infrarrojos de alto resolución para la identi Krohn, M.D., y Milton, N.M., 1983, Potencial Geobotánico de
ficación de minerales de arcilla y para la separación de Landsat-4 de bandas espectrales de "Thematic Mapper":
comunidades de plantas con base en su contenido de el Congreso Americano de Fotogrametria, Falls Church,
agua, respectivamente. Los espectros de comunidades de Virginia, Procedimientos, p. 675-684.
plantas en Virginia se obtuvieron de los datos del SMIRR. Krohn, M.D. Milton, N.M. Segal, Donald, and England,
Sin embargo, estos datos no están disponibles esencial Anthony, 1981, Discriminación de un bosque de árboles de
castaños y robles para mapeo por medio de un componen
mente para trabajos geobotánicos debido a las dificult te principal de Landsat de realce multi-espectral explo
ades de calibración del instrumento, la identificación de la rador: Cartas de investigación geofísica, t. 8, no. 2, p.
posición geográfica exacta de la medición en el punto 151-154.
terrestre, y la naturaleza experimental del instrumento. Milton, N.M., and Krohn, M.D., 1982, Distribución del
La aplicación de los datos del AIS a la geobotánica Chestnut-Oak (Quercus prinus L.) en las tierras bajas de
depende una mejor disponibilidad de los datos, pero sus Virginia como ayuda en el mapeo geológico (resumen):
posibilidades son muy prometedoras. Los resultados pre Revista de Ciencias de Virginia, v. 33, no. 3, p. 128.
liminares obtenidos de un sitio de un de prueba en Milton, N.M., Collins, William, Chang, S.H., and Schmidt, R.
Oregon Sur indican una correspondencia entre los datos G., 1983, Detección remota de anomalías de metales de
AIS y los datos terrestres para detectar tipos de vege Pilot Mountain, Randolph County, North Carolina: Geo
logía Económica, v. 78, no. 4, p. 605-617.
tación y tipos de roca de vegetación definida (Mouat,
Milton, N.M., Power, M.S., Ager, C.M., and Purdy, T.L., 1985,
comunicación escrita). El uso de información espectral-reflectora de alta reso
lución para exploración mineral geobotánica [resumen]:
Symposio Internacional de Sensores Remotos del Ambi
CITAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS ente, Cuarta Conferencia Temática, San Francisco, Cali
Brooks, S.R., 1983, Métodos biológicos para la prospección de fornia, Procedimientos.
minerales: Nueva York, John Wiley e hijos, p. 322. Power, M.S., Milton, N.M., and Ager, C.M., 1985, Experimen
Collins, William, Chang, S.-H., Raines, Gary, Canney, Frank, tos en el campo sobre los efectos de metales pesados en la
and Ashlcy, Roger 1983, Mapeo biogeofísico aéreo trans reflección espectral de plantas [resumen]: en Instituto
portado de depósitos minerales escondidos: Geología Americano de Ciencias Biológicas, Conferencia Anual, Ft.
Económica, t. 78, no. 4, p. 737-749. Collins, Colorado, Procedimientos.
228 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resource* and Geologic Hazards, Central America
GEOLOGIC MAPPING
GEOLOGICAL INFORMATION
stability, geo thermal areas, seismic risk, minerals — metallic and non-
I
USES
OF
EAKIH-SCIENCE DATA
CIENCIAS DE LA TIERRA
La determinación de la estructura geológica es un 3. Cada país debe encontrar los medios para centrali
instrumento valioso y necesario que, con base en un zar todos los datos geofísicos y utilizar estos datos
mapeo geológico cuidadoso y detallado, proporcione las en calquier escala que sea apropiada para las nece
bases para programas de evaluación de recursos natura sidades locales, regionales o del proyecto.
les, de investigaciones regionales de minerales y energé 4. Hay que cartografiar, como prioridad, las áreas
ticos, y de prevención de peligros de origen geológico. Por mineralizadas que están asociadas con tipos de roca
consiguiente, la falta de mapas geológicos ha redundado particulares, especialmente los que pudieran con
en la inhibición de las actividades de exploración minera y tener cantidades de metales preciosos que sean
del aporte geológico a los programas de desarrollo. suficientes para obtener un beneficio económico.
En este campo, la falta de una estructura geológica 5. Elaborar mapas derivados que puedan emplearse
adecuada puede conducir a análisis incompletos e incorrec para usos geológicos y no geológicos, a saber:
tos con base en los cuales se han elaborado programas de a) Provincias metalogenéticas: por ejemplo,
planeamiento de recursos minerales, energéticos y de placeres (minería de lavado) de oro y platino
peligros de origen geológico. Esto entraña, por lo tanto, b) Evaluación de los recursos minerales energéti
perdidas económicas y reduce la eficacia de los pro cos
gramas. c) Preparación de mapas hidrológicos de las can
Todas las disciplinas de las ciencias de la tierra
tidades y la calidad de las aguas subterráneas,
utilizan los datos críticos que se obtienen de un perfil
especialmente contaminación
geológico. Esta información se necesita para planear,
d) Areas de recarga de aquíferos
evaluar y elaborar un proyecto, si los resultados y obje
e) Planeamiento urbano sobre el crecimiento y
tivos han de redundar en beneficios económicos máximos
desarrollo urbanos en lo futuro. Mapas de uso
(diagrama de fluvo, fig. 1).
Los estudios de estructuras geológicas rinden de la tierra y sus efectos económicos y sociales
beneficios indirectos cuando otras disciplinas los utilizan f) Areas de peligros de origen geológico, inclusive
correctamente. El mapeo geológico básico redunda en derrumbes, erosión, azolvamiento de embalses y
efectos económicos favorables al descubrirse recursos otras
minerales y energéticos. g) Mapas de control de inundaciones
Una estructura geológica eficaz consiste en un h) Mapas que muestren fuentes de fertilizantes,
banco de datos geofísicos, geoquímicos y geológicos. enmiendas de suelos, materiales de construc
ción y datos geobotánicas.
Recomendaciones 6. Establecer prioridades para áreas de mapeo, con
1. Establecer programas de mapeo geológico a una base en:
escala regional de 1:2.000.000; una compilación a a) La evaluación de perspectivas de búsqueda de
nivel de país a escala de 1:250.000, y utilizando una metales preciosos y estratégicos
escala de trabajo de campo de 1:50.000. b) Las fuentes de energía para usos regionales y
2. Coordinar con el Servicio Geodésico Interameri- locales
cano (LAGS), los datos geofísicos, magnéticos y c) La evaluación de las cuencas hidrológicas
gravitacionales, y compilar esta información en un d) Los peligros graves de origen geológico
contexto regional. e) Las necesidades agrícolas de fertilizantes, tales
230 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resource* and Geologic Hazards, Central America
MAPEO GEOLÓGICO
INFORMACIÓN GEOLÓGICA
I
USUARIOS
DE
DATOS DE CIENCIAS DE LA
TIERRA
Opcional
como rocas de fosfatos, dolomitas, zeolitas, las instituciones gubernamentales en sus programas
azufre, etc. de desarrollo
7. Formular, según la prioridad pertinente de cada 9. Coordinar este programa básico de mapeo geoló
país, un programa de mapeo geológico, como una gico con programas de exploración de recursos y de
herramienta básica para programas de exploración mitigación de peligros de índole geológica, tanto
minera y energética locales como regionales
8. Designar a una organización local apropiada para 10. Estimular a las instituciones apropiadas de los gobier
que sea el centro de compilación y preservación de nos de América Central a que ayuden al ICATTI
datos geológicos que han de ser utilizados por todas como el centro regional de ciencia y tecnología
1. Given the high level of vulnerability, what disas the volcanic chain and extends a couple of tens of kilome
ter preparedness actions have been taken to prevent or ters farther inland. Additional areas of high activity
mitigate the damaging consequences of earthquakes, vol include the Chixoy and Motagua faults that cut Guate
canic eruptions, and landslides? mala and the area of the Colombia border with Panama.
The rest of Central America is considerably less active
—state of application of sciences and engineering.
seismically, yet it still should be considered an area of
—gathering and analyzing disaster data relative to
some seismic risk. The chain of active volcanoes which
such things as prediction and warning assessment,
runs the length of Central America near the Pacific coast
structural stability, and land-use.
contains about 80 Quaternary volcanoes, some six or
—development of national disaster plans and organi
seven of which are currently erupting.
zations.
National geoscience entities in each country, if nec
—organization and training of local disaster units,
essary in consultation with international geoscience agen
—creation of disaster stockpiles of essential supplies,
cies, should define acceptable levels of disaster risk.
equipment, and systems for their distribution,
—prearranging systems and methods for coordinating 3. Determine recurrence periods and locations
internal and international disaster relief, for major earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and locations
—the conduct of hazard and vulnerability analysis. of potential landslides.
Rough estimates of the expected recurrence inter
In reference to disaster preparedness actions
vals of shallow earthquakes (less than 15 km deep) of
regarding mitigation of geological hazards, almost noth
magnitude 6.0 to a maximum 6.5 along the active volcanic
ing has been done apart from preparation for civil defense
chain range from 30 to 80 years, varying both with time
or national emergency disasters.
and with particular sites.
Organizations. These have been assigned the
For the subduction zone, the recurrence interval of
responsibility of responding to geologic disasters, but very
earthquakes of magnitude 7.5 to a maximum of 8.1 ranges
little planning has been done concerning gathering disas
from 40 to 150 years, varying along the coast and proba
ter data relative to prediction of events, structural stability,
bly with time. For the zone of strike-slip faults that cross
land use; that is, for mitigation of effects. Very little exists
Guatemala, the Motagua and Chixoy-Polochic fault
also in the way of planning for disaster relief, coordination
zones, the recurrence interval for earthquakes of magni
of internal and international disaster responses, organi
tude 7.0-7.6, is somewhat longer, probably 200-500
zation and training of local disaster units, planning of
years.
parallel or backup systems for drinking water, power,
For the rest of Central America, in particular in that
communications, sewage disposal, transportation, and
area on the Atlantic side of the volcanic arc, Honduras,
medical facilities. No hazard- or vulnerability-analysis
Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama, return times appear
studies have been made, and not even general economic
to be longer, probably from 100 to more than 700 years
studies have been made in any of the countries of Central
for earthquakes of maximum magnitudes from 5 to 7.
America.
Volcanic eruptions are variable in magnitude and period
2. Determine areas of each country that are of recurrence. Several Central American volcanoes are in
seismically and volcanologically active; determine if suf relatively mild eruption as we write this report. Larger
ficient information exists to assign levels of risk to each magnitude and potentially very destructive eruptions are
area? What levels of disaster risk are acceptable and who sure to occur in future years. Studies of many volcanoes at
should define them? many localities worldwide indicate that, in general, the
The entire Pacific coast of Central America from longer the period of quiesence, the more violent the
the Mexican border to Panama is highly active seismically, initiation of future eruptive activity.
more active than most other parts of the world. This belt This comment generally may be applied to volca
of high activity includes the entire Pacific coastal plain and noes of Central America, but detailed studies of specific
232 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America
volcanoes are needed to document the past history of University including monthly electronic and dry-tilt,
eruption as a basis for evaluation of the possible charac radon-gas-emission, and seismic measurements.
ter, timing, and magnitude of future eruptions. Studies of The National University of Costa Rica employs one
this sort are virtually nonexistent at this time. B.S.-level seismologist and one about to receive a Ph.D. in
Landslides, sometimes extremely large, depend on seismology. In volcanology there are also two B.S.-level
conditions of the terrain and on meteorological and experienced volcanologists and one about to receive a
volcanological factors. Ph.D.
No actual landslide program exists, nor is risk
4. What are the current techniques and capabili analysis done for seismic, volcanic, or landslide hazards.
ties for monitoring and mitigating natural hazards in
Central America? El Salvador: The Center for Geotechnical Investi
gations (CIG) is the only organization studying geologic
Panama: The Institute of Geosciences of the Uni hazards in El Salvador. All information collected is sent to
versity of Panama employs two B.S.-level physicists and the Committee of Emergency Preparedness. An annual
one B.S.-level geologist. They operate the six-component seismology bulletin is published by CIG.
World-Wide Seismic Station Network (WWSSN) Station. CIG has two B.S.-level engineering seismologists,
They also own three portable stations, including one two B.S.-level seismologists, and one B.S.-level equipment
telemetered station, not yet installed. They had been specialist.
planning a small network near the Panama Costa Rica CIG owns 17 telemetered seismic stations of which
border, before AID funds were cut off. They also have 11 have been installed. CIG also maintains four on-site
three strong-motion accclerographs (not installed); there recording stations including a six-component WWSSN
is no Panamanian volcanology program. station.
The seismic hazard is greatest near the Colombian CIG plans to install one station on each of the five
border, and at the Costa Rican border where the Panama largest Quaternary volcanoes in El Salvador.
fracture zone is being subducted. Several magnitude-8 CIG owns 29 strong-motion accelerographs of
earthquakes have occurred along this zone during this which 13 have been installed. Other agencies maintain six
century. Hydroelectric projects, the trans-isthmus petro accclerographs, but send CIG the records for analysis.
leum pipeline, and other developments in the area are at CIG owns 25 seismometers of which 19 are installed.
considerable risk, and the Panamanian Government CIG carries out some soil dynamics studies, but
wishes to expand its seismic-hazard monitoring program needs assistance in this work.
to study the region. Any such effort must be cooperative, Currently the CIG has no volcanology program nor
and work closely with Costa Rica as one major seismic- does it employ a volcanologist.
hazard area, the Panama fracture zone, straddles the In landslide studies, CIG receives some help from
border. two geologists with the Department of Mines, but they are
The one geologically recent volcano in Panama, available only part time.
Baru, should be mapped and its eruptive products dated. Because AID funding is ending, CIG feels that it
will need help with the acquisition of spare parts, technical
Costa Rica: The National University of Costa Rica
assistance, and additional formal training especially in
has installed 11 seismic stations and is about to install one
hazard analysis.
more. By means of funding through AID, they had
originally planned to install 23 stations. This was later Honduras: The National University of Honduras
reduced to 18. The Costa Rican power company (ICE) employs two Ph.D.-level geophysicists and operates one or
has installed eight seismic stations, but the National two seismographs intermittently.
University has not been able to obtain this data, and so, The Honduran power company owns some acce
cannot analyze it. lerographs, but data collected are not available for analysis
The University also owns eight portable seismome outside the company. There is currently no Honduran
ters which are always ready to go to the field in the event Government seismology program although Honduras is
of an earthquake or volcanic eruption. interested in beginning a program, possibly with a per
The National University publishes a monthly seis manent station installed near microwave repeaters or
mic bulletin and a semi-annual volcanological bulletin. A possibly with a portable network. Several large faults have
strong-motion program is being carried out by the engi been recognized recently.
neering department of the University of Costa Rica. No volcanology program exists in Honduras
Objectives of the seismic program are to indicate seismic although there are several Quaternary volcanoes, includ
hazard zonation and to improve building codes. ing that on Amapola Island.
Volcano monitoring is carried out by the National Landslide studies are not being carried out, even
234 Mineral, Energy, end Water Resource* and Geologic Hazards, Central America
volcanoes be compiled onto maps at 1:50,000 or ommend that a search be made for funding sources to
1:100,000 for all of Central America and Panama. train instrument specialists and to fund some level of
international scientific exchange among professionals.
e) We recommend that a search be made for
funding sources for Ph.D.- and Masters-level training for f) We recommend that each country conduct at
seismologists, volcanologists, engineering seismology, least a general survey and evaluation of potential landslide
engineering geology, and soils engineering. We also rec and mudflow hazards.
1. Dado el alto grado de vulnerabilidad, ¿que mica y volcánica, y existe suficiente información para
acciones de preparación se han tomado para prevenir o adjudicar niveles de riesgo a cada área? ¿Que niveles de
aminorar las consecuencias de terremotos, erupciones peligro de desastre son admisibles y quien debiera defi
volcánicas, y derrumbes? nirlos?
Toda la costa del Pacífico de Centroamérica, desde
—estado de aplicación de las ciencias y la ingeniería. la frontera de México hasta Panamá, exhibe una gran
—recolección y análisis de datos de desastres relativos
actividad sísmica, más activa que cualquier otra parte del
a aspectos tales como evaluación de pronósticos y
mundo. Esta faja de gran actividad sísmica abarca toda la
alertas, estabilidad estructural, y uso de la tierra.
planicie costera del Pacífico y la cadena volcánica, y se
—desarrollo de organizaciones y planes para enfren
extiende unos veinte kilómetros tierra adentro. Otras
tar los desastres nacionales.
razones de gran actividad sísmica comprenden los valles
—organización y entrenamiento de unidades para
del Chixoy y el Motagua que dividen Guatemala, y la
enfretar los desastres locales.
frontera entre Colombia y Panamá. El resto de América
—creación de reservas para desastres consistentes en
Central tiene mucho menos actividad sísmica, pero, aún
suministros esenciales equipo y sistemas para su
así, debieran considerarse como zonas de peligros
distribución.
sísmicos. La cadena de volcanes activos que corre a lo
—sistemas y métodos preestablecidos para coordinar
largo de toda Centroamérica cerca de la costa de Panamá,
el socorro internacional e interno para aliviar el
comprende 80 volcanes cuaternarios de los cuales seis o
desastre.
siete están actualmente en erupción.
—la realización de análisis de vulnerabilidad y
Los niveles admisibles de riesgos de desastre deben
riesgos.
ser definidos por los organismos nacionales de cada país.
Con respecto a las acciones preparatorias que se A tal efecto, pudiera ser necesario consultar con organi
han tomado para aminorar los peligros de origen geoló zaciones internacionales.
gico, casi nada se ha hecho, salvo el organizar la defensa
3. ¿Cuales son los períodos previstos y las ubica
o la emergencia nacionales.
ciones de recurrencia de sismos destructores, erupciones
Organizaciones. A estas se les ha asignado la
volcánicas y derrumbes?
responsibilidad de enfrentar los desastres geológicos,
Las estimaciones aproximadas de los posibles tiem
pero se ha efectuado escaso planeamiento pertinente a la
pos de retorno de sismos de poca profundidad terrestre
recolección de datos de desastre relativos a la predicción
(menos de 15 km) de magnitud 6.0 a un máximo de 6.5,
de eventos, estabilidad estructural, uso de la tierra, es
a lo largo de la cadena volcánica activa, varían entre 30 y
decir, mitigación de los efectos. Existe muy poco, asi
80 años, tanto en función del tiempo como de una
mismo, en cuanto respecta a la forma de planear la ayuda
ubicación particular.
para desastres, coordinar la ayuda interna e internacional
En la zona de subducción el tiempo de recurrencia
del desastre, organizar y entrenar unidades locales para
de sismos de magnitud de 7.5 a un máximo de 8.1 es de
afrontar el desastre, planear sistemas paralelos o de 40-150 años, con variantes a lo largo de la costa y
reserva de suministro de agua potable, potencia,
probablemente con respecto al tiempo. En cuanto a las
comunicaciones, alcantarillados, transporte, y medios de
fallas transcorrientes que dividen a Guatemala por la
reparación.
mitad, a saber: las fallas del Motagua y del Chixoy-
En ninguno de los países, se han llevado a cabo Polochic, el tiempo de recurrencia de sismos de magnitud
estudios de análisis de vulnerabilidad y peligros, incluso
7.0-7.6 máximo, es un tanto mayor, probablemente
estudios económicos generales.
200-500 años.
2. ¿Que áreas de cada país tienen actividad sís Para el resto de América Central, especialmente la
236 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologlc Hazards, Central America
parte posterior de Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica y AID tenía planeado instalar, originalmente, 23 esta
Panamá, los períodos de recurrencia parecen ser más ciones. Pero más tarde el número se redujo a 18. La
largos, probablemente entre 100 y mas de 700 años para empresa de fuerza eléctrica ICE ha instalado 8 estaciones
sismos de magnitudes máximas de 5 a 7. Las erupciones sísmicas, pero la Universidad Nacional tiene problemas
volcánicas varían en magnitud y período de recurrencia. para obtener los datos para incluirlos en sus análisis.
Varios volcanes de Centroamérica estaban en erupciones La Universidad también cuenta con 8 sismógrafos
livianas en el momento de redactar este informe. En los portátiles que siempre están listos para ser llevados al
años futuros ocurrirán de seguro erupciones de mayor campo en caso de una emergencia, inclusive una emer
magnitud y sumamente destructoras. Los estudios de gencia volcánica.
muchos volcanes en varias ubicaciones mundiales indican La Universidad Nacional publica un boletín sísmico
que, en general, mientras más largo sea el período de mensual y un boletín vulcanológico semestral. Un pro
inactividad, más violenta es la erupción que ha de ocurrir. grama de detección sísmica de movimientos fuertes se
Esta aseveración general puede ser válida para los lleva a cabo por los departamentos de ingeniería de la
volcanes de Centroamérica, pero se necesitan estudios en Universidad de Costa Rica. El propósito del programa
detalle de volcanes específicos para documentar la pasada sísmico consiste en incluir alguna zonificación de riesgo y
historia de las erupciones y poder sentar las bases para mejorar los códigos de construcción.
evaluar el posible carácter, cronograma y magnitud de las La vigilancia de actividad volcánica se realiza por
erupciones futuras. Actualmente casi no existen estudios medio de la Universidad, e incluye registros electrónicos
de esta Índole. mensuales, y mediciones de radón, gases y sísmicas.
Los aludes, que algunas veces son sumamente La Universidad Nacional de Costa Rica cuenta con
grandes, dependen de las condiciones del terreno y de un sismólogo de grado B.S., y otro que está próximo a
factores meteorológicos y vulcanológicos. obtener el doctorado (PhD). En volcanología hay dos
vulcanólogos de nivel B.S. con experiencia, y otro que está
4. ¿Cuales son las técnicas y capacidades presen
por recibir su doctorado en la materia.
tes para vigilar y alivar los peligros de origen natural en
No existe programa alguno sobre aludes o desliza
América Central?
miento de tierras, ni tampoco se lleva a cabo un análisis
Panamá: El instituto de Geociencias de la Univer de riesgos sísmicos, volcánicos o de derrumbes.
sidad de Panamá tiene empleados a dos físicos de nivel
El Salvador: el Centro de Investigaciones Geotécni-
B.S. y un geólogo de nivel B.S. Ellos manejan la Red de
cas (CIG) es la única institución que se dedica al estudio
Estaciones Sísmicas Mundiales (WWSSN) (6 componen
de los peligros de origen geológico en El Salvador. Toda la
tes). Disponen de tres estaciones portátiles inclusive,
información recabada es enviada el Comité de Prepara
aunque todavía sin instalar, una estación de telemedición;
tivos de Emergencia. El CIG publica un boletín sismoló
han estado planeando instalar una pequeña red cerca del
gico anual.
Tin de Costa Rica, pero se interrumpieron los fondos
El CIG tiene dos ingenieros sismólogos a nivel de
proporcionados por AID. Hay 3 acelerógrafos para movi
B.S., dos sismólogos a nivel de B.S. y un especialista en
mientos fuertes (no instalados), y no existe un programa
equipo a nivel de B.S.
de vulcanología.
En cuanto respecta a estudios sismológicos, el CIG
Los riesgos sísmicos son mayores cerca de la fron
cuenta con 17 estaciones sísmicas de telemetría, de las
tera con Colombia y la frontera con Costa Rica, en donde
cuales 11 ya están instaladas. El CIG también mantiene 4
la zona fracturada de Panamá se esta substrayendo.
estaciones de registro de campo que comprende una
Varios sismos de magnitud 8 han ocurrido a lo largo de
Estación Sismográfica Mundial (WWSSN) de 6 compon
esta frontera durante el presente siglo. Los proyectos
entes.
hidroeléctricos, el oleoducto transísmico, y otras obras de
El CIG tiene previsto instalar 1 estación en cada
desarrollo de la región corren un riesgo considerable, por
uno de los cinco volcanes cuaternarios.
lo cual Panamá desea expandir su programa de vigilancia
El CIG posee 29 acelerógrafos de fuerte movi
sísmica para estudiar la región toda. Cualquier esfuerzo
miento. Entre estos ya han sido instalados 13. Otras
de esta índole debe ser cooperativo, y hay que colaborar
instituciones tienen instalados 6 acelerógrafos, pero
estrechamente con Costa Rica, ya que el área de peligro
envían el CIG los registros para su análisis. El CIG posee
se encuentra a ambos lados de la frontera.
25 sismo scopios de los cuales hay 19 instalados.
El único volcán de Panamá, a saber: el Baru, debe
El CIG lleva a cabo algunos estudios de dinámica
ser cartografiado y debe obtenerse datos de los productos
de suelos, pero se necesita ayuda en este campo.
de la erupción. Actualmente, no existe ni un programa de vulcano
Costa Rica: la Universidad Nacional ha instalado 1 1 logía, ni se cuenta con un volcanólogo.
estaciones sísmicas y está a punto de instalar otra. La En cuanto a estudios de deslizamiento de tierras, el
238 Mineral, Energy, and Water Reeourcea and Geologlc Hazarda, Central America
cooperación relacionada con el intercambio de infor cooperativos en Sudamérica, o tal vez asociarse con
mación. CERESIS. Esto, económicamente, tiene sentido ya que
sería posible tener al alcance profesionales en sismología,
d) Recomendamos una reunión de directores de
vulcanología, geología y expertos técnicos.
observatorios sísmicos o servicios sísmicos de cada país,
Además, recomendamos que todas las fallas y
con la posible asistencia de la USGS. El propósito de esta
volcanes conocidos sean incluidos en mapas de 1:50.00 o
reunión sería el de alentar al cooperación regional en
1:100.00 para toda Centroamérica y Panamá.
estudios sísmicos y el intercambio de información nueva.
Recomendamos discusiones para estandarizar el e) Recomendamos que se haga un estudio de
equipo sismógrafo. fuentes de fondos para PLD y entrenamientos a nivel de
Recomendamos que los servicios sismocos nacio master para sismólogos, vulcanólogos, ingenieros en
nales adquieran computadoras para análisis. Con estos sismología, ingenieros geológicos e ingenieros de tierras.
sistemas, la información nueva podría transmitirse entre También recomendamos que se haga una búsqueda de
países a un precio más bajo y más rápidamente. fuentes patrocinadoras para entrenar a especialistas de
Recomendamos que sea creado un banco de infor instrumentos para fundar un intercambio científico inter
mación vulcanológica regional. nacional entre profesionales.
Asi mismo recomendamos que el director piense
seriamente en la posibilidad de formar una organización f) Recomendamos que cada país asistente presen
regional de observatorios sísmicos cooperativos, parecida te cuando menos un reconocimiento o evaluación de
a CERESIS, la organización de observatorios sísmicos peligros potenciales de los derrumbes y lodazales.
240 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resource* and Geologic Hazard», Central America
training should be accomplished in as much as lation and publication of five annual reports (U.S.
possible within the countries themselves, using the $50,000).
existing local and regional training institutions, with Second year: Full operation of the center (U.S.
both local and foreign visiting professors and $25,000).
instructors and with provision for scholarships for 2. Reconnaissance of surface- and ground-water qual
participants within the region. ity of the region, including sediment transport.
9. A regional information center in hydrology and Includes publication of a final report by the above
water resources is needed for the dissemination of center.
Spanish-language training manuals, results of local
First year: Field work (U.S.$50,000).
research, technical publications, and so on. Such a
center could also serve as a clearinghouse for trans Second year: Data interpretation and publication
lation into Spanish of relevant material produced ($25,000).
elsewhere. It could also prepare and distribute 3. Regional analysis of extreme events to develop sta
abstracts of pertinent literature and information tistical tools for prediction of maximum and mini
about upcoming technical and scientific events. mum flows in ungaged areas.
10. It is appropriate to promote the creation of a First year: Compilation of data.
regional hydrology and water resources professional Second year: Analysis and publication of report
association and to organize an annual regional water (total cost: $30,000).
resources symposium, the first one of which could 4. Creation of a regional hydrology and water-
be held within the next 12 to 15 months. resources association. Convene a regional sympo
11. Proper water laws need to be implemented in all of sium in 1986-1987 as a vehicle for horizontal coop
Central America to regulate the use of the resource, eration within the region and for technology transfer
especially ground water in heavily used aquifers. into the region. Will include workshops and mini-
12. The group considered that the major issues that courses ($30,000).
need to be addressed pertaining to the water 5. Training of professionals and technicians in hydrol
resources problems common to the region were ogy by means of a 1-year course for professionals at
within the following areas: a regional center ($30,000 per year) and a 4-week
a) Hydrolog of small watersheds (less than 50 roving course ($15,000 per year) in each country
km2). per year.
b) Study of flood-flows. 6. Regional assessment of small-watershed hydrology
c) Sediment transport. to provide design data for rural water-supply
d) Real-time flow forecasting in certain areas. projects, small irrigation projects, and low-head
e) Study of low-flows. hydropower generation. Includes extreme events.
f) Hurricanes. Includes the equipment of 15 small representative
g) Karst hydrology in some areas. watersheds for different climatic and hydrologic
h) Institutional and human-resources aspects. conditions in the region.
General Recommendations First year: Selection of the watersheds, acquisition
and installation of equipment ($200,000).
1. Creation of a regional information center for hydrol Second year: Initial calibration and operation
ogy and water resources. ($50,000).
First year: creation, staffing and acquisition of Finally, the group recommends that all projects and
equipment for the center of existing literature in activities be implemented through the appropriate existing
hydrology and water resources in the region. Trans local and regional organizations.
242 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America
inadecuado. Por lo tanto, es imprescindible entrenar literatura existente de hidrología y recursos de agua
a todos los niveles. Se considera que este entrena en la región. Traducción y publicación de 5
miento se debe llevar a cabo dentro de cada país, manuales ($50.000).
haciendo uso de las instituciones de entrenamiento Segundo año: operación completa del centro
locales y regionales, teniendo instrucción local y ($25.000).
extranjera de profesores visitantes. Asimismo, otor 2. Reconocimiento de la calidad del agua subterránea
gar becas para los participantes de la región. y superficial, incluyendo transporte de sedimentos.
9. Se necesita un Centro Regional Hidrológico y Incluye la publicación del reporte final del centro.
Recursos de Aguas para la diseminación de
Primer año: Trabajo en el campo (US $50.000)
manuales de entrenamiento, resultados de investi
gaciones locales, publicaciones técnicas, etc. (en Segundo año: Interpretación de datos y publicación
español). Este centro también serviría para hacer (US $25.000)
traducciones relevantes de material producido en 3. Análisis regional de eventos extremados para desar
otro lugar. También podría preparar y distribuir rollar herramientas estadísticas para pronosticar, el
literatura e información de eventos científicos y -máximo y mínimo, corrientes en estas áreas.
técnicos por llevarse a cabo. Primer año: recabación de información.
10. Sería conveniente promover la creación de una Segundo año: análisis y publicación del reporte
asociación regional profesional de hidrología y (costo total: $30.000).
recursos de agua y la organización anual de 4. Creación de una asociación regional hidrológica y
simposios de recursos de agua regionales, cuya de recursos de agua. Covenir en un simposio
primera reunión se podría llevar a cabo dentro de regional a llevarse a cabo en 1986-1987 como
los próximos 12 a 15 meses. medio cooperativo dentro de la región y tranferencia
11. Es una necesidad implantar leyes de agua apropi tecnológica a la región. Esto incluirá talleres de
adas en todos los países para regular el uso de los trabajo y mini-cursos (US $30.000).
recursos, especialmente el agua subterránea de los 5. El entrenamiento de profesionales y técnicos en
acueductos más usados. hidrología, curso de un año en un centro regional y
12. El grupo consideró que los problemas más comunes un curso de 4 semanas de duración en cada país
y grandes de recursos de agua de la región son los cada año.
siguientes: Curso Curso de un año Curso rotativo
a) Hidrología de las cuencas de agua (menos de 50 regional $30.000 $15.000
km2). 6. Asesoría regional de una pequeña cuenca hidroló
b) Estudio de fuentes de inundaciones. gica con el fin de proveer información de diseño
c) Transporte de sedimentos. para los proyectos rurales de abastecimientos de
d) Pronóstico de inundaciones en ciertas áreas. agua, proyectos pequeños de irrigación, y una
e) Estudios de corrientes bajas. generación de fuerza hidráulica de baja cabeza.
f) Huracanes. Incluyendo los eventos extremados. Incluye el
g) Hidrología cárstica en algunas áreas. equipo de 15 pequeñas cuencas para distintas con
h) Aspectos de recursos institucionales y huma diciones.
nos.
Primer año: selección de las cuencas, adquisición en
instalación del equipo ($200.000).
Recomendaciones Generales
Segundo año: calibración inicial y operación
1. La creación de un centro regional de información ($50.000).
hidrológica y recursos de agua. Finalmente, el grupo recomienda que todos los
Primer año: creación, reclutamiento de personal y proyectos y actividades sean canalizados a través de las
adquisición del equipo para el centro. Inventario de regiones existentes locales y regionales.
244 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America
activities of the foremen tioned regional center ogies and other factors. It was agreed that specific pro
would be to call a meeting of representatives of grams as follows could begin immediately:
participating countries with USGS marine a) Secure financial backing for proposed regional
geologists to map out a cruise and design an center.
offshore minerals-investigation program. b) Establish data compilation and basic data, bib
7) Assess development requirements for each liographic research (legal code revision).
country with an integrated approach to miner c) Establish a time for a follow-up meeting to
als. access progress results of this gathering, sug
8) Conduct interdisciplinary studies to help gesting September 30, 1985.
understand and resolve problems of develop d) Procure "long-term" funding for regional cen
ment, in particular the agricultural field (agri ter, but only if initial studies show such a center
cultural minerals, ground water, and so on). is viable.
2. What are the expected information bases to be pro 4. Is long-term training or development of country sci
vided by mineral assessment activities in Central Amer entists by the USGS the most feasible and fruitful in terms
ica? of mutual benefit?
An inventory of existing information related to The USGS was considered an important, but not
minerals resources (regional and local), remote-sensing unique, participant in the training and development of
data, mineral occurrences, and other information includ local scientists; it was agreed that the best and most
ing: appropriate trainers would be those who responded best
a) Inventory of material existing within each coun to and fulfilled most adequately local program needs. It
try. was noted that an important activity of the proposed
b) Inventory of material existing outside each geosciences center was to adapt technologies and to train
country, such as: geoscience series, private people in technologies developed elsewhere and to
reports, thesis studies, maps, and so on. emphasize local examples and applications in this training.
The question of handling information management, With respect to ASAIP-sponsored scholarships, we
publication, and distribution was introduced with the urge that training be closely related to local or regional
agreement that information managers should establish programs so that graduates will be appropriately
and follow editorial standards accepted by the geologic employed upon completion of their studies.
community.
It was also agreed that legal and mineral codes were 5. What short- and long-term benefits accrue to existing
important considerations, and that legal, labor, and envi program as a result of science and technology transfer to
ronmental issues should be considered as significant in Central American countries?
mineral development; however, the proposed regional The general idea to "promote the economic well-
center would not be involved in policy fabrication, but being and social and political stability" of Central Amer
would only provide basic data upon which individual ica and Panama was discussed, with concurrence on such
governments would make decisions on these issues. In benefits as:
addition, a regional group, like SIECA, should be an a) Local employment through small-mine devel
appropriate group to look into these issues. opment.
b) Local impact through industrial-mineral devel
3. What time frame can be projected for implementation opment.
of mineral-resource assessment activities in developing c) Implementation of short-term programs with
countries? long-term benefits, with emphasis on mutual
Discussion here centered about the meaning of cooperation on regional projects.
"time frame" and "activities" and it was agreed that d) Implementation of local "workshop" or schools
mineral-resource assessment is a continuous effort taking for the improvement of the utilization of indus
into account changing economic conditions, new technol trial minerals
246 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resource» and Geologlc Hazard», Central America
objeto de ayudar a comprender y resolver los c) Establecer cierto tiempo para una reunión de
problemas de desarrollo, en particular el campo seguimiento para asesorar los resultados del
agrícola (minerales agrícolas, agua subter progreso de esta recabación, sugiriendo el 30 de
ránea, etc.). septiembre de 1985.
d) Obtener fondos para largo plazo para el centro
2. ¿Cuales son las bases informativas esperadas de las regional, siempre y cuando los estudios iniciales
actividades asesoras minerales en Centroamérica?
de dicho centro hayan indicado que el centro es
Un inventario de la información de recursos minera
les existente (mapas subterráneos y aéreos), información viable.
sensora a control remoto, sucesos minerales, etc., incluye 4. ¿Es el entrenamiento a largo plazo o científicos de los
ndo: países desarrollados por la USGS los más factibles y
a) Un inventarío del material existente en cada
productivos en términos de beneficio mutuo?
país.
b) Inventario de material existente fuera del país La USGS fue considerada importante pero no la
tal como: reportes privados, tesis, estudios y única participante en el entrenamiento y desarrollo de los
mapas. científicos locales; fue acordado que los mejores y entren
La pregunta de manejo de información, pu adores más apropiados serían aquellos que respondieran
blicación y distribución fue enfocada con el acuerdo de mejor y llenaran adecuadamente las necesidades de cada
que las personas encargadas del manejo de información programa. Fué notado que una actividad importante de
deberán establecer y seguir normas editadas y aceptadas este centro sería adaptar tecnologías y entrenar personal
por la comunidad geológica. en tecnologías desarolladas en otro lugar y hacer énfasis
Fue acordado que códigos legales y minerales en ejemplos locales y sus aplicaciones en el entrena
deberían ser considerados de importancia y que los temas miento.
ambientales, laborales y legales deberían ser considerados Con relación a becas patrocinadas por ASAIP,
como factor significativo en el desarrollo mineral; sin sugerimos que el entrenamiento sea relacionado lo más
embargo, el centro regional propuesto proveería la infor cerca posible a programas regionales o locales para que
mación básica sobre la cual cada gobierno decidiría. los graduados sean contratados al finalizar sus estudios.
Además, un grupo regional, parecido a SIECA,
sería un grupo apropriado para que profundizara en estos 5. ¿Que clase de beneficios a corto y largo plazo se
temas. pueden atribuir como resultado de tranferencias de cien
cia y tecnologías a los países Centroamericanos?
3. ¿Que marco de tiempo se puede proyectar para la El ideal general de "promover bienestar económico
implementación de actividades de asesoría de recursos
y estabilidad social y política" de Centroamérica y
minerales en paises desarrollados?
Panamá fue discutido, estando de acuerdo con los benefi
La discusión en esta parte se centralizó en el
significado de "marco de tiempo" y actividades y se cios tales como:
acordó que la asesoría de recursos minerales es un a) Empleos locales a través de pequeñas minas de
esfuerzo continuo, tomando en cuenta las condiciones desarrollo.
cambiantes en la economía, tecnologías nuevas y otros b) Impacto local a través del desarrollo mineral
factores. Se acordó que programas específicos de varias industrial.
índoles podrían dar inicio inmediatamente. c) Realización de programas de corto plazo con
a) Asegurarse del respaldo financiero para el beneficios a largo plazo, con énfasis en cooper
centro regional propuesto; ación mutua en proyectos regionales.
b) Recabación de información y establecimiento d) Realización de grupos de trabajo locales o
de información básica, investigación de bi escuelas para el mejoramiento de la utilización
bliografías, (revisión legal de códigos). del mineral industrial.
ASSESSMENT
The resources considered include conventional are known to exist in El Salvador and Honduras. This
energy sources onshore and (or) offshore (for example, resource is yet to be identified in Belize.
hydrocarbons, coal, peat, geothermal). Geothermal energy is commercial in Guatemala, El
The issues are: Salvador, and Nicaragua and exists, but has not been
developed, in Costa Rica and Honduras. However, the
1. The status of the inventory of energy mineral
potential for geothermal energy in Belize is unknown.
resources in the nations of Central America.
Consequently, the question of inventory without addi
2. The required information base in terms of long-range
tional work becomes difficult if not impracticable at this
demand for energy minerals, to enable policy plan
time.
ning and decision making.
The institutional infrastructure in Central America,
3. The required information base, in terms of geological
although organized and developed at different levels, is
and geophysical knowledge, to enable regional quite similar from one country to another. In each, there
energy-resource assessment to be made, revised, and is a Ministry responsible for policy and one or more
(or) updated. departments which have executive responsibility for the
4. The existing, or needed, institutional mechanisms for exploration and development of energy and mineral
implementing a program of energy-resource assess resources.
ment, regionally and (or) country by country. Whereas one country may have a well-developed
5. The existing, or needed, institutional mechanisms for and trained cadre of personnel, another may have none or
implementing the development of energy resources too few.
when and if they are found. Discussion, however, has shown that most countries
have some similar needs. It is evident that all countries
After discussion it became evident that there are
need assistance for laboratory facilities, equipment, tech
different levels of development of energy resources
nological transfer and management, planning, and tech
throughout the region. Whereas one country has an
nological training of personnel to varying degrees.
advantage in one resource it may be lacking in another. As to the means of assistance, it was suggested that
For example, Guatemala is the only petroleum-producing this may be desirable on a government to government
country in the region, but this production is insufficient basis in certain instances and (or) through regional
for its needs. All the other Central American countries coordinating institutions in other instances.
are importers of petroleum. Guatemala also has coal, Because of limited human and financial resources,
geothermal energy, and possibly peat resources. regional studies for planning and identifying the establish
Peat has been identified in Costa Rica and Belize, ment of priorities is recommended.
and it is thought to be present in the rest of Central Finally, it is the recommendation of the group that a
America. decision as to which avenue is desirable should be taken at
Coal is present in Costa Rica and smaller amounts the political level by the policy makers.
248 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America
GRUPO DE DISCUSION 5: ASESORAMIENTO DE
RECURSOS REGIONALES
Los recursos considerados incluyen fuentes de Salvador y Honduras también, pero en una cantidad
energía convencionales cerca y lejos de la playa (ejemplo: menor. Esta fuente todavía está por ser hallada en Belize.
hidrocarburos, carbón, turba, geotérmica). Energía geotérmica es comercial en Guatemala, El
Los temas discutidos son: Salvador y Nicaragua y existe en Costa Rica y Honduras;
sin embargo, Belize tiene un potencial desconocido, hasta
1. Un estado del inventario de energía mineral en las
la fecha, de este recurso. Por lo tanto, el asunto de un
naciones de Centroamérica.
inventario es difícil si no impráctico.
2. Información sobre demandas en términos bases de
El marco institucional de trabajo de todos los
larga duración para energía mineral, con el propósito
países, a pesar de que estén desarrollados y organizados
de permitir la planeación de políticas asi como toma
a distintos niveles, son bastante similares. Hay un minis
de decisiones.
tro responsable de la politica y de uno o más departa
3. La base de información requerida, en términos de
mentos que llevan a cabo las responsabilidades ejecutivas
conocimientos geológicos y geofísicos, que permita
para la exploración y desarrollo de recursos energéticos
que la asesoría de recursos regionales se lleve a cabo,
minerales.
revisada y/o puesta al día.
Mientras que un país puede que tenga un número
4. Ya existente o necesitado mecanismo institucional
de personal bien desarrollado puede ser que no tenga
para implementar el desarrollo de recursos de energía
ninguno o un número insuficiente.
regionales y/o país por país.
Sin embargo, después de la discusión, es obvio que
5. Ya existente o necesitado mecanismo institucional
todos o casi todos los países tienen necesidades similares.
para al realización del desarrollo de recursos energé
Es evidente que todos los países necesitan la asesoría de
ticos cuando sean encontrados.
laboratorios, equipo, transferencias tecnológicas y mane
Después de la discusión fue evidente que existen jo, planeamiento y entrenamiento tecnológico de personal
diferentes niveles de desarrollo de recursos de energía en a diferentes grados.
la región. Mientras que un país tenga ventajas con un Con lo relacionado a medios de asistencia fue
recurso puede ser que le haga falta otro. Por ejemplo: sugerido que esto será en base a gobierno por gobierno,
Guatemala es la única productora de hidrocarburos de la en algunos casos, y en otros casos a través de instituciones
región, más sin embargo, su producción es muy baja para coordinadoras regionales.
sus necesidades. Todos los otros países son importadores En vista de la necesidad de hacer énfasis del uso
de este recurso. Guatemala también tiene carbón, energía limitado de estudios de recursos humanos y financieros
geotérmica y posiblemente turba. para planeamiento e identificar prioridades son recomen
La turba ha sido identificada en Costa Rica y Belize dados.
y se calcula que se encuentra en el resto de Centroamér Finalmente, otra recomendación del grupo es la de
ica. decidir que nivel de política deberán seguir los que hagan
Hay carbón en Costa Rica y se sabe que existe en El la política.
1. a) Are increased levels of exploration activity a tion activity in the environments of Central
desirable thing in Central America? America?
We feel that increased levels of exploration We feel that the lack of adequate numbers of
from all sources would be of benefit to all of trained professional and technical personnel is
Central America, inhibiting resource exploration and development
b) What are the critical types of geologic informa in Central America. An inventory of the pool of
tion that are needed to stimulate exploration trained talent in Central America should be
activity? made by a pan Central American Organization.
We feel that there is a critical need for more Furthermore, an inventory of equipment should
basic geological information in Central America be made by the same organization.
including the following: There should be a centralized institution,
such as ICAITI, for vocational training. This
1) An up-to-date geologic map for each coun
regional institution could also serve as a central
try, preferably at a scale of 1:50,000;
chemical laboratory with standardized methodol
2) An updated, organized stratigraphic lexicon
ogy and technology,
for each country;
b) What research should be done to assist explora
3) Regional mapping of all types including geo-
tion?
chemical and geophysical maps;
A centralized regional office could flag
4) The establishment of a bulletin or journal
problems that are being encountered by diverse
for the publication of articles on the geology
groups in Central America, and could serve as a
of Central America in order to increase the
focus for important research, both applied and
exchange of knowledge and ideas and to
basic.
stimulate more professional interaction;
5) The creation of seminars, meetings, and field 4. What high-risk, large-return commodities might be
trips for Central American scientists; and found in Central America?
6) The reactivation of the Commission for The commodities of most interest are tin, rare-
Stratigraphic Nomenclature in Central earth elements, platinum, titanium, sedimentary man
America. ganese and phosphate, and new environments for
known commodities such as gold. Additionally, tech
2. What commodities are present that have a ready nological changes in extractive metallurgy may open
market and a reasonable expectation of being found up new possibilities; for example, such as for sulfur in
in economic deposits? Guatemala, EI Salvador, and Costa Rica.
We feel that the following commodities are most
important in the Central American region: 5. What financial and political incentives might be avail
able?
1) Energy commodities such as coal, petroleum, We feel that there is a need to provide better
and geothermal energy sources professional advice to governments and that it would
2) Gold and silver; be desirable to have scientific and technical input into
3) Platinum group metals, particularly in ultrabasic the law-making process at the executive level.
rocks;
4) Heavy-mineral beach placers or near-shore accu 6. What mix of government and commercial exploration
mulations. activity is desired in Central America?
We feel that all governments should clearly
3. a) What technical problems are inhibiting explora establish the rules and regulations that govern
250 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resource* and Geologic Hazards, Central America
resource exploration and development. The rules infrastructures. The rules and regulations should
should include environmental or conservation mea- stimulate economic growth and provide incentives to
sures and responsibilities for developing necessary the private sector for resource development.
EXPLORACION EN CENTROAMERICA
252 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America
los recursos de exploración y desarrollo. Las reglas estructuras necesarias. Las reglas y regulaciones
deben incluir medidas ambientales o de conservación, deben estimular el crecimiento económico y proveer
asi como responsabilidades para desarrollar infra- incentivos para el desarrollo de recursos.
The goals of international cooperation in the earth national library should be comprehensive or should
sciences between the Central American countries and resources be shared so that the whole is comprehensive.
various agencies and universities in the United States are The Committee recognizes that comprehensive national
thought of in two perspectives for Central America. The libraries are expensive but also that there are problems in
first perspective is based upon the needs of an individual shared regional libraries.
country, a national perspective. The second perspective, a Therefore, the third recommendation of the com
regional perspective, is derived from the common thread mittee is that each country should compile a bibliography
of these national perspectives. Thus, there are goals of earth-science publications and that these should be
unique to each country and there are regional goals for updated at least annually. Furthermore, an annual report
Central America. of earth-science research activities should be written.
In order to define these regional goals, a planning These bibliographies and annual reports of research
process is required. The first step of this process is to should be widely distributed internationally. This Com
define the national goals. When these national goals are mittee believes that this should be the first step in
evident; then the regional goals can be defined. From this addressing the information needs in Central America.
process, a prioritized list of earth-science programs most Training in earth sciences is a priority goal for all of
beneficial to Central America could be presented to Central America. The need for training is of two sorts,
international funding agencies. academic and professional. Academic training addresses
The first recommendation of the committee is that education of new scientists to increase the number of
the Central American Research Institute for Industry professional earth scientists in Central America. Profes
(ICAITT) is the appropriate forum for the Central Amer sional growth addresses education to introduce profes
ican countries to formulate regional goals in the earth sionals to new developments and to broaden their capa
sciences. Furthermore, the earth-science agencies of the bilities.
U.S. Government are solicited for advice concerning A consideration of paramount importance when
these regional goals. considering training is that the training must consider the
As such regional goals are lacking at this time, the resources available in Central America. This is not to
second recommendation of the committee is that there suggest that expensive modern equipment is not or will
should be three high-priority goals: library resources, not be available in Central America. Because of this
information management, and training. The earth-science awareness of the availability of resources, the fourth
agencies of the U.S. Government are solicited to assist in recommendation of the committee is that major empha
achieving these goals. sis, both for academic and professional growth, should be
Everyone agreed that well-maintained, comprehen placed on training in Central America. In the area of
sive libraries are needed to meet the needs for informa academic training, the faculty of the Central American
tion. These needs include references to relevant earth- School of Geology should be enhanced by providing U.S.
science literature and storage and access to the geologic experts to teach while the local faculty training is
information concerning Central America. Although upgraded in the teaching of such courses. To maintain the
numerous governmental agencies are creating geologic focus and expertise of the School of Geology, an advisory
information on various parts of Central America, much of council of geoscientists from the Central American coun
this information is not available or accessible. The appro tries and appropriate U.S. agencies should be considered
priate mechanism for establishing such a library system by Costa Rica to advise the school concerning earth-
should be defined. Possibly the mechanism is to establish science education. Consideration of the potential employ
national libraries at the national universities within each ment market for earth scientists should not be neglected.
country. The options considered are national libraries and Training for professional growth can take many
regional libraries. These options include whether a forms. It should include sending individuals to U.S.
254 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazard*, Central America
laboratories for short-term training in use of specific Petroleum geology is at a formative stage in Central
equipment or techniques. It should include short courses America, so emphasis should be on the exploration
taught in Central America using U.S. experts in cooper aspects of petroleum geology.
ation with Central American experts, designed to enhance Geothermal studies address the full spectrum of
the facilities and capabilities of the Central American studies from regional studies to the identication of poten
School of Geology to give training for professional tial geothermal sites to site-specific studies appropriate to
growth. It should include on-the-job training as part of the evaluation of geothermal reservoirs. For geothermal
cooperative projects. Thus, professional growth can reservoirs that are poorly known, consideration of the
address specific needs of existing national programs, availability of high-cost sophisticated equipment and drill
university academic staff, and components of new regional ing techniques is not appropriate until a sufficient level of
programs. knowledge and economic evaluation has been gained.
The types of training needs identified by the com Engineering geology includes the broad spectrum
mittee are in the following areas: economic geology, of techniques that are necessary to plan and create
mining engineering, petroleum geology, geothermal stud structures. This includes everything from locations of
ies, engineering geology, hydrology, and geologic hazards. individual villages to the complex considerations for a
hydroelectric dam.
Economic geology includes exploration and mineral Hydrology training from an earth science perspec
inventory or assessment, especially including geochemis tive includes primarily those techniques for finding and
try, remote sensing, and geophysics. Also included, are evaluating subsurface water. Monitoring and evaluation of
mine evaluation and development aspects of economic surface water is primarily a problem of obtaining suffi
geology. cient equipment to do the job.
Mineral engineering includes mineral economics, Finally, geologic hazards studies include identifica
development of mines, mineral-dressing, metallurgical tion, monitoring, and mitigation of the broad spectrum of
considerations, and those techniques necessary to develop geologic hazards. These hazards include earthquakes,
and operate a mine. landslides, volcanic eruptions, and floods.
256 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America
proyectos cooperativos. Debe incluir, asimismo, cursos tiva en Centroamérica, por lo tanto se debe hacer más
llevados a cabo en Centroamérica con presencia de exper énfasis sobre los aspectos de exploración de petróleo
tos norteamericanos en conjunto con expertos Centro (geología del petróleo).
americanos. Hasta este momento el crecimiento profesio Evaluación de reservas geotérmicas se dirige a las
nal puede satisfacer necesidades específicas de técnicas geológicas, geoquímicas y geofísicas que son
programas nacionales existentes y componentes de pro necesarias para evaluar los usos potenciales de una
gramas nuevos regionales. identificada o especulativa reserva geotérmica.
Las necesidades de entrenamiento identificadas por Para las reservas especulativas que no son muy bien
el comité son las siguientes: geología económica, inge conocidas, no es apropiado considerar la disponibilidad
niería mineral, geología petrolera, evaluación de reservas de equipo sofisticado ni técnicas de perforación sino que
geológicas, ingeniería geológica, hidrología y peligros
se debe hacer hasta que el nivel de conocimiento obtenido
geológicos.
sea suficiente.
La geología económica incluye exploración e inven
tario mineral o asesor, especialmente incluyendo geo Ingeniería geológica incluye un aspecto bastante
química, sensores a control remoto y geofísica. amplio de las técnicas necesarias para planear y construir
También se incluye la evaluación minera y aspectos estructuras. Esto incluye todo abarcando desde las ubi
de desarrollo de la geología económica. caciones de pueblitos individuales hasta la consideración
Ingeniería mineral incluye el desarrollo de una compleja de una presa hidroeléctrica.
mina, envestimiento mineral, consideraciones metalúrgi Por último, los peligros geológicos incluyen: identi
cas y esas técnicas necesarias para desarrollar y operar ficación, monitereo y mitigación del espectro amplio de
una mina. los peligros geológicos. Estos peligros incluyen terremo
La geología del petróleo está en una etapa forma- tos, derrumbes e inundaciones.
The Central American Research Institute for of proposals to the United Nations for the implementation
Industry (ICAITI) is an independent institution chartered of Projects for Investigation of Mineral Resources. The
as a nonprofit organization. It was founded in July, 19SS, Institute also took some part in the execution of these
by the governments of the five Central American Repub projects and in the organization of a brief course on
lics, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and exploration techniques of minerals resources for Central
Nicaragua. American geologists.
ICAITI is the technological institution of the Cen The following are some of the most important
tral American Program for Economic Integration. Other geoscience services that ICAITI has performed.
institutions, although founded afterwards, are also part of 1. Advice to INSAFT, El Salvador, on evaluation of
that program, namely, the Permanent Secretariat of the mineral resources.
General Treaty for Economic Integration (CABEI), and 2. Evaluation of Agalteca iron deposits for the Central
the Central American Monetary Council (CMCA). Bank of Honduras.
As a multidisciplinary institution, one of ICAITI's 3. Geological surveys for geothermal studies in El
functions, according to its Charter is, "To cooperate with Salvador for the Hydroelectrical Executive Commis
the offices concerned of the governments of the Central sion of Rio Lempa.
American Isthmus, universities, technical organizations 4. A systematic surveying program of geological maps
and other bodies, whether governmental or not, in the in Honduras by means of an agreement with the
promotion of scientific and industrial research and the General Administration of Mines and Hydrocar
training of researchers and technical experts...." bons, in collaboration with the University of Texas,
From the outset of its activities in January 1956, Austin, and the financial support of the U.S. Agency
with the support of the United Nations Special Fund, for International Development, Regional Office for
ICAITI had a geologist and then a mining engineer Central America and Panama (USAID/ROCAP).
provided by the supporting organization. 5. Study of the mineral potential for fertilizers in Latin
In 1964, because of the increasing demand for America through a contract with the Inter-
geological and mining advice both from governments and American Development Bank.
private institutions, the Applied Geology Division was 6. Geological study of Xaya-Pixcaya for water supply
staffed with more professional personnel, mostly Central to Guatemala City.
Americans. A main objective of this Division has been to 7. Geological advice for the study of the highway from
assess mineral resources which can be utilized as raw San Jose to Limon, in Costa Rica.
materials for regional industry, and to render geological 8. Advice to the Central Bank of Nicaragua for a
services to both governmental and private institutions. It support program for the National Geological Ser
is worth mentioning that, during those years, the national vice.
geological institutions could not completely satisfy the 9. Geological advice to the Central Bank of the
geological needs of each country and, therefore, ICAITI's Dominican Republic.
services were essential for support. 10. Compilation of all geological information on coal
From the onset, ICAITI cooperated with all Central resources in Central America.
American countries, including Panama, in the preparation
In addition to these, and many studies for private
companies in all Central American countries, ICAITI has
played an important role at international level and has
1 Instituto Centroamericano de Investigación y Tecnología Industrial Avenida La
fostered the participation of Central American geologists
Reforma 4-47, Zona 10, Apartado Poatal 1332, Guatemala. in several projects, as well as the execution of scientific
258 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America
geophysical and geological studies in Central America for Geologists at a scientific conference. Similar meetings
international scientific organizations. were held later in Guatemala, Costa Rica, Honduras and
ICAITTs personnel collaborated from the begin Nicaragua. The proceedings of these meetings were pub
ning with the U.S. Geological Survey, the Canadian Geo lished in a series titled "Geological Publications of
logical Survey and the Mexican Council of Mineral ICAITI."
Resources in the commission of the Metallogenic Map of Several recommendations from these meetings,
Central America. As part of these activities, ICAITI have been implemented, others unfortunately remained
prepared and published in 1969 the Metallogenic Map of only in writing. Among those recommendations imple
Central America together with the corresponding descrip mented, it is worthwhile to mention the preparation and
tive text. publication of geological maps for each country, the
Within Latin America, and with the financial sup setting up of national seismic networks, and the founding
port of the Organization of American States, ICAITI of the Central American School of Geology at the Uni
took part in the organization of the Latin American versity of Costa Rica, one of the most important activities
Mineralogy Association (ALAMI), established in Concep for the development of the scientific and professional
ción, Chile, in 1966. The Institute also participated in capacity of the region. ICAITI participated in the estab
founding the Consultative Council of Directors of Latin lishment of the School of Geology through technical and
American Geological Services, in Caracas, Venezuela, in financial requests placed before UNESCO and the offi
1972, and since then, ICAITI has closely collaborated cials of the University of Costa Rica. Later, the ICAITI
with the Executive Secretariat of that organization. also collaborated in the organization and conduct of a
With the Inter-Gubernamental . Oceanographic geological field course in Guatemala for students of the
Commission, whose Secretariat is part of UNESCO, School.
ICAITT collaborated and fostered the participation of During the Fourth Meeting of Central American
Central American geologists in the Symposium of Geologists held in Tegucigalpa, Honduras, in 1974, the
Geophysical and Geologic Resources of the Caribbean Second Meeting of Governmental Geologists was also
Region, held in Kingston, Jamaica, in 1975, as part of the held, for the purpose of establishing a procedure for
International Decade of Marine Exploration. future scientific meetings and the meetings with govern
ICAITI also collaborated with that Commission in ment representatives. On this occasion, ICAITI was
the Symposium on Environmental Geology in the Coastal designed as the Permanent Secretariat for both types of
Areas of the Caribbean, held in Port of Spain, Trinidad- events.
Tobago, in 1978. In this Symposium, the Atlantic Coast of Unfortunately, the Fourth Meeting of Central
Costa Rica was selected as one of the areas for pilot American Geologists held in Managua, in 1984, did not
studies. follow the outlines agreed upon in Honduras.
The participation of an ICAITI geologist in the Finally, some comments that might hopefully guar
Council of the International Program of Geological Cor antee the carrying out of recommendations of this work
relation, sponsored by UNESCO and the International shop are appropriate. Hopefully these recommendations
Union of Geological Sciences, spurred the preparation of will not simply remain a statement of the desires of
several important projects not only for Central America, Central America as to needs in the fields of mineral,
but also for Latin America. hydrologic, and energy resources as well as geological
ICAITI collaborated with the Institute of Marine hazards.
Sciences of the University of Texas, Austin, in a In previous years, repeated efforts were made by
geophysical survey of the marine areas of Central Amer the Central American countries and ICAITI to obtain
ica. This was a preliminary step in the selection of drilling technical and financial assistance for geological activities.
sites for scientific research as part of the Deep Sea Although in a few cases the requests were successful, the
Drilling Program. Later, ICAITI collaborated in legs 67 projects did not achieve the expected results because of
and 84 of this program in which drilling was carried out in their short duration because of lack of funds and an
the Pacific continental slope of Central America. Central adequate follow-up.
American geologists participated in these legs. This Workshop has opened a new expectation for a
As part of other activities for spurring development strong, well-planned international collaboration, both at
of geological sciences, ICAITI convened the First Meeting national and regional levels. This cooperation should
of Central American Governmental Geologists in 1957. actually contribute to fostering the economic develop
The establishment of a regional school of geology was ment of the Central American countries through the study
proposed, but the necessary financial support was not and rational utilization of geological resources, as well as
obtained. A few years later, in 1965, ICAITI promoted the upgrading of the human resources in the earth
and organized, with the cooperation of a group of Costa sciences.
Rican geologists, the First Meeting of Central American The responsibility and support given to ICAITI by
260 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America
FUNCION DEL ICAITI COMO ORGANISMO
GEOLOGICO REGIONAL
El ICAITI es una institución autónoma con carác Desde su inicio el ICAm colaboró con los países,
ter no-lucrativo. Fue establecida en julio de 1955 por los incluyendo Panamá, en la formulación de propuestas ante
gobiernos de Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nica las Naciones Unidas para la ejecución de Proyectos de
ragua y Costa Rica. Investigación de Recursos Minerales y participó en parte
Es una de las instituciones del llamado Programa de durante la ejecución de dichos proyectos así como en la
Integración Económica Centroamericana, del cual tam organización de un curso corto sobre técnicas de explo
bién forman parte, aunque fueron creados posterior ración de recursos minerales para geólogos centroameri
mente, la Secretaría Permanente del Tratado General de canos.
Integración Económica (SIECA), el Banco Centroameri Algunos de los trabajos de mayor relevancia que el
cano de Integración Económica (BCIE), Administración ICAITI ha efectuado en el campo geológico han sido los
Pública (ICAP) y el Consejo Monetario Centroamericano siguentes:
(CMCA). 1. Asesoría al INSAFI, El Salvador, en evaluación de
Como organismo multídisciplinario, una de las fun recursos minerales.
ciones del ICAITI, de acuerdo con el convenio de su 2. Evaluación del yacimiento de hierro de Agalteca
creación en colaborar con las oficinas respectivas de los para el Banco Central de Honduras.
gobiernos del Istmo Centroamericano, universidades, 3. Levantamientos geológicos para estudios de geoter
organizaciones técnicas y otras entidades, gubernamen mia en El Salvador para la Comisión Ejecutiva
tales o no, para promover la investigación científica e Hidroeléctrica del Rio Lempa.
industrial y la preparación de investigadores y expertos 4. Programa de levantamiento sistemático de mapas
técnicos..." geológicos en Honduras mediante un convenio con
Desde que inició sus actividades en enero de 1956, la Dirección General de Minas e Hidrocarburos de
con apoyo del entonces llamado Fondo Especial de las dicho país, colaboración de la Universidad de Texas,
Naciones Unidas, el ICAITI contó con un geólogo y luego Austin, y con apoyo financiero de ROCAP.
con un ingeniero de minas de la entidad de apoyo. 5. Estudio del potencial de minerales para fertilizantes
En 1964, debido a la demanda de asesoría en el en America Latina mediante un contrato con el
campo geológicominero tanto de parte de los gobiernos Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo.
como de la iniciativa privada, se estableció la División de 6. Estudio geológico del Proyecto Xaya-Pixcaya para
Geología Aplicada con más personal profesional, en su un acueducto para introducción de agua a la ciudad
mayoría centroamericanos. Unas de las finalidades prin de Guatemala.
cipales de esta División han sido evaluar los recursos 7. Asesoría geológica durante el estudio de la carre
minerales que pudieran servir como materias primas para tera San José-Limón, en Costa Rica.
la industria del área, y prestar servicios tanto en los 8. Asesoría al Banco Central de Nicaragua para un
gobiernos como a empresas privadas en estudios geoló programa de apoyo al Servicio Geológico Nacional.
gicos. Debe anotarse que en esos años la capacidad de las 9. Asesoría geológica al Banco Central de la República
oficinas geológicas nacionales no era suficiente para Dominicana.
llenar las necesidades de cada país y por tanto el ICAITI
10. Compilación de toda la información geológica sobre
podía servir de apoyo o de complemento.
recursos de carbón en América Central.
Además de estos, y de numerosos estudios para
empresas privadas en todos los países del area, el ICAITI
Imiluto Centroamericano de Investigación y Technology Industrial. Avenida La ha tenido una participación importante en el ámbito
4-47, Zona 10, Apartado Fonal 1332, Guatemala, Guatemala. internacional y ha promovido la participación de geólogos
262 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologlc Hazards, Central America
que realmente permita coadyuvar al desarrollo económi ICAITI en varias de las recomendaciones lo compro -
co de los paises centroamericanos mediante el estudio de menten a continuar gestionando ante entidades interna
sus recursos geológicos y su aprovechamiento racional, cionales de financiamiento los medios necesarios para
asi como mediante el fortalecimiento de los recursos que el esfuerzo hecho conjuntamente durante el Semi
humanos en las ciencias de la tierra. nario pueda llegar a convertirse en proyectos específicos
La responsabilidad y el apoyo que se le han dado al para beneficio de la región.
In most of Central America, the various geoscience Central American participants did establish their own
disciplines have developed unevenly, resources have not priorities for short-and long-term geoscience programs.
been assessed, and little organized information has been In doing so, they have also recognized the utility of
assembled. In some countries, prior work in some agen geologic information in planning the futures of Central
cies has resulted in basic geologic data sufficient to allow American nations.
sophisticated assessments of mineral, energy, and water United States agencies have the expertise and per
resources; in other countries, collection of basic data has sonnel needed to assist the nations of Central America in
just begun. Although geoscience agencies in the region
every aspect of the science, but, in particular, the United
are commonly understaffed and underfunded, the techni
States can assist geoscientists and geoscience agencies of
cal staff available is commonly young, enthusiastic, will
ing, and able to absorb additional training. Importantly, the region in training, data integration and application,
agencies within all of the Central American countries and program design. Possible activities range from assist
represented here are working on the acquisition of geo ing local governments in the consolidation of activities in
logic knowledge, and the application of this knowledge to fewer agencies to the conduct of geoscience data acquisi
their problems. The workshop was successful in that the tion in the region.
264 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resource* and Geologic Hazards, Central America
CONCLUSIONES
En casi toda América Central los conocimientos entusiasta, deseoso y capaz de asimilar entrenamiento
geocientíficos no han sido desarrollados uniformemente, adicional. El taller fué un éxito ya que permitió que los
los recursos no han sido evaluados y muy poca infor participantes tuvieran la oportunidad de establecer priori
mación ha sido compilada. Mientras que en algunos dad con respecto a programas de larga y corta duración,
países, trabajos previamente realizados dieron por resul como así también reconocer la importancia y la utilidad
tado suficiente información básica de geología que per de la información geológica como parte del futuro de los
mitió la evaluación sofisticada de minerales, energía y países centroamericanos.
recursos hídricos, en otros países la compilación de Las agencias de Estados Unidos tienen la experien
información ha comenzado recientemente. Cabe señalar, cia y el personal necesario para apoyar los países de
que agencias en casi todos los países representados de Centro América con respecto a ciencia, pero en particular
América Central están trabajando en la adquisición de Estados Unidos puede apoyar a los geocientíficos y a las
conocimientos geológicos y la aplicación de estos cono agencias mismas en entrenamiento, compilación de infor
cimientos a los problemas relacionados con los mismos. A mación y su aplicación como también en el diseño de
pesar que las agencias geocientíficas en la región no programas. Estas actividades varian desde el apoyo a
poseen suficiente personal y tampoco suficiente fondos gobiernos locales a la adquisición de información en la
monetarios, el personal técnico disponible es joven, región.
Conclusiones 265
INVITED PARTICIPANTS
PARTICIPANTES INVITADOS
266 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resource* and Geologic Hazards, Central America
4. CUELLAR, GUSTAVO 6. BLOOM, REYNOLD
Jefe del Programa de Geotermia AGDO
OLADE (Organizaci6n Latinoamericana de ROCAP
Energfa) Hotel El Dorado Americana
P.O. Box 01^78 GUATEMALA
SAN SALVADOR, EL SALVADOR Telephone: 31-77-77
Telephone: 23-51-83
7. BONIS, MATTE
5. ESPINOSA CH„ NOEL Geologa
Superintendente Planificaci6n y Estudios 23 avenida 7-76, zona 15, V.H. I
Comision Ejecutiva Hidroelectrica del Rio Lempa GUATEMALA
(CEL) Telephone: 69-09-27
Centra de Gobierno
SAN SALVADOR, EL SALVADOR 8. BONIS, SAMUEL
Telephone: 71-2056 - 20303 Geologo
6. GONZALEZ M, JOSE ANTONIO Consultor, Bonis, Bonis y Bonis
Jefe del Departamento de Sismologfa 23 avenida 7-76, zona 15
Centra de Investigaciones Geotecnicas (MOP) GUATEMALA
Apartado Postal 109 Telephone: 69-09-27
SAN SALVADOR, EL SALVADOR
Telephone: 22-90-11 9. CARBALLO H, MIGUEL ANGEL
Geologo Petrolero
Direcci6n General de Hidrocarburos
GUATEMALA Ministerio de Energfa y Minas
Diagonal 17, 29-78, zona 11
GUATEMALA
1. ALEGRIA R., LUCRECIA Telephone: 79-06-79/82
Jefe Departamento Percepcidn Remota
Instituto Geografico Militar 10. CARR, CLARA
Avenida Las Amdricas 5-76, zona 13 Deputy Program Officer
GUATEMALA USAID/GUATEMALA
Telephone: 63281-3 c/o American Embassy
2. ALMENGOR CH„ JULIO ROBERTO GUATEMALA
Jefe del Departamento de Topograffa y Estudios Telephone: 31-15-41
Cuerpo de Ingenieros del Ejdrcito
13 avenida 16-61, zona 13 11. CATALAN C, RICARDO ENRIQUE
GUATEMALA Jefe Unidad Plan Maestro
Telephone: 67291 - 67691 INDE
3. ALVARADO, RODOLPO 6a. avenida 2-73, zona 4
Geologo GUATEMALA
INDE Telephone: 31-53-87
Edificio INGUAT, Nrvel II, zona 5
GUATEMALA 12. DENGO, GABRIEL
Telephone: 31-82-32 Consultor
ICAITI
4. ALVAREZ, FRANCISCO '
Avenida Reforma 4-47, zona 10
Geologo
GUATEMALA
INSIVUMEH
Telephone: 31-74-66 - 68-34-03
7a. avenida 14-57, zona 13
GUATEMALA 13. FERNANDEZ CESAR
Telephone: 31-49-67 Director
5. ASTURIAS, MARCO Centra Estudios Superiores Energfa y Minas
Director Facultad de Ingenierfa
Instituto Geografico Militar USAC
Avenida Reforma 5-76, zona 13 Ciudad Universitaria, zona 12
GUATEMALA GUATEMALA
Telephone: 31-61-80 Telephone: 76-04-23
268 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resource* and Geologic Hazards, Central America
30. SAMATOA, JOSÉ FERNANDO TEGUCIGALPA, HONDURAS
Representante EMPAGUA Telephone: 33-11-04 - Telex 1390 HO
Empresa Municipal de Agua -EMPAGUA 3. FLORES, RAÚL
16 avenida "B" 19-68, zona 6, Proyecto 4-4 Gerente General
GUATEMALA Empresa Nacional de Energía Eléctrica
Telephone: 56-64-94 Apartado Postal 99
31. SÁNCHEZ B, EDDY TEGUCIGALPA, D.C. HONDURAS
Subdirector General Telephone: 22-84-66
INSIVUMEH 4. LOPP, CAROL
7a. avenida 14-57, zona 13 GEOLOGIST
GUATEMALA Instituto Geográfico Nacional
Telephone: 31^9-67 c/o E. Fertsch, Apartado 611
32. TOBAR, CARLOS ALBERTO TEGUCIGALPA, D.C., HONDURAS
Coordinador Área Geología, Minas y Petróleo Telephone: (504) 33-76-03 74
Facultad de Ingeniería - USAC 5. MASS, MARCO ANTONIO
Ciudad Universitaria, zona 12 Sub-genente de Ingeniería y Construcción
GUATEMALA Empresa Nacional de Energía Eléctrica
Telephone: 76-03-65 - 93-00-86 Apartado 99
33. TOBÍAS G, EDGAR TEGUCIGALPA, D.C., HONDURAS
Ingeniero Supervisor General Telephone: 22-43-73 - Telex 1128 HT
INDE 6. RIVERA, GARLO HUGO
San José Villa Nueva - Guatemala Sur Geólogo-Coordinador Promoción Petrolera
GUATEMALA Dirección General de Minas e Hidrocarburos
Telephone: 03-10-32 Blvd. Centroamérica
34. VELASQUEZ V, ESTUARDO TEGUCIGALPA, D.C, HONDURAS
Director General Telephone: 32-67-21, 32-78-48
INSIVUMEH Telex: 1404 SERENA HO
7a. avenida 14-57, zona 13 7. PEREDES, RODRIGO
GUATEMALA Geólogo
Telephone: 31-49-67 Empresa Nacional de Energía Eléctrica - ENEE
35. ZETINA, MIGUEL ÁNGEL Apartado 99
Ingeniero Proyectos Especiales TEGUCIGALPA, HONDURAS
ICAITT Telephone: 22-85-10 - 22-24-32 Ext. 277-225
Avenida Reforma 4-47, zona 10 8. WAIMIN, MARCO ANTONIO
GUATEMALA Jefe de la División de Ingeniería Civil
Telephone: 31-74-66 Empresa Nacional de Energía Eléctrica - ENEE
Apartado 99
HONDURAS TEGUCIGALPA, HONDURAS
1. ANDREWS, ATHENA Telephone: 22-85-10 - 128 ENEEHT (Telex)
Geologist
Instituto Geográfico Nacional/Cuerpo de Paz ICAITI
Apartado C-51 1. LIC. FRANCISCO AQUIRRE B.
TEGUCIGALPA D.C., HONDURAS Director
Telephone: 32-17-53 ICAITI
2. GARCÍA, LUIS Apartado Postal 1552
Representante del Secretario Ejecutivo Avenida Reforma 4-47, zona 10
Comité Regional de Recursos Hidráulicos (CRRH) GUATEMALA
P.O. Box 718 Telex: 5312 ICAITI-GU
270 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America
13. EDGAR, TERRY 22. KRUSHENSKY, RICHARD
Geologist Deputy Chief, Latin America
USGS Office of International Geology
915 National Center USGS
RESTON, VIRGINIA 22092 917 National Center
Telephone: 703/648-5301 RESTON, VIRGINIA 22092
14. EVANS, DOYLE Telephone: 703/648-6060
Los Alamos National Laboratory 23. LANDIS, EDWIN
LOS ALAMOS, NEW MEXICO 87545 Geologist
Telephone: 505/667-3644 USGS
Box 25046, MS 972
15. POUCH, THOMAS Denver Federal Center
Chief, Branch of Energy Minerals DENVER, COLORADO 80225
USGS Telephone: 303/776-7756
R0. Box 25046, MS 916 24. LEWIS, JOHN
Denver Federal Center Professor
LAKEWOOD, COLORADO 80225 George Washington University
Telephone: 303/776-1644 WASHINGTON, D.C. 20052
16. GROSSLING, BERNARDO Telephone: 202/626-6287
Natural Resources Advisor 25. LUKIS, PANDELIS
Inter-American Development Bank Jefe Proyecto
801-17th Street Defense Mapping Agency
WASHINGTON, D.C. 20577 Inter American Geodetic Survey
Telephone: 201/634-8583 U.S. Embassy
17. GOODWIN, JR., GEORGE GUATEMALA
Chief Librarian Telephone: 67770
USGS 26. LOHRDING, RON
950 National Center Assistant Director
RESTON, VIRGINIA 22092 Los Alamos National Laboratory
Telephone: 703/648-^305 LOS ALAMOS, NEW MEXICO 87545
18. HESTER, JAMES Telephone: 505/667-4960
Chief, Environmental Officer 27. MCDOWELL, ROBERT
USAID Geologist
WASHINGTON, D.C. 20523 USGS
Telephone: 202/632-0207 928 National Center
RESTON, VIRGINIA 22092
19. HORNE, GREGORY
Telephone: 703/648-6929
Geologist
Wesleyan Univ. 28. MORGAN, BENJAMIN
MIDDLETON, CONNECTICUT Assistant Chief Geologist
Telephone: 203/347-949 USGS
911 National Center
20. HOOVER, DONALD RESTON, VIRGINIA 22092
Geophysicist Telephone: 703/648-6640
USGS 29. PLUNKETT, JERRY
Box 25046, MS 964 Vice Chancellor-Research & Technology
Denver Federal Center University of Denver
DENVER, COLORADO 80225
DENVER, COLORADO 80208
Telephone: 303/776-1326
Telephone: 303/871-2368
21. IVES, RICHARD 31. QUINONEZ, FRED
Foreign Activities Specialist/Hydrologist Director Distrito
Bureau of Reclamation USGS
Room 7633 SAN JUAN PUERTO RICO
WASHINGTON, D.C. 20240 GVO BOX 4424 San Juan, PR. 00936
Telephone: 202/343-5236 Telex: 248613 DOTA UR Telephone: 809/753-4414
272 Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Geologic Hazards, Central America • U.S. G.P.O. 198?-201-933,600?0
WU/fc«^JTY Of CALIFORNIA, pan rvr —
U JOLLA. <-«! (frriow
Current Understanding
DEPOSITORY IUM
MAR 2 li 1988
CcmKAt. L-iwwi
DOCUMENTS DOT.
UCSD
I
Manmade Organic Compounds
Current Understanding
THOMAS V. FUSILLO
Abstract 1
Introduction 1
Background 1
Purpose and scope 2
Processes affecting the fate and distribution of organic compounds 2
Sorption 2
Definitions 2
Adsorption and partitioning 3
Sorption of nonionic organic compounds 3
Importance of particulate organic matter 6
Importance of dissolved organic matter 8
Sorption of ionic organic compounds 8
Organic acids 9
Organic bases 9
Bioaccumulation 11
Importance of biological lipid reservoirs 11
Biomagnification 14
Transformation processes 15
Photolysis 16
Hydrolysis 18
Biodegradation 19
Volatilization 21
Polychlorinated biphenyls and chlorinated insecticides 25
Uses, production, properties, and regulatory limits 25
Environmental fate 27
Environmental distribution 32
Carbamate and organophosphorus insecticides 36
Uses, production, properties, and regulatory limits 36
Environmental fate 37
Environmental distribution 39
Herbicides 39
Uses, production, properties, and regulatory limits 39
Environmental fate 40
Environmental distribution 43
Phenols 44
Uses, production, properties, and regulatory limits 44
Environmental fate 45
Environmental distribution 49
Halogenated aliphatic and monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons 50
Uses, production, and properties 50
Environmental fate 52
Environmental distribution 55
Phthalate esters 56
Uses, production, and properties 56
Environmental fate 57
Environmental distribution 59
Content* III
Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins 60
Uses, production, and properties 60
Environmental fate 62
Environmental distribution 63
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons 64
Uses, production, and properties 64
Environmental fate 66
Environmental distribution 70
Summary 73
Selected references 74
FIGURES
IV Content*
15, 16. Plots showing:
15. Cumulative 14C02 (percentage of added ring-labeled
14C-insecticide) evolved in a soil planted to rice under flooded
and nonflooded conditions 38
16. Trends in national use of herbicides and insecticides on major
crops, 1964-82 40
17, 18. Structural diagrams of:
17. Selected herbicides 40
18. Selected phenolic compounds 44
19. Structural diagrams showing degradation pathway of pentachlorophenol in
soils 48
20. Structural diagrams of selected halogenated aliphatic and monocyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons 51
21. Graph of predicted volatilization rates of methylene chloride and
dichlorobenzene in the Rio Grande River, N. Mex. 55
22. Structural diagrams of some common phthalate esters 57
23, 24. Structural diagrams showing:
23. Degradation of di-n-butyl phthalate, mono-n-butyl phthalate, and
phthalic acid by different microorganisms: organisms isolated
with di-n-butyl phthalate as carbon source for enrichment, stock
cultures, and bacteria isolated from phthalic acid enrichment
medium 59
24. Formation of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin as a byproduct
in the synthesis of 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid 60
25. Structural diagrams of selected polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons 66
26. Structural diagrams showing proposed degradation pathway of
phenanthrene by soil pseudomonads 70
TABLES
1. Contrasting characteristics of adsorption and partition processes 3
2. Selected anionic and cationic organic compounds of environmental
significance 9
3. Approximate molecular composition of some Aroclor mixtures 26
4. Some uses of polychlorinated biphenyls suggested by the manufacturer 27
5. Detection limits, water-quality criteria, and use data for selected organo-
chlorine insecticides 28
6. Experimentally determined octanol-water partition coefficients, solubilities, and
vapor pressures of selected polychlorinated biphenyls and chlorinated insecti
cides at room temperature 29
7. Experimentally determined sorption coefficients for some polychlorinated
biphenyls and organochlorine insecticides 30
8. Experimentally determined bioconcentration factors for some polychlorinated
biphenyls and organochlorine insecticides 31
9. Means and ranges of detectable sediment residues of polychlorinated biphenyls
and organochlorine insecticides 33
10. Detectable residues of polychlorinated biphenyls and organochlorine insecti
cides in biota 34
11. Experimentally determined octanol-water partition coefficients, solubilities, and
vapor pressures of selected organophosphorus and carbamate insecticides at
room temperature 36
Contents V
12. Detection limits, water-quality criteria, and use data for selected
organophosphorus insecticides 37
13. Characteristics of selected carbamate insecticides 38
14. Approximate persistence of pesticides in soils 38
15. Detection limits, water-quality criteria, and use data for some common
herbicides 40
16. List of and magnitude of application of herbicides in 11 agricultural water
sheds in Ontario, 1975 41
17. Experimentally determined aqueous solubilities and vapor pressures of
selected herbicides at room temperature 41
18. Structural groupings of selected herbicides 41
19. Herbicide residues in North American surface waters 43
20. World production of phenol in 1978 45
21. Experimentally determined physicochemical properties of selected phenolic
compounds at room temperature 46
22. Phenol bacteria present during the winter and (or) summer season in St.
Lawrence River water and maximum phenol levels that could be tolerated 47
23. Time required for bacteria to use 95 percent of parent substrate 48
24. Photolysis of phenols and their degradation products 48
25. Experimentally determined sorption coefficients of nonionized chlorinated
phenols for different natural sorbents 49
26. Concentration of phenol and some of its chlorinated derivatives in municipal
and industrial wastewater 50
27. U.S. production of selected halogenated aliphatic and monocyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons 51
28. Uses of selected halogenated aliphatic and monocyclic aromatic hydro
carbons 52
29. Experimentally determined octanol-water partition coefficients, solubilities, and
vapor pressures of selected halogenated aliphatic and monocyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons at room temperature 53
30. Evaporation times for 50 and 90 percent removal of chlorinated aliphatic
hydrocarbons (1 milligram per liter) at 25 CC, 200 revolutions per minute of
stirring, and a depth of 6.5 centimeters 54
31.Ratios of overall transfer coefficients for selected aliphatic and monocyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons to overall transfer coefficients for oxygen 54
32. Uses of phthalate esters in the United States 57
33. Solubilities and vapor pressures of selected phthalate esters 58
34. Selected bioconcentration factors of phthalate esters in aquatic systems 58
35. Chlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins found in commercial pesticides 61
36. Single oral doses of dioxins necessary to kill 50 percent of exposed
animals 62
37. Bioconcentration factors of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin for a variety of
aquatic organisms 62
38. Estimated annual inputs of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins to the Canadian
environment from major sources 64
39. Residues of chlorodibenzo-p-dioxins in soil samples from various locations in
the United States 65
40. Mean and maximum concentrations of detected residues of 2,3,7,8-
tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin in a variety of freshwater and marine fish 65
VI Content»
41. Residues of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in oils, gasoline, bitumen, and
sludge 67
42. Estimated annual benzo(a)pyrene emissions to the atmosphere 68
43. Experimentally determined octanol-water partition coefficients, solubilities, and
vapor pressures of selected polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons 68
44. Calculated and experimental sediment-water sorption coefficients normalized
for organic carbon for a variety of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons 69
45. Bioconcentration factors for selected polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons 69
46. Sediment residues of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons 71
47. Residues of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in biota 72
Contents VII
ABBREVIATIONS
VIII Abbreviation*
Manmade Organic Compounds in the
Abstract INTRODUCTION
Introduction 1
the surface-water system. Based on land-use data, greater Sorption
than 97 percent of land area in the United States is a
potential source of nonpoint contaminant discharges Water quality has traditionally been assessed in
(McElroy and others, 1975). Atmospheric deposition of terms of concentrations of dissolved constituents. How
organic contaminants into surface waters also has been ever, certain organic contaminants can be sorbed to
documented. Heit and others (1984) determined that suspended and bottom sediment and may be present in
PCB contamination of four remote lakes in Rocky Moun sediment at concentrations that are orders of magnitude
tain National Park (Colo.) was attributable to the atmos higher than their dissolved concentrations. Sediments can
pheric transport and subsequent deposition of the organic be a reservoir for many persistent organic compounds,
contaminants. They found that surficial sediments in the causing the compounds to remain in the surface-water
lakes had total PCB concentrations as high as 540 ftg/kg system years after input of the contaminant has stopped.
dry weight. Finally, ground water also can supply a Additionally, the sorbed organic contaminant may repre
surface-water system with organic contaminants (Frank sent a large fraction of the total mass of contaminant
and others, 1981), but the persistence of soluble ground transported downstream. The ability to predict the extent
water contaminants in surface waters is typically not great of sorption for a contaminant in a surface-water system
because of their volatility (Connor, 1984b). may, therefore, be extremely important in assessing water
quality.
The increasing production and use of manmade Unlike aqueous concentrations, concentrations of
organic compounds coupled with their ease of transport anthropogenic organic compounds sorbed to sediment or
into surface-water systems makes knowledge of their soil are expressed as a ratio of the mass of contaminant to
environmental behavior essential to the management of the mass of sediment or soil (for example, pg/g, ng/kg.
the Nation's freshwater resources. The purpose of this mg/kg). The extent to which an organic contaminant is
report is to provide an interpretative, critical review of the sorbed to a given sediment at equilibrium is quantified by
scientific literature with regard to the occurrence, distri its distribution (sorption) coefficient, K,j , which is defined
bution, and fate of manmade organic compounds in the as
surface-water systems of the United States. More specif
ically, the review examines organic-contaminant inter
actions with bottom and suspended sediment, the water
column, and the biota of rivers, estuaries, and lakes. Both
laboratory and field studies are reviewed, and, where where C, is the concentration of a contaminant sorbed to
applicable, their results are compared and contrasted. a specific weight of sediment and Ce is the concentration
Examples of organic-contaminant concentrations reported of the same contaminant dissolved in an equal weight of
in field studies are given to serve as a means of compar water (Olsen and others, 1982).
ison with ongoing research. Special emphasis is given to For a given contaminant-sediment combination, C,
the environmental variables and the physicochemical prop is a function of Ce and commonly is related to Ce by the
erties of the organic compounds that are intrinsic to the empirical Freundlich isotherm, given by
distribution and fate of the contaminant. Finally, where
data are sufficient, the regional and temporal distribution C,=KCe(1/n) ,
patterns of manmade organic compounds in the surface-
water systems of the United States are discussed. where K and n are empirical constants that are a function
of the sorbent and sórbate. If n has a value of unity, a plot
of C, versus Ce will be linear and K will equal the
PROCESSES AFFECTING THE FATE AND previously defined sorption coefficient.
DISTRIBUTION OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS The sorption coefficient commonly is expressed on
an organic-matter basis and is defined as
5 2 1000 -
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400
EQUILIBRIUM CONCENTRATION, Ce, IN PARTS PER MILLION
Figure 2. Soil-water equilibrium isotherms of some neutral organic compounds at 20 °C. The soil used is a Willamette silt
loam with 1.6 percent organic matter, 26 percent clay, 3.3 percent sand, and 69 percent silt. [Reprinted with permission from
Science, v. 206, p. 831 (1979). Copyright 1979 by the American Association for the Advancement of Science.]
I I I I I I I I
2A5,2',<5'-PCB
^s^ODT
10*
^\JJ,5,2',5'-PCB
10 - \^.2,4'-PCB
^^s^Tetrachloroelhene
l,2-Dichlorobenzene*V. J,|,|-Tfichloroethane _
7Z .„2
10 l,2-Bromo-3 chloropropane^L 1,1,2,2 -Tetro-
1,2-Dibromoethane*^ chloroethane
l^-Dichloropropane^
I I i i i i I 1,2-Dichloroethane
10 .-3
10" 10" 10' I 10 10 10 10 10 10
SOLUBILITY IN WATER. IN MICROMOLES PER LITER, LOG SCALE
Figure 4. Soil organics-water sorption coefficients plotted as a function of the aqueous solubilities of selected neutral
organic compounds. [Reprinted with permission from Science, v. 206, p. 831 (1979). Copyright 1979 by the American
Association for the Advancement of Science.]
Brown (1978) for the sorption of paraquat by sediment others (1975) also noted that while different saturating
and by Khan (1974a) for the sorption of paraquat and inorganic cations may influence the sorption of bipyridyl-
diquat. ium herbicides, this influence will also depend on the type
Organic cations appear to be adsorbed primarily by of clay mineral present. Karickhoff and Brown (1978)
an ion-exchange mechanism, as is evidenced by the observed sorption coefficients for paraquat to be corre
infrared spectroscopic analyses of Khan (1974a) and lated with the cation- exchange capacity of different
Senesi and Testini (1980). The adsorption process is, particle-size fractions of a natural sediment. Zierath and
therefore, sensitive to both the charge and atomic radius others (1980) similarly noted that benzidine sorption
of the saturating cation associated with the sediment. increased directly with particle surface area.
Khan (1974c) stated that the sediment-associated cations Because sorption of organic bases, such as the
that enhanced adsorption of both diquat and paraquat to bipyridylium herbicides, is due primarily to an adsorption
a humic acid followed the sequence Al+3 < Fe+3 < Cu+2 < process, solute solubility and sediment organic-matter
Ni+2 < Zn+2 < Co+2 < Mn+2 < H+ < Ca+2 < Mg+2. This content may not be sufficient parameters to predict
relation is inversely related to the stability of the element sorption coefficients. As described above, the solute's pK„
when complexed with humic acid (Khan, 1974c). The and sediment factors, such as cation exchange capacity,
stability of an element typically increases with both surface area, or the charge or atomic radius of the
valence and ionic radius. Strongly bound cations, such as saturating inorganic cation, also may be important in
Al+3 or Fe+3, are more resistant to displacement by an determining a sorption coefficient. System parameters,
organic cation than are weakly bound cations, such as such as pH and ionic strength (Narine and Guy, 1982),
Ca+2 or Mg+2. The variation in organic-cation sorption as may also influence sorption. For these reasons, predictive
a function of the type of inorganic cation saturating the sorption modeling is more complex for organic bases than
soil or sediment also has been observed by El-Dib and for organic acids or nonionic organic compounds. How
Aly (1976b) and Hayes and others (1975). Hayes and ever, the environmentally significant compounds that
of PCB's. Again, the highest PCB concentrations were others (1974). By selectively disregarding some of the
found in the largest fish (which possessed the highest lipid data in figure 7, Mackay (1982a) developed his own
contents). The results of these studies indicate the impor relation (labeled "this work" in the figure), having the
tance of lipid content to the bioaccumulation of organic equation
compounds. For a given exposure level, organisms having
the highest lipid contents can be expected to accumulate log BCF=log K^-132
the greatest amount of organic solute on a concentration
basis. Similarly, the accumulated contaminant will likely with a correlation coefficient of 0.95. The data of Neely
concentrate itself in an organism's lipid reservoirs. and others (1974), not included in the above correlation,
The extent to which an organic compound is bioac- resulted in the following relation:
cumulated by a given aquatic organism depends largely on
its aqueous solubility. As discussed earlier, decreasing log BCF=0.52 log K,,,, +0.124
solubility correlates with increasing K,,,,. Because bioac
cumulation appears to be a partitioning process, the BCF with a correlation coefficient of 0.948. Casserly and others
can be expected to vary inversely with solubility. Also, the (1983) also correlated KoW with BCF for the green alga
BCF can be expected to vary with K,,,, such that increas Selenastmm capricomutum and established the equation
ing KoW yields increasing BCF. Examination of the scien
tific literature reveals that these relations have been log BCF=0.46 log K^+2.36
demonstrated in the laboratory. Mackay (1982a) compiled
data from a variety of sources to develop figure 7, in with a correlation coefficient of 0.83. Similar correlations
which the BCFs based on whole-fish mass are used. The have been reported by Oliver and Niimi (1983, 1985),
majority of the data are from the work of Veith and others Konemann and van Leeuwen (1980), and Southworth and
(1979); their plot of log versus log BCF is labeled in others (1978a, 1978b). Figure 8 presents a plot of BCF as
the figure along with the plot developed by Neely and a function of aqueous solubility for a variety of pesticides
12 Man made Organic Compounds In the Surface Waters of the United States
10~3 10~2 10"1 1 101 102 103 104
accumulated by caddisfly egg masses (Belluck and Felsot, obtained from the work of Kbnemann and van Leeuwen
1981). Again, a linear log-log relationship is assumed and (1980) and Oliver and Niimi (1983) by dividing them by
defined by the equation the fraction of lipid present in the organism. Figure 9
presents a log-log plot of the lipid-normalized BCFs for
log BCF=-0.52 log S+1.67. rainbow trout and guppies versus the triolein-water par
tition coefficients (K,w) for a variety of organic com
Other solubility-BCF relations have been demonstrated by pounds. The parameter KIW was used instead of K„w
Chiou and others (1977) and Metcalf and others (1975). because triolein more closely resembles the fish lipid than
These relations indicate the dependence of the BCF on does octanol. The data are well correlated, and the
organic compound solubility and on Kow. The BCF tends regression equation takes the form
to increase with decreasing solubility and (or) increasing
octanol-water partition coefficient. log BCF= 0.957 log K,w+ 0.245
Although numerous researchers have successfully
performed regression analyses for BCFs as a function of with n=18 and a correlation coefficient= 0.915. Unlike
either solubility or octanol-water partition coefficient, the previous regressions, no systematic differences between
BCFs for a given compound predicted by many of the the two fish species are evident. Just as sorption coeffi
correlation equations are significantly different, some cients can be estimated from sediment organic-matter
times by orders of magnitude. Chiou (1981, 1985) has content and a compound's solubility, or K,,,, the above
suggested that these differences are accounted for largely correlation allows the prediction of the BCF from only a
by differences in the lipid contents of the aquatic organ knowledge of the organism's lipid content and the
isms used to develop the different correlations. To account compound's K,w. Chiou (1985) also related K,w to K,,,, so
for this effect, Chiou (1985) normalized BCF values the BCF can also be determined from the compound's KoW
Biomagnification
16 Man made Organic Compounds In the Surface Waters of the United States
range and multiplied by a constant. The constant, called wavelengths of light. Because the two compounds absorb
the quantum yield of the reaction, represents the effi radiation of different wavelengths, this filtering process
ciency of usage of the absorbed radiation by the solute for may alter the intensity of usable radiation available to the
the particular photochemical reaction. From the intensity compounds. Thus, for the same set of environmental
of radiation at a particular depth in a water body, the conditions, two compounds can photolyze at different
average photolysis rate is estimated from the properties of rates because of differences in the energy content of the
the solute— namely, the molar extinction coefficient, the range of solar radiation (the specific set of wavelengths)
concentration, and the quantum yield for the photochem they absorb.
ical reaction. Using the first-order rate equation for direct pho
The most commonly used representation for a tolysis, an expression can be derived for a compound's
direct photolytic process is a first-order kinetic expres half life. The half life (originally devised to measure the
sion, decay of radioactive material) refers to the time required
for one-half of the initial concentration of a compound to
d[q/dt— k„[q. be removed solely by direct photolysis. The half-life
expression for a first-order, direct photolysis process is
In this expression, the rate of change (d/dt) of a
compound's concentration (C) (resulting from photolysis) 1^0.693/kp,
is directly proportional to the concentration of the com
pound multiplied by a first-order rate constant, kp, with and it is dependent on only the quantum yield and the
units of reciprocal time. absorption coefficient for a particular compound. Com
The first-order rate constant is the product of the pounds that have high absorption coefficients and high
rate constant for the absorption of light by the chemical, quantum yields will have low half-life values, indicating
k,, and the quantum yield (Q) (the efficiency of energy rapid removal of the compound by photochemical proc
conversion for the photochemical reaction), or esses. Because the half-life concept provides an indica
tion of the rate of reaction in units of time (as opposed to
kp-OO (Q). rate constants in units of reciprocal time), it is a tangible
measure for comparing photolysis with other first-order
The determination of the absorption-rate constant takes rate processes, such as hydrolysis, volatilization, and bio-
into account the environmental variables for a specific degradation.
system, such as time of day, season, latitude, ozone Although estimates of the photolytic half-lives of
thickness, and depth in the water body, as well as the certain organic chemicals account for many environmen
absorption characteristics, such as the molar extinction tal and compound-specific properties, additional factors
coefficient, of the particular compound. should be considered to improve the approximation of the
The influence of the compound's absorption prop photolytic degradation of an organic contaminant. For
erties on the rate of direct photolysis is illustrated by the example, cloud cover can reduce the intensity of ultravi
following example. Zepp and Cline (1977) calculated the olet radiation by as much as 50 percent and thereby alter
direct photolysis rates for carbaryl (a carbamate insecti
the degradation kinetics of an organic compound. In
cide) and trifluralin (a dinitroaniline herbicide). The
contrast, variations in the elevation of a stream within a
compounds have similar quantum yields for reactions in
geographical area can increase light intensity by 15-20
air-saturated water, but their peak absorption of radiation
percent for every kilometer increase in elevation. Also, the
occurs in different parts of the ultraviolet- and visible-
light ranges. Consequently, for the same set of environ thickness of the ozone layer can vary daily as much as 30
mental conditions (midday, midsummer, latitude 40° N.), percent, causing changes in atmospheric scattering and
the absorption rate for trifluralin is 400 times larger than absorption.
that for carbaryl, and the direct photolysis of trifluralin is The influence of other factors on the photolysis
two orders of magnitude more rapid than that of carbaryl process has not been well quantified. For example, it has
(Zepp and Cline, 1977). yet to be determined how varying concentrations of
The intensity and spectral distribution of light are as chromophores, such as dissolved and particulate organic
important as the absorption properties of the compound matter, affect the rate and extent of indirect photolysis
in determining the photolysis rate. The data of Zepp and reactions. In many studies, the effect of light scattering in
Cline (1977) illustrate the difference that chemical prop the water column is ignored, but it may be significant in
erties can have on the photolysis rate. This difference is turbid lakes and rivers. Finally, the mixing of water
not constant, but varies with environmental conditions. continually changes the temporal and spatial distribution
Different combinations of time of day, season, latitude, of available sunlight and chemical concentrations. Cur
and ozone thickness will selectively filter out different rent photolysis models still assume a spatially homoge
Hydrolysis is a transformation process that changes where K, and K^ are second-order rate constants (mass
the chemical speciation of an organic contaminant. Like volume-1 time-1). This relation shows that the rate of
photolysis, biodegradation, and volatilization, the extent of hydrolysis depends on the product of the acid or base
contaminant removal by hydrolysis depends on both the concentration and the contaminant concentration. K^ is
chemical properties of the organic compound and the the first-order rate constant for the pH-independent reac
aqueous medium. Also, like other transformation proc tion.
esses, the hydrolysis of organic contaminants is mathe Incorporation of the effects of acid- or base-
matically represented by a first-order kinetic process. promoted catalysis increases the order of the overall
This subsection summarizes some of the equations and hydrolysis expression from first to second order. The rate
physicochemical factors influencing the rate and extent of now depends, explicitly, on the concentration of two
the hydrolysis reaction for different classes of organic components, [RX] and [OH-] or [H+]. Rearranging the
compounds. rate equation to express it solely in terms of [H+] is done
Hydrolysis is the reaction of a compound with water using the expression for the dissociation of water,
resulting in an exchange of some functional group, X", Kw=[OH-][H+], and by canceling the [RX] in each term.
from the organic molecule with a hydroxyl group, OH-, From the above equation, this gives
from the aqueous medium. The overall mechanism can be
represented by the following reaction sequence
Kh=KbKw/[H+]+K,[H+]+Kn.
RX+H20— ROH+HX,
From this expression, it is apparent that at elevated pH,
where RX is the organic molecule and X is a particular the overall rate constant is controlled by the first term on
functional group. The individual reaction steps involve the the right side of the equation (assuming I^K» is suffi
formation of one or more intermediates which combine to ciently large). Under acidic conditions, the elevated H+
transform the compound by the simplified mechanism concentration makes the second term on the right side
given above. On the basis of this mechanism, the hydrol dominate in the determination of the overall rate constant
ysis rate is expressed by a first-order rate law such that (assuming K, is sufficiently large). At neutral pH, the last
-d[C]/dt=Kb X.
Average molecular weight 257.9 200.7 232.2 266.5 299.5 328.4 375.7
have been used as plasticizers, as hydraulic lubricants in duction of PCB's during the 1970's. Because of the
gas turbines and vacuum pumps, in heat-transfer systems, environmental persistence and toxicity of PCB's, their
and as dielectric fluids in electrical capacitors and trans production, sale, distribution, and disposal were first
formers. Aroclor1 is the trade name for one manu regulated under the provisions of the Toxic Substances
facturer's PCB's. Aroclors are mixtures of a variety of Control Act of 1976. In the same year, the U.S. Environ
polychlorinated bi- and terphenyls that are identified by a mental Protection Agency (USEPA) set 0.001 /ig/L as the
four-digit number. The first two numbers refer to the type water-quality criterion for PCB's to protect freshwater
of molecule primarily used in the mixture (12- refers to and marine aquatic life (U.S. Environmental Protection
biphenyl, 54- refers to terphenyl), and the second two Agency, 1976). In 1977, PCB use was restricted by the
numbers specify the percent chlorine (by weight) in the USEPA, and in 1979, all manufacture, sale, and distribu
mixture. Aroclor 1016 was marketed more recently in tion of PCB's in the United States was prohibited (Haley,
1984). Despite the cessation of production, PCB's are
response to the environmental problems associated with
estimated to be present in 2 million transformers and 2.8
the persistence of the other Aroclor mixtures. This prod
million capacitors currently in use in the United States
uct contains predominantly mono-, di-, and trichlorobi-
(Moore and Ramamoorthy, 1984).
phenyl isomers. The approximate molecular compositions of
The use of organochlorine insecticides began with
Aroclor mixtures are given in table 3. Additionally, some the discovery of the insecticidal properties of DDT by
uses of PCB's suggested by the manufacturer are detailed Paul Miiller in 1939. In that year, DDT was chosen as the
in table 4. most promising new synthetic organic insecticide. Muller
PCB's were first synthesized in 1929, with produc was awarded the Nobel Prize for his discovery 9 yr later
tion escalating in the United States during the 1960's. (Reutergardh, 1980). Technical-grade DDT contains
Production reached a peak in 1970, when 38,600 t were approximately 80 percent p,p'-DDT and 15-20 percent
produced (Moore and Ramamoorthy, 1984). The manu o,p'-DDT (Verschueren, 1983). The metabolic-
facturer voluntarily decreased and eventually ceased pro- degradation products of p,p'-DDT are p,p'-DDE and
p,p'-DDD, and their residues are commonly found in the
1 Use of trade names in this report is for identification purposes
environment.
only and does not constitute endorsement by the U.S. Geological Following the discovery of DDT, numerous other
Survey. organochlorine insecticides were developed and used.
Type of Aroclor
used and its Purpose of Aroclor use
Base material percent content and beneficial result
in final product
Lindane, the gamma isomer of hexachlorocyclohexane effects, and lipophilic nature. DDT and aldrin/dieldrin
(HCH), was found to be an effective insecticide in 1942, use peaked in the mid-1960's at annual values of 70,000
followed by chlordane in 1945, and heptachlor, aldrin, and 9,000 t, respectively. By 1970, these values had
dicldrin, and toxaphene in 1948. Toxaphene is produced decreased to 36,000 and 5,000 t, respectively. Currently
by the chlorination of terpene derivatives and is a mixture (1987), production of these compounds in the United
of more than 170 components. Endrin and endosulfan States is negligible. The use of other organochlorine
were first introduced in the 1950's. Mirex was first insecticides currently applied to crops (such as toxa
prepared in 1946 but was not used extensively until 1969, phene) is being restricted (Moore and Ramamoorthy, 1984).
when it was used to control fire ants in the Southern Additional use data for these and other chlorinated
United States. The degradation product of mirex is insecticides, along with detection limits and water-quality
kepone. Methoxychlor also became widely used in 1969 in criteria, are presented in table 5.
response to the ban of DDT in the United States. In the
past 10 yr, it has been estimated that the quantities of
Environmental Fate
insecticides applied has decreased owing to the use of
more potent insecticides, such as the pyrethroids perme- Organochlorine insecticides and PCB's are charac
thrin and fenvalerate, which require much lower applica terized by relatively low aqueous solubilities and high
tion rates than older organochlorine insecticides, such as octanol-water partition coefficients (table 6). Because low
toxaphene (Gilliom, 1985). solute solubility correlates with high sediment-water sorp
The production of organochlorine insecticides in tion coefficients for nonionic organic compounds, it is
the United States has been greatly curtailed over the last expected that PCB's and organochlorine insecticides
15 yr owing to their environmental persistence, toxic would strongly partition into sediment organic matter and
dissolved organic matter. Laboratory and field studies parts-per-million range). In an Oklahoma stream, Hunter
have corroborated this hypothesis. and others (1980) determined that PCB concentrations in
Table 7 presents some partition coefficients that sediment ranged from 0.23 to 7.2 ppm, yet the concentra
have been determined for PCB's and chlorinated insecti tion of PCB's in the water was undetectable. Likewise, at
cides in laboratory and field studies. The values for the one location in the Hudson River (N.Y.), Nadeau and
distribution coefficient, Kj, and the distribution coeffi Davis (1976) detected PCB concentrations in sediment of
cients normalized for organic carbon, K,,,., or organic almost 3,000 ppm, even though the aqueous concentration
matter, Kom, are very high, especially for DDT, DDE, and in the overlying water was only 3.0 ppb. These studies
the PCB's. These high sorption coefficients indicate the indicate the importance of sorption to the transport, fate,
strong tendency of these compounds to partition into the and distribution of organochlorine insecticides and PCB's
sediment organic matter. Even lindane, one of the more in surface-water systems.
soluble of the organochlorine insecticides, has been doc In addition to their affinity for sediment organic
umented as having values greater than 800 (Sharom matter, these chlorinated organic compounds also tend to
and others, 1980a). partition strongly into the lipid reservoirs of aquatic
As a result of their high sorption coefficients, organisms. The resulting concentration of the compound
insecticides and PCB's having low dissolved concentra in the biota can be as much as 1 million times greater than
tions in water (in the parts-per-trillion range) can still the compound's aqueous concentration. Table 8 presents
have very high concentrations in sediment (up to the bioconcent ration factors (BCF's) for a variety of PCB's
and chlorinated insecticides and for a variety of aquatic In addition to their typically low solubilities and
organisms ranging from microorganisms to fish. Differ high octanol-water partition coefficients, PCB's and chlo
ences in the BCF values among different compounds rinated insecticides also are characterized by relatively
result largely from differences in each compound's solu low vapor pressures (table 6). Compounds that have low
bility in water. For a given compound, the BCF can be vapor pressures typically have low mass-loss rates (fluxes)
expected to vary with the lipid contents of the different from solution. However, PCB's and some of the chlori
organisms. BCFs greater than 10,000 have been observed, nated insecticides in water are relatively volatile, because
and even the more soluble insecticides such as lindane their low water solubilities cause relatively high rates of
have been bioconcent rated to values hundreds of times loss from water. The rate of volatilization for a given
greater than the compound's aqueous concentration. compound depends on such factors as suspended-
Therefore, even low aqueous concentrations of organo- sediment concentration and the compound's organic-
chlorine insecticides and PCB's can produce environmen matter content, the concentration of dissolved organic
tally significant concentrations of these compounds in matter, temperature, and water turbulence. Increased
aquatic organisms. concentrations of organic matter result in increased sorp
tion and, consequently, decreased volatilization (Haque in the lakes were due to atmospheric deposition of the
and others, 1974; Callahan and others, 1979). Increases in contaminants. Similarly, atmospheric deposition has been
temperature or turbulence, however, will increase the rate considered the primary source of PCB contamination to
of volatilization. the Great Lakes (Murphy and Rzeszutko, 1977; Eisen-
Volatilization from solution and other atmospheric reich and others, 1979). Haines (1983) found residues of a
discharges (such as incineration) combine with atmo variety of organochlorine insecticides in brook trout taken
spheric transport to contribute to the widespread distri from six remote lakes in New England. Because the lakes
bution of PCB's and some of the chlorinated pesticides. were surrounded by forested land that had not been
Munson (1976) detected both toxaphene and PCB's in treated with pesticides for at least 80 yr, it was concluded
rainwater collected at Sollers Point, Md. Heit and others that the contaminant residues were atmospherically
(1984) have determined PCB concentrations up to 194 deposited. Volatilization, atmospheric transport, and sub
jig/kg in the sediments of remote Rocky Mountain lakes sequent deposition, therefore, partly explain the numer
that had not been directly affected by point source ous detections of PCB's and organochlorine insecticides
discharges of PCB's. They concluded that PCB's present around the globe.
Aquatic Bioconcentration
Compound organista factor Reference
In addition to their ability to partition into organic environment. There is some evidence that PCB's can be
matter and biological lipid reservoirs and their tendency to partially dechlorinated by photolysis, particularly when
volatilize and be transported atmospherically, the chlori exposed to short-wave ultraviolet light. Bunce and Kumar
nated insecticides and PCB's are, in general, highly (1978) calculated that highly chlorinated biphenyl mole
resistant to chemical or biological transformation. As a cules would lose one chlorine molecule per year in
result, they are extremely persistent environmental con shallow waters. In the same 1-yr period, however, they
taminants whose residues commonly remain years after predicted that only 5 percent of the lesser chlorinated
use at the source of contamination has ceased. biphenyls would lose a chlorine molecule photolytically.
The biodegradability of PCB's decreases with Although both biodegradation and photolysis transform
increased chlorination of the molecule, with the more PCB's at a very slow rate, they may be the most significant
highly chlorinated biphenyls being extremely resistant to long-term transformation processes because of the negli
biodegradation (Sayler and others, 1977). The biotransfor gible degradative affects of hydrolysis and oxidation.
mation of PCB's is enhanced by an increase in the The chlorinated insecticides also are relatively resist
number of C-H bonds available for hydroxylation by ant to biodegradation. Aldrin has been shown to be
microbial enzymes (Haley, 1984). Increased chlorination biotransformed to dieldrin, but this product is strongly
decreases the number of C-H bonds and, therefore, resistant to further degradation (Callahan and others,
inhibits biodegradation. PCB's also are extremely resis 1979). Likewise, DDT has been biotransformed to both
tant to oxidation and to both acidic and basic hydrolysis DDD and DDE in natural systems, with the latter com
(Callahan and others, 1979). Neither oxidation nor hydrol pound being highly resistant to continued biodegradation.
ysis are likely to transform PCB's significantly in the Microbial decomposition of DDT occurs primarily
(Brown and others, 1985). The data demonstrate a dis the United States. The number of detections of chlori
tinct decline in aqueous and lipid concentrations of PCB's nated insecticides in bed sediment decreased steadily
with time. from 1976 through 1978, but increased slightly in 1979
Organochlorine residues in sediments have also (fig. 13). In the monitoring network, 36 station-chemical
shown a general decline over time. Gilliom (1985) combinations exhibited statistically significant trends in
reported the results of the U.S. Geological Survey-U.S. pesticide concentration; 29 trends decreased with time.
Environmental Protection Agency Pesticide Monitoring Five of the seven increasing trends occurred in the Black
Network, which monitored selected pesticides in the water River in Kingstree, S.C., and most of these trends involved
and bottom sediments of more than 150 river sites across either DDD, DDE, DDT, chlordane, or dieldrin.
PCB contamination trends in sediment generally Hudson River have gradually decreased since the mid-
have been constant or have slowly declined over the last 1970's, but much of this decrease can be attributed to
10 yr. Ricci and others (1983) collected sediment cores substantial dredging operations that have removed an
from an Iowa reservoir and determined that PCB residues estimated 500,000 m3 of sediment over a 25-yr period
were greatest in the deepest sections of the core, indicat (Brown and others, 1985). Also, some of the Hudson
ing that the more recently deposited sediments were less River's contaminated sediment has been transported into
contaminated with PCB's. They observed similar trends Raritan Bay and is believed to be accumulating (Stainken
for DDE and DDD. Van Luik (1984), on the other hand, and Rollwagen, 1979). Sullivan and others (1983),
found no correlation between PCB concentration and core although observing a decline in PCB concentrations in
depth for sediment cores collected from the Calumet Sag fish from the Fox River, Wis., observed no significant
Channel (111.). Sediment PCB concentrations in the decline in the sediment PCB concentrations in the river
200 1976
Figure 13. Frequency of detection of organochlorine insec
1 1 1 1 ticides in water and bed-material samples from stations in the
I U.S. Geological Survey-U.S. Environmental Protection
O.lf 4 f 0.2 0.3 f 0.4 0.6 (0.6
1882 | 1861 1880 1878 Agency Pesticide Monitoring Network, 1975-80. (Reprinted
1883 from Gilliom, 1985.)
PCB, IN MICROGRAMS PER LITER
Figure 12. Relation of summer mean polychlorinated bi-
phenyl (PCB) concentrations in water and lipid-based PCB most use of each chemical occurring in only one or two
concentrations in fillets of whole yearling pumpkinseed regions of the country." Because compounds such as
collected in September 1977-83 at Stillwater, N.Y.
DDT and toxaphene are applied primarily in cotton-
[Reprinted with permission from Environmental Science and
Technology, v. 19, p. 659 (1985). Copyright 1985 by the growing areas, their residues are likely to be highest in
American Chemical Society.] these areas. Compounds such as aldrin and chlordane are
applied principally to corn and, therefore, are expected to
be found in corn-producing areas. However, residues in
from 1976 to 1981. These studies indicate the extreme
industrial areas also can be high, as evidenced by the data
persistence of PCBs and also may indicate that, despite
of Qasim and others (1980). They determined that aque
the cessation of their production, PCB residues in capac
ous pesticide concentrations in the Trinity River, Tex.,
itors and transformers throughout the United States may
were highest in the central reach of the river, which
still be contaminating surface waters.
Regionally, the highest PCB concentrations typi drained cropland, pasture, and forest. However, sediment
cally are found near industrial areas. Martel and others pesticide concentrations were highest in the upper reaches
(1975), in a study of a northern Virginia watershed, of the river, which drains the metropolitan areas of Dallas
observed that the highest sediment PCB concentrations in and Fort Worth. The authors attribute the latter con
the watershed were near the most industrialized areas. tamination to numerous point-source discharges of
Similarly, Mowrer and others (1977) found the highest wastewater-treatment plants. When surface-water contam
PCB residues in sediments and mussels of Puget Sound, ination can be attributed to runoff from cropland, the
Wash., in industrialized and heavily populated areas and highest concentrations are likely to be observed after a
the lowest concentrations in sparsley populated areas heavy rain (Pfaender and others, 1977).
surrounding the bay. Farrington and others (1983) ana PCB's and chlorinated insecticides have severely
lyzed mussels from 62 locations in the eastern and west affected our environment, and, despite their drastically
ern coastal waters of the United States from 1976 to 1978. declining use over the last 10 to 20 yr, their residues are
In all 3 yr of the study, mussels from water near urbanized likely to persist in the sediment, water, and biota of the
areas had PCB concentrations at least an order of mag Nation's surface-water systems for many years to come.
nitude greater than mussels from water near rural areas. At present, these compounds are being replaced by less
Nationally, PCB concentrations were generally highest persistent organic compounds. New insecticides, such as
along the northeastern coast from Chesapeake Bay to the carbamate and organophosphorus insecticides dis
Cape Ann, Maine. cussed in the next section, have found increasing use.
Residues of chlorinated insecticides are not neces PCB's have similarly been replaced by such compounds
sarily highest in industrialized regions. Gilliom (1985) as phenylxylylethanes, di-isopropylnaphthalenes, and
described pesticide use as being "strongly regional, with isopropylbiphenyls (Addison and others, 1983).
1. Detection limits are for water samples. Bed-sediment detection limits are 10 times greater and in units of micrograms
per kilogram (Lucas and others, 1980).
2. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1977).
3. Data for 1966, Eiehers and others (1970); for 1971. Andrilenes (1974); for 1976, Eichers and others (1978); for 1982,
U.S. Department of Agriculture (1983). Data for 1982 do not include use on livestock.
ity to animals is attributed to carboxyesterases that (1980b) found that 40 percent of the ethion and leptophos
degrade malathion to nontoxic metabolites in birds, mam and essentially 100 percent of the diazinon and mevinphos
mals, and resistant insects (Mulla and others, 1981). The added to natural water samples was degraded within 16
production of malathion in the United States reached a weeks. In a study of malathion degradation in soil, Gibson
high in 1971 of 30 million lb (Mulla and others, 1981). and Burns (1977) observed malathion half-lives of about
Table 13 presents some usage data for the carba 1 d. When the soil's organic matter was removed, however,
mate insecticides. Carbaryl, first synthesized in 1953 and degradation was three to six times slower. The authors
introduced in 1958, is the most widely used of the hypothesized that the organic matter has a catalytic effect
carbamate insecticides and has been shown to control (by acting as a stable enzyme) on the degradation of
more than 150 major pests (Rajagopal and others, 1984). malathion. Wolfe and others (1977) modeled the chemical
degradation of malathion as a function of pH and temper
ature. Acid degradation was slow (malathion half-life of 4
Environmental Fate yr at pH=4), but alkaline degradation was fast enough to
As is evidenced from the half-lives in table 14, the be a competitive degradation pathway in the environment
carbamate and organophosphorus insecticides are among (malathion half-life of 22 h at pH=8.2). Weinberger and
the least environmentally persistent pesticides. This is others (1982) documented both hydrolytic and photolytic
primarily attributable to their relatively rapid chemical decomposition of fenitrothion in aquatic microcosms.
and biological degradation in both soil and surface-water Eidt and others (1984) applied fenitrothion formulations
systems. to two Canadian streams and observed that the
Several researchers have documented the chemical compound's aqueous concentration was rapidly attenu
and biological attenuation of the organophosphorus insec ated in both streams. These studies indicate that the
ticides. Walker (1976) determined that 97 percent of organophosphorus insecticides are generally susceptible
malathion added to sterile and nonsterile river water was to rapid chemical and microbial degradation in natural
degraded after 18 d incubation in the dark. Parathion was systems.
more persistent, with only a 16- to 23-percent loss after Numerous studies also have documented the chem
40 d. Microorganisms capable of degrading both com ical and biological degradation of the carbamate insecti
pounds were isolated. Sudhakar-Barik and Sethunathan cides. Carbaryl is rapidly hydrolyzed at alkaline pH
(1978) noted the biological hydrolysis of parathion in (Wolfe and others, 1978), and it has been biologically
soils, water, and sediments and the formation of a degra degraded to 1-naphthol in the laboratory (Rajagopal and
dation product, p-nitrophenol, within 6 h after the second others, 1984). Aldicarb has similarly been observed to
or third additions of the insecticide. Sharom and others have hydrolytic half-lives of 55 and 6 d at pH values of
25.0i 1 r 1 , , , , r
Table 14. Approximate persistence of pesticides in soils
[From Metcalf, 1972]
Herbicides 39
600 I ■ I i—i—i—r- T—|—i—i—r-i—r
CO ■ -(Q-OCH. ci-rtn-ocHjCOOH
O
z ci ci
O J.4-D Í.4.8-T
0l
+1 •ft
Dlquat
0 CI
Ci-( ^ft-NH-C-N(CH, >,
CI NH-CH
I
DIuron CH,
Atrazin*
HyCj~N— CjH^
ci^tt^cooh
Plelorara
Trilluralln
CI CH-
Cl
Cl' COOH
1064 1966 1971 1976 1982 Silva»
Figure 16. Trends in national use of herbicides and insec Figure 17. Structural diagrams of selected herbicides.
ticides on major crops, 1964-82. [Reprinted from Gilliom and
others, 1985).]
along with some of their associated herbicides. Paraquat
extent. Figure 17 presents the structural diagrams of some and diquat, commonly referred to as the bipyridylium
of the more common terrestrial and aquatic herbicides. herbicides, are highly potent salts that exist in solution as
Based on their structural characteristics, the herbicides divalent organic cations with associated chloride or bro
are broken down into four groups. The organochlorine mide.
herbicides have phenoxy, acetic, or benzoic acid functional
groups attached to an aromatic ring. The other three Environmental Fate
groups are the nitrogen-substituted, urea-substituted, and The herbicides are, in general, nonpersistent envi
dinitroaniline herbicides. Table 18 lists the four groups ronmental contaminants. Their high solubilities greatly
Table 15. Detection limits, water-quality criteria, and use data for some common herbicides
[ ug/L, micrograms per liter, lbtyr, pounds per year. From Gilliom, 1985]
Amounts applied
Herbicides 41
sorption generally is not an important fate process. Bovey However, fish subjected to the 2,4-D BEE treatment
and others (1974) applied a 1:1 mixture of picloram and initially appeared to accumulate greater amounts of
2,4,5-T at a rate of 1.12 kg/ha to pastureland and then 2,4-D than fish subjected to the treatment with 2,4-D
analyzed soil and runoff water for both compounds. DMA. In a laboratory study documenting the BCFs of a
Concentrations in runoff water (400 to 800 ppb) were variety of pesticides by caddisfly egg masses, Belluck and
significantly higher than concentrations in soil (undetect Felsot (1981) observed that monuron had the lowest BCF
able to 238 ppb). El-Dib and Aly (1976b) studied the use of the group, having a value of approximately unity.
of bentonite clays to remove the herbicides IPC, CIPC, Monuron's low BCF was attributed to its high solubility
linuron, and monuron from contaminated surface waters relative to the other pesticides studied. With regard to the
and concluded that the clay minerals would be unable to herbicides as a group, bioconcentration varies inversely
remove significant amounts of the herbicides from solu with herbicide solubility, with some of the dinitroaniline
tion. End o ih all, an aquatic herbicide, was shown to have a herbicides probably exhibiting the greatest ability to
sorption coefficient of 0.958 in a sediment-water system bioconcentrate.
investigated by Reinert and Rodgers (1984). Similarly, The majority of the herbicides are rapidly degraded
Muir and others (1980) determined that distribution in surface-water systems and, therefore, are not persistent
coefficients for fluridone sorption to pond and river environmental contaminants. Averitt and Gangstad (1976)
sediments were relatively low, ranging from 20 to 137. observed the dissipation of 2,4-D in static water as a
Wauchope and Myers (1985) observed atrazine and function of water depth, temperature, and time. Using a
linuron sorption to freshwater sediments to be rapid and treatment rate of 4.48 kg acid equivalent per hectare, they
reversible. Once again, sorption coefficients were low, observed a 58-ppb residue decrease for each 0.61 m
ranging from 1.3 to 18 for atrazine and 1.5 to 24 for increase in water depth, a 115-ppb residue decrease for
linuron. each 7 °C increase in temperature, and a 53-ppb concen
Although the majority of herbicides do not sorb tration decrease for every 7-d interval after treatment.
appreciably to sediments, there are some exceptions. The Delaune and Salinas (1985) found that anaerobic condi
dinitroaniline and bipyridylium herbicides have demon tions retard microbial degradation of 2,4-D and that rapid
strated a strong tendency to sorb to sediments. Juo and degradation is most likely to occur in the oxidized surface
Oginni (1978) observed that sorption maximums for layer of sediments. Complete degradation of 2,4-D to C02
paraquat sorbed to a variety of tropical soils ranged from has been reported, with interim soil degradation products
1,200 to 7,500 mg/kg of soil. Karickhoff and Brown of 2,4-dichlorophenol and 2,4-dichloroanisole being
(1978) reported similar paraquat concentrations for the detected (Smith, 1985). Jones and others (1982) docu
silt- and clay-size fractions of five natural sediments, with mented half-lives of atrazine in an aqueous estuarine
the extent of sorption increasing with the sediment environment to range from 3 to 12 d, with the major
fraction's cation exchange capacity. Distribution coeffi metabolite being hydroxyatrazine. In contrast to 2,4-D
cients were greater than 1,000 for the clay fraction of one degradation, oxygen levels had little effect on atrazine
of the sediments. Khan (1974c) noted that paraquat and degradation. Humic substances have been shown to inhibit
diquat sorb by ion exchange and that their magnitudes of base-catalyzed hydrolytic reactions and to accelerate acid-
sorption are comparable. LaFleur (1979) noted that catalyzed hydrolytic reactions (Purdue, 1983). For exam
sorption of trifluralin to several model soils was extensive ple, Li and Felbeck (1972) have shown that the hydrolytic
and rapid, with practically 100 percent of the applied half-life of atrazine decreases with decreasing pH and
herbicide being sorbed to the soil within 100 min of batch increasing humic acid concentration. Muir and others
mixing. Therefore, the low solubilities of the dinitro (1980) reported fluridone half-lives in pond water ranging
aniline herbicides (relative to the other herbicides) and the from 4 to 7 d. Similarly, Bovey and others (1974) observed
strongly cationic nature of the bipyridylium herbicides that picloram and 2,4,5-T applied to pastureland dissi
cause them to strongly sorb to natural sediments. pated rapidly with no evidence of accumulation.
The herbicides are not readily bioaccumulated Some herbicides have demonstrated greater persis
because of their high solubilities and the ability of biota to tence than such compounds as atrazine and 2,4-D. Ander
metabolize them easily. Muir and others (1980) observed son (1985) determined that residues of chlorsulfuron and
that BCFs for minnows exposed to fluridone in small metsulfuron (two sulfonylurea herbicides applied to win
ponds ranged from less than 1 to 64. BCFs for duckweed ter wheat and barley) were persistent in soils for as long as
in the ponds were also low, ranging from 19 to 85. 500 d. Their ultimate attenuation was attributed to hydrol
Hoeppel and Westerdahl (1983) noted only minor accu ysis and biodegradation, the rates of which decreased
mulations of 2,4-D by fish in a Georgia lake treated with with decreasing temperature. El-Dib and Aly (1976a,
the dimethylamine (DMA) and butylethanol (BEE) salts 1976c) investigated hydrolysis and biodegradation of some
of 2,4-D. All fish collected 13 d after application of the of the phenylamide herbicides. They found that hydrolysis
herbicide contained nondetectable residues of 2,4-D. was a significant degradation process only at pH values
Mean, Maximum,
Compound Locality ppb ppb Reference
above typical environmental levels. Additionally, the tions in bed-sediment samples. Table 19 presents some
phenylamide herbicides were not significantly biode- herbicide residues that have been detected in natural
graded by mixed microbial cultures taken from Nile River surface waters in the United States.
water. Biodegradation did occur, however, when Bacillus Herbicides enter surface-water systems in a variety
cereus was added to the aqueous system. Despite these of ways, including application of aquatic herbicides directly
examples, the herbicides are relatively nonpersistent con to a body of water to control aquatic vegetation. As a
taminants of surface-water environments, with aquatic result, residues of aquatic herbicides will be greatest
half-lives usually less than 60 d. immediately following application. Terrestrial herbicides
are carried into surface waters by runoff and base flow,
and, consequently, surface-water residues are highest if a
Environmental Distribution heavy rain immediately follows application of the herbi
cide. During the spraying season, residues are commonly
Because the herbicides do not readily partition into
sediment organic matter or the lipid reservoirs of aquatic the result of misuse of equipment which leads to acciden
tal discharges of the herbicide into surface waters. Frank
organisms, the highest environmental residues of these
and others (1982) noted that 82 percent of the pesticides
compounds are typically found in the aqueous phase of
lost to water in 11 agricultural watersheds in Canada
surface-water systems. Bovey and others (1974) observed
during the spraying season could be attributed to careless
that picloram and 2,4,5-T residues in runoff from pasture-
land were primarily in the aqueous phase, with only use of the pesticides near surface waters. On an annual
small amounts sorbed to soil particles. Green and others basis, however, spills accounted for only 22 percent of the
(1977) noted that diuron residues in Hawaiian estuaries loss to water, while runoff accounted for 60 percent and
were transported primarily in solution. In a study of an base flow for 18 percent of the pesticide loss.
Iowa reservoir, Leung and others (1982) detected resi No definitive regional trends in contamination by
dues of only atrazine, alachlor, and cyanazine in the herbicides in U.S. surface waters have been reported in
aqueous phase. In samples from more than 150 surface- the literature, but regional herbicide-contamination trends
water stations across the United States during a 3-yr can be expected to parallel use patterns. For example,
period, Gilliom and others (1985) reported that all her Gilliom and others (1985) noted that stations in the U.S.
bicide detections were in water samples, with no detec Geological Survey-U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Herbicides 43
Pesticide Monitoring Network where atrazine was detected OH OH
more than once were all located downriver from large
corn-producing areas in which atrazine is heavily applied.
The low persistence of the herbicides coupled with rela 2-Ch!orophanol 2,4-Diohlorophenol
tively high analytical detection limits, however, prevented
any other determinations of regional trends.
Aside from the fact that the highest herbicide
residues in surface-water systems usually occur during OH OH OH
1976, 1977, and 1978. Atrazine and 2,4-D were the most 4-Nltreph,nol 2,4-Dinltrophonol 2.4-Dlm«thylph.nol
escalating use of herbicides over the last 20 yr (fig. 16) Figure 18. Structural diagrams of selected phenolic com
indicates that the amount of herbicides in the Nation's pounds.
surface waters is not likely to decrease in the near future.
iproduction 3production
Country (10 metric tons) Country (10 metric tons)
phenols, and their approximate annual production in the 4-methyl-2,6-dibutyl phenol is about 16,000 t, and that
United States is 18,800 t— significantly less than the annual U.S. production of nonylphenol was about 69,000
39,000-t production of 2,4-dichlorophenol (Moore and t in 1981. The latter compound's uses include nonionic
Ramamoorthy, 1984). This compound is used extensively surfactants, phenolic resins and plasticizers, adhesives,
to manufacture the herbicide 2,4-D. Trichlorophenols are lube oil additives, stabilizers, and petroleum demulsifiers
used as antimicrobial agents and as antimildew agents for (Verschueren, 1983).
textiles, and in the manufacture of wood and glue preser Table 21 presents some physicochemical data for
vatives. More specifically, 2,4,5-trichlorophenol is used to the phenols. In general, they have high solubility and
manufacture 2,4,5-T and 2,4,6-trichlorophenol is used to relatively low vapor pressures and octanol-water partition
produce tetrachlorophenol. The combined annual produc coefficients. Among the chlorinated phenols, however,
tion of tri- and tetrachlorophenols in the United States is compound solubility decreases and octanol-water parti
less than 7,000 t (Moore and Ramamoorthy, 1984). tion coefficient increases with increased chlorination of
Pentachlorophenol (PCP) has probably seen the the aromatic ring. PCP, the most highly chlorinated
most extensive use of all the chlorophenols, and it is phenol, has a solubility of only 14 mg/L and an octanol-
manufactured primarily by the organic chemical and water partition coefficient of 5.0.
pesticide industries. PCP was the second most heavily
used pesticide in the United States in 1977, when approx
imately 80 million lb were produced (Guthrie and others, Environmental Fate
1984). As a herbicide in Japan, it accounted for 50 Primary fate mechanisms for phenolic compounds
percent of all herbicide use in the country until its use was include biodegradation and photolysis. Sorption to natural
regulated in 1971 (Murthy and others, 1979). It is also sediments and bioaccumulation are generally minor, with
used extensively as a wood preservative, as a fungicide and the exception of the highly chlorinated phenols. Volatil
bactericide in cooling tower water, and as an additive in ization, hydrolysis, and nonphotolytic oxidation are also
adhesives, construction materials, textiles, leather, paint, relatively insignificant fate processes.
paper, and oil-well-drilling mud. Numerous researchers have documented biological
Annual U.S. production of 2-nitrophenol, 3-nitro- degradation of the phenols. Studies by Baird and others
phenol, 4-nitrophenol, and 2,4-dinitrophenol has been (1974), Hickman and Novak (1984), and Tabak and
estimated to be 6,800, less than 500, 19,000, and 500 t, others (1964) reported significant phenolic biodegrada
respectively (Moore and Ramamoorthy, 1984). For the tion in activated sludge systems. Other researchers (Chu
most part, the nitrophenols serve as intermediates in the and Kirsch, 1972; Knackmuss and Hellwig, 1978; Tabak
production of pesticides, pharmaceuticals, dyes, explo and others, 1981; Banerjee, Howard, and others, 1984)
sives, and wood preservatives. have noted biodegradation of phenols by isolated bacterial
Only sparse production data were found for some cultures.
of the other phenolic compounds. Moore and Rama Biodegradation of phenol in surface waters has also
moorthy (1984) noted that annual U.S. production of been observed. Borighem and Vereecken (1978) used in
Phenols 45
Table 21. Experimentally determined physicochemical properties of selected phenolic
compounds at room temperature
[mg/L, milligrams per liter, Kg,, octanol-water partition coefficient; pK„ -log acid dissociation constant.
From Callahan and others, 1979]
situ batch studies in both polluted and unpolluted reaches variety of parent phenolic compounds in 1 to 10 d (table
of the River Samber in Belgium to determine the effects 23). Knackmuss and Hellwig (1978) reported biodegra
of certain parameters on the degradation of phenol. They dation of a variety mono- and dichlorophenols by a strain
found that biodegradation rates increased with both of 4-chlorophenol-grown cells. With the exception of 3,5-
increased oxygen transfer to the water and increased and 2,4-dichlorophenol, all half-lives were less than 12 d.
initial phenol concentration. Visser and others (1977) Stanlake and Finn (1982) isolated a variety of PCP-
used in situ studies in the St. Lawrence River, Canada, to degrading bacteria from soil, water, and sewage and noted
quantify phenol biodegradation. During summer, they that the length of the lag phase for bacterial growth on
observed that phenol concentrations as high as 125 ppb PCP decreased when pH was raised from 6.8 to 7.8.
were reduced to less than 10 ppb within 4 h. Phenol Murthy and others (1979) examined PCP degradation in
degradation was accompanied by a concurrent increase in aerobic and anaerobic soils and noted that pentachloroan-
the microbial population in the river-water sample. Dur isole was a primary degradation product of PCP, along
ing the coldest part of winter, however, phenol biodegra with 2,3,5,6- and 2,3,4,5-tetrachlorophenols and 23,6-
dation was negligible, probably owing to the absence of trichlorophenol. Their proposed degradation pathway of
phenol-degrading bacteria. Table 22 lists the bacteria PCP is presented in figure 19.
present in the St. Lawrence River water during the winter The biodegradability of the chlorophenols differs
and summer months and the maximum phenol levels they with chlorine substitution. However, increased biodegrad
tolerated after adaptation. Other microorganisms that ability does not always correlate with decreased chlorina-
have been shown to degrade phenol include Pseudomonas tion of the phenolic molecule. In a study involving a
putida, Bacillus stearothermophilus, and yeast such as variety of phenolic compounds, Alexander and Aleem
Oospora, Saccaromycetes, Candida, Debarymyces, and (1961) found that chlorine substitution in the meta posi
Trichosporon cutaneum (Callahan and others, 1979). tion of the aromatic ring increases the ring's resistance to
Most of the other phenols have been biodegraded biological cleavage. With the exception of these metachlo-
under laboratory conditions. Using mixed microbial cul rophenols, the authors observed virtually 100 percent ring
tures obtained from soils and sediments, Tabak and others cleavage of all the chlorophenols in a soil suspension
(1964) measured the biotransformation of 95 percent of a within 47 d. Under aerobic, room-temperature conditions,
Maximum phenol
levels tolerated
after adaptation
Bacterial species Winter Summer (mg/L)
Banerjee, Howard, and others (1984) observed zero- Available data indicate that photolytic oxidation
order biodegradation kinetics for a variety of phenolic may also be a significant fate mechanism for many
compounds in natural water samples. They also stated phenols. Phenol can be photolytically degraded to a
that degradation rates decreased with increased chlorine reddish, high-molecular-weight material. Photolytic end
substitution. However, biodegradation studies in their products of phenol degradation include 4,4'-, 2,4'-, and
second collection of river water indicated that 2,2'-dihydroxybiphenyl, hydroquinone, and catechol (Jos-
2,4-dichlorophenol was more resistant to biodegradation chek and Miller, 1966). Callahan and others (1979) have
than 2,4,5-trichlorophenol, which in turn was more resis indicated that the absorption maximums of metal-
tant to degradation than PCP. Data indicating that coordinated phenols can be significantly extended. In the
decreased phenolic biodegradation rates do not strictly near-ultraviolet spectral region, the absorption maximum
correspond to increasing chlorination of the aromatic ring of phenol does not extend beyond 290 nm. However, when
have also been reported by Tabak and others (1964), phenol is complexed with metal cations such as Fe(III),
Alexander and Aleem (1961), and Smith and Novak (1987). the absorption maximum is extended to 600 nm. Similarly,
Phenols 47
Table 23. Time required for bacteria to use 95 percent of OCH3
parent substrate
[From Tabak and others, 1964]
*
Compounds degraded in:
2,4-Dichlorophenol Solar radiation Aerated aqueous solution Complete disappearance after 10 days;
Insoluble, dark, tarry substance produced
4-Mtrophenol Sunlight Aqueous solution of 200 ppm Degraded in 1-2 month period to hydroquinone,
4-nitrocatechol, and a dark, acidic polymer
Environmental Distribution
1. Lake sediment; organic carbon content (OC) - 9.4%
2. River sediment; OC - 2.6% Phenols may enter surface-water systems directly as
3. Aquifer material; OC - 0.84%
4. Aquifer material; OC - 0.03% components of industrial effluents and indirectly as trans
formation products of other compounds. For example,
Sorption coefficients for compound calculated from
chromatographic data.
pulp-mill effluents commonly contain elevated concentra
tions of phenolic compounds (Landner and others, 1977),
and the chlorination of wastewaters can convert phenol to
monochlorophenol, dichlorophenol, or even trichloro-
low ionic strength (less than 103 mol/L) and of pH not phenol (Callahan and others, 1979). Table 26 lists the
more than one log unit greater than the phenolic concentrations of phenol and some of its chlorinated
compound's pK„, sorption of the phenolate anion can be derivatives in municipal and industrial wastewater.
ignored. The data indicate that sorption coefficients Because of their generally high solubilities, the
increase with increasing chlorination of the phenolic com phenols can be found in relatively high aqueous concen
pound and with increased sediment-organic-matter con trations in natural surface waters. Sheldon and Hites
tent. The less chlorinated phenols are not sorbed signifi (1979) detected isomers of bromochlorophenol, dibromo-
cantly to any of the soils. In soils having low organic- phenol, dichlorobromophenol, and dibromochlorophenol
matter content, even sorption of PCP will not be in water of the Delaware River near Philadelphia.
substantial. Similarly, Scott and others (1982) observed Yasuhara and others (1981) reported extremely high
that phenol did not sorb strongly to soils, with sorption concentrations of PCP in the waters of the Hayashida
coefficients ranging from 0.57 to 1.19. For the case of the River in Japan. Concentrations ranged from 306 to 895
higher chlorinated phenols such as PCP, sorption will Mg/L and were attributed to the unregulated discharge of
likely be greatest in acidic soils and sediments having high leather-tannery wastewaters. Visser and others (1977)
organic-matter contents. observed that ambient phenol concentrations in the waters
Similar to sediment sorption, phenols are not readily of the St. Lawrence River, Canada, were approximately 10
bioaccumulated in surface-water systems, but increased to 15 fig/L. Borighem and Vereecken (1978) noted that
accumulation has been correlated with increased chlori phenol levels in polluted stretches of the River Samber in
nation of the phenol molecule (Biddinger and Gloss, Belgium were considerably higher, ranging from 0.2 to 0.7
1984). Few bioaccumulation data were found in the mg/L. In a study of water and sediment quality in the
reviewed literature for the majority of the phenols, with Netherlands, Wegman and van den Broek (1983) detected
the exception of PCP. Callahan and others (1979) cite all the isomers of mono-, di-, tri-, tetra-, and penta-
several studies that found that PCP was accumulated to chlorophenol in water samples from the Ijssel River near
concentrations well beyond its aqueous concentration. An Kampen. Maximum compound concentrations ranged
eel exposed to pulp-mill discharge bioaccumulated an from 0.02 (2,3,4,5-tetrachlorophenol) to 3.4 /ig/L (3-
aqueous PCP concentration of 3 ¿ig/L to a tissue concen chlorophenol). Despite these detections, the ability of
Phenol* 49
Table 26. Concentration of phenol and some of its chlori by Wegman and van den Broek (1983). They determined
nated derivatives in municipal and industrial wastewater that 100 percent of the sediment samples collected from
lng/L, micrograms per liter. From Moore and Ramamoorthy, 1984] Lake Ketelmeer in the Netherlands were contaminated
with 2,5-dichlorophenol, 2,3,5- and 2,4,5-trichlorophenol,
Compound Concentration Source 2,3,4,5- and 2,3,4,6-tetrachlorophenol, and PCP. The
(esA) respective median concentrations were 6.3, 2.4, 6.4, 0.9,
1.7, and 8.4 fig/kg. The authors also noted that areas of
Phenol 0.03-20 Treated aewage, European
cities
highest phenol contamination were near industrial areas.
200-3,016,000 3 petroleum refineries (USA) Biological phenolic residues also have been
3200 2 coal gaalfacatlon planta
(USA) reported. DeVault (1985) found that fish from harbors
38,000-1,240,000 Coke plant (USA) and tributary mouths of the Great Lakes contained PCP
10-300 Specialty chemical plant
(USA) concentrations ranging from <0.08 to 4.52 mg/kg. In
2,4-DCP 220 Chemical plant (Vancouver) Lake Ontario, Niimi and Cho (1983) found lower PCP
<0.1 Wood preservation plant
(British Colunbla) concentrations in a variety of sampled fish; mean residue
<0.1 Landfill leachate (Vancouver)
2,6-DCP 220 Chemical plant (Vancouver)
levels ranged from 0.3 to 24 fig/kg. Rudling (1970)
2.4 Vood preservation plant analyzed fish from a lake into which PCP had been
(British Columbia)
1.2-5.6 Landfill leachate (Brltlah discharged and determined that concentrations in the
Columbia) tissues of pike, perch, and eel were 0.2, 0.15, and 3.0
2,4,5-TCP <0.05 Treated sewage, 4 plants
(Vancouver) mg/kg, respectively. The elevated PCP concentrations
0.5-2400 2 chealcal plants (Vancouver) found in the eel were attributed to the relatively high lipid
<0.05 Wood preservation plant
(Brltlah Columbia) content of eels. Similarly, Landner and others (1977)
0.05-2 Landfill leachate (Vancouver)
2.4,6-TCP <0.05-l Treated sewage, 4 plants
analyzed perch and northern pike caught in the vicinity of
(Vancouver) a pulp mill. Phenolic residues were concentrated in the
<0. 05-3120 3 chemical plants (Vancouver)
0.5-1 Vood preservation plant liver fat of the sampled fish, with mean concentrations of
(British Columbia) 2,4,6-trichlorophenol, trichloroguaiacol, and tetrachloro-
0.4-1 Landfill leachate (Vancouver)
25-115 Pulpmlll effluent (Vancouver) guaiacol of 1.2, 5.0, and 4.4 mg/kg fat, respectively. In
2,3,4,6-TeCP 0.6-28 Treated sewage, 4 plants general, biological residues of phenolic compounds
(Vancouver)
1.2-8270 4 wood preservation plants depend on aqueous concentrations, biological lipid con
(British Columbia) tent, and the solubility of the phenolic compound.
0.3-166 3 chemical plants (Vancouver)
0.2-0.8 Landfill leachate (Vancouver)
PCP 0.5-4.7 Treated sewage, 4 planta
(Vancouver)
0.25-1.3 Treated sewsge, 6 cities HALOGENATED ALIPHATIC AND
(Ontario) MONOCYCLIC AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS
0.05-2760 Vood preservation plants
(Brltlah Columbia)
5.400,000 Chemical plant (Philadelphia)
0.6-42 Landfill leachate (Vancouver)
Uses, Production, and Properties
The aliphatic hydrocarbons are straight-chain mol
ecules composed of only hydrogen and carbon. The
phenolic compounds to be biologically and photolytically
saturated aliphatic hydrocarbons, commonly referred to
attenuated makes them relatively nonpersistent contami
as the alkanes or paraffin hydrocarbons, are molecules in
nants. This is confirmed by data from the U.S. Environ which each carbon atom is bonded covalently to four
mental Protection Agency, which reported that of 110
other atoms by single bonds. The general formula for
raw-water samples taken throughout the United States,
alkanes is CnH2n+2. Because of double and triple carbon-
phenol was detected in only 2 (U.S. Environmental Pro
carbon bonds, unsaturated aliphatic hydrocarbons contain
tection Agency, 1980a). fewer hydrogen atoms per carbon atom than the alkanes.
Sediment residues of phenols rarely exceed the The family of unsaturated aliphatic hydrocarbons contain
micrograms-per-kilogram range. However, higher resi ing carbon-carbon double bonds are called the alkenes, or
dues have been reported occasionally. For example, Van olefins. The family of compounds containing carbon-
Luik (1984) reported that phenol concentrations in the carbon triple bonds are called the alkynes, or acetylenes.
sediments of the Calumet Sag Channel (111.) ranged from The general formulas for the alkenes and alkynes are
1 to 6.9 mg/kg. Pierce and others (1977) documented CnH2n and CnH2n_2, respectively. The industrial haloge-
sediment PCP concentrations in a small stream ranging nation of the aliphatic hydrocarbons results in the pro
from 1.1 to 1.3 mg/kg as a result of an accidental duction of many toxic chemicals that are widely used as
discharge of the compound. Concentrations typical of a solvent degreasers, refrigerants, and fumigants and in
phenol-contaminated surface-water system were reported dry-cleaning operations and the pharmaceutical industry.
Table 27. U.S. production of selected halogenated aliphatic and monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
[In metric tonsX 10*. ' From Moore and Ramamoorthy, 1984]
Compound 1961-65 1966-70 1971-75 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982
ChloTomethane 5.5 14.9 20.8 17.1 21.6 20.6 21.0 16.4 18.4 16.0
Dichloromethane 6.9 14.5 19.0 24.4 21.7 25.9 28.7 25.5 26.8 23.8
Chloroform 3.6 9.1 11.6 13.2 13.7 15.8 16.1 16.0 18.3 13.5
Carbon tetrachloride 21.8 36.5 45.9 38.9 36.7 33.4 32.4 32.1 32.9 nd
Chloroethane 26.6 23.1 28.1 30.4 27.8 24.5 26.4 17.9 14.7 13.1
1,2-dichloroethane 82.1 234.8 379.2 364.6 498.7 498.9 534.9 503.7 452.3 nd
1,1, 1-tri chloroethane nd 14.0 21.9 28.6 28.8 29.2 32.5 31.4 27.8 25.0
Chlorodif luoromethane nd nd nd 7.7 8.1 9.3 9.6 10.3 11.4 nd
Trichtorof luorome thane 5.6 10.4 13.6 11.6 9.7 8.8 7.6 10.3 7.4 nd
D i chlorodif luoromethane 9.6 15.1 19.9 17.8 16.2 14.8 13.3 13.4 14.7 nd
Vinyl chloride 63.8 142.1 223.1 257.5 271.5 315.8 289.7 293.2 311.7 nd
Trichloroethylene 13.9 24.5 18.8 14.3 13.5 13.6 14.5 12.1 11.7 8.1
Tctrachlorocthylene 14.2 27.0 32.3 16.3 27.8 32.9 35.1 34.7 31.3 nd
Bromoform 0.6 0.9 1.2 nd 1.6 1.6 nd nd nd nd
Ethylene dibromide nd 13.8 14.0 9.1 11.1 10.4 13.0 8.8 7.6 nd
Benzene 62.6 104.8 125.8 142.5 143.5 148.8 167.2 200.7 133.9 107.0
Toluene 39.1 70.2 87.5 99.9 101.8 105.4 101.0 101.7 85.6 105.2
Xylene 31.9 44.9 53.2 72.2 81.1 84.5 97.2 90.8 88.2 73.0
Monoch I orobenzene 25.0 25.0 17.2 14.9 14.8 13.4 14.7 12.8 12.9 nd
1 , 2 - d i ch I orobenzene 1.9 2.7 2.7 2.2 2.1 1.9 2.6 2.2 2.3 nd
1.4-di chlorobenzene 3.2 2.9 2.9 1.7 3.0 1.9 3.8 3.4 3.3 nd
Alkyl benzenes 28.3 29.4 23.6 nd 23.6 23.8 28.4 40.6 24.2 nd
2,4 ♦ 2,6-dlnitrotoluene nd 12.6 18.6 18.0 nd 29.8 31.2 nd 22.8 nd
Ethyl benzene 106.1 184.7 246.9 261.7 376.9 380.3 383.1 346.5 354.3 299.7
Nitrobenzene 9.7 19.1 20.2 18.6 25.0 26.1 43.2 27.7 40.8 nd
Compound Uses
Chloromethane Mfg. of silicones, tetraethyllead, synthetic rubber and methyl cellulose; refrigerant
mfg.; mfg. of organic Chemicals (methylene chloride, chloroform, etc.); mfg. of funigants;
extractant
Dichloromethane Paint stripping and solvent degreasing; mfg. of aerosols, photographic film, synthetic
fibers; refrigerant; fumigant; solvent; textil» and leather coatings; pharmaceutical;
spotting agent
Chloroform Mfg. of rluorocarbon refrigerants and propellants and plastics; mfg. of anesthetics and
pharmaceuticals, primary source for chlorodif luoromethane; fumigant; solvent; sweetener
Carbón tetrachloride Mfg. of fire extinguishers; dry cleaning operations; mfg. of refrigerants, aerosols and
propellants; mfg. of chlorof luoromethanes; extractant; solvent; veterinary medicine; metal
degreasing; fumigant; chlorinating organic compounds
1,2-dichloroethane Mfg. of vinyl chloride; mfg. of tetraethyllead; intermedíate insecticidal fumigant
(peachtree borer, japanese beetle, root-knot nematodes); tobáceo flavoring; constituent in
paint, varnish and finish removers, metal degreaser, soaps and scouring compounds
Vinyl chloride Mfg. of polyvinyl ehlorides and copolymers; adhesives for plastics
Trfchloroethylene Dry cleaning operations; metal degreasing; solvents for fats, greases, waxes: solvents for
greases and waxes from cotton, wool, caffeine for coffee; solvent for cellulose ester and
ethers; solvent for dyeing; refrigerant and heat exchange liquid; organic synthesis;
fumigant
Tetrachloroethylene Dry cleaning operations; metal degreasing; solvents for fats, greases, waxes, rubber, gums,
caffeine from coffee; remove soot from industrial boi lers; mfg. of paint removers
Ethylene dibromide Seavenger for lead in gasoline; grain and fruit fumigant, general solvent, waterproof ing
preparations, organic synthesis, insecticide
Trichlorof luoromethane Mfg. of aerosol sprays: mfg. of eonmereial refrigeration equipment; blowing agent for
polyurethane foams; cleaning compounds; solvent; fire extinguisher
Benzene Mfg. of styrene, phenol, detergents. organic Chemicals, pesticides, plastics and resins,
synthetic rubber, aviation fuel, pharmaceuticals, dye, explosives, flavors and perfumes,
paints and coatings; nylon intermediates; food processing; photographic chemicals
Toluene Mfg. of benzene derivativas, caprolactam. saccharin, medicines, dyes, perfumes, THT;
solvent recovery plants: component gasoline; solvent for paints and coatings, gums,
resins, rubber and vinyl organosols; diluent and thinner m nitrocellulose lacquers
Xylene Mfg. phthalic acid and anhydride; mfg. of terepthalic acid for polyester; solvent recovery
plants; specialty chemical manufacture; mfg. isophthalic acid, aviation gasoline,
protective coatings mfg.; solvent for alkyd resins, lacquers, enamels, rubber cements; dye
mfg.
Chlorobcnzcnc Solvent recovery plants; intermedíate in dyestuffs mfg.; mfg. anilinc, insecticide, phenol,
ch l orón i t robenz ene
1 , 2-di ch l orobenzene Mfg. of 3,4-diehloroaniline; solvent; dye mfg.,-fumigant and insecticide; metal polishes;
industrial odor control
1,4-dichlorobenzene Mfg. moth repellants, mfg. air deodorizers, mfg. dyes and intermediates; pharmaceuticals
mfg.; soíl fumigant; pesticide
1,2,4-trichlorobenzene Solvent In chemical manufacturing; dyes and intermediates; dielectric fluid; synthetic
transformer oils: lubricants; insecticides
2,6-dinitrotoluene Mfg. of TNT; urethane polymers, flexible and rigid foams and surface coatings, dyes;
organic synthesis
Ethyl benzene Styrene mfg.; acetophenone mfg.; solvent; asphalt constituent: naphtha constituent
Nitrobenzene Mfg. aniline and dyestuffs; solvent recovery plants; mfg. rubber chemicals, drugs,
photographic chemicals; refining lubricants oils; solvent in TNT production; solvent for
cellulose ethers; cellulose acétate mfg.
Bromobenzene Solvent (fats, waxes, or resins); intermediates in specialty organic chmeicals synthesis;
additive to motor oil and fuels
■ - manufacturing.
the numerous uses of the halogenated aliphatic and at 25 °C and stirred at 200 rpm, all five compounds
MAH's. (methylene chloride, chloroform, 1,1,1-trichloroethane,
With the exception of the phenols discussed previ- trichloroethylene, and tetrachloroethylene) demonstrated
ously, the halogenated aliphatic and MAH's are charac- 50 percent volatilization in less than 30 min and 90
terized by high vapor pressures, high solubilities, and low percent volatilization in less than 90 min. Addition of
octanol-water partition coefficients. Table 29 quantifies other material (clay, limestone, sand, salt, peat moss, and
these physicochemical parameters. kerosene) to the water had little effect on rate of volatil
ization, indicating that sorptive processes were unable to
Environmental Fate compete with solute evaporation. Furthermore, the
The primary fate of most of the halogenated ali authors determined that chemical degradation half-lives
phatic and MAH's in surface-water systems is volatiliza- for the five compounds ranged from 6 to 18 mo. Table 30
tion followed by photolytic degradation in the atmosphere. presents the times for 50 and 90 percent removal of the
Dilling and others (1975) studied volatilization, sorption, five compounds from water, along with the evaporation
and chemical degradation of five chlorinated aliphatic times of 22 other chlorinated aliphatic hydrocarbons as
compounds at aqueous concentrations of 1 ppm. In water determined by Dilling and others (1975).
Other researchers similarly have noted the impor larly, Wakeham and others (1983) stated that volatiliza
tance of volatilization. Helz and Hsu (1978) determined tion appeared to be the major process responsible for the
that evaporative losses were the primary cause of the removal of a variety of aromatic and chlorinated aromatic
attenuation of halogenated aliphatic hydrocarbons dis hydrocarbons from seawater.
charged into the Back River estuary in Maryland. Hill and Using theoretical considerations, Cadena and others
others (1976) found that the rate of bulk exchange of (1984) presented a model to predict the aqueous concen
gaseous vinyl chloride between water and air is about trations of volatile organic contaminants (compounds
twice that of oxygen, and they concluded that volatilization having Henry's law constants greater than 1.6X10"*
probably is the most important process in its distribution. atm-m'/mol) in streams as a function of traveltime and
Within an 8-d period, Jensen and Rosenberg (1975) stream-reaeration coefficient. The derived relationship is
observed 80 percent removal of trichloroethylene from an given by
open aquarium kept in the light. Concentrations of chlo
roform, 1,1,1-trichloroethane, and tetrachloroethylene C/Q-exp (-K2t(K/K')),
were decreased by 40 to 50 percent over the same period.
When the same compounds were incubated in closed where C/C¡ is the ratio of the concentration of the
systems (both light and dark), compound disappearance contaminant at traveltime t to its initial concentration, K2
typically was less than 5 percent, indicating that solute is the stream reaeration constant, and K/K' is the ratio of
volatilization was the most important fate process. Simi the overall transfer coefficient for the volatile contaminant
Compound K/K'
to the overall transfer coefficient of a tracer compound.
The value of K2 is given by 1 , 4-Dichlorobenzene 0.45
1 , 2-Dichlorobenzene .46
K2-5.015 v"e9/L'-"3, 1 , 3 -Dichlorobenzene .46
Chlorobenzene .49
1 , 1 , 2-Trichloroethane .49
where v is stream velocity (m/s) and L is mean stream Tetrachloroethylene .50
depth. The value of Kj can be corrected for temperature Carbon tetrachloride .51
by multiplying K2 at 20 °C by (1.0238)T20, where T is
Benzene .53
stream temperature in degrees Celsius. Ratios of K/K' are Trichlorofluoroma thane .54
presented in table 31 for a variety of halogenated aliphatic Chloroform .55
and MAH's. 1 , 1-Dichloroethane .55
Cadena and others (1984) verified their model by a 1 , 2-Dichloropropane .57
1", 2-Dlcrrlo*roetrtaTie" .58
pilot study using benzene and chlorobenzene at a variety
Dichlorodifluorome thane .58
of concentrations and reaeration rates. Figure 21 presents Acrylonltrile .59
the results of their model applied to a hypothetical con Chloroethane .61
tamination problem in the Rio Grande River in New Dichlorome thane .62
Mexico. The concentrations of both methylene chloride Vinyl chloride .66
and dichlorobenzene are predicted to be below 10 percent Methylene chloride .73
of their initial concentration within 60 km from the point
Percentage
of total use
o-Dlmethyl phthalate Diethyl phthalate
A. As olastlc izers
styrene. Commonly, their contribution to the weight of the A dash indicates that exact data are not available.
Phthalate Esters 57
Table 33. Solubilities and vapor pressures of selected phthalate esters
[mg/L, milligrams per liter, mm, millimeters]
degraded a dimethyl phthalate concentration of 1,000 ppm Table 34. Selected bioconcentration factors (BCF's) of
to less than 400 ppm in 41 d. Engelhardt and Wallnofer phthalate esters in aquatic systems
(1975) determined that a variety of microorganisms were [From Callahan and others, 1979, and Sanborn and others, 1975]
capable of degrading di-n-butyl, di-n-octyl, bis(2-
ethylhexyl), and dimethyl phthalates and suggested that Exposure
mixed microbial populations can readily metabolize Phthalate ester Aquatic organism time (days) BCF
phthalate esters. Their proposed pathway for the degra
dation of di-n-butyl phthalate by different soil micro Bls(2-ethylhexyl) Fish - 130
organisms is presented in figure 23. Bls(2-ethylhexyl) Sowbug 14 230
As a result of their low solubilities, some of the
Bls(2-ethylhexyl) Fathead minnow 28 800
phthalate esters strongly partition into the lipid reservoirs
of aquatic organisms and sediment organic matter. Table Bls(2-ethylhexyl) Scud 14 13,400
34 documents BCFs for bis(2-ethylhexyl), di-n-octyl, and Bls(2-ethylhexyl) Snail ■ 21,000
di-n-butyl phthalates for a variety of aquatic organisms
Bls(2-ethylhexyl) Mosquito larvae - 100,000
(Sanborn and others, 1975; Callahan and others, 1979).
The data indicate that all three compounds exhibit signif Dl-n-octyl Daphnla 33 2.600
icant bioaccumulation. The BCFs range from 130 to Dl-n-octyl Fish 33 9,400
100,000, with variations reflecting differences in organism
Dl-n-octyl Algae 33 28 . 500
lipid content, compound solubility, and duration of expo
sure. Few sorption data are available for the phthalate Dl-n-butyl Uaterflea 14 5,000
esters. However, Matsuda and Schnitzer (1971) pre Dl-n-butyl Scud 14 6,700
sented data indicating that a variety of dialkyl phthalates
can partition into dissolved fulvic acid, significantly
enhancing their apparent solubilities. Using batch sorp
tion studies with solution/soil ratios ranging from 5 to 300, Nonbiological hydrolysis, volatilization, and photol
Fairbanks and others (1985) noted that as much as 87 ysis do not appear to be significant fate-determining
percent of the bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate added to centri processes for the phthalate esters. Estimated hydrolytic
fuge tubes was sorbed to the glass. Of the amount half-lives range from 3.2 yr for dimethyl phthalate to
remaining, 96 to 99 percent was sorbed to the soil, 2,000 yr for bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (Callahan and
suggesting that significant sorption to sediments may others, 1979). Evaporative losses of phthalate esters from
occur in natural systems. Because phthalate esters have surface waters also are minor because of their relatively
been frequently detected in surface-water sediments and low vapor pressures. Fairbanks and others (1985), for
biota, it is likely that both bioaccumulation and sorption example, detected no volatilization of bis(2-ethylhexyl)
will influence their environmental fate. phthalate applied to three sludge-amended soils. Finally,
Phthalate Esters 59
were reported by Thuren (1986) in water samples from the Menominee and Kinnickinnic Rivers in Wisconsin.
the Rivers Svartan and Ronnebyan, respectively, in south Unfortunately, no aqueous concentrations were reported.
ern Sweden. The ubiquity of phthalate esters is evidenced by the data
Sediment residues of phthalate esters also have of Stalling and others (1973), who detected residues of
been reported frequently, with detected concentrations bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate in fish collected throughout
usually ranging from a few parts per billion to a fraction of the United States. Concentrations ranged from 0.2 to 10
a part per million. In a study of the Chester River in ppm and appeared highest near industrialized areas.
Maryland, Peterson and Freeman (1984) reported maxi
mum sediment residues of diethyl, diallyl, diisobutyl,
dibutyl, dihexyl, bis(2-ethylhexyl), and di-n-octyl phthalate POLYCHLORINATEDDIBENZO-P-DIOXINS
of 44, 5.5, 27.6, 900, 6.4, 4,800, and 62 ppb, respectively.
The maximum concentrations of dibutyl phthalate (69
ppb) and bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (248 ppb) found in Uses, Production, and Properties
sediment samples from the Gulf Coast and Mississippi
River Delta were slightly lower (Giam and others, 1978). The polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDD's)
Much higher sediment concentrations were reported by are characterized by the following structure:
Jungclaus and others (1978) and Van Luik (1984). The
former study detected both bis(2-ethylhexyl) and di-n-
octyl phthalate at concentrations ranging from 250 to
56,000 ppb in sediment samples collected downstream nCI
from a chemical manufacturing plant's discharge. The
study by Van Luik (1984), which analyzed sediments from
the Calumet Sag Channel (111.), determined that the Chlorination of the molecule can produce a total of 75
average sediment concentration of bis(2-ethylhexyl) chlorinated species, ranging from monochlorodibenzo-p-
phthalate was 29,800 ppb, with a high value of 63,770 ppb. dioxin to octachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin.
Laboratory studies have indicated that phthalate Although not deliberately manufactured and having
esters can bioaccumulate, and these results have been no commercial use, PCDD's are produced inadvertently
confirmed in field studies identifying significant residues during the manufacture of 2,4,5-trichlorophenol (2,4,5-T)
of phthalate esters in aquatic organisms. Despite aqueous from 1,2,4,5-tetrachlorobenzene (fig. 24). Because 2,4,5-
bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate concentrations of 0.316 ppb or T is used in the production of a variety of pesticides along
less, biota from the Gulf of Mexico contained concentra with tetra- and pentachlorophenol, PCDD's have been
tions ranging from 1 to 135 ppb (Giam and others, 1978). found as contaminants in many of these compounds.
DeVault (1985) detected high concentrations of both Table 35 documents the detected residues of tetra-, hexa-,
bis(2-ethylhexyl) and di-n-butyl phthalate in two fish from hepta-, and octachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin in several pesti-
0 Na
CICH2C02Na
CI
TCDD
Figure 24. Structural diagrams showing formation of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin
(TCDD) as a byproduct in the synthesis of 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4,5-T).
[Reprinted with permission from Journal of Environmental Quality, v. 7, p. 172 (1973).
Copyright 1973 by the American Society of Agronomy, Crop Science Society of America,
and Soil Science Society of America.]
2,4.5-T ** ** - - 23 42
Silvex * - - 1 7
2,4-D - * - - 1 24
2,4-DB - - - - 0 3
2,4-DEP - - - - 0 2
Dichlorprop - - - - 0 1
Erbon - - - ** 1 1
Sesone - * - - 1 1
Dicamba - - - - 0 8
Chlorophenols
Tri- - * * * 4 6
Tetra- - ** ** ** 3 3
Penta- ■ ** ** ** 10 11
Others - ** ** * 5 22
* Concentration of at least one sample was between 0.5 and 10 parts
per million (ppm)
** Concentration of at least one sample was greater tban 10 ppm
Concentration was less than the 0.5 ppm detection limit
DMPA, ronnel, and tetradifon had chlorodioxin residues; chloroneb,
hexachlorophene , neraatocide , and nitrofen had no detectable
residues
cides that were manufactured between 1950 and 1970. ogy noting that mice given a relatively large dose of the
Although the extent of contamination is likely to vary with herbicide 2,4,5-T during early pregnancy produced an
manufacturer, one company produced 2,4,5-T from 1966 abnormally high number of deformed offspring (Helling
to 1968 that typically contained 10 ppm of 2,3,7,8- and others, 1973). Analysis of the 2,4,5-T given to the
tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD). Of 42 samples of mice revealed that it contained approximately 27 ppm of
2,4,5-T tested, 23 contained detectable residues of TCDD. Subsequent studies have shown that PCDD's
PCDD's. One analyzed sample of pentachlorophenol have very high mammalian toxicities. Table 36 reports the
contained nearly 1,000 ppm of both hepta- and single oral doses of some PCDD's required to kill 50
octachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (Helling and others, 1973). percent of the exposed animals (LD30). TCDD appears to
More recent commercial production of such compounds be the most toxic of the PCDD's, with an LD30 of just 2
as 2,4,5-T has resulted in much lower residues, with /ig/kg for guinea pigs. TCDD LDJ0 values of 10 fig/kg for
TCDD concentrations usually less than 0.1 ppm (Isensee rabbits and 0.6 pg/kg for guinea pigs have also been
and Jones, 1975). documented (Isensee and Jones, 1975).
PCDD's are extremely toxic compounds. They were Some of the less severe effects of PCDD exposure
first identified as environmental contaminants in 1970 as to humans include changes in skin color, skin rashes,
a result of a report by the Office of Science and Technol excessive hair growth, tingling and numbness of the arms
Polychlorinated Dibenzo-p-dloxins 61
Table 36. Single oral doses of dioxins necessary to kill 50 Table 37. Bioconcentration factors (BCF's) of 2,3,7,8-tetra-
percent of exposed animals (LD50) chlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) for a variety of aquatic organ
[fig/kg bw, micrograms per kilogram of body weight. From Kriebel, isms
1981] [From Isensee and Jones, 1975]
Algae 30 2.000-18,600
tetrachloro- Guinea pig 2 Duckweed 30 1,200-5,000
Rat (male) 22
Rabbit 115 Snails 30 1.400-47,100
Mouse 284
1,2,3,7,8- Daphnids 30 7,800-48,000
pentachloro- Guinea pig 3
Mouse 338 Mosquito fish 3 1,000-63,300
1,2,3,4.7,8- Catfish 6 2,000-27,900
hexachloro- Guinea pig 73
Mouse 825
TCDD, which has been the subject of most of the
research on PCDD's, has a solubility of about 3 to 5 ppb
and legs, and liver damage (Kriebel, 1981). TCDD expo (Biddinger and Gloss, 1984) and an octanol-water parti
sure has also been linked to certain cases of birth defects. tion coefficient of 4.24X106 (Marple and others, 1986).
Pregnant women living near Alsea, Oreg., experienced a
significant increase in the number of spontaneous abor Environmental Fate
tions during the months of June and July from 1972 to
Almost all the published data on the fate of the
1977. From March to June of each of these years,
PCDD's is limited to TCDD. As a result, any conclu
herbicides, including 2,4,5-T, were routinely applied to sions about the environmental fate of the PCDD's are at
nearby forests (Kriebel, 1981). Similarly, many Vietnam
best qualitative.
veterans claim that PCDD's in Agent Orange (approxi As a result of their relatively low solubilities, the
mately a 1:1 mixture of 2,4,5-T and 2,4-D) applied to
PCDD's are likely to strongly sorb to sediments and to
Vietnamese forests have caused birth defects in their bioaccumulate in aquatic organisms. Chemical and bio
children (Kriebel, 1981). These examples indicate that
logical degradation processes appear very slow, making
even the low residues of PCDD's found in certain herbi
the PCDD's persistent environmental contaminants. Few
cides may cause adverse health effects owing to the high data are available regarding the volatilization of PCDD's
toxicity of the PCDD's. from surface-water systems.
Inasmuch as PCDD's are not deliberately manufac Extremely low concentrations of PCDD's can cause
tured, only gross estimates of production can be made. significant residues in surface-water biota. By contami
Based on a combined annual production figure of 30,000
nating aquatic microcosms with TCDD sorbed to sedi
t for 2,4,5-T, and tri-, tetra-, and pentachlorophenol in the ment, Isensee and Jones (1975) found that BCFs for a
United States, and assuming that the production of each variety of organisms ranged from 1,000 to 63,300. After
kilogram of the technical grade formulation results in the
30 d of exposure, equilibrium aqueous concentrations of
production of 1 mg of PCDD, then approximately 30 kg
TCDD as low as 50 pg/L caused TCDD concentrations in
are produced each year from these sources. Similarly, daphnids to be as great as 2.4 fig/L (corresponding to a
more than 40,000 t of Agent Orange were sprayed over BCF of 48,000). Other bioconcentration data from their
the jungles of Southeast Asia, with the formulation having study are summarized in table 37. Callahan and others
a mean TCDD concentration greater than 1.9 mg/kg (1979) have reported that mosquito larvae bioaccumu-
(Crosby and Wong, 1977). lated TCDD to concentrations 2,800 to 9,200 times greater
Although PCDD's are produced as byproducts in than the aqueous concentration. BCFs determined for
the manufacture of trichlorophenol, their properties and brine shrimp and silversides were 1,600 and 54, respec
environmental behavior more closely resemble those of tively. Unfortunately, no bioaccumulau'on data were found
the chlorinated insecticides. As a group, they are spar for the other PCDD's. Based on the strong tendency of
ingly soluble, lipophilic compounds of relatively long TCDD to bioconcentrate, however, it is likely that other
environmental persistence. Increased chlorination corre PCDD's of equal or greater chlorination will also be
lates with decreased solubility and increased lipophilicity. readily bioaccumulated.
Polychlorinated Oibenzo-p-dioxins 63
Table 38. Estimated annual inputs of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins to the Canadian
environment from major sources
[From Moore and Ramamoorthy, 1984]
British
Source Columbia Prairies Ontario Quebec Maritimes
presented in table 39. Most of the detectable concentra toxicities, several of the PAH's have been identified as
tions were less than 3 ppb, with the exception of soil carcinogens or mutagens. As a group, the PAH's are
samples taken from the Dow plant, which were highly structurally characterized by two or more fused-ring
contaminated with isomers of tetra-, hexa-, hepta-, and compounds based on benzene, with properties intermedi
octachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin. Based on these data, contam ate between benzene and olefinic hydrocarbons (Harrison
inated soils carried into surface waters by runoff can be a and others, 1975). Two aromatic rings are considered to
significant source of sediment TCDD residues. be fused when carbon atoms from each ring are shared.
Because of the high toxicity of PCDD's, and partic The environmentally significant PAH's have from two
ularly TCDD, numerous researchers have documented (naphthalene) to seven (coronene) rings. Structural dia
biological residues of these compounds in edible fish. As grams of some of these compounds are given in figure 25.
a result of the heavy application of Agent Orange to South PAH's originate from both natural and anthropoge
Vietnamese forests, carp and catfish sampled downstream nic sources; however, it is believed that their occurrence in
from the sprayed areas contained average TCDD residues aquatic systems is due primarily to anthropogenic inputs
ranging from 70 to 810 ppt (Kriebel, 1981; Moore and (Cossa and others, 1983). PAH's are produced mainly by
Ramamoorthy, 1984). TCDD residues as high as 57 ppt high-temperature (>700 °C) pyrolytic reactions such as
have even been detected in the fat of some Vietnam municipal incineration or forest fires. Their residues also
veterans (Kriebel, 1981). Table 40 summarizes the have been detected in fossil fuels and wood-preservative
detected residues of TCDD in a variety of fish from both sludges (table 41).
fresh and marine waters. Although few studies have A few of the simpler PAH's are produced commer
reported on the more highly chlorinated dioxins, they cially. Naphthalene is used in several chemical manufac
have also been detected in aquatic organisms. Concentra turing processes to produce moth balls, pesticides, fungi
tions as high as 388 (octa-), 304 (hepta-), 203 (hexa-), and cides, dyes, wetting agents, synthetic resins, cutting fluids,
80 (penta-) ppt have been found in carp from the Niagara solvents, and lubricants (Verschueren, 1983). Commercial
River (Moore and Ramamoorthy, 1984). production of petroleum naphthalene in the United States
was 4.9X104 t in 1976, 4.7X104 t in 1980, and 6.5X10* t
in 1981 (Moore and Ramamoorthy, 1984). The produc
POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS tion of chloronaphthalenes (used in automobile capacitors
and as oil additives for fabric dyeing and engine cleaning)
Uses, Production, and Properties is much less, with U.S. production probably less than 270
t per year (Moore and Ramamoorthy, 1984). Commercial
The polycyclic (or polynuclear) aromatic hydrocar uses of other PAH's such as anthracene, acenaphthene,
bons (PAH's) are a large group of environmentally impor and phenanthrene are small and limited primarily to dye
tant compounds. Although little is known about their and plastics manufacturing (Verschueren, 1983). Pyrolitic
In and around
Dow Chemical plant 1-120 7-280 70-3200 490-20,000
Metropolitan area .005-. 03 .03-. 3 .1-3 .4-22
Environmental Fate
The PAH's are persistent surface-water contami
nants. Because of their low solubilities and high octanol-
water partition coefficients, they strongly partition from
water into biota and particulate and dissolved organic
matter. As a result, even low aqueous concentrations can
result in environmentally significant sediment and biolog
ical residues. There is some evidence that PAH's can be
photolytically degraded in the water column, but the
importance of this process in natural systems is likely to
be small because of the strong sorption of PAH's to
sediments. The ultimate fate of the PAH's probably is
sorption to sediments followed by slow biodegradation.
Other transport and transformation processes, such as
volatilization and hydrolysis, are not important fate proc
esses.
Several laboratory studies have investigated the
sorption of PAH's to sediments. Gardner and others
(1979) exposed sand and salt marsh sediment to crude oil
containing small amounts of anthracene, fluoranthene,
benzo(a)anthracene, and benzo(a)pyrene. Sorption of all
four compounds was extensive, with the sediments having
the highest organic-matter content sorbing the greatest
amount of PAH's. PAH concentrations as high as 10
mg/kg also have been reported in rapid-sand-filter solids
(Harrison and others, 1975). In a study comparing anthra
lnd*no(1,2,3-cd)pyr«na Coronan* cene sorption to organic matter (yeast cells) and mineral
particulate matter (powdered calcite), Herbes (1977)
Figure 25. Structural diagrams of selected polycyclic aro
matic hydrocarbons. observed that the particulate organic matter rapidly
sorbed the anthracene in solution, with equilibrium
reached in minutes. In the presence of a 250-mg/L
yeast-cell concentration, 72 percent of an initial anthra
sources are probably the major input of PAH's to the cene concentration of 0.02 ng/L was sorbed by the
environment. It has been estimated, on the basis of data organic matter. In contrast, the concentration of calcite
from 1966 to 1969, that the global emission of required to sorb just 30 percent of the initial anthracene
benzo(a)pyrene from anthropogenic sources is about 4.6 concentration was 300 g/L, indicating that anthracene is
million kg/yr (Edwards, 1983). Table 42 lists the sources sorbed by partitioning into organic matter and that adsorp
and approximate amounts of benzo(a)pyrene emitted to tion to mineral surfaces is relatively insignificant. Hassett
the atmosphere. and others (1980) also noted the importance of organic
In general, the PAH's are compounds having rela matter in the sorption of dibenzothiophene to several soils
tively low solubilities and vapor pressures and high and sediments. Laboratory-measured sorption coeffi
octanol-water partition coefficients. These properties vary cients ranged from 5.8 to 388.
with the number of compound rings, as indicated in table The sediment-water partition coefficients normal
43. As the number of rings increases, compound solubility ized for organic-carbon content (K,,,.) for a variety of the
and vapor pressure generally decrease, whereas the PAH's can be calculated from solubility data using the
octanol-water partition coefficient increases. Acute toxic empirical relation derived by Banwart and others (1982):
ity is greatest for the low-molecular-weight PAH's, such as
naphthalene, and increases with alkyl substitution (Van log ^=-0.686 log S+ 4.273,
Luik, 1984). Benzo(a)pyrene is perhaps the most highly
carcinogenic compound of the group, but other com where S is compound solubility, in milligrams per liter.
pounds, such as benzo(b)fluoranthene, benzo(j)fluoran- The relation was developed from data from Karickhoff
Residue, in
Wood preserv Motor oil
Compound Gasoline Crude oil Bitumen ative sludge Fresh Used Used
(5.000 km) (10.000 km)
Anthracene 1.55-2.59 - - • - - -
Benzo(a)anthracene 0.04-0.27 1.7-2.3 0.13-0.86 5.18 - - -
and others (1979) and Banwart and others (1980), along thalene to 10,000 for benzo(a)anthracene. Casserly and
with original sorption data for three nitrogen-heterocyclic others (1983) also found that BCF's increase with
compounds. Table 44 presents the calculated values of decreasing solubility. Exposure of the alga Selenastrum
K,,,. for some of the PAH's along with experimentally capricornutum to aqueous residues of naphthalene, phen
determined Koc values for additional PAH's from anthrene, and pyrene resulted in BCFs of 12,600, 24,000,
Karickhoff and others (1979). The K,,,. values indicate and 36,300, respectively. BCFs as great as 10,000 also
that a sediment sample having only 0.1 percent organic- have been documented for PAH's bioaccumulated by fish
carbon content may have an equilibrium benzo(a)pyrene (Mackay, 1982a). Table 45 lists BCFs determined for a
concentration of 8.6 X 10s X 0.001, or 860 times greater variety of PAH's. For a given compound, differences in
than the compound's concentration in the surrounding BCFs determined for different organisms are at least
water. Means and others (1980, 1982) also determined partially attributable to differences in the lipid contents of
K,,,. values for several PAH's sorbed to 14 sediment and the organisms. For a given compound, BCF's will increase
soil samples. Mean values for the 14 samples ranged from with increasing lipid content of the aquatic organism.
517 (anthracene-9-carboxylic acid) to 1.8X106 (3- In aqueous systems, PAH's are photodegraded by
methylcholanthrene). These data indicate the strong tend reactions with oxygen resulting in the formation of qui
ency of benzo(a)pyrene and other PAH's of similarly low ñones (Smith and others, 1978). Although several labo
solubilities to partition into sediment organic matter. ratory experiments have documented short photolytic
In addition to their tendency to sorb to sediments, half-lives for PAH's in distilled water samples, photo-
PAH's also accumulate in the lipid reservoirs of aquatic decomposition in natural systems may be relatively insig
organisms, with BCFs generally increasing as compound nificant owing to the strong partitioning of PAH's into
solubility decreases. This observation is confirmed by the particulate and dissolved organic matter. Smith and others
data of Southworth and others (1978b), who studied the (1978) measured photolytic half-lives of several hours for
bioaccumulation of seven PAH's by Daphnia pulex. They benzo(a)anthracene and benzo(a)pyrene in oxygen-
determined that the octanol-water partition coefficients of saturated distilled water exposed to sunlight. However,
the PAH's were good estimators of BCF's, with when half-lives were similarly determined in natural
laboratory-measured BCFs ranging from 100 for naph waters or in distilled water containing dissolved humic
Table 45. Bioconcentration factors (BCF's) for selected polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
[Dash indicates no data available]
Exposure
Compound Organism time (days) BCF Reference
Mean Max .
Compound Locality (/JgAg) (pgAg) Reference
for any of the PAH's in several European rivers was only idues of these same compounds, however, were not
0.76 Mg/L. detected. Table 46 presents documented residues of a
As a result of their generally low aqueous solubili variety of PAH's in sediment samples collected from U.S.
ties and high octanol-water partition coefficients, PAH's surface waters. Benzo(a)pyrene concentrations greater
will strongly partition into sediment-associated organic than 300 ppm have been detected in the sediments of
matter, and, consequently, sediments act as a reservoir for Lake Hansen, Los Angeles, and numerous researchers
PAH's. Although aqueous PAH concentrations in surface have reported sediment PAH concentrations ranging from
waters are typically in the parts-per-trillion to low parts- 10 ppb to 10 ppm.
per-billion range, sediment PAH concentrations can be In addition to strongly partitioning into sediment
several orders of magnitude higher. For example, Jung- organic matter, PAH's also accumulate in the lipid reser
claus and others (1978) detected significant residues of voirs of aquatic organisms. Table 47 presents mean and
phenanthrene (0.2 to 25 ppm), fluorene (2 to 10 ppm), maximum reported concentrations of PAH's in aquatic
acenaphthylene (0.2 to 5 ppm), and pyrene (0.5 to 75 organisms and illustrates that residues greater than 400
ppm) in the sediment of a river downstream from a ppb have been reported. The data in table 47 from Brown
chemical manufacturing plant's discharge. Aqueous res and Pancirov (1979) are concentrations of PAH in fish
from the Baltimore Canyon area off the coast of New PAH concentration changes in the sediments of the central
Jersey and Delaware. Despite the lack of any oil or gas main basin of Puget Sound, Wash., paralleled the urban
production in the area, biological residues of PAH's were ization of Seattle.
still found at significant concentrations (up to 4.1 ppb), Several studies have also investigated regional PAH
indicating their strong tendency to bioaccumulate. contamination trends and determined that the highest
Although no studies have addressed temporal con PAH residues are typically found near highly populated,
tamination trends of PAH's in surface waters across the industrialized areas. Larsen and others (1983) reported
Nation, several localized studies have reported data indi strongly regional PAH contamination trends in the sedi
cating that PAH residues in sediments have been increas ments of Casco Bay, Maine. In general, total PAH con
ing over time. In a study of two New York lakes, Heit and centrations in the bay's upper and middle sections were
others (1981) analyzed sediment cores for a variety of
less than 900 ppb. Sediment samples from stations near
PAH's. They determined that with the exception of peryl
the metropolitan area of Portland, however, had total
ene, anthropogenically derived PAH concentrations
PAH concentrations in excess of 2,000 ppb. Heit (1979)
decreased with increasing sediment depth until a back
noted similar results after collecting and analyzing sedi
ground concentration was reached at a depth at which
ment samples from a variety of western lakes for residues
sediment was estimated to be about 30 yr old. Hurtt and
of benzo(a)pyrene. The highest concentrations of the
Quinn (1979) examined PAH residues in sediment cores
collected from Narragansett Bay, R.I, and also discovered carcinogenic PAH were found in Lake Hansen, which is
that PAH residues steadily decreased with sediment core located in the urban environment of Los Angeles. Far
depth, with concentrations stabilizing at a depth of 20-25 rington and others (1983) sampled mussels from 62
cm. Likewise, Heit and others (1984) observed that the locations along the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of the
highest fluoranthene concentrations in Rocky Mountain United States and analyzed them for PAH residues.
National Park occurred in the surficial sediments of four Again, mussels sampled from stations near urban areas
lakes. Lower concentrations were observed in deeper had elevated PAH concentrations relative to mussels from
sediments. Finally, Bates and others (1984) noted that stations near rural, sparsely populated areas.
Summary 73
partitioning of the solute into sediment-associated organic (PCDD's) enter the environment as impurities in com
matter and the negative charge of particle surfaces min pounds whose production involves the use of 2,4,5-
imizes adsorption of phenolate anions. Sediments having trichlorophcnol. These compounds include many pesti
high organic-matter contents, however, have been observed cides and both tetra- and pentachlorophenol. Although
to sorb appreciable amounts of the highly chlorinated the quantity of PCDD's produced each year is probably
phenols because of their lower solubilities. Similarly, very small, they are extremely persistent contaminants
phenols are not readily bioaccumulated, with the excep that have been shown to be highly toxic to laboratory
tion of the highly chlorinated phenols such as pentachlo- animals (particularly 2,3,7, 8-tetrachlorodibenzo-
rophenol. Phenols commonly enter surface waters in p-dioxin). PCDD's strongly sorb to sediments and soils,
industrial or municipal effluents, and chlorination of and erosion of soil treated with PCDD-contaminated
these effluents can convert phenol to mono-, di-, or even pesticides is a likely input of PCDD's to surface-water
trichlorophenol isomers. Despite their large-scale produc systems. PCDD's also strongly partition into biological
tion, phenolic residues in surface waters usually are not lipid reservoirs, and aqueous concentrations as low as 50
found at concentrations greater than 1 ppm. pg/L have resulted in biological concentrations as great as
Halogenated aliphatic and monocyclic aromatic 2.4 fig/L. There is some evidence that PCDD's can be
hydrocarbons are industrial chemicals that have a variety degraded photolytically; however, the majority of PCDD's
of uses, including solvent degreasers, refrigerants, and in surface waters will probably be unavailable for photol
styrene and dye manufacturing. They are highly soluble in ysis owing to their rapid sorption to sediments. The
water, and their'primary fate in natural waters is volatil highest PCDD residues in surface-water systems are
ization followed by atmospheric photolysis. While many found in the sediments and biota, with reported concen
of these compounds have been biologically and chemi trations typically in the parts-per-trillion to parts-per-
cally degraded in the laboratory, the degradation rates are billion range.
generally not fast enough to compete successfully with Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH's) are pro
volatilization from the water body. Sorption to sediments duced by high-temperature pyrolytic reactions, such as
and bioaccumulation are not important fate processes, municipal incineration, forest fires, and fuel combustion.
with the possible exception of the chlorinated benzenes. Their residues also have been detected in fossil fuels and
Because of the large quantities of halogenated aliphatic wastewater sludges. Important environmental-fate proc
and monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons produced annu esses include sorption and bioaccumulation, and the
ally, they are ubiquitous surface-water contaminants. Sed ultimate fate of PAH's in surface-water systems may be
iment, biological, and aqueous environmental residues, sorption to sediments followed by slow biodegradation.
however, rarely exceed the parts-per-billion range. Spa Photolytic degradation of PAH's has been demonstrated
tially, halogenated aliphatic and monocyclic aromatic in laboratory studies, but in natural systems it is uncertain
hydrocarbons are typically found near industrial and if photolysis is a significant fate process owing to the rapid
highly populated areas. Temporally, there is some evi sorption of PAH's to sediments. Because of their low
dence that environmental residues have decreased slightly solubilities, aqueous residues of PAH's in natural systems
since the late 1970's, paralleling a similar decrease in are typically low relative to sediment and biological con
production of these compounds in the United States. centrations. Based on sediment core data, PAH residues
Phthalate esters represent a relatively new class of in surface-water systems appear to be increasing with
environmental pollutants. They are extensively used as time, and concentrations seem to parallel industrialization
plasticizers to produce useful products from polymers of both temporally and spatially.
vinyl chloride. As a result of their low solubilities and
nonionic nature, they tend to strongly partition into par
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Thurman, E.M, 1984, Determination of aquatic humic substances in Sanborn, H.R, 1985, Bioavailability and biotransformation of
natural waters, in Thurman, E.M, ed. Selected papers in the aromatic hydrocarbons in benthic organisms exposed to sediment
hydrologic sciences 1984: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply from an urban estuary: Environmental Science and Technology, v.
Paper 2262, p. 47-52. 19, no. 9, p. 836-841.
Selected References 91
Winger, P.V., and Andreasen, J.K, 1985, Contaminant residues in fish of the aqueous solubility of some aromatic compounds: Residue
and sediments from lakes in the Atchafalaya River Basin (Loui Reviews, v. 85, p. 43-55.
siana): Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicol Yamamoto, Yasuhiro, Suzuki, Manabu, Shimohara, Kenichi, and
ogy, v. 14, p. 579-586. Akiyama, Takashi, 1980, Behaviour of HCH (1,2,3,4,5,6-
Witkowski, PJ., Smith, J.A., Fusillo, T.V., and Chiou, C.T., 1987, A hexachlorocyclohexane) residue in the aquatic environment:
review of surface-water sediment fractions and their interactions Water Research, v. 14, p. 247-251.
with persistent manmade organic compounds: U.S. Geological Yaron, Bruno, 1978, Some aspects of surface interactions of clays with
Survey Circular 993, 39 p. organophosphorous pesticides: Soil Science, v. 125, no. 4, p.
Wolfe, N.L., Zepp, R.G., Gordon, J.A., Baughman, G.L., and Cline, 210-216.
D.M., 1977, Kinetics of chemical degradation of malathion in Yaron, Bruno, and Saltzman, Sarina, 1972, Influence of water and
water: Environmental Science and Technology, v. 11, no. 1, p. temperature on adsorption of parathion by soils: Soil Science
88-93. Society of America Proceedings, v. 36, p. 583-586.
Wolfe, N.L., Zepp, R.G., and Paris, D.F., 1978, Use of structure- Yasuhara, A., Shiraishi, H., Tsujl, M., and Okuno, T., 1981, Analysis of
reactivity relationships to estimate hydrolytic persistence of organic substances in highly polluted river water by mass spec
carbamate pesticides: Water Research, v. 12, p. 561-563. trometry: Environmental Science and Technology, v. 15, p.
Wood, L.W., Jones, P.A., and Richards, A., 1986, Possible sediment 570-573.
scavenging of chlordane and contamination of the aquatic biota in Yorke, T.H., Stamer, J.K, and Pederson, G.L., 1985, Effects of
Belmont Lake, New York: Bulletin of Environmental Contami low-level dams on the distribution of sediment, trace metals, and
nation and Toxicology, v. 36, p. 159-167. organic substances in the lower Schuylkill River basin, Pennsylva
Woodburn, KB., Rao, P.S.C., Fukui, M., and Nkedi-Kizza, P., 1986, nia: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2256-B, 53 p.
Solvophobic approach for predicting sorption of hydrophobic Zabawa, C.F., 1978, Microstructure of agglomerated suspended sedi
organic chemicals on synthetic sorbents and soils: Journal of ments in northern Chesapeake Bay estuary: Science, v. 202, p.
Contaminant Hydrology, v. 1, p. 227-241. 49-51.
Woodwell, G.M., Craig, P.P., and Johnson, HA., 1971, DDT in the Zafiriou, O.C., Joussot-Dubien, J., Zepp, R.G., and Zika, R.G., 1984,
biosphere: Where does it go?: Science, v. 174, p. 1101-1107. Photochemistry of natural waters: Environmental Science and
Wszolek, P.C., Lisk, DJ., Wachs, Timothy, and Youngs, W.D., 1979, Technology, v. 18, no. 12, p. 358a-371a.
Persistence of polychlorinated biphenyls and l,l-dichloro-2,2- Zepp, R.G., and Cline, D.M., 1977, Rates of direct photolysis in
bis(p-chlorophenyl)ethylene (p,p'-DDE) with age in lake trout aquatic environment: Environmental Science and Technology, v.
after 8 years: Environmental Science and Technology, v. 13, no. 11, no. 4, p. 359-366.
10, p. 1269-1271. Zierath, D.L., Hassett, JJ., Banwart, W.L., Wood, S.G. and Mcans._
Wu, Shian-chee, and Gschwend, P.M., 1986, Sorption kinetics of J.C., 1980, Sorption of benzidine by sediments and soils: Soil
hydrophobic organic compounds to natural sediments and soils: Science, v. 129, no. 5, p. 277-281.
Environmental Science and Technology, v. 20, no. 7, p. 717-725. Zitko, V., 1971, Polychlorinated biphenyls and organochlorine pesti
Wu, T.L., Lambert, Laurie, Hastings, David, and Banning, Deborah, cides in some freshwater and marine fishes: Bulletin of Environ
1980, Enrichment of the agricultural herbicide atrazine in the mental Contamination and Toxicology, v. 6, no. 5, p. 464-470.
microsurface water of an estuary: Bulletin of Environmental Zsolnay, A., 1979, Coastal colloidal carbon: A study of its seasonal
Contamination and Toxicology, v. 24, p. 411-414. variation and the possibility of river input: Estuarine and Coastal
Yalkowsky, S.H., Valvani, S.C., and Mackay, Donald, 1983, Estimation Marine Science, v. 9, p. 559-567.
> Landslides of
•; Eastern North America
OPPOSITE: Landsat multispectral scanner (MSS) band 5 (0.6-0.7 pm) image mosaic of the Eastern United States compiled in 1974
by the U.S. Department of Agriculture Soil Conservation Service.
v
Landslides of Eastern North America
Contents III
FIGURES
1.1. Location map of Vermont 2
1.2. View of Dorset Mountain slide scars as seen on a synthetic aperture radar
(SAR) image 3
1.3. Photograph of a portion of the 3.5-mile-long debris flow channel on Dorset
Mountain, Vermont 4
2. 1. Generalized location map of eastern Maryland showing the Coastal Plain and
places referred to in text 5
2.2. Photograph of a slope failure in the Patapsco Formation southeast of
Baltimore, Maryland 7
2.3. Photograph of a slope failure of Marlboro Clay south of Washington,
D.C. 7
2.4. Photograph of slightly tilted old slump surface on Elk Neck peninsula,
Maryland 8
2.5. Photograph of steeply dipping stress release joint in the Chesapeake Group
clay at Calvert Cliffs, Maryland 8
3.1. Isohyetal map of Puerto Rico showing rainfall from tropical storm Isabel,
October 6-7, 1985 10
4. 1A. Isohyetal map of Germany Valley, West Virginia and Virginia, showing
rainfall from tropical storm Juan, November 3-5, 1985 11
4. IB. Isohyetal map of Germany Valley, West Virginia and Virginia, showing total
rainfall in October 1985 11
4.2. Location map of Germany Valley, West Virginia and Virginia, showing
quadrangles referred to in text 12
4.3. Rainfall intensity data of Germany Valley, West Virginia and Virginia,
region 13
4.4/4. Photograph of slump-mudflows in Germany Valley, West Virginia, triggered
by tropical storm Juan 14
4AB. Photograph of a source-area scar of a debris avalanche in Germany Valley,
West Virginia 14
4.5. Aerial photograph of a portion of Germany Valley, West Virginia, showing
slump-mudflow scar on pasture slopes IS
5. 1. Index map of Nelson County, Virginia, showing the number of debris
avalanches related to Hurricane Camille in those quadrangles contained in
the study area 16
5.2. Aerial photograph index showing a portion of the area affected by debris
avalanches induced by Hurricane Camille in 1969 17
5.3. Photograph of the Blue Ridge Mountains, Virginia, showing debris avalanche
chutes that resulted from Hurricane Camille in 1969 17
6.1. Location map showing the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, Tennessee
and North Carolina, and Anakeesta Ridge 18
7.1. Location map of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, Tennessee and
North Carolina, showing block deposits 20
8. 1. Stratigraphic cross section of a colluvial fan-alluvial terrace complex near
Cabins, West Virginia 22
9.1. Index map to prehistoric giant rockslides in the Appalachian Valley and
Ridge province 25
IV Contents
9.2. A, Aerial photograph of the Lost River, West Virginia, debris avalanche. B,
Aerial photograph of the Mill Ridge, Virginia and West Virginia, rock
slump. C, Side-looking airborne radar image of Elkhorn Mountain, West
Virginia, rock avalanche. D, Aerial photograph of a portion of the Sinking
Creek Mountain, Virginia, rock block slide complex 28
9.3. A, Generalized geologic map of the Lost River, West Virginia, debris
avalanche. B, Generalized geologic map of the Mill Ridge, Virginia and West
Virginia, rock slump. C, Generalized geologic map of the Elkhorn Mountain,
West Virginia, rock avalanche. D, Generalized geologic map of a portion of
the Sinking Creek Mountain, Virginia, rock block slide complex 29
9.4. Digital elevation model data of the Elkhorn Mountain, West Virginia, rock
avalanche and the Gap Mountain, West Virginia, rock block slide 31
10.1. Schematic geologic maps and cross sections of typical giant rock block slides
and rock slumps in the southern Appalachian Valley and Ridge
province 33
11.1. Stereo-pair aerial photographs and geologic map of the Narrows, Virginia,
rock block slide complex 34
14.1. Index map of the Jenkins 1°X2° quadrangle of Kentucky, West Virginia, and
Virginia 36
15.1. Flow chart of ROCKPACK slope stability programs illustrating the
recommended sequence of use 39
16.1. Index map and regional geologic map of the Sinking Creek Mountain,
Virginia, slide complex 40
162. Detailed geologic map and cross sections of rock block slides and rock
slumps on the southeast limb of the Sinking Creek Mountain anticline 41
163. Aerial photograph of part of the Sinking Creek Mountain, Virginia, slide
complex 42
TABLES
2.1. Maryland Coastal Plain stratigraphic units 6
9. 1. Characteristics of the four primary types of prehistoric giant rockslides in
the Appalachian Valley and Ridge province 26
9.2. Characteristics of named prehistoric giant rock slumps, rock avalanches,
debris avalanches, and rock block slides in the Appalachian Valley and Ridge
province 27
14.1. Rock types in eastern Kentucky and their typical styles of failure 37
Contents V
INTRODUCTION
Introduction VII
LANDSLIDES OF EASTERN NORTH AMERICA
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9
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Smugglers Notch
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o li
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i
i
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9
i
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Ottauquechee
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Figure 1.1. Location map of Vermont showing places referenced in the text. The shaded box is index to figure 1.2.
John S. Pomeroy
Slope failures take place in virtually all of the
exposed Cretaceous, Tertiary, and Quaternary units in the
Coastal Plain of Maryland (fig. 2.1). Susceptibility to
landsliding ranges from very low (post-Potomac Group
Upper Cretaceous units and Aquia formation, table 2.1)
to very high (Potomac Group clays and Marlboro Clay,
table 2.1, figs. 2.2, 23). Susceptibility to landsliding is
defined as the probable degree of response of the uncon
solidated stratigraphic units and their derivative soils to
natural events or to artificial slope modifications. Gay
layers within the stratigraphic units have caused stability
problems.
In order to gain a better understanding of the
geologic environment and mass movement processes,
slope movements were mapped in suburban Prince
Georges County in both the relatively steeply sloping (high
relief) terrane of the southwestern part and the more
gently sloping (low relief) terrane of the eastern part.
Geologic maps by Glaser (1978, 1981, 1984) facilitated
the investigation. Ground traverses were also conducted in
highly slide-prone areas southwest of Baltimore and along O 20 Miles
the west side of Elk Neck peninsula at the head of
Chesapeake Bay. Most of the shoreline comprising the 0 32 Kilometers
Calvert Cliffs along the west side of Chesapeake Bay was
examined at least twice during the study. Figure 2.1. Generalized location map of eastern Maryland
showing the Coastal Plain and places referred to in text. B,
Slope movements in both the Potomac Group and Baltimore; C, Calvert Cliffs; CB, Chesapeake Bay; E, Elk
Marlboro Clay are either slumps, earth flows, or a com Neck peninsula; F, Fort Washington; PG, Prince Georges
bination of the two forms. The present investigation sug County; W, Washington, D.C.
gests that heretofore undocumented large old slumps (fig.
2.4) along Elk Neck peninsula might have been induced by Group (table 2.1) includes ubiquitous spalls; soil, sand,
faulting. On the basis of an interpretation of aeromagnetic and earth falls; and translational sb'des. Topples, slumps,
data, pre-Miocene(?) faulting in this region has been and debris flows are less common.
inferred by Higgins and others (1974). One old slump- Large old landslides are commonly difficult to dis
earth flow is still moving and is responsible for a 200-m- cern, on the basis of morphologic criteria, but a few, as
wide zone of accretion along a shoreline where elsewhere much as 200 m wide, are identifiable in terranes underlain
erosion is the dominant geomorphic process. An array of by the Potomac Group clays. Large blocks on the Aquia
landslide types along the Calvert Cliffs in the Chesapeake formation, which forms a shoreline bluff of low relief
Stratigraphic Thickness
System Series Croup unit (feet) Lithologic character
adjacent to Potomac Group clays at Fort Washington, Climatic records for the Maryland Coastal Plain
attest to prehistoric slumping. In another example near (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,
the head of Chesapeake Bay, Upper Cretaceous marine 1960-1986) indicate that the 1960's generally were drier
glauconitic sands occupy an interval 150 m wide along the than normal, whereas the period beginning with 1971 and
shoreline between exposures of the Lower and Upper extending to the end of that decade had been wetter than
Cretaceous Patapsco Formation (table 2.1). normal. High summer rainfall in 1972, 1975, and 1979
The vast majority of slope failures relate either was caused by a combination of drenching rains from
directly or indirectly to precipitation, and the relationship tropical storms together with abnormally high rainfall at
is complex. Long periods of abnormally high precipitation other times during the same season. Several residential
are more likely to initiate slope movements than isolated subdivisions developed during the 1960's in southwestern
summer thunderstorms of high intensity but of short Prince Georges County did not experience landsliding
duration. High pore pressures in the soil are caused by until the 1970's. Significant landsliding took place at one
rising ground-water levels. Slope failures generally take subdivision during and after a tropical storm in Septem
place when the ground-water table is high. ber 1975. Major landslide activity has not taken place
there since that time despite a record maximum discharge The removal of support of the overlying sediments results
at a nearby creek in September 1979 following a tropical in a collapse failure. Translational (planar) movements at
storm (U.S. Geological Survey, 1980) and an unusually shallow depths controlled by subvertical stress release
wet spring in 1983. A possible explanation for the cessation joints may result from the failure of the overlying, mainly
of major landslide activity might be that the slopes have sandy material. Spalling takes place both above and below
adjusted to the surface modification resulting from con the seepage line along subvertical joints dipping steeply
struction in the 1960's and, therefore, have reached a state toward Chesapeake Bay (fig. 2.5). This process is contin
of equilibrium. Precipitation during the 1980-86 period uous throughout the year but accelerates during the cooler
has been below normal except for 1983. months when freezing and thawing occur along the joints.
The landsliding process takes place in the zone of Wave action can induce slope failure by a removal of
weathering. All units susceptible to sliding have high-angle material from the toe of the slope. Observations at various
joints (Obermeier and others, 1984). Depending upon time intervals have led to the conclusion that a series of
moisture conditions and a relative position of a clay closely spaced spalls above the beach can lead to massive
horizon in the section, a perched water table commonly failure of the overlying slope material.
lies above the impermeable layer. Seeps are widespread at
this contact along the slope face. The clay surface may
serve as a slide surface when water percolates through the REFERENCES CITED
overlying more permeable sand or silt and moves laterally, Cleaves, E.T., Edwards, Jonathan, Jr., and Glaser, J.D. (com
lowering fricubnal resistance, to the slope face. Not all pilers), 1968, Geologic map of Maryland: Maryland Geo
failures, however, begin at this position. Fractures in the logical Survey, scale 1:250,000.
clay allow for downward migration of water. Thin horizon Glaser, J.D., 1971, Geology and mineral resources of southern
tal and vertical silt zones within a clay unit (Woodward- Maryland: Maryland Geological Survey Report of Investi
gations 15, 84 p.
Clyde Consultants, 1976) become conduits for water and
1978, Geologic map of the Mount Vernon and Pisca-
may also serve as loci for landsliding. taway quadrangles, Maryland: Maryland Geological Sur
Nowhere is the slope movement process more vey, scale 1:24,000.
clearly seen than in excavations and pits, especially in early 1981, Geologic map of the Upper Marlboro quadrangle,
spring. Elsewhere, shallow surface excavations made with Prince Georges County, Maryland: Maryland Geological
a trenching tool along minor drainages at this time of year Survey, scale 1:24,000.
reveal the development of "minislides" where the contact 1984, Geologic map of the Bristol quadrangle, Prince
of the permeable cover and underlying clay horizon is Georges, Anne Arundel, and Calvert Counties, Maryland:
Maryland Geological Survey, scale 1:24,000.
exposed. The Calvert Cliffs furnish a dynamic environ
Higgins, M.W., Zietz, Isidore, Fischer, G.W., 1974, Interpreta
ment for observing various forms of slope failure. tion of aeromagnetic anomalies bearing on the origin of
Ground-water seepage is present at several places along Upper Chesapeake Bay and river course changes in the
the Calvert Cliffs. This process induces sapping of loose central Atlantic seaboard region— speculations: Geology,
noncoherent sand and sflt lying above the line of seepage. v. 2, no. 2, p. 73-76.
Randall W. Jibson
On October 5-8, 1985, a tropical wave, which later In most flows, the debris scoured the overh/ing colluvium
developed into tropical storm Isabel, produced extraordi down to bedrock, and in flows where preexisting gullies
nary rainfalls on the island of Puerto Rico. At some were filled with thick accumulations of colluvium, the
places, the 24-hr rainfall exceeded 560 mm (fig. 3.1), and debris scoured channels as deep as 7 m. On many slopes
local intensities reached 70 mm/hr. The storm center was composed of mudstone, deeply incised drainage channels
over the south-central coast, where the intense rainfall were present before the debris flows formed. The flowing
caused severe flooding and widespread landsliding. By far debris further incised and eroded these drainage channels,
the most abundant type of slope movement produced by which destabilized the gully walls and resulted in addi
this rainfall was debris flow— the mobilization and flow of tional thin debris slides into the channel. These secondary
water-saturated rock and soil down steep slopes, com debris slides contributed substantial mass to the debris
monly in preexisting gullies or depressions. The majority flow. These two processes, channel scouring and incision
of the thousands of debris flows triggered by the storm of triggering slide-slope debris sliding, contributed most of
October 5-8 occurred within the 400-mm isohyet (fig. the material to the final debris-flow deposits. The volume
3.1), although other debris flows were scattered over much of material from source areas at the heads of the debris-
of south-central Puerto Rico (Jibson, 1986). flow tracks generally constituted no more than 5 percent of
Debris flows generated by the storm were not the total volume of the debris-flow deposits.
limited to a particular topographic or geologic setting, but Most of the debris flows appear to have been
rather formed on slopes having a wide variety of topo triggered by buildup of pore pressure resulting from the
graphic characteristics, lithologies, and geologic struc intense, prolonged rainfall of October 5-8. Of those flows
tures. The flows in Puerto Rico formed on slopes well constrained in time, all developed during peak rainfall
underlain by limestone, mudstone, volcanic rock, and intensity, early in the morning hours of October 7. Several
granitic rock; on dip slopes, reverse-dip slopes, jointed and flows formed at or near the slope break marking the
unjointed rock masses; and on planar as well as irregular boundary between nearly vertical bedrock faces above and
slopes. Locally, however, geologic factors did influence the steep colluvium-covered slopes below; it thus appears that
distribution of debris flows, such that on some hillsides, the infiltration of sheetwash from the overlying bedrock
debris flows were initiated along the outcrop of a partic face elevated pore pressures enough to mobilize the soil at
ularly susceptible lithologic unit. the tops of the colluvium-covered slopes.
Most of the debris flows developed on bedrock In one area about 10 km west of Ponce (fig. 3.1),
slopes covered by a veneer of colluvium and (or) residuum field evidence indicates that a debris flow was triggered by
no more than 1 to 2 m deep. Some debris flows formed in rock falls onto the top of a colluvium-covered slope. At
preexisting swales or gullies, others on relatively planar this site, a 40° colluvial slope containing several debris-
slopes. Even those debris flows that were generated in flow tracks abuts a vertical-to-overhanging limestone bed
preexisting gullies, however, were mobilized in areas hav rock face. All the debris-flow tracks head directly below
ing only thin accumulations of surface soils. This differs fresh rock-fall scarps in the limestone, and the boulders
significantly from other documented processes of debris- that failed are visible in the deposits at the base of the
flow initiation, such as the evacuation of deep, colluvium- hillside. The uppermost parts of the debris flows at this
filled bedrock hollows in California (Reneau and others, site are distinctive from other debris-flow source areas in
1986). Debris-flow source areas in south-central Puerto the region: only a portion of the colluvium beneath the
Rico generally were disk shaped; diameters were as great rock-fall scarps mobilized, and bedrock is not exposed;
as 15 m, and thicknesses ranged from 0.5 to 1.5 m. only farther down slope has scouring exposed bedrock at
After mobilization, the debris generally flowed down the site. This evidence and other field evidence indicate
preexisting drainage gullies or depressions on the hillsides. that the debris flows here were triggered by rock falls onto
FAJARDO
18°
00'
40 km
CARIBBEAN. SEA
! J_
67° 00' 66° 30' 66° 00'
Figure 3.1 . Map showing 24-hour rainfall amounts (in millimeters) throughout Puerto Rico from 8:00 a.m. (local time) October
6 to 8:00 a.m. October 7, 1985 (from U.S. Geological Survey, 1985). Isohyet intervals 50 and 100 mm.
the top of the colluvium-covered slope that either (1) REFERENCES CITED
generated a large, instantaneous increase in pore pressure
leading to mobilization or (2) mechanically disaggregated
the saturated colluvium, which then began to flow down- Jibson, R.W., 1986, Evaluation of landslide hazards resulting
slope. from the 5-8 October 1985, storm in Puerto Rico: U.S.
Analysis of geologic, climatic, and topographic data Geological Survey Open-File Report 86-26, 40 p.
bases in Geographic Information System (GIS) format is Reneau, S.L., Dietrich, W.E., Dorn, R.I., Berger, C.R., and
proceeding that will allow quantification of factors related Rubin, Meyer, 1986, Geomorphic and paleoclimatic impli
to debris-flow distribution from the storm. Understanding cations of latest Pleistocene radiocarbon dates from
both the factors influencing debris-flow distribution and colluvium-mantled hollows, California: Geology, v. 14, no.
the mechanisms of debris-flow initiation, propagation, and 8, p. 655-658.
deposition will facilitate modeling and prediction of the U.S. Geological Survey, 1985, Water resources in Puerto Rico
relative susceptibility to debris-flow hazards of different and the Virgin Islands— a review: Caribbean District of the
areas subjected to a given model storm. Water Resources Division, v. 4, no. 7, 7 p.
Figure 4.1 . A, Storm-total isohyetal map, November 3-5, 1985. Shaded area is the Germany Valley study area. Diamonds are
rain gage locations. B, Isohyetal map for total rainfall in October 1985. Also shown are locations of six hourly recording rain
gages (•) whose data are shown in figure 4.3.
SLOPE FAILURES
We have classified slope failures triggered by the
November storm into two general categories: (1) slumps
and slump-mudflows and (2) debris avalanches-debris
flows (after Varnes, 1978). Slump-mudflows are shown in
figure 4.4/1, and a debris avalanche scar is shown in figure
4.45. Slumps have rotational to planar sliding movement at
3^15 i o their heads; when fine-grained sediment flows from a
79 45 slump, it is termed a slump-mudflow. The feature in the
Figure 4.2. Location map of Germany Valley study area center of figure 4.4/1 is a slump-mudflow that has had the
showing quadrangles referred to in text. slump block partially removed from the head by flowage.
The mass of flowing muddy sediment has moved down-
slope over pasture turf, depositing a trail of sediment as
The valley is floored by Ordovician carbonates of
lateral levees and a hummocky mass at the snout. The
the Trenton, Black River, and St. Paul Groups and shales
slope failure to the right in the photo is also a slump-
of the Martinsburg (Reedsville) Shale. The ridges are
mudflow but here most of the original slump block has
formed by sandstones of the Tuscarora and Oswego
remained intact. The term debris avalanche is used here
Sandstones, and the Juniata formation. The southwestern
to denote a slope failure that begins as a rapid slide of
quarter of the valley is drained by Back Creek of the
noncoherent rock or regolith; most debris avalanches
James River basin, and the remainder of the valley drains
become debris flows as they funnel into preexisting chan
north and west to the North fork of the South Branch
nels downslope. Although there are no eyewitness
Potomac River.
accounts of the debris avalanches described here, evi
dence that debris masses ran up on the outside walls of
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE STORM
bends suggests that they had considerable velocity.
Moisture conditions preceding the storm of Novem Slumps and slump-mudflows triggered by the
ber 1-5 are illustrated in figure 4.1B, which shows isohyets November 3-5 storm are abundant on slopes underlain by
of total rainfall during October 1985. During this period, residuum of the Martinsburg Shale and some slopes
the northeastern end of the study area received nearly underlain by carbonates. The aerial photograph in figure
twice as much rainfall as the southwestern end. The 4.5 shows a small drainage basin in the northern half of
isohyetal map for storm-total rainfall, November 3-5 (fig. the Circleville 7.5-minute quadrangle where failures in
4.L4), shows that the rainfall distribution was dominated Martinsburg Shale residuum are especially numerous.
by two strong cells along the Blue Ridge Mountains Close inspection of figure 4.5 shows that many slump-
(Montebello and Big Meadows gages received more than mudflows delivered sediment directly to streams, an obser
350 mm and 300 mm, respectively); a more moderate cell vation that has led us to hypothesize that stream channel
is evident in the northern part of the patterned study area. erosion and flood damage are closely tied to upstream
The southern half of the study area received approxi slope failures. Preliminary observations also suggest that,
mately 200 mm of rainfall during the storm; just north of for failures triggered by this storm, there are no generally
the State line, rainfall increases gradually to somewhat preferred slope aspects and that more failures occurred on
greater than 250 mm (Upper Tract gage was 268.7 mm). pasture land than on forest-covered slopes.
40- 40
20 .15.2 20 H
7.6
0 i I ^i ij i nil iniH 1 1 ji I u^ukjuyli i illllilij ilm (
40 -i 40 H
22.9
20 14.0 20
0 ,( | i ij . n |Ll . ill lllllllllil)Li—,W 0 I'M' ' I ' up " HJ'l ' iU_L
i -JiidpilLulitiiu , ■
3 4 5 2 3 4
Days during November 1985
Figure 4.3. Rainfall-intensity data from hourly recording rain gages. Data are in mm/h, with peak value noted.
All types of failures are virtually absent on the clean, photo. The fifth debris avalanche was initiated on a scarp
karstic limestones of the St. Paul Group, and slumps and slope at the contact between the Tuscarora and the
slump-mudflows are rare on slopes underlain by residuum Juniata. Landowners who bst their turkey shed to this
and colhivium of the sandy lithologies underlying ridges. debris flow reported that it occurred at dusk on November
Five large debris avalanches-debris flows were trig 4. This observation is coincident with the timing of the
gered in the study area by the November storm; all had peak rainfall intensity recorded at Mathias, West Virginia,
source areas high on ridge slopes underlain by sandstones the nearest hourly-recording rain gage (fig. 4.3).
of the Tuscarora Sandstone and Juniata Formation. They Within the Germany Valley study area, the distribu
are much larger than individual slump-mud flows, with tion of slope failures is strongly related to the distribution
source-area scars larger than 100 m2. In traveling down- of rainfall. Although our analysis is incomplete at this
slope (exceeding hundreds of meters distance), the debris time, slope failure density (number of failures per unit
avalanches converted to debris flows and scoured channels area) clearly increases to the northeast along the valley,
to bedrock. Significantly, four of the five debris avalanches coincident with increasing rainfall. Preliminary failure
began on dip slopes (fig. 4.4B). Such slopes may be more density estimates for slopes underlain by Martinsburg
susceptible to slope failure under given meteorologicalcon- show a steady increase from approximately 14.5/km2 in
ditions because slip is facilitated along bedding planes. the Mustoe quadrangle to 45.2/km2 in the Snowy Moun
Also, it is interesting that the source area of the debris tain quadrangle to 81.8/km2 in the Grcleville quadrangle
avalanche (fig. 4.4B) began as a planar rock block slide (fig. 4.2). The proportion of failures delivering sediment to
which preferentially removed bedrock instead of adjacent streams also apparently increases with increasing precip
old colluvium shown in the lower right foreground of the itation.
REFERENCES CITED
Bartholomew, MJ., and Lewis, S.W., 1984, Evolution of Gren-
ville massifs in the Blue Ridge geologic province, southern
o 2 Mi N and central Appalachians, in Bartholomew, MJ., ed., The
h -i Grenville event in the Appalachians and related topics:
0.8 Km
Figure 5.2. Index of 1971 aerial photographs of a portion of
1 Geological Society of America Special Paper 194, p.
229-254.
Bartholomew, MJ., Gathright, T.M., II, and Henika, W.S.,
the Horseshoe Mountain 7.5-minute quadrangle that was 1981, A tectonic model for the Blue Ridge in central
affected by debris avalanches induced by Hurricane Camille Virginia: American Journal of Science, v. 281, no. 9, p.
¡n 1 969. Arrow refers to avalanche chutes in figure 5.3 that are
1164-1183.
indicated there by the largest arrow.
Gryta, JJ., and Bartholomew, M.J., 1983, Debris-avalanche
type features in Watauga County, North Carolina, in
Figure 5.3. The Virginia Blue Ridge as seen from Blackrock Mountain at the Wintergreen recreational area (view is
southeastward). Arrows point to debris avalanche chutes scoured along naturally steep slopes during Hurricane Camille in
1969. Large arrow denotes same set of avalanche chutes indicated by arrow in figure 5.2.
6. DEBRIS SLIDES AND DEBRIS FLOWS ON ANAKEESTA RIDGE, GREAT SMOKY MOUNTAINS
NATIONAL PARK, TENNESSEE
G. Michael Clark,1 Patrick T. Ryan, Jr.,1 and Eric C. Drumm2
Five major and four minor avalanche chutes (Ryan
and Clark, 1986) are located on Anakeesta Ridge in the
Great Smoky Mountains National Park, Tennessee (fig.
6.1). Anakeesta Ridge is an east-west-trending mountain,
4.5 km2 in map area. Summit elevation range is 1,200 to
1,800 m. The ridge is bounded to the north by the
second-order, dendriticalry patterned Alum Cave Creek.
To the south is the third -order Walker Camp Prong,
closely paralleled by heavily traveled U.S. Highway 441.
The underlying Anakeesta Formation includes a variety /
of rock types (Hadley and Goldsmith, 1963): arkosic
pebble conglomerate, graywacke, feldspathic sandstone,
chloritoidal slate and argillitc, carbonaceous slate, and
phyllite. Iron sulfide occurs throughout the rock along *. Anakeesta Ridge
bedding and cleavage in the form of pyrite. Along joints, -'Great Smoky Mountain» '
^.._ —..
bedding, and cleavage, iron sulfide occurs as limonite and ¿A) >/ North
r- National Park
goethite. y jr T Carolina
In August 1984, a debris slide temporarily closed
U.S. Highway 441. There is widespread concern that )
slides will occur in the future, so there is a need for < 0 10 km
locational and temporal predictors (Clark, 1984a, b). t
>
Useful indicators include morphology, drainage, vegeta
Figure 6.1 . Location map showing the Great Smoky Moun
tion, tension cracks in vegetation mat, root throw sites, tains National Park and Anakeesta Ridge.
and geologic structure. Present slide scars are useful in
providing failure geometry and sites for estimation of
debris volume. cleavage discontinuities are available as failure planes
Debris slide analysis involves the application of and release surfaces along Anakeesta Ridge. Chute
rock and soil mechanics. Abundant bedding, joint, and morphology along Anakeesta Ridge is characterized by
wedge failure planes along the flow track and a combi
nation of circular, planar, and wedge failure planes in the
upper slide scar area. Unstable hanging blocks are
1 Department of Geological Sciences, the University of Tennes
see, Knoxville, TN 37996-1410. located in the slide scar. This geometry indicates that
3 Department of Civil Engineering, the University of Tennessee, limiting-equilibrium analyses may be utilized to assess
Knoxville, TN 37996-1410. slope stability. Factors of safety can be determined with
J. Steven Kite1
A variety of colluvial deposits occurs in fans and example, sandstones of the Tuscarora Formation, Mas-
aprons adjacent to steep slopes in the Valley and Ridge sanutten Sandstone, and Pottsville Formation yield large
physiographic province. Many of these deposits are well blocky boulders. By contrast, Devonian cherts produce
exposed because of scour during flooding throughout the very angular cobbles and large pebbles. In general, colluv
region during November 1985. These new exposures ial deposits will be dominated by the particle sizes and
allow a stratigraphic approach to the study of colluviaJ shapes that are the common breakdown products of
deposits, without the effort and expense of excavation. bedrock occurring up adjacent slopes.
Although many of the newly exposed colluvial deposits In spite of the influence of local bedrock lithologies,
are composed of only one type of sediment, many colluv the complexities of many colluvial exposures indicate that
ial landforms with simple surface expression are different processes have dominated nearby slopes at dif
underlain by very complex stratigraphies. ferent times. It is too early to determine the exact causes
Most of the colluvial deposits are diamictons, non- of this variability in colluvial deposits, but late Ccnozoic
sorted or very poorly sorted sediments with a wide range climatic fluctuations and catastrophic rainfall events may
of grain sizes. Diamictons are further characterized by have been important factors.
the abundance of the coarsest clasts in the sediment. In One of the most striking attributes of colluvium
the following discussion, pebble diamicton refers to sed throughout the central Appalachians is that many deposits
iment ranging from clay to pebble but lacking substantial are capped by a concentration of large boulders. This
cobble or boulder fractions. Cobble-sized clasts are the observation is particularly true for colluvial aprons. Many
dominant sediment in cobble-boulder diamictons, deposits with an outward appearance of clast-supported
although boulders are common. Boulder-cobble diamic tajus actually have an abundant fine-grained matrix when
tons include roughly equal amounts of boulders and exposed. Some deposits have boulders at the surface that
cobbles. are larger than the coarsest clast found within the remain
Much of the variability of colluvial diamictons can der of the deposit. A number of hypotheses have been
be attributed to differences in bedrock lithologies offered to explain the coarse clasts at the top of colluvial
exposed on adjacent slopes. Many bedrock units break deposits. These include inverse-grading during a single
down into characteristic clast sizes and shapes. For colluvial event, a late episode of boulder deposition, the
cumulative effects of frost action during and after colluvi-
ation, postcolluvial winnowing at the surface, or post-
colluvial sieve deposition in the voids of a clast-support
1 Department of Geology and Geography, West Virginia Univer framework. It is likely that each hypothesis has a given
sity, Morgantown, WV 26506. locality at which it is correct.
10 M
EXPLANATION
Colluvlal dlamicton Alluvium Raworkad colluvium Pl^j Bodrock
r« [Angular bouldars Cover
*«' Boulder-cobble f l'ti Sand -^and eobblaa
without matrix | C | Holocena colluvium
EJJul 8orted, raundad Alluvium and cotluvium(?)
Cobbla-bouldar fe'M eobbla graval tea Sand Intarbaddad with
•^'pebble dlamicton fy"! Vagatatloa
Sand Inlarbaddad
with eobblaa
Figure 8.1 . Stratigraphic cross section of a Quaternary colluvial fan-alluvial terrace complex near Cabins, West Virginia. Top
line represents the fan surface; bottom line represents the water level of the North Fork South Branch Potomac River on
September 26, 1986. No vertical exaggeration.
Multiple diamictons, similar to the "two-till" expo outcrop is actually much more complex than a single
sures of New England, are exposed at several locations in three-fold stratigraphy. Although no tree-ring studies have
colluvial aprons throughout the Valley and Ridge province been conducted, it is clear that only the central portion of
of the Virginias. A typical sequence is a thick (2-5 m) the fan is devoid of large trees that probably predate the
cobble-boulder diamicton overlying a thick (>3 m) peb 1949 debris flow. Evidently, parts of the fan surface
ble diamicton. Both have strong down-slope clast fabrics stabilized prior to 1949, so the colluvial deposits beneath
and the contact between the two units is abrupt. Buried these surfaces must have formed during an earlier event,
paleosols are common, both along the contact and within or earlier events. The alluvial gravel is too poorly exposed
the upper unit. This suggests periods of slope stability to allow definite correlation, but the sandy alluvium may
between episodes of colluviation. not be relict from a single flood plain surface. The sandy
An exposure on the North Fork South Branch alluvium occurs at slightly different elevations, is dissimi
Potomac River near Cabins, West Virginia (fig. 8.1), shows lar from one part of the outcrop to another, and is overlain
the variety of deposits within colhivial-alluvial fans in the by at least two different types of colluvial diamicton at
region. The fan is located approximately 1 km west of different parts of the outcrop. It is possible that the sandy
North Fork Gap (Hopeville 7.5-minute quadrangle) and alluvium was deposited at nearly the same level on
occurs at the mouth of a second-order drainage basin with different-aged flood plain surfaces that were buried by
over 600 m of relief. Bedrock within the basin includes the different colluvial events. Although minor amounts of
Tuscarora Sandstone, Juniata Formation, and Oswego organic matter occur in the sandy alluvium, the quantity
Sandstone (Cardwell and others, 1968). The fan has been sampled has been insufficient for conventional radiocar
mapped as part of a large debris flow during a major bon dating.
storm in 1949 (Felton, 1978; Stringfield and Smith, 1956), The colluvial units overlying the sandy alluvium are
an observation recently confirmed by local residents. quite varied. The central part of the fan is underlain by at
A cursory examination of the outcrop reveals a least 8 m of unstratified, boulder-cobble diamicton, the
simple stratigraphy of three unconsolidated units above coarsest sediment in the exposure. There is no apparent
the Oswego Sandstone bedrock, 1.5 m of alluvial cobble change in particle size throughout this unit, except for a
gravel overlain by 1 m of inverse-graded alluvial sand and few pods of clast-supported cobbles and lenses of cobble-
silt, which is overlain by as much as 10 m of colluvial boulder diamicton. Boulders of white Tuscarora Sand
diamicton. Detailed work at the exposure shows that the stone are most abundant in this unit, although most of the
C. Scott Southworth
INTRODUCTION types: rock slumps, rock block slides, rock avalanches, and
debris avalanches (Southworth and Schultz, 1986). Slope
Four different types of prehistoric giant rockslides failures analogous to ancient giant Appalachian rockslides
have been recognized in the Appalachian Valley and have also been identified in the Rocky Mountains (Mudge,
Ridge province as a result of field mapping and photogeo- 1965; Cruden, 1976; Braddock, 1978) and Zagros Moun
logic analysis: rock slumps, rock block slides, rock ava tains (Watson and Wright, 1967).
lanches, and debris avalanches, all dip-slope failures on The classification of types of giant Appalachian
anticlinal fold limbs. The rockslides involve predominantly rockslides is modified after Varnes' (1978) and Mollard
sandstone and quartzite, with the detachment plane located and Jane's (1984) classification of landslides. Only rem
near a basal shale and (or) limestone contact. Individual nants of the rockslides are preserved because of extensive
rockslides have dimensions as large as 2.5 km by 4.3 km, post-emplacement erosion, so description and classifica
although rockslide complexes as long as 96 km have been tion of the four types of rockslides are warranted.
recognized. Approximate volumes of rockslide material
range from 3 million to 1 billion cubic meters. The ROCKSLIDE TYPES
displaced masses have undergone extensive erosion and The distinction of the four types of rockslides in the
may only be remnants of what were previously much more Appalachian Valley and Ridge province is based on the
extensive rockslides. Various stages of rock failure and form, relative rate and amount of movement, character of
different degrees of weathering suggest that the rockslide the detachment surface, and character of the deposit
process has been active for an extended period of time. (tables 9.1 and 9.2), all of which have been derived from
Although several rockslides still have active parts, most are detailed field observation of the rockslides indexed in
relict features. The relationship of rockslides to fluvial figure 9.1. Rock slumps consist of a combination of rock
terraces and the preexisting colluvial mantle suggests block slides and rock falls whose present character con
formation during, if not before, the Pleistocene Epoch. sists of a jumbled mass of rock proximal to a head scarp.
Geomorphic characteristics of the rockslides include Morphological characteristics of rock slumps are similar
steep head scarps and lateral scarps that occur along joint to those of rock block slides (table 9.1); a distinction is that
planes, bedding plane dip reversals and topographic slope rock slumps involve multiple rock blocks of smaller dimen
reversals, karstlike topography with springs, swamps, and sion. Rock slumps may represent either in-situ disintegra
sag ponds, subparallel topographic benches intervening tion of large rock block slides or they may represent a
with elliptical depressions, and large Fissures in bedrock. mature stage of downslope transport (see Schultz, paper
Several rockslides may have been triggered by pal- 10). Field characteristics include chaotic boulders and
eofluvial cut-bank erosional processes. Additional trigger blocks strewn among ridge and swale topography down-
ing mechanisms for the rockslides include fluctuations in slope from a vertical rock cliff. In contrast, rock block
periglacial climate and seismic shaking. Gravity failures of slides consist of single- or multiple-allochthonous rock
this magnitude suggests extreme erosive, climatic, and blocks that have been transported downslope with varying
perhaps palcoseismic conditions as key elements in their degrees of horizontal and (or) vertical rotation. Field
formation. The identification of prehistoric giant rock characteristics include anomalous bedding and slope rever
slides represents a newly recognized geomorphic process sals, isolated knobs with a nearly flat surface, and dis
in the Appalachian Valley and Ridge province. rupted drainage.
Rock avalanches are massive colluvial deposits con
BACKGROUND sisting primarily of fragmented rock proximal to a topo
The recognition of prehistoric giant rockslides in the graphically high source. They can be a complex of rock-
Appalachian Valley and Ridge province is relatively new fall, rock topple, and rockslide, which are chaotically
(Schultz, 1985; 1986). Schultz (1986) identified a zone of distributed as a lobate fan often covering a large area.
rock block slides through recognition of anomalous topog Field characteristics include gently sloping topography
raphy and discordant stratigraphy during geologic map mantled with sandstone or quartzite colluvium near a
ping of Sinking Creek Mountain, Virginia. Subsequent topographically high outcrop. In contrast, debris ava
photogeologic analysis and field mapping identified more lanches consist of an unsorted mixture of rock, soil, and
than 15 rockslides that could be classified into 4 general vegetation; they are considered to be the result of rapid
Pa.
Cumberland
Debris Avalanche
iiii2J(Cumberlandy *\
Md.
W.Va.
/
Appalachian Pinnacle
V Rock
Plateaus Avalanche
(Capon Spring
I
3 9- -39*
Gap Mountain Lost River
Rock Block Slide Debris Avalanche
Elkhorn Mountain \ / (Lost City)
Rock Avalanche /'
(Petersburg East) j
Blue
\
Í Ridge
•
j Valley and
/ Ridge Va.
8 1'
3 8" -3 8°
/
Clifton Forge
f Rock Slump
Mill Ridge/jipi
(Clifton Forge)
Rocks lump I: ; i
(Allegheny) ^
Piedmont
3 7' ■37'
8 1c
78'
Figure 9.1. Index map to prehistoric giant rockslides in the Appalachian Valley and Ridge province. Rockslides are indexed
to USGS 7.5-minute quadrangle maps in parentheses. See table 9.2 for detailed descriptions.
T3— PO
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Figure 9.3. Generalized geologic maps of the (A) Lost River (West Virginia) debris avalanche, (5)
Mm Ridge (Virginia/West Virginia) rock slump, (Q Elkhorn Mountain (West Virginia) rock avalanche,
and (£>f Sinking Creek Mountain (Virginia) rock block slide complex. Each map covers the
corresponding area shown in figure 9.2. Bar scales are 1 km.
10. FAILURE KINEMATICS OF ANCIENT GIANT ROCK BLOCK SLIDES AND ROCK SLUMPS,
SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN VALLEY AND RIDGE PROVINCE
Arthur P. Schultz
Giant rock block slides and rock slumps on dip periods of time. No evidence of recent movement has been
slopes in the Appalachian Valley and Ridge province of found. Relative dating of the slides based on weathering
southwest Virginia range from individual failures involving profiles and block streams (Schultz, 1986) places them in
5,000 cubic meters of rock to rockslide complexes con the Pleistocene to early Holocene.
taining at least 1 billion cubic meters of rock. Field The kinematics of the giant rock failures can be
mapping (Schultz, 1985, 1986; Southworth and Schultz, inferred from the variety of rockslides present in the Valley
1986) has shown that these large features are more and Ridge province. Early rockslide failure (fig. 10.1)
common than previously recognized and indicates that involves downslope sagging and bulging. Bedding along the
large-scale dip-slope failure has been a dominant topo toe and outside margins of the slide is folded. Anomalous
graphic modification process in the Valley and Ridge valleys along the ridge crest form in response to the early
province. separation. These internally drained depressions may have
The rock block slides and rock slumps are found facilitated further instability by increasing the ground
predominantly on southeast slopes composed of sand water flow along the base of the unstable block. Anticlinal
stone, sfltstone, and shale of Silurian age. Characteristic folding of the toe of the rockslide occurs to accommodate
topographic breaks and vegetation changes aid in their shortening. The anticlines are preserved only in rock block
recognition (Schultz, 1985, 1986; Southworth and Schultz, slides with minimal displacement. Continued downslope
1986). Slide morphology is controlled by bedrock dip transport of the slides occurred with brittle fracture along
(Schultz, 1986). Where beds dip steeply (45 degrees or lateral break-away scarps. Following these early stages of
more), rock slides are relatively small and confined to the rockslide failure, two types of rockslides developed: rock
uppermost parts of the slope. Where dips are less than 30 block slides or rock slumps. Where dips of beds are
degrees, slides are larger, arealhy extensive, and have relatively high (45 degrees or more), relatively small slump
undergone greater transport downslope. Folds within the blocks (fig. 10.1) formed with little downslope displace
slide sheet may reflect the configuration of the detachment ment. During emplacement, possible rotation of the blocks
and shear surface. This surface is inferred to be bed- about a horizontal and (or) vertical axis may have resulted
parallel high on the dip sbpe and a shear plane which in both a topographic and structural reversal high on the
transects bedding lower on the slope. Although the slip dip slope. Where dips are less than 30 degrees, relatively
surface is presently not exposed, outcrops of slide rocks large rock block slides formed that moved downslope as
within a few meters of the base are composed of alternat coherent sheets (fig. 10.1). These sheets overrode their
ing thin-bedded sandstones and shales. Sliding probably folded toes and were folded as they slid across the detach
took place along the shale beds. ment and shear plane and eventually across the preexisting
Giant rockslides and rock slumps range from incip erosion surface of the lower slope. In some cases, the
ient failures with minor downslope transport to eroded frontal sections of the rock block slides were further
remnants of large slide sheets on the lower slope. This modified by later rock fall and rock slumping. In other
suggests that dip-slope failures occurred over extended cases, formation of large slump complexes (fig. 10.1)
Rock Block Slides and Rock Slumps, Valley and Ridge Province 33
11. RECOGNITION OF DISAGGREGATED ROCK BLOCK SLIDES
IN A STRUCTURALLY COMPLEX TERRANE IN VIRGINIA
Thomas M. Gathright I I1 and Eugene K. Rader1
Multiple thrust faults, overturned horse blocks, mocky or ridged surfaces on which the hummocks or
klippen, and rock block slides in the Upper Ordovician ridges range from less than 1 m to 10 m in height and are
through Lower Devonian clastic foorwall rocks of the composed of angular fragments and ledge-forming
Narrows fault in Giles County, Virginia, presented for blocks. Some slides are sufficiently intact to preserve
midable mapping problems in distinguishing between original stratigraphic map units.
Rock block slides that developed along slope
tectonic structures and sheetlike rock block slides (fig.
planes in shale beds of the Silurian Rose Hill Formation
11.1). Thirteen incised rock block slides, coherent to
are more coherent than those developed in other rock
disaggregated, were identified on the dip slopes of East units or in overturned beds. Two slides have significantly
River and Peters Mountains and on the overturned beds offset stream courses and forced the streams to undercut
of the Piney Ridge and associated horse blocks. the opposite valley wall.
Lateral scarps, slip-off slopes, and sag ponds typical Several factors may contribute to the extensive
of rock block slides are poorly preserved on some of the disaggregation of these rock block slides. These factors
slides. These disaggregated rock block slides have hum- include the proximity of slides to thrust faults where beds
maybe extensively fractured, the dissolution of carbonate
rocks overridden by the slides with subsequent collapse
1 Virginia Division of Mineral Resources, Box 3667, Char of the slide strata, and the possibility of rapid implace-
lottesville, VA 22903. ment due to proximity to the Giles County seismic zone.
80° 50-
Figure 11.1. Stereo-pair aerial photographs and geologic map of a rock block slide complex on the east (dip) slope of East
River Mountain near Narrows, Virginia.
Plot Stereonets
I
EQNET
Project Contours
to Stereonet
option
Figure 15.1. Flow chart of ROCKPACK slope stability programs illustrating the recommended sequence of use.
REFERENCES CITED Watts, C.F., and West, T.R., 1985, Electronic notebook analysis
of rock slope stability at Cedar Bluff, Virginia: Bulletin of
the Association of Engineering Geologists, v. 22, no. 1, p.
Watts, C.F., 1983, Development, testing, and evaluation of a 67-85.
microcomputer system for rapid collection and analysis of 1986, Discontinuity significance index and electronic
geologic structure data related to rock slope stability: data collection for rock slope stability studies: Bulletin of
Ph.D. thesis, Department of Geosciences, Purdue Univer the Association of Engineering Geologists, v. 23, no. 3, p.
sity, West Lafayette, Indiana, 386 p. 265-278.
Keefer contact and (or) in the upper part of the Rose Hill ture content (climate), catastrophic storms, and seismic
Formation. Several shale beds in this part of the Silurian shaking.
stratigraphic section could provide surfaces of weakness Specific features noted from overtook stop 2 are the
for detachment and sliding. In outcrop, these shales are large knobs on the lower slopes of Sinking Creek Moun
weathered to clay. During the early stages of sliding, the tain. The knobs, which are covered with evergreens,
blocks underwent translational sliding parallel to bedding consist of northwest-dipping sandstone and shale of Silur
on the upper dip slopes. Continued movement lower on the ian age lying structurally and topographically above
mountain included rotational sliding, possibly along a slip southeast-dipping Devonian shale. The outcrop belt is the
plane that cut upward to the land surface. Shortly after eroded remnant of a 4-km-long, folded rock block slide
emplacement and (or) during subsequent weathering, sheet.
large parts of the slide failed by slumping. The blocks From overlook stop 3 (figs. 16.2 and 16.3), rock-
moved farther downslope, rotating both bedding and slides of different relative ages can be seen as well as the
possibly the early sb'p surface. Prolonged weathering and topographic expression of break-away scarps. Block
erosion have reduced the original extent of the slide streams derived from the frontal scarp of the most recent
blocks. Extensive colluvium derived from the rocksb'de large rockslide are presently close to the valley bottom.
escarpments postdates colluvium that was present on the Numerous stages of rock block slide failures are found
dip slope prior to sliding. This older colluvium is probably here (figs. 16.2 and 16.3).
no okler than Pleistocene age, which suggests a maximum
age of no greater than 2 million years for rockslide REFERENCES CITED
emplacement. Schultz, A.P., 1985, Mega-rockslide complex, Sinking Creek
Possible triggering mechanisms for the rockslides anticline, southern Appalachians (abs.): Geological Soci
include undercutting of the base of the dip slope by ety of America Abstracts with Programs, Southeastern
streams, changes in rock pore pressure related to mois Section, v. 17, no. 2, p. 134.
1986, Ancient, giant rockslides, Sinking Creek Moun- Southworth, C.S., and Schultz, A.P., 1986, Characteristics of
tain, Southern Appalachians, Virginia: Geology, v. 14, no. giant rockslides in the Appalachian Valley and Ridge,
1, p. 11-14. Virginia, West Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania:
United States Geological Survey Open-File Report 86-94,
4 p., 3 oversized sheets.
The Landslide Information Center is a major ele photographs (slides and prints), (5) acquired copies of
ment of the U.S. Geological Survey's Landslide Research miscellaneous codes, ordinances, and other legislation
Program. The objectives of the Center are to acquire data dealing with mitigation of landslide hazards, (6) responded
from landslide research for use in the reduction of hazards to requests within the U.S. Geological Survey for infor
and to promote the mitigation of such hazards through mation and bibliographic searches on landslides, (7) spon
engineering design and land-use planning. The Center sored the 3rd International Landslide Field Trip in Appa-
seeks to (1) provide a centralized source of bibliographic lachia and a 2-day conference on Landslide Mapping and
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Failure Hazards Mitigation Research, to inform research of keywords to guide searches are available on request.
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designed to transfer results of research toward the reduc copies of maps and reports can be obtained at cost
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To date, the Landslide Information Center has (1) should be made of Jean M. DeWoody at (303) 236-1675
acquired more than 3,000 reports and maps on landslides or of Donald R. Nichols, Chief of the Landslide Informa
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back as the 1930's, (4) maintained a file of landslide MS 966, Box 25046, Denver, CO 80225.
Equations of Two-Dimensional
Horizontal Plane
SEP 8 1 1987
Review of Literature on the
Equations of Two-Dimensional
Horizontal Plane
A review of computational
approaches to implementing
finite-element solutions of
the shallow-water equations
Contents III
FIGURES
IV Contents
Review of Literature on the Finite-Element Solution
1. Introduction 1
corresponding finite-difference scheme (Cullen, 1973, Each subsequent chapter of this literature review is
p. 18; Lynch, 1978, p. 3-10, 3-16, 3-17; Thacker, 1978a, devoted to a topic important in the development of an accu
p. 677, 678; Baker and Solimán, 1979, p. 311, 312). rate and efficient finite-element surface-water flow model.
These considerations lead Cooke (1977, p. 2) to re Chapter 2 surveys the different forms of the basic
mark: "The greatest future *** appears to lie with the ap equations used to describe two-dimensional surface-water
proach of seeking at the outset the solution of steady state flow in the horizontal plane, presents appropriate boundary
equations, where the high overhead per iterative step is conditions for each equation system, and discusses the ad
offset by rapid convergence with a minimum of iterations." vantages and disadvantages of the different formulations.
In light of recent developments to be discussed later in this Chapter 3 outlines the basic concepts of the finite-
report, Cooke's views on the use of the finite-element element method needed to understand the chapters that fol
method for transient computations may be too pessimistic. low.
However, in solving problems of steady free-surface flow Chapter 4 discusses the discretization of the spatial
over variable terrain, Cooke's remarks suggest that the domain and the representation of the dependent flow vari
finite-element method ought to be competitive with the ables. Emphasis is given to the advantages and disadvan
finite-difference approach. tages of equal-order and mixed interpolation with various
In the context of computational fluid dynamics, forms of the flow equations, the use of discontinuous inter
Roache (1975, p. 23 1-233) discounts the claimed geometric polation, the effects of the resolution of the domain and
flexibility of the finite-element method because complex network irregularity, numerical integration, and the han
domains can be handled with regular finite-difference meth dling of the convective terms.
ods together with the use of boundary-fitted coordinates Chapter 5 is devoted to ways of treating boundary
(Thames and others, 1977). Although Roache's remark is conditions. Essential and natural boundary conditions and
valid for homogeneous domains, domain transformations the relationship between model accuracy and the method of
are not very useful for flood plains interlaced with irregular treating the boundary conditions are discussed.
channels. The finite-element method is much better adapted Although many problems can be handled by steady-
than the finite-difference method to modeling flow over state analysis, it is important that a model have the capabil
variable terrain. A finite-element network can provide a ity to model unsteady flow. Moreover, time stepping is an
much more realistic representation of topography and sur important method for obtaining a steady-state solution. Ap
face cover for a given number of nodes than can a finite- proaches to discretizing the time domain are discussed in
difference network. Cooke (1977, p. 29) states: chapter 6. In addition, chapter 6 contains a discussion of
Hence, the future of the method, if any, in transient calcu lumping and a review of published comparisons of time-
lations, may lie in those areas where the transformation
stepping schemes.
approach encounters difficulty, e.g., where the simple
stretching transformations are not sufficient. Here one Chapter 7 presents methods for modeling bottom, sur
could envision channel flows with significant channel face, and lateral stresses. Chapter 8 presents different ap
curvature and irregularity in cross section which varies proaches to handling the nonlinear terms of the flow equa
with flow direction. tions, and chapter 9 discusses techniques, both direct and
Although the finite-element method has potential ad iterative, for solving the large systems of linear algebraic
vantages, most existing modeling systems based on the equations that are a major feature of most finite-element
method are seriously flawed. A major difficulty is the large models.
expense of using such models. Extensive manpower is re Chapter 10 presents finite-element alternatives to
quired to prepare input data for model use if digitizing Galerkin's method of weighted residuals. Chapter 1 1 pre
software is not available. Most finite-element models are sents techniques for model validation. Chapter 12 discusses
costly to run in terms of both computer-core and processing- the preparation of model input data, including such topics as
time requirements. Often, models that are less costly are automatic network generation, the automation of the data-
applicable only under very restrictive hypotheses or are of preparation process, and the automatic relabeling of nodes
questionable accuracy. In addition, documentation and and elements. Chapter 13 presents a summary and conclu
guidelines for model use are often inadequate. sions.
Before undertaking a program to develop an improved Chapter 14 contains the references. Acronyms, such
modeling system, it is important to survey the published as FEWR 1 , refer to conference proceedings or other collec
literature on existing finite-element flow models. The litera tions of papers and are defined at the beginning of chap
ture on finite-difference approaches to fluid-flow modeling ter 14. Additional references are found in the reviews of
and other aspects of numerical analysis is also an important Cheng (1978) and Nome and Vries (1978).
potential source of ideas for finite-element methods that are The support of the U.S. Department of Transporta
both more efficient and more accurate than those used in tion, Federal Highway Administration, is gratefully ac
existing finite-element models. knowledged.
Figure 3.1. Examples of two-dimensional elements: (A) Three-node triangle; (B) Four-node quadrilateral; (C) Six-node triangle;
(D) Eight-node quadrilateral; (£) Nine-node quadrilateral; (F) Ten-node triangle.
1975, p. 186). The element geometry is described by poly be isoparametric. If, on the other hand, a lower order poly
nomial functions in the same manner as the field variables nomial is used to describe the geometry than is used for the
using global coordinates as the nodal quantities. If the inter field variable, the element is called subparametric. Super-
polation functions for the element geometry are of the same parametric elements are those whose geometry is defined by
order as those for the field variables, the element is said to a function of higher order.
Fix and others (1979) and Fix (1980) present an alter patches of elements for steady Stokes flow, Sani, Gresho,
native approach for obtaining stable and convergent solu Lee, and Griffiths (1981) and Sani, Gresho, Lee, Griffiths,
tions to the Navier-Stokes equations. These authors estab and Engelman (1981) are able to characterize conditions
lish a necessary relationship between the pressure and giving rise to spurious pressure modes for a number of
velocity function spaces and show that the velocity spaces elements involving both equal-order and mixed interpola
must satisfy a certain decomposition property. tion. Since the pressure-mode problem for the steady Stokes
By studying the behavior of the algebraic equations equations is equivalent to the pressure-mode problem for the
derived by applying the finite-element method to small steady Navier-Stokes equations, and since the steady
6. Time Discretization 23
an implicit time step much larger than would be allowed in obtained. Other implicit schemes can be obtained by evalu
an explicit formulation. Morton and Parrott (1980, p. 250) ating the other terms at various points between time levels
make the same point, as do Hughes and others (1979, p. 40) n and n + 1 .
for the transient Navier-Stokes equations and Callen in The Euler scheme is used by Brebbia and Smith
FEWR1 (p. 4.339) for convective problems. Katapodes and (1977, p. 4.212, 4.213) to solve the vorticity and stream-
Strelkoff (1979, p. 322, 323) claim that implicit methods are function equations. The fully implicit approach is used by
inappropriate for the solution of hyperbolic problems be Bercovierand Engelman (1979, p. 188) to solve the Navier-
cause only a part of the initial conditions affect the solution Stokes equations in two dimensions and by Harrington and
at a particular point. others (1978, p. 2.46) to solve the shallow-water equations.
Cullen (1973, p. 18), Lynch (1978, p. 3-10, 3-16, Because the Euler scheme in the finite-element context is
3-17), and Baker and Solimán (1979, p. 311, 312) point out only marginally stable for the shallow-water equations
that the maximum allowable time step for an explicit finite- (Wang and Connor, 1975, p. 108-115) and the fully im
element scheme is smaller than the maximum allowable plicit scheme is first-order accurate and thus quite dissipa-
time step for a corresponding explicit finite-difference tive (Hirsch and Warzee, 1979, p. 275, 276), these methods
scheme. Kelley and Williams (1976, p. 24) observe that the are little used. The trapezoidal rule, which is second-order
maximum allowable time step for an explicit finite-element accurate and unconditionally stable, is used extensively in a
scheme is limited by the smallest element dimension. variety of transient finite-element codes (Baker, 1978,
Weare (1976, p. 353-355) observes that all finite- p. 212; Baker and others, 1978, p. 4.55; Baker and
element time-stepping procedures lead to matrix-inversion Solimán, 1980, p. 1.44; Connor and Christodoulou, 1981,
problems. The cost of generating each new nodal value is p. 640-643).
proportional to the matrix bandwidth, which increases with Harrington and others (1978, p. 2.46, 2.47) employ
the size of the grid. In both explicit and implicit finite- both fully implicit and trapezoidal-rule time-integration
difference schemes, the cost of generating each new nodal schemes in solving the shallow-water equations. The fully
value does not depend on the grid size. Weare points out that implicit scheme is shown to be more stable than the trape
this is true for implicit methods because alternating- zoidal scheme, probably because the dissipative fully im
direction methods are usually used. Such methods break plicit scheme damps spurious oscillations while the more
multidimensional problems down into a series of one- accurate trapezoidal scheme does not.
dimensional problems. Taylor and Davis (1975) and Partridge and Brebbia
Weare (1976, p. 356) suggests that solutions to tran (1976, p. 1303) use the trapezoidal rule in solving the
sient problems using finite-element models will become shallow-water equations. Wang and Connor (1975, p. 115-
competitive with solutions using finite-difference models 1 17) consider using a trapezoidal-rule scheme in solving the
only when techniques are applied that allow transient finite- same equations but reject it because of the need to solve for
element solutions to be obtained more efficiently. He sug all variables simultaneously. Pinder and Gray (1977,
gests consideration of iterative instead of direct methods of p. 244-252) and Lynch (1978, p. 3-11-3-14) note that the
equation solution, the use of diagonalized time matrices, trapezoidal rule, like most schemes, introduces both ampli
and the adaptation of alternating-direction methods to finite- tude and phase errors for short wavelengths when friction is
element problems. Literature on the first and third sugges included in the linearized one-dimensional shallow-water
tions is reviewed in chapter 9. Literature on the second equations.
suggestion is reviewed in this chapter. Another two-level scheme is obtained by weighting
the terms other than the time derivative two-thirds of the
way between time levels n and n + 1 . This is equivalent to
Time-Stepping Schemes the linear finite element in time used by Grotkop (1973),
Gray and Pinder (1974), and Taylor and Davis (1975).
If we denote by u„ the value of the variable u at time
Lynch's analysis (1978, p. 3-11-3-14) indicates that the
t=nAt, where At is the time increment, the simplest time-
performance of this scheme is inferior to that of the trape
stepping methods involve the differencing of du/dt between
zoidal rule. Both the trapezoidal-rule and the finite-element-
time levels n and n + 1 :
in-time schemes are unconditionally stable (Gray and
du un+1-un Lynch, 1977, p. 85-87; Lynch, 1978, p. 3-1 1).
(6.1) The leapfrog scheme approximates the time derivative
dt At
by
If other terms are evaluated at time level n, the explicit Euler
scheme is obtained. If other terms are evaluated by averag dli_un+l un-l
(6.2)
ing midway between time levels n and n + 1 , the trapezoidal- dt~ At
rule or Crank-Nicolson scheme is obtained. If they are eval
uated at time level n + 1 , the fully implicit scheme is For the leapfrog scheme, Lynch (1978, p. 3-16, 3-17) shows
6. Time Discretization 25
In their analysis of time-stepping schemes, Gray and that lumping will have no effect on the solution if time
Lynch (1977, p. 93, 94) and Lynch (1978, p. 3-41-3-47) stepping is used to obtain a steady-state solution.
analyze time discretization for schemes based on the wave Cooke (1977, p. 12), in studying the usefulness of the
continuity equation discussed in chapter 2. Central differ finite-element method for solving the compressible Navier-
encing is used for the time derivative in the second-order Stokes equations, writes: "For a nonuniform grid the lump
continuity equation. In the linearized one-dimensional case ing process globally lowers to first order the accuracy of the
with friction, the wave-equation schemes are shown to have transient solution. However, for uniform grids this occurs
monotonically increasing dispersion relations. The accuracy only near the boundary. This deterioration in accuracy on
of the schemes and whether they are conditionally or uncon nonuniform grids is a compelling argument against lump
ditionally stable depend on where the spatial terms are eval ing."
uated between time levels n + 1 and n - 1 . For the explicit Ehlig (1977, p. 1.96) compares consistent and
wave-equation model presented by Lynch and Gray (1979, lumped finite-element solutions of the one-dimensional
p. 212, 213), the solutions for the surface elevation and the convection-diffusion equation. Although a lumped formula
velocities are uncoupled, and no iteration is required. Fric tion is shown to be much less accurate than a consistent
tion is handled in a way that causes the matrices to be formulation, there is no discussion of the accuracy that can
independent of time. be obtained with the two formulations for the same com
To solve the convection-diffusion equation, Varoglu puter cost.
and Finn (1978, 1980) use finite elements in space and time Gresho, Lee, and Sani (1978, p. 339-343) study the
with element sides oriented along the characteristic lines of effect of lumping on the accuracy of the finite-element
the hyperbolic equation obtained by setting the diffusion method for convection-dominated flows. In a one-
coefficient equal to zero. Guderly and Clemm (1980) rec dimensional pure convection problem, a consistent linear
ommend this approach to obtain more accurate transient formulation is shown to be more accurate than a lumped
finite-element solutions of hyperbolic equations. quadratic formulation. Fourier techniques are used to com
In conclusion, a number of time-stepping schemes pute the phase speed for the finite-element schemes studied
seem, on the basis of the published literature, to be promis as well as for several finite-difference schemes. The results
ing. Among the schemes deserving consideration are the show that lumping causes a significant phase lag, but not as
trapezoidal, leapfrog, split-step, predictor-corrector, semi- much as a second-order or even a fourth-order finite-
implicit, and wave-equation schemes. difference scheme. Lumping is also shown to degrade accu
racy in pure convection in two dimensions when eight-node
quadrilaterals are used. Lumped results obtained using nine-
Lumping node quadrilaterals are claimed to be relatively more accu
rate. The authors state that in one-dimensional experiments
As mentioned above, Weare (1976) suggests that the with convection and diffusion, lumping errors increase with
inherent implicitness of the finite-element method can be the ratio of convective to diffusive transport. In a two-
dealt with by diagonalizing or lumping the time matrix and dimensional convection-diffusion problem, lumping is
thus avoiding the need to solve a matrix equation. Of shown to cause a loss of accuracy.
course, lumping has an effect on the accuracy of the numer As stated on page 25, Gresho, Lee, Stullich, and Sani
ical solution. A number of authors address this issue. (1978, p. 3.57, 3.58) use nine-four mixed interpolation on
Baker (FEWR1, p. 4.349, 4.350) comments on the quadrilaterals and a predictor-corrector scheme with an
use of lumping in solving transient problems. In solving the Adams-Bashforth predictor and a trapezoidal -rule corrector
heat-conduction equation, he finds that lumping degrades to solve the time-dependent Navier-Stokes equations. They
accuracy but that twice as many elements can be used for the state that lumped results are little different from consistent
same computer cost to get accuracy comparable to that ob results for flow through a sudden expansion at a Reynolds
tained with a consistent formulation. He also reports that for number of 60 and suggest that lumping causes less loss of
solving the boundary-layer equations, a lumped scheme is accuracy at low Reynolds numbers than at large Reynolds
similar to an implicit trapezoidal-rule finite-difference numbers.
scheme. Gresho, Lee, Sani, and Stullich (1978, p. 13), who
Brebbia and Smith (1977, p. 4.224-4.228) use both solve the same equations by the same techniques, report
consistent and lumped Euler schemes to solve the vorticity additional results on lumping. In modeling quasi-steady
and stream-function equations. Lumping is done by dis flow around a cylinder at a Reynolds number of about 100
tributing the mass of the linear triangular elements equally with nine-four mixed interpolation, consistent and lumped
at the three nodes. In modeling quasi-steady flow around a results are comparable.
cylinder at a Reynolds number of 100, the lumped formula Gresho, Lee, and Upson (1980) present further results
tion gives distinctly inferior results. The authors point out on vortex shedding behind a cylinder at a Reynolds number
6. Time Discretization 27
After performing numerical tests with the vorticity laws of conservation of mass and momentum. The
and stream-function equations, Reddy and Warburton conservation-of-momentum principle provides a relation be
(1980) select the leapfrog scheme as superior to fully im tween the summation of forces acting on the fluid in a
plicit, finite-element-in-time, and trapezoidal-rule schemes, vertical column and the time rate of change of the fluid's
and a two-step scheme denoted the Matsuno scheme. momentum. Horizontal forces acting on the column of water
Gray and Lynch (1977) and Lynch (1978) compare a include those due to friction, pressure gradients, and the
large number of schemes using analytical methods: Euler, rotation of the Earth. Frictional forces consist of bottom and
fully implicit, trapezoidal-rule, leapfrog, split-step, second- surface shear stresses caused by bed and wind resistance,
order Adams-Bashforth, partially corrected second-order respectively, as well as lateral shear and normal stresses.
Adams-Bashforth, Lax-Wendroff, three-level semi- Lateral stresses on the column result from the viscous and
implicit, two-level semi-implicit, and wave-equation turbulent horizontal transport of momentum and also from
schemes. They select the leapfrog, three-level semi- the vertical nonuniformity of velocity.
implicit, and wave-equation schemes as the most promising.
Gray and Lynch (1979) show that the three-level semi-
implicit scheme performs better than the leapfrog scheme. Bottom Shear Stress
Lynch and Gray (1979) show that various wave-equation The usual assumption for bottom shear stress, t*. is
schemes perform better than either the leapfrog or the three- that its magnitude is the same as that corresponding to
level semi-implicit schemes because, as we have seen in steady, uniform flow and that it acts in the direction of the
chapter 4, spurious oscillations are avoided by use of the depth-averaged velocity. For one-dimensional flow, bottom
wave continuity equation. shear stress (or bottom friction) is generally computed as
and
C-flf . (7.6,
ty=K PaW2sini|/ , (7.10)
From equation 7.5, the coefficients C and n are related by
where ij/ is the angle between the direction of the wind and
the expression
the positive x-axis.
Wind velocity is customarily measured 10 m above
w'/6 the water surface; however, velocities taken at other eleva
C = 1.49— . (7.7)
n tions may be adjusted to give values corresponding to 10 m.
The drag coefficient has a nondimensional value on the
For fully rough, turbulent flow conditions, n is a constant order of 10" 3 for wind velocities measured in meters per
for each surface type. second, but its exact value is highly variable and depends on
Values of Manning's roughness coefficient, n, for atmospheric parameters and water-surface conditions.
natural channels and flood plains are available in a number Much research has been done on determining the rela
of references, such as Chow (1959) and Barnes (1967). In tion between the drag coefficient and wind velocity. Garratt
addition, n may be related to a characteristic size of the bed (1977) and Phillips (1977) present detailed reviews of the
material by any of several different formulas (Vanoni, literature dealing with this subject. For a neutral atmos
1975). The major problem with these estimates, however, is pheric boundary layer, Garratt (1977) concludes that, for
that they have been developed under the assumption of practical purposes, the relation between the drag coefficient
where the nonisotropic kinematic eddy viscosity is a func where ~v0 and y are constants, co is the vorticity, and Ax is
tion of tm and the mean-velocity gradients. But this formu the finite-difference grid interval. The eddy viscosity, v,, is
lation as well has been used infrequently because of the a monotonically increasing function of the magnitude of the
difficulty in specifying (m for flows that are more complex vorticity gradient computed on the grid, v0 is the minimum
than shear layers. value of 7,, and "y determines the variation of v,. Leen-
Von Kantian' s expression for the mixing length in dertse and Liu (1977) adopt a similar model for the eddy
equation 7.18 may be used to derive the well-known loga viscosity, which is written
rithmic velocity distribution. On the basis of this velocity
distribution, Elder (1959) considered a flow down an in dig | do)
v,=y (AO3 , (7.24)
finitely wide inclined plane and derived the expression dx dy
and
yi=\[2(jn+yn+y<)+yiA)-(y<5+yi6+yn+yi&)] ■ (12.6)
n
Equations 12.5 and 12.6 can be generalized to admit non-
rectangular grids in the same way as equations 12.1 and Figure 12.2. Isoparametric quadrilateral element and center
12.2 to yield point located at origin, i, of -n^-coordinate system.
14. References 49
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elements in water resources: International Conference, 1st, Navier-Stokes equations: Knoxville, Tenn., University of
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1,008 p. FEWR1 ics, 53 p.
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G.F., and Gray, W.G., eds., 1982, Finite elements in water solution algorithm for initial-value problems: Journal of Com
resources: International Conference, 4th, Hannover, Ger putational Physics, v. 32, no. 3, p. 289-324.
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p. FEWR4 predictions in water resources research, in FEWR3: p. 1.40—
Hughes, T. J.R. , ed. , 1979, Finite element methods for convection 1.55.
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MacArthur, R.C., Gee, D.M., and Feldman, A.D., eds., 1982, tics, p. 333-346.
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Hydroiogic Engineering Center, 270 p. TDFM1 split finite element algorithm for environmental release pre
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213 p.
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p. ARHP Hall, 258 p.
Taylor, C, Morgan, K., and Brebbia, C.A., eds., 1978, Numer Beer, G., and Haas, W., 1982, A partitioned frontal solver for
ical methods in laminar and turbulent flow: International Con finite element analysis: International Journal for Numerical
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John Wiley, 1,006 p. NMLTF1
Bercovier, Michel, 1977, A family of finite elements with penali
Wang, S.Y., Alonso, C.V., Brebbia, C.A., Gray, W.G., and
sation for the numerical solution of Stokes and Navier-Stokes
Pinder, G.F., eds., 1980, Finite elements in water resources:
equations, in Gilchrist, B., ed., Information processing 77:
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Individual papers, reports, and books reviewed for
1980, A finite-element method for incompressible non-
this study are listed below.
Newtonian flows: Journal of Computational Physics, v. 36,
Abbott, M.B., and Rasmussen, C.H., 1977, On the numerical no. 3, p. 313-326.
modelling of rapid expansions and contractions in models that Bercovier, Michel, and Pironneau, Olivier, 1977, Estimations
are two-dimensional in plan, in HEIWM: v. 2, p. 229-237. d'erreurs pour la resolution du probléme de Stokes en ele
Akin, J.E., and Fulford, R.E., 1979, A direct element resequenc- ments finis conformes de Lagrange: Comptes Rendus Hebdo-
ing procedure: NASA Report N79-10463, 10 p. madaires des Séances de l'Académie des Sciences, Paris,
Akin, J.E., and Pardue, R.M., 1976, Element resequencing for " v. 285, ser. A, no. 16, p. 1085-1087.
frontal solutions, in Whiteman, J.R. , ed. , The mathematics of
finite elements and applications, II: Conference, Uxbridge, 1978, Comparisons and error estimates for several finite
U.K., 1975, Proceedings: London, Academic Press, p. 535- elements for the numerical simulation of incompressible vis
541. cous flows, in NMLTF1: p. 179-190.
Ames, W.F., 1977, Numerical methods for partial differential Book, D.L., Boris, J.P., and Hain, K., 1975, Flux-corrected
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London, McGraw-Hill, 787 p. Mathematik, v. 12, p. 394-409.
GOALS
of the
U.S. Geological Survey
Dallas L. Peck,
Director, U.S. Geological Survey
III
Contents
Page
Foreword Ill
Introduction 1
Mission 2
National needs 3
Goals 7
Authorizations 11
Chronological list of authorizing legislation 14
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this document is to inform the gen The Survey provides services to all segments of
eral public, including potential users of services and society. Its clients include individuals in Federal,
products of the U.S. Geological Survey, members of State, and local governments, the U.S. Congress,
Congress and other public officials, Survey em universities, private enterprise, and the general
ployees, and other interested individuals, about the public, as well as foreign governments and other
role of the Survey in satisfying the earth-science organizations. It distributes annually over 80,000
needs of our Nation. Understanding this role can book publications and 7 1/2 million maps, mostly in
lead to better legislation, increased cooperation, bet small-quantity individual orders. The fact that over
ter informed management decisions, and greater two dozen Federal agencies contribute funds to the
public awareness of available products and services. Survey for products and services and over 900 State
Another purpose of the document, of equal impor and local agencies cooperate with the Survey on a
tance, is for internal use in setting program objec cost-sharing basis indicates the broad diversity of
tives, in establishing priorities, and in preparing the Survey's work in satisfying national needs.1
program proposals and budget requests. Together,
these items form the basis for a strategic plan for the
future of the Survey.
'The United States Geological Survey Yearbook includes lists of these Fed
eral agencies and cooperators and is available from the Superintendent of
This document is organized into four sections: Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402. The
(1) Mission— functions that the Survey is authorized Yearbook contains a summary of annual accomplishments and a list of the
principal offices and officials of the Survey with addresses and telephone
and funded to perform; (2) National Needs— exam numbers. The Yearbook also provides guidance on how to obtain informa
ples of problems that require earth-science informa tion and publications, as does Circular 900, Guide to Obtaining USGS
tion for effective and intelligent decisionmaking; Information, which is available free upon request from the Books and
Open-File Reports Section, U.S. Geological Survey, Federal Center, Box
(3) Goals— a desired state, process, or product that 25425, Denver, CO 80225.
the Survey plans to achieve in order to fulfill its
mission and address future needs for earth-science
knowledge; and (4) Authorizations— legislative and
executive documents that have authorized and
funded Survey activities, including a chronological
list of pertinent legislation.
Introduction 1
MISSION
The mission of the U.S. Geological Survey is to Publishes reports and maps, establishes and
provide geologic, topographic, and hydrologic infor maintains earth-science data bases, and dissemi
mation that contributes to the wise management of nates earth-science data and information.
the Nation's natural resources and that promotes
the health, safety, and well-being of the people. This Provides scientific and technical assistance for
information consists of maps, data bases, and de the effective use of earth-science techniques,
scriptions and analyses of the water, energy, and products, and information.
mineral resources, land surface, underlying geologic
structure, and dynamic processes of the Earth. Coordinates topographic, geologic, and land-use
mapping, digital cartography, and water-data ac
tivities.
To accomplish its mission, the Survey:
Develops new technologies for the collection, co
• Conducts and sponsors research in geology, hy ordination, and interpretation of earth-science
drology, mapping, and related sciences. data.
• Produces and updates geographic, cartographic, Provides scientific support and technical advice
and remotely sensed information in graphic and for legislative, regulatory, and management deci
digital forms. sions.
Describes the onshore and offshore geologic Cooperates with other Federal, State , and local
framework and develops an understanding of its agencies, and with academia and industry.
formation and evolution.
• Nearly all components of the American economy • Many strategic and critical minerals needed to
depend on energy. Use of nonrenewable energy sustain our society are not found in abundance
resources, such as oil, gas, coal, and uranium, within the United States and have to be im
requires continuing efforts by earth scientists to ported. Study of the origins of these minerals and
locate and understand the genesis of these re their world distribution may lead to the develop
sources and to maintain current knowledge of the ment of methods to identify new domestic de
worldwide energy supply, demand, and potential. posits and lessen our reliance on uncertain for
eign sources.
• Development of such energy resources as hy
droelectric, geothermal, solar, or fusion power re WATER
quires informed decisions about alternative uses
of land, water, and materials. • Water is needed to sustain life and to ensure the
future growth of the economy, particularly for the
• Extraction of some energy-producing materials
production of food and energy. Hydrologic infor
from the Earth carries with it the risk of serious
mation contributes to descriptions of the location,
environmental damage, as well as threats to hu
quantity, quality, and use of water resources and
man health and safety. Examples are wastes
prediction of the effects of droughts and water
from the mining and processing of energy-
development on the adequacy of water supplies.
producing materials, increased output of atmos
Planners and managers use this information to
pheric pollutants that affect the quality of precip
locate, design, and operate water-supply facilities
itation, destruction of habitats because of mining
such as reservoirs, well fields, and water-
activity, land subsidence from subsurface with
treatment plants and to plan for regional and
drawals of water, oil, and coal, and pollution of
local economic development.
water from the disposal of energy-related wastes.
Solutions to these problems require under
standings of the geology and of the chemical,
physical, and biological processes occurring in
the air, on the land surface, and in the water and
ground.
National Needs 3
• Protection of water resources from contaminants FOOD AND FIBER
and from wastes discharged into streams, in
jected into aquifers, or placed on the land or
underground is essential to public health and the • A better understanding of the relationships
quality of life. An understanding of the chemical, among geology, topography, weathering, and ero
physical, and biological mechanisms that affect sion is needed to identify soils that can best sup
the transport and fate of contaminants is neces port agricultural production. This understanding
sary to detect their presence and predict their can contribute to more effective land-use deci
behavior. This kind of knowledge is essential to sions.
planning effective management strategies for
protecting the quality of water resources and for • Irrigation frequently necessitates artificial
locating, designing, and operating waste storage drainage to prevent water saturation of the soil
and disposal facilities. and the accumulation of naturally occurring salts
and minerals at concentrations toxic to plants or
• Allocation of water resources is based on court animals. However, the drainage process itself can
decrees, interstate compacts, international lead to contamination of surface and ground
treaties, and water law. Accurate information water. Understanding of soil physics and the geo
about our water resources is needed to apportion chemistry of surface- and ground-water flow sys
available resources, monitor fulfillment of legal tems is necessary to design drainage systems that
obligations, and resolve disputes. minimize these problems and protect water sup
plies and downstream water quality.
National Needs 5
NEEDS AUTHORIZATIONS MISSIONS
IDENTIFIED MADE ESTABLISHED
PROGRAMS OBJECTIVES
T
GOALS
PREPARED SET DETERMINED
Schematic diagram showing how the U.S. Geological Survey responds to national needs.
Goals identify a desired state, process, or product formation is published as topographic and other
and serve to guide an organization toward the fu maps at various scales and the data are maintained
ture. The following goals indicate where the U.S. in digital data bases.
Geological Survey contributes to the national wel
fare within the context of its mission. Fulfillment of
the goals requires constant improvement of our GEOLOGIC FRAMEWORK
knowledge about the Earth and its natural proc
esses, including its deep structure, its history, and
its place in the evolution of the solar system. Many Increase knowledge of the geologic structure of
of the goals are responsive to more than one of our the Nation, including the continental shelf and
national needs and several respond to most of them the Exclusive Economic Zone, to provide the
in some degree. In a document to follow, the Survey scientific framework for energy, mineral, and
will identify the objectives it has set to meet each of hazards investigations and to meet future re
the goals. Although national needs for earth-science sponsibilities.
information are met principally by the Survey, other
Federal, State, and local agencies, industry, and Such knowledge includes an understanding of the
academia make major contributions to meeting deep structure and composition of the Earth, its his
these needs through their separate programs. Addi tory of formation and evolution, and its relation to
tionally, the Survey works with other Federal agen other planets and moons in the solar system. The
cies, State, local, and foreign governments, academic knowledge is acquired by geological and geophysical
institutions, and other members of the earth-science mapping; testing conceptual models and measuring
community in the furtherance of its own mission, in physical and chemical properties of rocks and miner
helping to meet their needs for earth-science data, als; determining the absolute and relative ages of
and in the interest of improving coordination in rocks and minerals; documenting the time and char
earth-science research. The Survey enters into this acter of evolutionary changes in organisms and of
work under a wide variety of formal relationships. past changes in the Earth's climate and magnetic
They include Memoranda of Understanding, Intera field; and participating in the exploration of the
gency Agreements, Joint Funding Agreements, Co solar system.
operative Agreements, and Protocols, as well as
grants and contractual arrangements.
ENERGY AND MINERAL
RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
TOPOGRAPHIC MAPPING
Goals 7
WATER RESOURCES ASSESSMENT formation on the natural processes by which
materials in the Earth are formed, transported,
and concentrated.
Increase knowledge of the distribution and
quality of the Nation's ground water and Such information will improve our understanding
surface water resources for use in the formula of the origins and occurrence of this wealth and con
tion and evaluation of policies and programs tribute to predictions of the nature and locations of
that assure the most efficient use of the Nation's new deposits. This knowledge is obtained by field
water resources. investigations, deep drilling, laboratory experi
ments and analyses, and construction and field test
This entails knowing aquifer properties, the gen ing of conceptual models.
eral configuration of water levels, and patterns of
ground-water recharge, circulation, and discharge;
average runoff, its seasonal variation, and low flow HYDROLOGIC PROCESSES
and flood characteristics of the Nation's rivers; the
chemical, physical, and biological quality of these
resources; and the quality of precipitation, including Increase understanding of the processes that
geographic variations and time trends. This knowl affect the properties and movement of water
edge is developed by analyzing data collected over and its dissolved and suspended constituents
many years, mapping the resources, interpreting through hydrologic systems.
these observations in light of the relevant natural
and human factors, and providing estimates of This understanding provides water resource man
statistical uncertainties. agers with the capability to predict the effects of
natural phenomena and human actions on the hy
drologic system. Increased understanding is
WATER USE achieved by fundamental research on and simula
tion of physical, chemical, and biological processes.
Improve knowledge of the way society uses This leads to improved methods for prediction of
water so as to support water management and water availability, water-related hazards such as
to increase the accuracy of water-use forecasts. floods or subsidence, and the fate and transport of
heat, chemical contaminants, and sediments carried
Such information assists water resource man by water.
agers to plan, design, and operate dams, well fields,
water distribution systems, water treatment plants,
and other water-related facilities. The development GEOGRAPHIC PROCESSES
of a full range of water management options de
pends, in part, upon the knowledge of existing
water-use processes, ways in which they may be al Increase knowledge of the processes that affect
tered, and the impact the processes have on water the location, distribution, and changes in land
quality and the environment. This knowledge is ac use and land cover and improve predictions of
quired by collecting and analyzing data about the the effects of natural stresses and those caused
location, amount, and purposes of withdrawals from by man on land-resource systems.
ground water and surface water systems; the loca
tion, amounts, and quality of water returned to hy- This is accomplished by integrating and analyz
drologic systems; and the amount of water used. ing, in a geographic framework, information on
physical, biological, and human processes. Methods
are developed that relate the interactions of man in
ENERGY AND MINERAL his physical environment to changes in land use and
RESOURCE PROCESSES land cover. Such relationships can then be used in
planning and decisionmaking to predict the impact
of events on the environment.
Enhance the ability to discover hidden or as yet
unrecognized types of energy and mineral de
posits that may be economically important en
ergy and mineral resources by developing in
Goals 9
determination of the location, magnitude, or nature needs. It is also achieved by issuing news releases
of the event for immediate and effective responses. and by operating public information centers and
The timely documentation of these conditions and clearinghouses that enable potential users to readily
events is accomplished by the continued operation of identify and obtain existing information. In addi
networks of sensors, including stream gages and tion, the Survey participates in and sponsors confer
seismometers, and by the rapid processing, analysis, ences, symposia, workshops, and public forums.
and dissemination of relevant information and
warnings.
TRAINING AND ASSISTANCE
COORDINATION
Assist organizations outside the Survey, espe
Improve the coordination of earth-science data cially academic institutions and State agencies,
collection, research, and mapping so as to mini to increase their capability to conduct earth-
mize duplication of effort, increase data accessi science research, to develop and disseminate
bility, and reduce costs. technologies that can help solve resource-
related problems, and to train an adequate sup
Coordination is carried out by sharing plans, re ply of earth-science professionals.
sults of investigations, technologies, and data bases
and by standardizing information formats. Exten This is accomplished by: cooperative programs
sive coordination is accomplished through coopera with State and local agencies; grants to academic
tive programs with State and local agencies and for institutions (e.g., the Water Resources Research In
mal agreements and joint committees with other stitutes); grants to a variety of research organiza
Federal agencies and governments. tions; cosponsoring symposia with professional asso
ciations; making available to others the various
Geological Survey training activities; and providing
EARTH-SCIENCE STANDARDS advice and assistance to resource-management
agencies.
Establish standards for definition, accuracy,
and format of earth-science information to im
prove communication and facilitate the ex MISSION SUPPORT
change of information among users.
Provide competent personnel, adequate facili
Standards are developed in operational programs ties, and modern equipment and instrumenta
and are reviewed by professional colleagues and tion in order to improve the Survey's productiv
users. Standards also are revised as the result of ity and its ability to carry out its mission
improved technology, evolving scientific thought, effectively.
and as a result of changing user requirements. Some
standards are developed in concert with other Fed Improvements in efficiency and effectiveness are
eral agencies, professional organizations, or interna pursued by developing and maintaining a competent
tional councils. Selected earth-science standards are and innovative work force; by ensuring an adequate
submitted for review and promulgation as Federal technological base for earth-science research
standards. through development or acquisition of state-of-the-
art instrumentation, facilities, computer hardware
INFORMATION DISSEMINATION and software, and other equipment; by developing
and sharing new methodologies for research; by
Improve dissemination of the knowledge devel making maximum use of available capabilities
oped by Survey programs so as to enhance within the private sector, other Federal agencies,
timely public and private sector access to an and State and local governments; by encouraging
understanding of earth-science information scientific interaction and providing access to the sci
and technologies. entific community at large; and by maintaining an
ongoing program of productivity improvement
This is achieved by publishing maps, scientific and through automation, training, and review of man
technical reports, popular publications, films, and agement procedures.
data bases in ways that are responsive to changing
The U.S. Geological Survey derives authority for "appropriations for sundry civil expenses of the Gov
its activities from specific pieces of legislation, in ernment for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1880,
cluding its annual appropriation acts and various and for other purposes." This Act is commonly re
executive orders. The Survey was established by an ferred to as the Survey's Organic Act, codified in 43
Act of Congress on March 3, 1879, that authorized U.S.C. 31 as follows:
"The Director of the Geological Survey, which office is established, under the Interior
Department, shall be appointed by the President by and with the advice and consent of
Organic the Senate. This officer shall have the direction of the Geological Survey and the
Act classification of the public lands and examination of the geological structure, mineral
resources, and products of the national domain. The Director and members of the
Geological Survey shall have no personal or private interests in the lands or mineral
wealth of the region under survey, and shall execute no surveys or examinations for
private parties or corporations."
The Survey's authorizations were made more specific over the years by additional
legislation (listed in the following section) that clarifies its role and authority. For
example, the geographic scope of the Survey's activities was expanded beyond the
Geographic national domain when on August 23, 1958, the Secretary of the Interior was authorized
Scope by P.L. 85-743 (43 U.S.C. 1457) "to perform surveys, investigations, and research in
geology, biology, minerals and water resources, and mapping ... in Antarctica and the
Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands"; and on September 5, 1962, when the Survey was
authorized by P.L. 87-626 (43 U.S.C. 31b) to conduct "such examinations outside the
national domain where determined by the Secretary to be in the national interest."
Authority for conducting geologic surveys is expressly contained in the 1879 Organic
Act. Chemical and physical research was recognized and undertaken as an essential
part of geologic investigations. Specific appropriation for work was initially made by
Congress in an act of October 2, 1888 (25 Stat. 505, 526). The Wilderness Act of 1964 (16
Geologic U.S.C. 1131) authorized the Survey to assess the mineral resources of areas proposed or
Surveys established as wilderness. The Disaster Relief Act of 1974 (42 U.S.C. 5132) authorized
the issuance of disaster warnings. Specific authority for an earthquake hazards reduc
tion program was given to the Survey in an act of October 7, 1977 (42 U.S.C. 7701 et
seq.). Authority for the Survey's astrogeology programs comes from the National Aero
nautics and Space Act of 1958 (42 U.S.C. 2473).
Authority for making topographic surveys is inherent in the language of the 1879
Organic Act. In appropriating funds for the fiscal year 1889 (25 Stat. 505, 526), Congress
made specific provision for topographic surveys. Further recognition was given in an act
of June 11, 1896 (43 U.S.C. 38), requiring that, in making topographic surveys, eleva
tions "shall be determined and marked by iron or stone posts or permanent bench
Topographic marks"; and by the joint resolution of February 18, 1897 (43 U.S.C. 42), authorizing and
Surveys directing the dispersal of topographic and geologic maps and atlases of the United
States, made and published by the Geological Survey. Cooperative (joint) funding with
State and local government agencies was first referenced in the appropriations act of
March 7, 1928 (45 Stat. 231), which provided that the share of the Geological Survey in
any topographic investigation carried out in cooperation with any State or municipality
shall not exceed 50 percent of the cost.
Authorizations 11
Authority for conducting water resources investigations is inherent in the language of
the 1879 Organic Act. It was further recognized in an act of October 2, 1888 (25 Stat.
505, 526), which authorized the survey of irrigable lands in arid regions, reservoir sites,
gaging of streams, etc., for irrigation. In an August 18, 1894, statute (28 Stat. 372, 398),
Congress made funds available to the Geological Survey for "gaging the streams and
determining the water supply of the United States, including the investigations of
underground current and artesian wells in arid and semi-arid sections." Authority to
Water exercise these functions by the Geological Survey is also indicated in an act of June 11,
Resources 1896 (29 Stat. 413, 453), providing that "hereafter the reports of the Geological Survey
Investigations m reiati0n to the gaging of streams and to the methods of utilizing the water resources
may be printed in octavo form . . . ."; and the joint resolution of May 16, 1902 (44
U.S.C. 260), providing that "hereafter the publications of the Geological Survey shall
consist of . . . water-supply and irrigation papers . . . ." Cooperative (joint) funding of
water resources investigations was first referenced in the appropriations act of March
7, 1928 (45 Stat. 231), which provided that the share of the Geological Survey in any
water resource investigation carried out in cooperation with any State or municipality
shall not exceed 50 percent of the cost.
The Survey's legislation authorities were supple Office of Management and Budget (OMB) and the
mented in later years by authorizations from the Executive Office as follows:
OMB Circular A-16, issued by the Bureau of the Budget on January 16, 1953, and
revised May 6, 1967, names the Department of the Interior (delegated to the Geological
Survey) as "responsible for the National Topographic Map Series of the United States
National and outlying areas of sovereignty and jurisdiction and for the National Atlas of the
Mapping United States of America." It also calls for the Department to operate a "Map Informa
Coordination tion Office" and to exercise "governmentwide leadership in assuring coordinated plan
ning and execution" of these and the "cartographic activities of other Federal agencies
related thereto. . . ." The Map Information Office has evolved into the National Carto
graphic Information Center (NCIC).
OMB Circular A-67, issued by the Bureau of the Budget on August 28, 1964, gives the
Department of the Interior (delegated to the Geological Survey) responsibility "for the
Water
Data design and operation of the national network for acquiring data on the quantity and
Coordination quality of surface and ground waters, including sediment load of streams," and respon
sibility "for exercising leadership in achieving effective coordination of national net
work and specialized water data acquisition activities."
A chronological list of legislation that authorizes the thorized. Wherever the language of a law gives the
programs and activities of the Geological Survey fol authority to the Secretary of the Interior, he, in turn,
lows. Appropriation acts are listed only in those has delegated the authority to the Director, U.S. Ge
cases where some significantly new activity is au ological Survey.
Authorizations 13
AUTHORIZING LEGISLATION OF THE
U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
Appropriations Act of None Mar. 3, 1879 Establishes the Geological Survey for the classification of
1879 the public lands and examination of the geological struc
ture, mineral resources, and products of the national do
main.
(43 U.S.C. 31(a))
Authorizes the publication, exchange, and sale of geologi
cal and economic maps, and reports on general and eco
nomic geology and paleontology.
(43 U.S.C. 41)
Appropriations None Oct. 2, 1888 Provides for chemical and physical research as part of ge
Act of 1889 ologic investigations, and for topographic surveys.
Appropriations None Aug. 18, 1894 Provides for gaging streams and determining the water
Act of 1894 supply.
Appropriations None June 11, 1896 Authorizes the establishment and location of permanent
Act of 1896 benchmarks used in making topographic surveys.
(43 U.S.C. 38)
Distribution of Maps Pub. Res. 13 Feb. 18, 1897 Authorizes the Director to distribute the topographic and
and Atlases, etc. 54th Congress geologic maps and atlases of the United States, and pro
vides also that a copy of each map and atlas shall be sent
to each member of Congress.
(43 U.S.C. 42 and 43)
Joint Resolution of Pub. Res. 22 May 16, 1902 Authorizes publication by the Geological Survey of water
May 16, 1902 57th Congress supply and irrigation papers.
(44 U.S.C. 1318)
Sale of Date Pub. Law 383 June 30, 1906 Authorizes the Geological Survey to furnish copies of
59th Congress maps to any person, concern, institution, State, or foreign
government, with receipts to be deposited in the general
fund of the Treasury.
(43 U.S.C. 44)
Production and Sale of Pub. Law 328 Mar. 4, 1909 Authorizes the Director to produce and sell copies of pho
Photographs and 60th Congress tographs, mosaics, and other official records.
Records (43 U.S.C. 45)
USGS Share of Cost for Pub. Law 100 Mar. 7, 1928 Directs that the Geological Survey's share in any topo
Work in Cooperation 70th Congress graphic mapping or water resources investigations car
with State and Local ried out in cooperation with any State or municipality
Governments shall not exceed 50 percent of that cost.
(43 U.S.C. 50)
Extension of Coopera Pub. Law 29 June 17, 1935 Authorizes the Geological Survey to make topographic
tive Work to Puerto 74th Congress and geologic surveys and to conduct investigations relat
Rico ing to mineral and water resources in Puerto Rico.
(43 U.S.C. 49)
Production and Sale of Pub. Law 206 July 21, 1947 Authorizes the Director to produce and sell copies of
Photographs and 80th Congress aerial photographs and provides for receipts to be de
Records posited in the Treasury to the credit of the current appro
priations.
(43 U.S.C. 45)
Standardization of Pub. Law 242 July 25, 1947 Directs the Secretary to assume responsibility for all
Geographic Names 80th Congress functions relating to domestic geographic names, includ
ing staff support to the interdepartmental U.S. Board of
Geographic Names.
(43 U.S.C. 364)
Appropriations Act of Pub. Law 470 July 9, 1952 Authorizes payment of compensation and expenses of per-
Fiscal Year 1953 82nd Congress sons on the rolls of the Geological Survey appointed to
represent the United States in the negotiation and ad
ministration of interstate compacts. (Same administrative
provision appears in current appropriations acts.)
National Aeronautics P.L. 85-568 July 29, 1958 Authorizes the National Aeronautics and Space Adminis
and Space Act of 1958 tration to cooperate or contract with Federal departments
and agencies in the performance of its functions.
(42 U.S.C. 2473)
Mineral Discovery P.L. 85-701 Aug. 21, 1958 Authorizes the Secretary to provide a program for explo
Loan Program Act of ration by private industry within the United States, its
1958 territories and possessions, for minerals, excluding or
ganic fuels, and to provide Federal financial assistance.
(30 U.S.C. 641) (Activities under the Act not funded since
1974.)
Appropriations Act of P.L. 85-743 Aug. 23, 1958 Authorizes the Secretary to perform surveys, investiga
Fiscal Year 1959 tions, and research in geology, biology, minerals and
water resources, and mapping in Antarctica and the
Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands.
(43 U.S.C. 1457 note)
Acquisition of Lands P.L. 86—406 Apr. 4, 1960 Authorizes the Secretary to acquire lands on behalf of the
for Use in Gaging Geological Survey for use in gaging streams and under
Streams and Under ground resources.
ground Resources (43 U.S.C. 36b)
Examination of the P.L. 87-626 Sept. 5, 1962 Authorizes the examination of the geological structure,
Geological Structure mineral resources, and products outside the national
Outside the National domain.
Domain (43 U.S.C. 31(b))
Wilderness Act of 1964 P.L. 88-577 Sept. 3, 1964 Authorizes the Geological Survey and Bureau of Mines to
assess the mineral resources of each area proposed or es
tablished as wilderness if no prior mineral survey was
done.
(16 U.S.C. 1131)
Delmarva Peninsula P.L. 89-618 Oct. 4, 1966 Authorizes the Secretary to make a comprehensive 5-year
Hydrologic Study study and investigation of the water resources of the Del
marva Peninsula.
(42 U.S.C. 1962d-7)
Authorizing Legislation 15
AUTHORIZING LEGISLATION OF THE
U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY-continued
Popular Title Public Law
or Subject Number Date Purpose
Classes and Sizes of PL. 90-620 Oct. 22, 1968 Requires that publications of the Geological Survey shall
Publications include maps, folios, and atlases required by law. Further
provides for printing and reprinting of Geological Survey
reports and distribution to Congress and the Library of
Congress.
(44 U.S.C. 1318)
Federal Water Pollu P.L. 92-500 Oct. 18, 1972 Directs EPA to have a water quality surveillance system
tion Control Act that will use the resources of the Geological Survey.
Amendments of 1972 (33 U.S.C. 1254(a))
Flood Disaster Protec P.L. 93-234 Dec. 31, 1973 Directs the Secretary of the Interior (through the U.S.
tion Act of 1973 Geological Survey) and heads of other Federal depart
ments and agencies to give high-priority assistance to the
Secretary of HUD in the mapping of flood-hazard areas
and flood-risk zones.
(42 U.S.C. 4101c)
Disaster P.L. 93-288 May 22, 1974 Directs the President to insure that all appropriate Fed
Relief Act eral agencies are prepared to issue warnings of disaster
of 1974 to State and local officials and that appropriate Federal
agencies provide technical assistance to State and local
governments to insure that timely and effective disaster
warning is provided.
(42 U.S.C. 5132)
Geothermal Energy P.L. 93-410 Sept. 3, 1974 Directs the Geological Survey to provide a schedule and
Research, Develop objectives for inventorying geothermal resources, and
ment, and Demonstra names the Survey as the action agency in support of the
tion Act of 1974 Geothermal Energy Coordination and Management Proj
ect, for developing a plan for a resource inventory, con
ducting regional surveys, and publishing maps.
(30 U.S.C. 1121 et seq.)
Federal Land Policy P.L. 94-579 Oct. 21, 1976 Directs the Secretary by 1991 to have the Geological Sur
and Management Act vey and the Bureau of Mines conduct minerals surveys of
of 1976 areas proposed to be recommended as wilderness prior to
such recommendations being finalized.
(43 U.S.C. 1782)
Surface Mining Control P.L. 95-87 Aug. 3, 1977 Establishes an Advisory Committee on Mining and Min
and Reclamation Act of eral Research under the State mining and mineral re
1977 sources and research institutes program, with the Direc
tor of the Geological Survey as a member.
(30 U.S.C. 1229(a))
Earthquake Hazards P.L. 95-124 Oct. 7, 1977 Directs the Geological Survey to be part of an earthquake
Reduction Act of 1977 hazards reduction program, which encompasses predic
tion, hazards reduction, and research.
(42 U.S.C. 7701 et seq.)
Earthquake Hazards P.L. 96-472 Oct. 19, 1980 Authorizes the Director to issue earthquake predictions
Reduction Act Amend or advisories after notifying FEMA.
ments of 1980 (42 U.S.C. 7704(f))
Alaska National Inter P.L. 96—487 Dec. 2, 1980 Authorizes the Secretary to assess oil and gas and other
est Lands Conservation mineral resources on Federal lands in Alaska.
Act (16 U.S.C. 3150)
Appropriations Act of P.L. 97-394 Dec. 30, 1982 Authorizes the Geological Survey to accept contributions
Fiscal Year 1983 from public and private sources.
Nuclear Waste Policy P.L. 97-425 Jan. 7, 1983 Authorizes the Geological Survey to act in a consultative
Act of 1982 and review role to the DOE for siting, building, and oper
ating high-level radioactive waste repositories.
(42 U.S.C. 10101 et seq.)
Appropriations Act of P.L. 98-146 Nov. 4, 1983 Authorizes the Geological Survey to retain receipts from
Fiscal Year 1984 the sale of all published maps. Also transfers responsibil
ity for issuing grants to State water resources research
institutes from the Office of Water Policy to the Geologi
cal Survey.
Water Resources Re P.L. 98-242 Mar. 22, 1984 Authorizes the Secretary to make cost-sharing grants to
search Act of 1984 designated State water resources research and technology
institutes for research and training and to make match
ing grants to those State institutes, as well as other aca
demic institutions, State or local governments, or the pri
vate sector for water research and technology
development.
(42 U.S.C. 10301)
Land Remote Sensing P.L. 98-365 July 17, 1984 Encourages continued research in remote sensing in the
Commercialization Act Department of the Interior; the legislative report recom
of 1984 mends utilization of the EROS Data Center as a remote
sensing data archive.
(15 U.S.C. 4201)
Barrow Gas Field P.L. 98—366 July 17, 1984 Authorizes the Secretary to transfer the Barrow gas
Transfer Act of 1984 fields to the North Slope Borough of Alaska, and requires
the Geological Survey to provide follow-up assistance to
the North Slope Borough.
High Plains States P.L. 98-434 Sept. 28, 1984 Authorizes the Bureau of Reclamation to establish
Ground-Water Demon demonstration projects for ground water recharge of
stration Program Act aquifers in the High Plains States and directs the Bureau
of 1983 to consult with the Geological Survey and other agencies
in the two-phase program.
(43 U.S.C. 390g)
Hazardous and Solid P.L. 98-616 Nov. 8, 1984 Provides for establishment of a National Ground Water
Waste Amendments of Commission (NGWC); the Director of the Geological Sur
1984 vey is to provide, if requested by NGWC, personnel on a
reimbursable basis.
Authorizing Legislation 17
Department of the Interior
5v*
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AUG 1 i 1987
^CMPTS INSTITUTION
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The National Geographic Names
DEPOSITORY ITEM
RECD
AUG 1 0 1987
Abstract 1
Chapter 1: The National Geographic Names Data Base
and Phase I project 2
Introduction 2
The National Geographic Names Data Base 2
Basic record information 3
Building the database 4
Phase I project 4
Chapter 2: Phase II, Part 1: The collection and map
annotation of data 6
Introduction 6
Qualifications of research personnel 6
General procedures 7
Organization and preparation 7
Acquiring work maps and required reference materials 7
Preparing work maps 8
Source documents and their selection 8
Bibliography and bibliographic codes 8
Use of Phase I computer listing 10
Special computer-generated lists 10
Required source documents 10
Primary Federal sources 11
Secondary Federal sources 11
Other information sources 12
State and local governmental publications 12
Historical and other publications and records 13
Compilation, evaluation, and annotation procedures 13
Introduction 13
Four conditions to be researched 14
Annotation procedures 14
Name categories that do not require annotation 16
Topographic map "time-gap" procedures 17
Variant names and spellings 17
Controversial names and the Board on Geographic Names 19
County and other minor civil division names 19
Major feature and regional names 19
Vague, obsolete, and vanished entity names 22
Sequential entities at the same location 22
Incorporation, subdivisions, and metropolitan areas 22
Abbreviations, generic terms, and designators 23
Numbers and numerals 25
iii
CONTENTS (Con't.)
Page
^LUSTRATIONS
Page
Figure 1. Example of work map preparation showing FIPS county
codes and map-cell code 9
iv
ILLUSTRATIONS (Con't.)
Page
v
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC NAMES DATA BASE: PHASE D INSTRUCTIONS
ABSTRACT
Optimal use and effectiveness of an automated names system require that the names of fea
tures not recorded on topographic maps be added. The systematic collection of names from
other sources, including maps, charts, and texts, is termed Phase II. In addition, specific types
of features not compiled during Phase I are encoded and added to the data base. Other names
of importance to researchers and users, such as historical and variant names, are also
included. The rules and procedures for Phase II research, compilation, and encoding are
contained in this publication.
Any use of trade names and trademarks in this publication is for identification purposes only
and does not constitute endorsement by the U.S. Geological Survey.
1
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
Beginning about 1960, there was a growing demand for a relatively complete listing of our
Nation's named places, features, and areas. From about 19SS to 1970, multiple attempts,
costing several million dollars, were made by various Federal and State agencies and business
organizations to develop a computer-based geographic names data base designed to meet a
variety of special needs. For the most part, these attempts were limited in completeness of
name coverage and extent of name information. A single, unbiased, relatively complete
depository of geographic names, including basic or essential information about each name and
named place, was urgently needed by all levels of government, diverse users in private indus
try, and by the general public. The U.S. Board on Geographic Names (BGN) was also inter
ested because such an information depository would facilitate the standardization of geo
graphic names in the United States.
Because of the nature and size of the task, most users looked to the Federal Government for
help in developing and maintaining a master computer-based catalog of the Nation's 3 to 5
million domestic geographic names. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) agreed in 1978 to
undertake such a program. The Geological Survey was interested because it is responsible for
providing staff support for the domestic names activities of the Board and such a program
would provide direct support to USGS mapping missions.
A relatively complete computerized data base of geographic names in the United States, its
territories, and outlying areas was planned by USGS as early as 1960. Although the Branch of
Geographic Names in USGS had been developing and using automated methods for handling
geographic name information since 1964, it was not until computer technology was readily
available that building such a data base became feasible. An early version of the National
Geographic Names Data Base was developed in 197S. Further development led to implemen
tation of a system called the Geographic Names Information System (GNIS). The System is
made up of four data bases, data retrieval software, ancillary software, and procedures speci
fically designed, arranged, and programmed to function as a geographic names information
system and a tool for toponymic research. GNIS is a computer-based system designed to meet
a broad spectrum of information and program needs, including:
• Cartographic support
• Standard reference
• Geographic base for special files
• National standardization
• Toponymic and other research
• Geographic inventory and control
• Gazetteer production
• Special publications.
-2-
Information in the system may be retrieved, arranged, analyzed, and manipulated for general
and specific purposes without bias. The National Geographic Names Data Base is the largest
data base in GNIS and contains a separate file for each State, territory, and outlying area.
The other data bases in GNIS are:
Information about GNIS and its products and the National Geographic Names Data Base may
be obtained from:
GNIS Manager
U.S. Geological Survey
523 National Center
Reston, Virginia 22092
Tel: 703-648-4544 (FTS 959-4544).
The effectiveness of GNIS and the National Geographic Names Data Base depends on both the
completeness and integrity of the data in the system. The geographic-names staff in the
Branch of Geographic Names has identified those basic or critical elements needed for each
name record in the system. These critical elements are:
• Written form of the full official, legal, or standard name (Record Name),
• Variant names or other names for the same geographical entity and variant spellings
of those names (Variant Names),
• Bibliography.
Although not critical, three other elements are considered important for a name record when
applicable and when the information is available:
• Elevation,
• Size, and
• History of the name, especially with regard to name origin and meaning.
-3-
See Data Elements and Record Format for a description of each of the primary data elements
associated with a name record.
Phase I Project
The Geological Survey began preliminary work on Phase I in 1976, a time when published
large-scale topographic maps covered more than 70 percent of this country's land surface. In
a pilot project, names published on the maps covering the States of Kansas and Colorado were
collected and recorded in machine-readable form. In the fall of 1978, a contract was awarded
to collect and record corresponding information for the remainder of the States and terri
tories. The contract was completed in March 1981. All work was monitored closely for com
pleteness, accuracy, and adherence to established procedures by the Branch of Geographic
Names in the Geological Survey's National Mapping Division. The error rate was about
2 percent.
Phase I activity for building the data base involved:
• The systematic collection of most names and attendant information from the
topographic maps on a State-by-State basis, and
• The correction and updating of this data by comparison with the official BGN files
by the National Mapping Division's Branch of Geographic Names staff.
The procedures followed for Phase I were as follows:
• Map Acquisition and Numbering
A complete collection of USGS topographic maps was acquired on a State-by-State
basis. Each 7.S- x 7.5-minute map or unpublished map cell of a State set was given
a unique sequential number. Beginning with "1" in the northwest corner of the State,
the numbering proceeds from west to east while moving south latitudinally. The
largest-scale USGS topographic maps available in each State were used for
compilation.
• Map Annotation
The contractor identified each named place and feature on every map and assigned
each a unique number. The extent of certain features such as streams also was
annotated by hand on each map. The extent of each named feature, as well as the
location of its geographic coordinates, was identified on each topographic map on
which the feature appeared.
• Data Entry
The geographic coordinates of the four corners of the map were recorded, and the
location of each feature was digitized and stored on magnetic disk along with other
required data, such as name, type of feature, county, map. and elevation. The digi
tized x-y coordinates were converted automatically into geographic coordinates
before final processing.
• Data Monitoring
Names data from a random sampling of 10 percent of the l:24,000-scale maps were
retrieved from the system in printout form for data verification. The names and
feature positions also were plotted on transparent overlays for visual comparison
with the source maps.
-5-
CHAPTER 2
Introduction
Phase II work on compiling data for entry into the Geographic Names Information System
began in 1982. The work is divided into three parts for convenience and control:
Phase I compilation did not include all named entities shown on the topographic maps. It was
recognized in the beginning that certain kinds of named features, such as those that were
large or scattered, or name information already in list or digital form, could be handled more
efficiently during Phase II compilation. Phase II, Part 1 compilation requires both the coding
of name records purposely omitted from Phase I compilation and the collection and recording
of names and associated information not found on the topographic maps used during Phase I.
The topographic maps do not show all geographic names that are in current use. Many names
in local and (or) published usage were unknown to the compilers when the maps were made.
Names applied to minor features often were not shown for lack of map symbols or to avoid
map clutter. The maps also do not normally show historical and obsolete names, variant
applications, and other names once used for currently named places, features, or areas.
It is important that each person researching name information for Phase II be able to interpret
topographic maps and to relate point, line, and area symbols among maps of different and
varying scales. A researcher should be able to make reliable judgements on feature identi
fication when comparing maps and relating textual description to map symbols. This includes
expertise in translating named symbols on sketch maps for accurate identification on the
modern large-scale topographic maps.
An understanding of how people use and apply geographic names to the landscape is useful.
The researcher should understand how proper names are applied to symbols by map editors
and the limitations inherent in the process. Knowledge of the geography and history of the
area being worked will greatly improve a researcher's ability to interpret data. An important
-6-
factor, often overlooked, is the researcher's ability to print upper and lower case letters
legibly, and to print exactly what is intended to be recorded because the person keying data
will make no interpretation, but will enter exactly what is shown on the coding form.
General Procedures
The following procedures are specified for the preparation, collection, and processing of name
data during Phase II, Part 1 work. These standard procedures help ensure the relative com
pleteness and integrity of information that will go into the National Geographic Names Data
Base.
Phase II, Part 1 activity begins with the preparation, selection, and systematic review of name
source documents other than topographic maps and the annotation of the new name informa
tion on the work maps. Annotation is the procedure by which specified information derived
from other documentary sources is hand drawn/labelled directly on the work map by a pen or
pencil. The printed and annotated data on the maps are then used to create new name records
that are encoded and added to the data base. Work is accomplished in a specific order and is
carefully controlled to maintain accuracy and to prevent duplication of the data. The proce
dures for Part 1 are divided into:
Preparation includes:
-7-
• Federal Information Processing Standards publication 6-2 1976,
• List of required and suggested source documents,
• GNIS Users Guide,
• Map feature guide,
• List of state civil divisions,
• State index of GNIS map codes, and
• National Ocean Service charts and National Forest maps.
• Annotating State and county FIPS codes on each map collar adjacent to each county
area (fig. 1),
• In areas not covered by 1:24,000- or l:2S,000-scale maps, the individual 7.5- x
7.5-minute map names are identified and appropriately labeled on the smaller-scale
map, and
• Drawing latitude and longitude lines across each map at the 2.5-minute "ticks"
located at the neatline of each map, if geographic coordinates are to be obtained by
the use of ten-space dividers or scales (Appendix H).
A bibliography and bibliographic coding procedure are built into the Geographic Names
Information System. This allows a ready reference to the sources of information for all name
records in the data base. The absence of a code indicates a Phase I name, that is, the source
of the name in the data base is a topographic map published by USGS prior to the initial com
pilation period of 1978-1981 (see Appendix J for coding topographic maps published after
Phase I work). Preparation for Phase n work requires developing a preliminary bibliography
of required and probable source documents to be reviewed. The bibliographic listing will
grow as new sources are discovered.
With the exception of the USGS topographic maps reviewed during Phase I compilation, each
source document is given a unique alphanumeric code. The first two characters of the code
are the alphabetical FIPS State code, followed by a dash (-), then the letter T (for a textual
source) or an M (for a map source), and unique number used for referencing the different
sources. The unique number may be assigned sequentially as the source bibliography is
developed for the maps (M) and texts (T). Certain codes are reserved for general use. (See
Appendix J.) Bibliographic codes are annotated on the work maps for both new name data
and variant names. Examples: ME-T1, ME-T2, ME-T3, etc. and ME-M1, ME-M2, ME-M3,
etc. (Maine text and map bibliographic codes).
If the document source is an atlas or similar publication, the map or page number should be
recorded as part of the bibliographic code. The map or page number is separated from the
code by a slash (/). Examples: AZ-T2/p.80, AZ-M14/m.24 (Arizona codes).
-8-
Figure 1. —An example of work preparation showing the annotated FIPS county codes. The
county boundaries have been manually enhanced with a felt-tip pen for easier reading.
-9-
An annotated bibliography for each source from which a name or variant name was derived
should be prepared in a standard format along with its bibliographic code:
The Phase I listing contains name records and variants alphabetically by State or other area.
The listing is required as a reference for Phase II work. It is used to determine if variants are
already present in the data base and to obtain the necessary identification number for record
ing variants of existing name records. Researchers must use the l:24,000-scale or 1:25,000-
scale topographic maps as the main reference and, except in the case of maps published since
Phase I compilation, may assume that names already found on the maps are in the data base.
If one has interactive access to GNIS, questions may be answered by direct retrieval of
information.
• airports,
• radio and television antenna sites,
• recreation and wilderness areas, and.
• current minor civil divisions.
The names of certain categories of features collected during Phase I are not complete. This
is because not all were shown in the maps used for Phase I collection. For this reason, the
following categories of features will require comparison with more complete listings:
-10-
* - Dams and reservoirs list,
* - Federal Aviation Administration airport list,
* - U.S. National Park Service list,
* - U.S. Forest Service recreation area list,
* - Federal Communications Commission radio and television list,
* - List of shopping centers,
- County maps and listings published by the State,
- Real estate maps,
- Lists of churches and schools, and
- Historical maps, atlases, and gazetteers.
•Source documents are furnished by the GNIS Manager.
Note - Underlined sources are considered basic references for determining official standard
names.
The primary Federal maps should be the first sources systematically reviewed after the pre
liminary work has been completed because official names are determined by usage on these
maps. The names found on the topographic map series published by the Geological Survey are
already in the data base. For Phase II, the process involves comparing names and their appli
cations shown on the work maps with those shown on the National Ocean Service charts and
the U.S. Forest Service maps. These maps and charts are furnished to those officially partici
pating in the Phase II compilation program. Others may order them at the current price at
the following addresses.
HI-
• U.S. Forest recreation areas
• National Park Service: National
Parks
Historical parks
Battlefields and battlefield sites
Military parks
Memorials
Historic sites
- Monuments
- Preserves
Seashores and lakeshores
Parkways
Rivers and riverways
Recreation areas
Scenic trails
• National Bureau of Standards, Federal Information Processing Standard - FIPS SS.
The collection of name data from the Federal documents covers most major named places,
features, and areas. Experience indicates, however, that this represents only about 50-70
percent of all names found in present-day usage. Thus, the next task of Phase II work is to
identify the names of geographic entities in use today that are not already in GNIS or re
corded on the required, primary, and secondary sources. State and local governmental publi
cations may be the best source of information of this kind. These documents include but are
not limited to:
1. Maps produced by State agencies and local governments and
2. Special State and other governmental publications dealing with -
Schools
Churches
Hospitals
Cemeteries
Shopping centers
Public landmarks
Springs and streams
Lakes and ponds
Recreation areas
Public parks and forests
Natural features
-12-
• Historical sites and structures
• Highway rest areas
• Natural resources
• Mines and mining areas
• Industrial parks.
The names of subdivisions and real estate developments are useful records to have in the
National Geographic Names Data Base, even though many of the names may appear ephem
eral. These names represent populated areas that often are recognized by a legal process at
some level of government. Most are not named on the topographic work maps. Information
about the names and locations of real estate developments normally is available at govern
mental offices or agencies that deal with zoning or planning and through real estate multiple
listing maps.
Almost all written material uses geographic names for locational purposes. Source documents
for Phase II, Part I work are widespread. Careful selection of sources that provide the great
est potential of new name information is important because of time limitations. After the
names information from the previously mentioned Federal and State source documents has
been collected, the remaining kinds of information needed for the data base include:
The availability of documents from which useful information can be obtained varies among
States and among areas within a State. The more obvious possible source documents are:
Introduction
In review, the purpose of Phase II, Part I research is the collection of geographic-name data
not recorded during Phase I compilation. Use of a single set of work maps for Phase II compi
lation is crucial to a successful program for several reasons. Without exception, all names
and certain associated information collected during Phase n are recorded on the one set of
work maps.
-13-
The large-scale topographic maps published by the U.S. Geological Survey provide an ideal
base with which names data from other sources can be compared. They give us a graphic
representation of selected natural and manmade entities on the Earth's surface plotted to a
definite scale. A full set of these maps covering the Phase II research area are the work
maps that provide the reference foundation for the organized collection of geographic names
and their attendant data. Portrayal of the shape and elevation of the terrain on these work
maps is usually determined by precise engineering surveys and photogrammetric measure
ments. The scales of the maps are large enough to allow symbolism and name labeling of
relatively small features. Because each work map shows the accurate locations and shapes of
mountains, valleys, and levels, the networks of streams, bodies of water, and principal works
of man, it is easy to relate a name with the entity it identifies. If an appropriate symbol is
not shown on the map for a particular named entity, a symbol can be easily annotated directly
onto the map in a fairly accurate location by relating its position with other map symbols.
New names and additional variant names are associated with the proper map symbols and
annotated directly onto the maps along with bibliographic codes and other pertinent data.
Both the annotated data and reliable qualitative and quantitative information published on
the maps are used to develop new name records for the National Geographic Names Data
Base.
• New Name: Names in the source documents applied to geographical entities not
named on the topographic work maps (New Name means new to the data base),
• Variant Name: Different names or different spellings for the same entity,
• Variant Application: Names with the same or different spelling applied to two
different entities of the same kind, and
• Variant Application: Names with the same or different spelling applied in part to two
different entities of the same kind.
Annotation Procedures
Each name collected for Phase II, including the bibliographic code and identification of one of
the four conditions mentioned above, is annotated onto the work maps in association with the
appropriate feature symbols. Annotations on the work maps should be made so that there is
no ambiguity with regard to the names and their applications. Annotations on the map are
made carefully and neatly. Remember that a large number of annotations may be made on a
map before the work for Phase II is finished. The printed names and their symbols on the
work maps should not be obscured by the annotations.
Work maps may be annotated either at or alongside the map symbols on the face of the map
(fig. 2) or on the map collar with connecting lines to the appropriate symbols (fig. 3). De
pending on clarity and convenience, both procedures can be used on the same map. If a map
-14-
becomes cluttered, a new work map may be permanently attached to the original. The
researcher must define the extent of named features. This is done by marking or tracing
their limits or extents with pencil, pen, or different color markers on the work maps (fig. 3).
The following procedures should be followed carefully:
• Transferring name information from the various source documents should be done
carefully. Except for abbreviations, which are spelled out, print each name in upper
and lower case letters exactly as found on the source document.
• Not all landscape and cultural features are symbolized on the topographic work
maps. If an appropriate symbol is not shown on the work map, one should be anno
tated neatly in the proper location and identified by the name and bibliographic code
annotation. Remember, scale differences and map quality (especially historical
material), affect the transfer of information.
Figure 2.—An example of map-face annotations; each indicating the nature of the name [new
or variant] and bibliographic code which gives the source of information. Care is always
taken to ensure correct application of the annotated name to the feature symbolized on
the map using application lines (Deer Ridge, Parsons Hollow, Hartley Ridge, Boddy
Hollow) and lead lines/arrows (Indianton, Indian Crossing). Annotated variant names can
also be tied to the circled map name by a lead line. Note the reference (historical) is
considered part of the name for recording and data entry (Indianton).
-15-
Annotation may be done by a fine-point felt-tipped pen, a good ball-point or standard
marking pen, or by a sharp, but not excessively hard, pencil. It is advisable to anno
tate new names in one color and variant names in a contrasting color. It is also
possible to annotate name/feature application differences in another color. The
method used should be documented and applied consistently.
Only one annotation is required to build a name record. If a new name or variant
name is encountered during document research and it has already been annotated on
the work map from a previous source, it can be ignored unless the later source con
tains additional useful information not found on the previous source. For example, it
is useful to keep an account of the earliest published use of a name. It is acceptable
to record more than one bibliographic source code if desired, but only one is required.
finarvf CmMWW
I'M» Cr**k
(W- Mis)
Une. M//
Met 6uJJi
uny-*t)
Cross CfH
Figure 3.—An example of map-collar and map-face annotations. Both methods of annotation
can be used on the same map. Clarity of name information and application are the main
determinants in annotation procedure. These factors must be obvious to any person who
may be transferring name data to the coding forms. Clarification notes can be added in
parentheses whenever needed (see note on the mouth of Cross Creek).
-16-
• Airports, landing strips, heliports;
• Dams and reservoirs; and
• Radio and television stations.
It should be noted that named streets, roads, and highways are not identified for inclusion in
GNIS during Phases I or II.
Phase I compilation was accomplished with a cut-off date for each State between 1976 and
1981. The compilation does not contain names published on the large-scale topographic maps
after the cut-off date. A list of State cut-off dates will be furnished by the GNIS Manager.
This procedure is temporary because new names from maps published within the "time-gap"
will be compiled and added to GNIS at one time. Contact the GNIS Manager for the status of
this compilation.
Because of the time gap between Phases I and II, the first step of Part 1 compilation is to
identify additions or changes to the standard topographic map series published since the cut
off date on the work maps. The names are identified by the two-letter code "US" followed by
a dash (-) and the code M101. For example, US-M101 identifies a new name or change on a
topographic map. This name data can be determined by comparing recently published maps
with the largest-scale map coverage available for an area before the cut-off date.
All variant names and variant spellings found in the source documents should be annotated on
the work maps along with their bibliographic codes for inclusion in the data base. A variant
name is defined here as a name found on any source used to refer to a particular geographic
feature, other than the official or primary entry name. A variant spelling is defined as any
spelling of what is intended to represent the same name, but which differs from the spelling
of the official or primary entry name. This includes published typographical errors and minor
spelling variations such as the inversion of "ie" and "ei" or "11" and "1." This includes variation
between names with or without the plural/possessive "s." The genitive apostrophe, however,
is not a factor for establishing variant names and should always be omitted when annotated
onto the work map and recorded onto the encoding sheet.
In all cases, the variant names should be referenced to the named entities and not to the
names (fig. 4). For example, a small settlement may be called Avon. If a post office or
railroad station a mile away is also called Avon, there are two different named entities
requiring two different records. James Creek and James Gorge, through which the stream
flows, are two different features because the former is a hydrographic (water) feature and
the latter is a hypsographic (land) feature. Early maps and maps with scales too small for
accurate name placement should be carefully interpreted in order to prevent the creation of
variant names not intended by the mapmakers. Keep in mind the logical application of a
name based on its generic element. A named cape applied to an island on a small-scale map
was probably meant to apply to what was perceived as a cape and not the island. The
relationship between a named mountain and its separately named peak or peaks should also be
carefully maintained.
-17-
A. Source Map - 1894 B. Source Map - 1909
Figure 4.—Application Problems and Variant Names. When identifying variant names, each
part of a feature or system of features uniquely named on a source map is considered a
separate entity. A variant name is associated with a record name even though it may
have been applied only to a part of the record name feature on a source document. The
record names on map D have the following variant names derived from source documents
A, B, and C:
Official Name Variant Name
Jones River - Mad Creek (in part)
Mad Creek - Jones River (in part)
Low Creek - Pike Creek
Pike Creek - Pie Creek (in part). Low Creek, Top Creek
Top Creek - North Fork Pike Creek
-18-
Controversial Names and the Board on Geographic Names
A name controversy exists if the name of a populated place, locality, reservoir, or natural
feature or its application differs between any two of the following: (1) topographic map
(Phase I listing), (2) U.S. Forest Service map, or (3) National Ocean Service chart. If a
controversy exists, the matter should be brought to the attention of the U.S. Board on
Geographic Names. This can be done by submitting a Domestic Geographic Names Report
(Form 9-1343) (Appendix D) as soon as possible to the:
The Board or its staff will resolve the controversy and notify the informant of the decision.
If the controversy exists for entities other than populated places, localities, and natural fea
tures, an effort should be made to ascertain the name recognized by an administrative author
ity. When this name cannot be established, the researcher should arbitrarily choose what
appears to be the best one for the Record Name. All other names then become variant names.
Other categories of named entities sometimes not collected during Phase I operations include
major natural features (such as Lake Michigan, Rocky Mountains, and Coast Range), extensive
Federal and State parks and recreation and wildlife areas, and regional names (fig. 5). In all
of these cases, no precise instructions can be given that will allow Phase II researchers to
know if the records were, or were not, established during Phase I compilation. Researchers
must check the computer listing or query the State file by means of a computer terminal in
each case. Fortunately, the total number of these entities is not large.
Those major natural features and extensive parks, recreation, and wildlife areas to be added
to the Phase II file can be plotted or outlined best on the l:250,000-scale or State base maps
furnished by the GNIS Manager. The data for building each name record can be developed
from such map annotation (fig. 6). The annotated intermediate-scale maps then become part
of the work map collection for continual reference.
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Figure 5.—Annotating named Federal and State entities. As with major features, it is best to
identify scattered and large named areas that fall under the administrative authority of
a Federal or State agency on a small-scale map. This procedure helps the compiler to
understand extent and relationships not easily discernible on the larger scale work maps.
County boundaries also can be annotated on the small-scale map if it is considered
helpful.
-20-
Figure 6.—It is best to delineate major named entities on 1: 250, 000-s cale or State base maps
in order to understand their full extent and relationships with each other. Record data
can be derived from the small-scale map or the feature boundaries can be transferred to
the large-scale work maps.
-21-
Currently used names for regions are not normally found on topographic or on other base-map
series. These names often can be found in the geographic literature. Regional names used in
the past are found in the historical literature of a State or region. Because regional names
often have indefinite boundaries, the Phase II researcher must interpret the area covered by a
regional name so that an appropriate name record can be developed for the data base file.
Precise boundaries are not needed.
Some geographical locations have had a sequence of named entities over a period of time. A
city today, for example, may be located at the site of a former or current fort which, in turn,
was located at the place where early maps show an Indian village. In such a case, all three
named entities, and their variant names and spellings, are given separate and complete rec
ords in the data base. There is normally a complete cultural and time break between the
Indian village and subsequent occupation of the site, and the fort is a different kind of feature
from that of the city. The Indian village record name and the fort record name, if no longer
used for military purposes, should be followed by (historical); for example: Blount, Fort
(historical).
For the purpose of cross-referencing sequential site features, both the Indian village and fort
record names can be listed as variants of the city name followed by (q.v.); example: Fort
Blount (q.v.). The (q.v.), quod vide, means "which see," and tells the reader that the name
also is found in the data base as a complete record. It also will be listed in The National
Gazetteer as a variant and a separate record.
Incorporation or merging often occurs when one or two (or more) nearby named populated
places grow in area until they coalesce forming one population cluster. In some cases, incor
poration boundaries also are extended to include centers of population separated by open or
rural-like areas. In either case, a name record is prepared for the legally incorporated polity.
All other names of places that are located within the boundaries of incorporation, and differ
from the incorporate name in form or spelling, are given separate name records in GNIS. For
the purpose of cross-reference, however, each is also listed in the variant field of the name
record of the incorporated entity followed by (in part, q.v.); example: Star City (in part, q.v.).
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A named populated place that is part of a population cluster but outside the boundaries of an
incorporated area is a separate entity and is not listed in the variant field of the adjacent
incorporated area.
Name records are prepared for all named subdivisions of a city or suburban area. The record
name should be followed by (subdivision); example: Cleveland Park (subdivision).
The term "subdivision" is here defined in its broadest sense. It is to include:
• Named unincorporated populated tracts outside the boundaries of a city but having
economic or other relational ties to a city or that are considered to be part of a
metropolitan area (housing developments and similar population concentrations).
The term "subdivision," however, should not be used to identify well-established, identifiable
populated entities outside the corporate boundaries of a city, such as:
• Older populated places that have come under the influence of an expanding
metropolitan area, and
The decision to add or not add (subdivision) in the name record will not always be easy.
However, a conscientious effort should be made to use the above instructions for making a
decision. A certain degree of expertise and local knowledge is helpful in applying the term
"subdivision." If the subdivision is within the boundaries of an incorporated place, it is neces
sary to record the name of the entity in which the subdivision is located. Record this name
after the preposition "in" on line al9 of the coding form (example: "in Pleasantville").
Named metropolitan areas that contain several incorporated and unincorporated places are
considered separate geographic entities and each will be given a name record for each State
that the area may cover. For example, the Washington Metropolitan Area is a valid name
record of the Virginia, Maryland, and District of Columbia files in the data base. Named
polities and places within the metropolitan area are not listed as variant names for a metro
politan area name record.
Because of editorial policy or lack of space, names were sometimes abbreviated or the generic
elements of the names were not shown or recorded on the source documents. These should
not be considered variant names.
All parts of a name abbreviated on the source documents should be spelled out when annotated
on the work maps and input encoding forms. See Appendix E for standard abbreviations used
on maps and charts published by the U.S. Government. For example, "St. Johns R." on the
map or chart is annotated in its full form — Saint Johns River — on the work map and en
coding form. Other sources, however, may use a variety of abbreviations that differ from
-23-
those in Appendix F. Special care should be taken to ascertain the intended word for an
abbreviation. For example, "Br." normally used for the word "Branch," could also be intended
to mean "Brook" on historical maps and manuscripts.
The generic element should always be recorded, fully spelled out, on the work map and en
coding form. If the source document or documents do not supply a generic for one or more
names, one must be provided by the compiler for each specific part of a name that is appro
priate to the feature and the area in which the feature is located. Note that in textual
sources, the generic elements for the names of certain kinds of features (rivers, deserts, etc.)
are often omitted. If, for example, the text refers to "crossing the Poloma," and a stream is
the reference, the name recorded would be Poloma River. This is inferred because other
terms for streams (creek, bayou, run, and branch) normally require the use of a generic with
the specific term in written text.
Exceptions to the rule of supplying unwritten generic elements to names for GNIS occur when
the geographic names were never intended by users to have a standard specific-generic
form. There are three categories of such names:
1. Most populated places and locales (and rarely a mountain) do not use the generic
element (Denver, Columbia, New York) except in their political titles (City of
Denver). The political title or long term of the name should be listed as a variant
even though it has official status. Of course, many populated places have an
imbedded generic element (Greenville, Boston, Middleburg).
2. A small number of natural features have exotic or nonce-generic forms for their
names (Bald Alley, a ridge; Battle Ax, a mountain; Bold Dick, a rock formation).
3. Another small group of natural features are identified by use of the definite article
and noun/name only (The Cape, The Toothpick, La Mesa). In such cases, the definite
article is always capitalized when annotated on the work map.
Feature-class terms are an important part of each GNIS name record. The Glossary of
Feature- Class Terms (Appendix F) should be studied in the beginning of the Phase II work, and
can be used as a constant reference during work, especially when encoding data for computer
input. As mentioned above, the generic element is not used in all names and, when it is used,
it may mislead the reader as to its true reference. For example, Green River may be a popu
lated place and not a stream. Larsons Cave in Indiana may be a "basin" and not a "cave" in
the sense with which we are normally familiar. Feature-class terms, sometimes called desig
nators, are provided for all names in GNIS. These terms not only assist in feature identifi
cation and name application, but also provide an economical and efficient procedure when
making a computer search for certain kinds of name information.
The Phase II compiler must be careful that he or she does not introduce personal or profes
sional bias into the interpretation of features when selecting feature-class terms. The cross-
reference generic listing in Appendix G should be used to determine the feature class. If the
generic is not in this list, the project coordinator should be notified and a generic form (fig. 8)
should be completed. Map interpretation alone, in some cases, may be misleading. Some
generics may have multiple references in the generic list. The compiler should attempt to
view feature symbols on a map as if one were actually seeing the real feature at ground level
where the naming process normally occurs. For example, the name Silver Hills may be applied
along what appears to be a cliff or an escarpment on the map. The generic element in the
name, however, implies that the name actually refers to the broken or "hilly" landscape that
is the result of cliff or escarpment erosion. The feature-class term, then, should be "range"
and not "cliff."
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In a few cases, a Phase n compiler may not be able to ascertain what a particular name
indentifies on a map. If such a problem cannot be resolved by seeking help from the project
director or other people familiar with landscape features in the area worked, the encoding
form can be tagged and referred to the Manager, GNIS.
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CHAPTER 3
Introduction
Part 1 involves the collection of name data on a master set of work maps. Parts 2 and 3
require the transfer and conversion of both the annotated and printed map data into machine-
readable form for inclusion into the National Geographic Names Data Base. Although it is
possible to encode name records directly from the work maps to the computer, such a proce
dure is not normally recommended because it requires special equipment and highly skilled
operators, has a greater error factor, and is more difficult to monitor. Instead, an inter
mediate step, Part 2, is used. It involves the transfer of annotated and published map data to
an Input Coding Form for each name record (fig. 7). The Input Coding Form is then used for
data entry into the computer system.
Data Transfer
All data must be carefully and clearly printed on the Input Coding Form in upper and lower
case (or as directed) and in exactly the same form as shown on the work maps, except that no
abbreviations are permitted, all words must be spelled out.
Introduction
Each name record consists of categories of information called data elements arranged in a
particular order as illustrated on the Input Coding Form (fig. 7) because they will also be
encoded for machine entry. After the completion of the names research program and map
annotation, the information is ready to be encoded for entry into the data base. This is
accomplished by transferring the map annotations and associated map data to the Input
Coding Form. The encoding form is arranged in the same order as the GNIS data input
software (GDIP). The following categories describe the data to be encoded. Any specific
entity can have only one record name in the data base. Each data element is identified by a:
Record Number
The NUMBER line (aO) is used only for adding variants to existing records in the data base or
for minor corrections to existing information in the data base. New names and associated
new name information will never have a record number.
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Geographic Names Information System (GNIS) Input Coding Form
(aO) NUMBER
(al) NAME
(a3) DESIG
(a4) * LOC
(a5) * COUNTY
(all) ELEV
(al5) HIST
(al6) * VAR
(al7) SIZE
(al8) STATUS
(al9) SPDESIG
(a20) STR
U98) REMARKS
<a99) BIBLIO
**If the mouth and source are on the same map, no Heads Mapname will
be recorded.
-27-
The information recorded here is always an eight-digit number that can be found on the
special Phase I listing supplied by the GNIS manager or that can be obtained interactively if
one has this option.
Record Name
The geographic name entered on the NAME line (al) of the Input Coding Form is the official
or primary name to which all variant names and spellings are referenced. Normal spacing and
upper-lower case spelling are to be used regardless of the type shown on the source document
(example: "Lakewood" not "LAKEWOOD"). Exceptions occur when an upper-case letter is
normally used within the body of the specific part of a name; DeKalb, LaMarr.
Except for the genitive (possessive) apostrophe, all nonletter characters that are part of the
name are to be properly recorded on the coding form. This includes the apostrophe (O'Malley
Creek), hyphen (Miller-White Ditch), and the accents acute (é), grave (é), circumflex (é), tilde
(H), and cedilla (c).
Each name is printed letter by letter, word by word, in its normal order except in those cases
where the generic part of the name of a natural (physical) feature precedes the specific part
as in Mount Adams, Lake Ann, Bay Saint Louis, and Lake of the Woods. In such cases the spe
cific or substantive part is listed first, followed by a comma, a blank space, and the remaining
parts of the names:
Adams, Mount
Ann, Lake
Saint Louis, Bay
Woods, Lake of the.
However, a populated place, locality, civil division (city, village, county, township, crossroad,
and railroad siding) or any other cultural feature named for a physical feature is always listed
in normal order even though the generic part of the name may precede the specific part. A
village or locality called "Mount Calvary" is listed in that order, while a physical feature with
the same name is shown with the specific part of the name first; that is, "Calvary, Mount."
Names containing the definite article in the initial position should be reversed. For example,
The Ditch and La Mesa become Ditch, The and Mesa, La respectively. Names for cultural and
physical features that no longer exist must be followed by the word historical in parentheses.
Similarly, the word subdivision in parentheses should follow entries that are integral parts of
populated areas.
Feature Class
The feature classes entered on the DESIG line (a3) are designed to group similar features into
broad categories to facilitate search and retrieval. The Map Feature Guide (Appendix G) pro
vides a reference for all known geographic-name generics to the appropriate broad feature
class. However, if a geographic-name generic not yet in GNIS is encountered, it should be
recorded on the "Generic Information" form (fig. 8) and submitted to the GNIS manager
through the project coordinator.
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GENERIC INFORMATION FORM
MAPNAME
SCALE
STATE
OR
TEXTUAL SOURCE:
"The Standard for Counties and County Equivalents of the States of the United States" (FIPS
PUB 6-2, latest edition) published by the U.S. National Bureau of Standards will be the source
for codes on the LOC line (a4) to identify the States and counties in which a named feature
occurs. The individual code is five digits. The first two digits refer to the State and the last
three digits refer to the county or county equivalent. This is an alphanumeric variable-length
field. A five-digit State/county code will be recorded for each county and State in which the
named entity is located. When more than one code is entered, the State and county in which
the primary coordinate symbol is located is listed first. The sequence thereafter is from
"mouth to source" for drainage features, referred to in GNIS as linear features, and multiple
entries are separated by blanks.
When a feature is in both United States territory and another country, the appropriate 2-
character alphabetical FIPS code will be used, for example, CA for Canada, MX for Mexico,
UR for Soviet Union, UK for the United Kingdom, and WS for Western Samoa.
-29-
County Name
The specific part of the county name, or county equivalent name, is printed on the COUNTY
line (aS). Record all county names (separated by a comma and a blank) including counties in
other States. The county names in other States are followed by the 2-character alphabetical
FIPS code for the State enclosed in parentheses. Example: Snohomish (WA). Only the spe
cific part of the name is listed. Arlington County and Terrebonne Parish are listed as:
Arlington
Terrebonne.
If the primary coordinate is located in an independent city, the specific name of the city or
town is recorded followed by the word city in parentheses. Example: Richmond (city).
Geographic Coordinates
Geographic coordinates entered on the LATLONG line (a6) are established not only to locate
named places, features, and areas, but also to indicate the extent of certain kinds of features
and to identify all map cells on which a named entity is located. The coordinates are catego
rized into primary, secondary, and source locations of parts of some entities, such as the
mouths and heads of streams, canyons, valleys, and washes. The annotation symbols sug
gested for use on the work maps are:
* ■ primary coordinate
x = secondary coordinate
0 = source coordinate.
More complete instructions as to the locations where geographical coordinates are to be taken
may be found in the Map Feature Guide (Appendix G).
A 15-character compressed geographic coordinate is used in line a6 for primary and
secondary points. Multiple data items are separated by a blank space. If the degrees of
longitude are less than 100 a leading 0 must be present. Example: 2S0607N0713214W.
The primary and secondary coordinates are geographic coordinates that not only locate and
indicate certain feature limits, but also associate a named feature with the map or maps on
which it appears. Latitude is in degrees, minutes, and seconds followed by one alphabetical
directional character (N or S); and longitude is in degrees, minutes, and seconds followed by
one alphabetical directional character (E or W). There is a geographic coordinate associated
with each topographic map or cell on which a feature is located. The primary coordinate
followed by all secondary coordinates will be recorded after the precedence code "a6." Multi
ple entries or data items may be required. The order recorded is from mouth to source for
linear features and generally from the center outward for areal features.
All primary and secondary coordinates must be recorded within +5 seconds (about 400 feet) of
accuracy at a scale of 1:24,000 or 1:25,000. Geographic coordinates may be accurately deter
mined by means of 10-space dividers, scaling rulers, special coordinate overlays, or by the
use of an electronic digitizer. Procedures for establishing coordinates for Phase II encoding
should be arranged with the GNIS Manager (see Appendix H).
The primary coordinate entry is the first coordinate on the form and should locate a point at
the mouth of a linear feature and at the approximate center of an areal feature. Specific
instructions as to where the geographic coordinates are to be taken are found in the Map
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Feature Guide (Appendix G) or may be obtained interactively by accessing the Reference
Data Base. The approximate center must be determined subjectively for areal features with
indefinite, irregular, or nondiscernible boundaries. The centers of populated places often may
be determined by locating certain features such as the town or city hall, main library, main
post office, the old central business district, or a main intersection. The mouth of a natural
feature refers to the terminus of linear entities such as streams, valleys, and canyons and is
located where the feature joins another feature of the same kind, ends in a delta, an alluvial
fan, or no longer has a discernible channel or troughlike characteristics. Primary coordinates
for entities classified as summits are recorded at the tops or highest points of the features.
The Primary Coordinate entry corresponds to the data elements county name, map name, and
State/county code.
The secondary coordinate is a point arbitrarily chosen to locate the named feature on maps or
cells through which it passes or on maps that do not contain the primary coordinate. Choose
only one secondary coordinate for each 7.S- x 7.5-minute cell on which the feature is
located. Its only purpose is to identify the name with the map and general extent of the
feature. The location of each secondary coordinate may be anywhere on the map as long as it
is located on the feature in question. All secondary coordinates correspond on a one-to-one
basis with multiple data items in the mapname data element.
Source Coordinate
The annotator will assign the source coordinate symbol 0 to the furthest point at the head of
the longest, straightest extension of the named feature unless its location is otherwise
defined on the map by name placement, textual description, or other influencing variable.
This procedure is in accordance with the policies of the U.S. Board on Geographic Names.
See figure 9 for examples of locating points for source coordinates. If the source coordinate
is outside the State, the appropriate coordinate should be obtained. If it is not available, the
line on the coding form will be filled in with «SOURCE COORD*.
31
Figure 9.—A source (sometimes called head) coordinate is to be taken at the extreme head of
the longest, straightest branch of a stream and the longest, straightest, or deepest
branch of a canyon. The source coordinate is established at the extreme head of
drainage determined by reentrant contour lines and not necessarily at the end of a
stream symbol or end of the name printed on the map. In the first symbol, West End
Canyon represents a borderline case. However, it appears that its source coordinate
would be best established on branch A because it is the longest and straightest branch.
32
Elevation
Topographic maps show elevations for selected points, such as the summits of hills and moun
tains, crossroads, mountain passes or gaps, lakes and ponds, and dams. Surveyed points are
shown in black print, photogrammetrically determined elevations are in brown, and water
elevations are shown in blue. Every effort should be made to record the elevations of named
features on the ELEV line (all) when appropriate. Elevations for linear features may be
recorded at the mouth and source, and it is useful to have elevations for most named bodies
of water, such as ponds, lakes, and reservoirs. Elevations are required for all populated
places and summits. Elevations not recorded on the map can be determined by interpolating
contours.
The following rules apply to determining and recording elevations:
Only one elevation will be recorded for each name record;
Elevations are to be given in feet;
Elevations may be no longer than five characters including a negative symbol;
Elevations are to be recorded at, or very near, the primary coordinate location;
Negative values (feet below sea level) are preceded by a minus sign (-);
Elevations are determined for the highest points of summits such as mountains,
peaks, hills, mesas, ridges, mounds, and bluffs;
Elevations are determined for the lowest points of passes, gaps, notches, and basins;
Elevations for bodies of water, such as lakes, ponds, and reservoirs are determined
by water level.
Elevations for the GNIS categories of populated place (ppl) and summit, when not
published on the map, should be estimated according to the location of the primary
coordinate between the upper and lower contour lines.
Historical Note
Historical information is recorded on the HIST line (alS) and is free-form text. This infor
mation is useful but should be recorded only if it is immediately available. Extra time
researching this information is not recommended for the Phase II program. If historical
information is obtained, priority should be given to name origin and derivation and chronology
of usage.
Variant Name(s)
Variant name, recorded on the VAR line (al6), refers to all other known names or spellings
once or presently applied to the entity identified by the record name. The following rules
apply to the recording of variant names on the coding form:
33
If more than one variant name exists for a record, they are separated by a comma
and a blank space.
The bibliographic code must be recorded and is in parentheses following the variant.
If the variant name is or was known to have been formerly applied to only a part of
the name record feature, the expression (in part) in parentheses should follow the
variant name.
Size of Feature
The size of the feature refers to a short variable length, upper/lower case, alphanumeric
description that indicates the length of linear features and the breadth of areal features in
English units. After the precedence code on the SIZE line (al7), it is possible to enter a short
phrase indicating size. Example: 41 miles long and 2 miles wide, 123 miles long, 8 acres.
Federal Status
This code indicates the status of the record name and its application as determined by U.S.
Board on Geographic Names. See Appendix I for a list of feature classes associated with
status categories. After the precedence code on the STATUS line (al8), enter an all-upper
case entry for status. The possible categories are:
BGN - the name is official according to the policies of the U.S. Board on Geographic
Names,
BGN (YEAR) - the name is official and the year of special research to resolve a contro
versy is given,
US (YEAR) - the name is official by an Act of Congress,
ADMIN - the name is official according to an administrative Federal, State, or local
organizaton,
UNOFF - the name is considered unofficial because it is not within the purview of the
U.S. Board on Geographic Names, or any other official organization.
Special Designators
Special designator on the SPDESIG line (al9) is used to indicate the named entity in which a
subdivision is located. It is also used to indicate the ownership of only administrative areas.
Entries should be made according to the following categories:
Subdivisions
• Name of area in which subdivision is located
Administrative areas
• Federally owned,
• State owned,
• Municipally owned,
• Privately owned, and
• Commercially owned.
34
Section, Township, Range, and Meridian
The section, township, range, and meridian information should be recorded on the LTR line
(a20) if the State uses the Public Land Survey System. The information in this data element
provides location according to the system established to administer the public lands of the
United States. The public domain included all the lands ceded to the Federal Government by
the colonial States, and all subsequent lands acquired from native Americans and foreign
powers. (See figure 10.) The 13 original States, Tennessee, Kentucky, Vermont, Maine, West
Virginia, Texas, and Hawaii do not use the Public Land Survey System. In addition, present
territories, outlying areas, and commonwealths are not included.
The basic provisions of the Public Land Survey System require that the public lands be divided
by north and south lines corresponding to true meridians of longitude and by base lines
crossing the meridians at right angles, forming areas of 6 miles square called townships. The
east-west boundaries are termed township lines while the north-south boundaries are termed
range lines. Townships are normally divided into 36 sections ideally containing 640 acres each
or 1 square mile. By necessity, a section may have less than 640 acres, but it may still be
considered as a complete, numbered section.
Because the range lines follow longitudinal meridians, they converge at the poles. This con
vergence is apparent in surveying the township lines. Therefore, correction lines called stand
ard parallels are used to offset the convergence of the range lines to allow each section to
represent as nearly as possible 1 square mile.
When recording information for entry into the data base, only the section number in which
the primary coordinates of the feature are located will be recorded. However, if a feature is
in more than one township and/or range, all townships and ranges should be recorded, but no
section numbers should be recorded. The examples in figure 11 provide a guide for recording
the information.
Remarks
The REMARKS entry line (a98) is free-form text and may be used to convey anything about
the name record's research, compilation, or encoding to the GNIS manager or staff. For
example, it may be appropriate to explain why geographic coordinates are not present in the
name record.
Bibliographic Entry
The bibliographic entry on the B1BLIO line (a99) provides a ready reference to the exact com
pilation source of all names not recorded from USGS topographic maps. The absence of the
code indicates that the name was recorded on the USGS topographic map during Phase I com
pilation (1976-1981). See Appendix J for a list of national bibliographic source codes. If no
bibliographic code is available, enter the word none. The line should not be left blank because
an entry is needed to close the record. The complete annotated bibliography used in Phase II
compilation for each State will be available in the Reference Data Base. Annotated biblio
graphies and codes should be sent to the GNIS manager for approval and recording.
35
36
Figure 11.—An example of recording section, township, range, and meridian information. The
two shaded areas represent geographic features and the land survey information is
recorded as follows: Small shaded section - Sec 34, T2S, R2E, Fifth Principal Meridian;
Large shaded section - TIN. Tps 1&2 S, Rgs 1&2 E, R1W, Fifth Principal Meridian.
37
CHAPTER 4
a4 LOC
al8 STATUS
The GDIP software operates on any IBM or IBM-compatible personal computer, and auto
matically formats the data into the required GNIS format for entry into the data base.
Additional comments regarding current encoding procedures for the record data elements are
listed below. Changes and enhancements to the procedures may be made periodically and the
GNIS Manager should be consulted before any actual keying of data is done.
• Multiple entries: All data elements having multiple data items follow two rules.
Text data items are separated by a comma and a blank space while numeric data
items are separated by only a blank space.
• Corrections: If a correction is made to a data element with multiple data items, all
data items must be rekeyed except variants.
• Name - al: If the computer system being used does not provide for the recording of
diacritical marks, the name should be followed by a blank space followed by an
asterisk to indicate the presence of a special writing mark in the name, for example,
Canon del Norte *.
• Feature class - a3: The feature-class term is recorded and entered in lower-case
letters only.
• Elevation- all: All numerical elevations are to be aligned on the left and are not to
exceed five character spaces.
38
APPENDDCES
APPENDIX A.—Categories of Named Features not Included in the
Geographic Names Information System
Phase I
Generally, all named features on the most-current largest-scale USGS topographic maps
were included for Phase I compilation. Some categories of named features, however, were
omitted from Phase I because more complete lists of these categories were available from
other sources. If a State or territory has been completed only through Phase I, the following
cate
gories of named features will not be present:
• Airports,
• Radio and television station towers,
• Federally administered areas greater than 30 square miles,
• Major and minor civil divisions,
• Some major or large features that are too large to be named on
7.5-minute, l:24,000-scale topographic maps,
• Regional names,
• Historical names,
• Most building names,
• Roads and highways.
Phase II
Available information from the categories not compiled during Phase I, as well as geographic
names from other sources, are added during Phase II. If a State or territory has been com
pleted through Phase II compilation, information for all known named features should be
present except for roads and highways.
40
APPENDIX B.—Sources for the Geographic Names Information System
41
APPENDIX C.—USGS Topographic Map Preparation and Instructions for
Phase n Input to the Geographic Names Information System
42
APPENDIX D.—The Domestic Geographic Name Report form used for
submitting name problems to the U.S. Board on Geographic Names.
Form9-IJ43 (Apr. 1947)
Recommended name
UNITEDSTATES DEPARTMENT OFTHEINTERIOR Controversial name
BOARD ON GEOCRAPHIC NAMES Name change
Description of feature: where appropriate, give shape, length, width, direction of flow or trend, direction and disunce
of extremities from points with established names, and section, township, range, meridian where useful, also elevation
if known.
Available information as to origin, spelling, and meaning of the recommended name and/or statement concerning nature of
difference in usage or application:
Submitted by:
Name Title Date
Agency Address
Name Title
43
APPENDDC E.—Standard Cartographic Abbreviations
45
APPENDIX F.—Glossary of Feature-Class Terms
The feature-class terms and abbreviations currently consist of up to nine letters. They were
chosen for computer search and retrieval purposes and do not necessarily represent termi
nology for the identification of all kinds of cultural and natural features. Although some of
the terms may agree with dictionary definitions, they represent more generalized categories.
Some commonly used generic names are listed at the end of each entry to assist in under
standing the range of cultural and natural entities represented by the term. Refer to the
Reference Data Base to retrieve all generics thus far encountered in geographic names
compilation (Appendix G). In most instances a plural form is listed as if it were singular; for
example, archipelago or islands would be categorized as island. The terms and the definitions
are as follows:
airport - manmade facility maintained for the use of aircraft (airfield, airstrip, landing
field, landing strip),
arch - natural arch-like opening in a rock mass (bridge, natural bridge, sea arch),
area- any one of several areally extensive natural features not included in other
categories (badlands, barren, delta, fan, garden),
arroyo- watercourse or channel through which water may occasionally flow (coulee,
draw, gully, wash),
bar - natural accumulation of sand, gravel, or alluvium forming an underwater or
exposed embankment (ledge, reef, sandbar, shoal, spit),
basin - natural depression or relatively low area enclosed by higher land (amphitheater,
cirque, pit, sink),
bay - indentation of a coastline or shoreline enclosing a part of a body of water; a body
of water partly surrounded by land (arm, bight, cove, estuary, gulf, inlet, sound),
beach - the sloping shore along a body of water that is washed by waves or tides and is
usually covered by sand or gravel (coast, shore, strand),
bench - area of relatively level land on the flank of an elevation such as a hill, ridge, or
mountain where the slope of the land rises on one side and descends on the
opposite side (level),
bend - curve in the course of a stream and (or) the land within the curve; a curve in a
linear body of water (bottom, loop, meander),
bridge - manmade structure carrying a trail, road, or other transportation system across
a body of water or depression (causeway, overpass, trestle),
building - a manmade structure with walls and a roof for protection of people and (or)
materials but not including a church, hospital, or school,
canal - manmade waterway used by watercraft or for drainage, irrigation, mining, or
water power (ditch, lateral),
cape - projection of land extending into a body of water (lea, neck, peninsula, point),
cave - natural underground passageway or chamber, or a hollowed out cavity in the side
of a cliff (cavern, grotto),
cemetery - a place or area for burying the dead (burial, burying ground, grave, memorial
garden),
channel - linear deep part of a body of water through which the main volume of water
flows and is frequently used as a route for watercraft: (passage, reach, strait,
thoroughfare, throughfare).
church - building used for religious worship (chapel, mosque, synagogue, tabernacle,
temple),
civil - a political division formed for administrative purposes (borough, county,
municipio, parish, town, township).
46
APPENDIX F.—Glossary of Feature-Class Terms—continued
cliff- very steep or vertical slope (bluff, crag, head, headland, nose, palisades,
precipice, promontory, rim, rimrock).
crater - circular depression at the summit of a volcanic cone or one on the surface of the
land caused by the impact of a meteorite; a manmade depression caused by an
explosion (caldera, lua).
crossing - a place where two or more routes of transportation form a junction or
intersection (overpass, underpass),
dam - water barrier or embankment built across the course of a stream or into a body
of water to control and (or) impound the flow of water (breakwater, dike, jetty),
falls - perpendicular or very steep fall of water in the course of a stream (cascade,
cataract, waterfall).
flat - relative level area within a region of greater relief (clearing, glade, playa).
forest- bounded area of woods, forest, or grassland under the administration of a
political agency (see woods) (national forest, national grasslands, State forest),
gap - low point or opening between hills or mountains or in a ridge or mountain range
(col, notch, pass, saddle, water gap, wind gap),
geyser - eruptive spring from which hot water and (or) steam and in some cases mud are
periodically thrown.
glacier - body or stream of ice moving outward and downslope from an area of
accumulation; an area of relatively permanent snow or ice on the top or side of a
mountain or mountainous area (icefield, ice patch, snow patch).
gut - relatively small coastal waterway connecting larger bodies of water or other
waterways (creek, inlet, slough).
harbor - sheltered area of water where ships or other watercraft can anchor or dock
(hono, port, roads, roadstead).
hospital - building where the sick or injured may receive medical or surgical attention
(infirmary).
island - area of dry or relatively dry land surrounded by water or low wetland
(archipelago, atoll, cay, hammock, hummock, isla, isle, key, moku, rock).
isthmus - narrow section of land in a body of water connecting two larger land areas.
lake - natural body of inland water (backwater, lac, lagoon, laguna, pond, pool, resaca,
waterhole).
lava - formations resulting from the consolidation of molten rock on the surface of the
Earth (kepula, lava flow),
levee - natural or manmade embankment flanking a stream (bank, berm).
locale - place at which there is or was human activity; it does not include populated
places (ppl), mines, and dams (battlefield, crossroad, camp, farm, ghost town,
junction, landing, railroad siding, ranch, ruins, site, station, windmill),
mine - place or area from which commercial minerals are or were removed from the
Earth; not including oilfield (pit, quarry, shaft),
oilfield - area where petroleum is or was removed from the Earth.
other - category for miscellaneously named manmade entities that cannot readily be
placed in the other feature classes listed here,
park- place or area set aside for recreation or preservation of a cultural or natural
resource and under some form of government administration; not including
National or State forests (national historical landmark, national park, state park,
wilderness area).
pillar - vertical, standing, often spire-shaped, natural rock formation (chimney,
monument, pinnacle, pohaku, rock tower),
plain - a region of general uniform slope, comparatively level and of considerable extent
(grassland, highland, kula, plateau, upland).
47
APPENDIX F.—Glossary of Feature-Class Terms—continued
ppl- populated place; place or area with clustered or scattered buildings and a
permanent human population (city, settlement, town, village).
range - chain of hills or mountains; a somewhat linear complex mountainous or hilly
area (cordillera, sierra).
rapids - fast-flowing section of a stream, often shallow and with exposed rock or
boulders (riffle, ripple).
reserve - a tract of land set aside for a specific use; does not include forests, civil
divisions, or parks,
reservoir - artificially impounded body of water (lake, tank).
ridge - elevation with a narrow, elongated crest which can be part of a hill or mountain
(crest, cuesta, escarpment, hogback, lae, rim, spur),
school- building or group of buildings used as an institution for study, teaching, and
learning (academy, college, high school, university),
sea - large body of salt water (gulf, ocean),
slope - a gently inclined part of the Earth's surface (grade, pitch).
spring - place where underground water flows naturally to the surface of the Earth (seep),
stream - linear body of water flowing on the Earth's surface (anabranch, awawa, bayou,
branch, brook, creek, distributary, fork, kill, pup, rio, river, run, slough),
summit - prominent elevation rising above the surrounding level of the Earth's surface;
does not include pillars, ridges, or ranges (ahu, berg, bald, butte, cerro, colina,
cone, cumbre, dome, head, hill, horn, knob, knoll, mauna, mesa, mesita, mound,
mount, mountain, peak, puu, rock, sugarloaf, table, volcano),
swamp - poorly drained wetland, fresh or saltwater, wooded or grassy, possibly covered
with open water (bog, cienega, marais, marsh, pocosin).
tower - a manmade structure, higher than its diameter, generally used for observation,
storage, or electronic transmission,
trail - route for passage from one point to another; does not include roads or highways
(jeep trail, path, ski trail),
tunnel - linear passageway open at both ends.
valley - linear depression in the Earth's surface that generally slopes from one end to the
other (barranca, canyon, chasm, cove, draw, glen, gorge, gulch, gulf, hollow,
ravine).
well- manmade shaft or hole in the Earth's surface used to obtain fluid or gaseous
materials.
woods - small area covered with a dense growth of trees; does not include an area of
trees under the administration of a political agency (see forest).
48
APPENDIX G.—Map Feature Guide
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME POINT
GENERIC/WORD CLASS POINT REQ
Aa lava center
Aboiteau reservoir dam
Academy school center
Acclivity slope center
Acequia canal center
Addition locale center
Adert slope center
Adit mine center
Agency locale center
Agua stream mouth yes
Abu summit top
Aiguille pillar top
Air Facility military center
Air Force Base military center
Air Station military center
Airfield airport center
Airport airport center
Airstrip airport center
Aisle gap center
Alcove cave center
AUtbe reservoir dam
Alluvial Fan area center
Alluvium area center
Alto summit top
Ammunition Depot military center
Ammunition Plant military center
Amphibious Base military center
Amphitheater basin center
Amusement Park park center
Anabranch stream mouth yes
Anchor bar center
Anchorage harbor center
Ante bay center
Anse stream mouth yes
Aquafact pillar top
Aquatic Preserve park center
Aqueduct canal center
Arboretum park center
Arch arch center
Archipel island center
Archipelago island center
Area area center
Arete * ridge center
Arm bay center
Arm stream mouth yes
Arm summit top
49
APPENDDC G.—Map Feature Guidc—cootinued
(* indicates diacritical mark missíng)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME POINT
GENERIC/WORD CLASS POINT REQ
50
APPENDDC G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME POINT
GENERIC/WORD CLASS POINT REQ
51
APPENDDC G.—Map Feature Guidc—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME POINT
GENERIC/WORD CLASS POINT REQ
52
APPENDIX G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME POl
GENERIC/WORD CLASS POINT RE
S3
APPENDDC G.—Map Feature Guide—continuad
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME POINT
GENERIC/WORD CLASS POINT REQ
54
APPENDIX G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME POI
GENERIC/WORD CLASS POINT RE
55
APPENDIX
(• indicates diacritical
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME POI
GENERIC/WORD CLASS POINT RE
56
APPENDIX G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME POINT
GENERIC/WORD CLASS POINT REQ
57
APPENDDC G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME POINT
GENERIC/WORD CLASS POINT REQ
58
APPENDDC G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME POINT
GENERIC/WORD CLASS POINT REQ
59
APPENDIX G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME POI
GENERIC/WORD CLASS POINT RE
60
APPENDIX G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME POINT
GENERIC/WORD CLASS POINT REQ
61
APPENDDC G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME POINT
GENERIC/WORD CLASS POINT REQ
62
APPENDIX G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME POINT
GENERIC/WORD CLASS POINT REQ
63
APPENDIX G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME POINT
GENERIC/WORD CLASS POINT REQ
64
APPENDIX G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME POINT
GENERIC/WORD CLASS POINT REQ
65
APPENDIX G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME POINT
GENERIC/WORD CLASS POINT REQ
66
APPENDIX G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME POINT
GENERIC/WORD CLASS POINT REQ
67
APPENDDC G.—Mas Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME POINT
GENERIC/WORD CLASS POINT REO
Meadow fíat center
Meadow s tream mouth yes
Meander bend center
Meander Core bend center
Meandre bend center
Medaño summit top
Meetinghouse church center
Memorial Garden cemetery center
Mendip summit top
Mer sea center
Mesa summit top
Meseta summit top
Mesita summit top
Midway channel center
Military Reservation military center
MUÍ lócale center
Millpond reservoir dam
Millrace s tream mouth yes
Millstream s tream mouth yes
MUltown lócale center
Mine mine center
Mineral Pile mine center
Mire swamp center
Mish swamp center
Missile Base military center
Missile Range military center
Mission church center
Mitre summit top
Mofette valley mouth yes
Moku island center
Mole dam center
Monadnock summit top
Monastery church center
Monolith pillar top
Mont summit top
Montagne summit top
Montanas * range center
Monte summit top
Monticle cráter center
Monticule cráter center
Monument island center
Monument pillar top
Monument park center
Moor fíat center
Mor fíat center
Moraine (área) summit top
Moraine (linear) ridge center
68
APPENDIX G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME POINT
GENERIC/WORD CLASS POINT REQ
69
APPENDDC G.—Map Feature Guidc—continued
(* indicates diacrítica! mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME POINT
GENERIC/WORD CLASS POINT REQ
70
APPENDDC G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME POINT
GENERIC/WORD CLASS POINT REQ
71
APPENDIX G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME POINT
GENERIC/WORD CLASS POINT REQ
72
APPENDIX G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME POINT
GENERIC/WORD CLASS POINT REQ
73
APPENDIX G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME POINT
GENERIC/WORD CLASS POINT REQ
74
APPENDIX G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
FEATURE PRIME
GENERIC/WORD CLASS POINT
75
APPENDDC G.—Map Featurc Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME POINT
GENERIC/WORD CLASS POINT REQ
76
APPENDIX G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME POl
GENERIC/WORD CLASS POINT RE
77
APPENDDC G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME POINT
GENERIC/WORD CLASS POINT REQ
78
APPENDIX G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME POI
GENERIC/WORD CLASS POINT RE
79
APPENDIX G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME POINT
GENERIC/WORD CLASS POINT REQ
80
APPENDIX G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME POINT
GENERIC/WORD CLASS POINT REQ
81
APPENDIX G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME POINT
GENERIC/WORD CLASS POINT REQ
82
APPENDIX G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME POl
GENERIC/WORD CLASS POINT RE
83
APPENDIX G.—Map Feature Guide—conti
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME POINT
GENERIC/WORD CLASS POINT REQ
84
APPENDIX G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME POINT
GENERIC/WORD CLASS POINT REQ
85
APPENDIX G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME POINT
CLASS GENERIC/WORD POINT REQ
86
APPENDIX G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME POINT
CLASS GENERIC/WORD POINT REQ
87
APPENDDC G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME POINT
CLASS GENERIC/WORE POINT REO
88
APPENDDC G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME POINT
CLASS GENERIC/Wí POINT REQ
89
APPENDIX G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME
CLASS GENERIC/WORD POINT
90
APPENDIX G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME
CLASS GENERIC/WORD POINT
91
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME POINT
CLASS GENERIC/WORD POINT REQ
92
APPENDDC G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME POINT
CLASS GENERIC/WORD POINT REQ
93
APPENDDC G.—Map Fcature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME POINT
CLASS GENERIC/WORD POINT REO
94
APPENDIX G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME
CLASS GENERIC/WORD POINT
95
APPENDIX G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME
CLASS GENERIC/WORD POINT
96
APPENDIX G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME
CLASS GENERIC/WORD POINT
97
APPENDIX G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME
CLASS GENERIC/WORD POINT
98
APPENDDC G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME POINT
CLASS GENERIC/WORD POINT REQ
99
APPENDIX G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME
CLASS GENERIC/WORD POINT
100
APPENDIX G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME
CLASS GENERIC/WORD POINT
101
APPENDIX G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME
CLASS GENERIC/WORD POINT
102
APPENDIX G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME
CLASS GENERIC/WORD POINT
103
APPENDIX G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME
CLASS GENERIC/WORD POINT
104
APPENDDC G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME POINT
CLASS GENERIC/WORD POINT REQ
IOS
APPENDDC G.—Map Feature Guide—contimicd
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME POINT
CLASS GENERIC/WORD POINT REQ
106
APPENDIX G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME
CLASS GENERIC/WORD POINT
107
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME POINT
CLASS GENERIC/WORD POINT REQ
108
APPENDIX G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME
CLASS GENERIC/WORD POINT
109
APPENDDC G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME POINT
CLASS GENERIC/WORD POINT REQ
110
APPENDIX G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME
CLASS GENERIC/WORD POINT
111
APPENDDC G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME POINT
CLASS GENERIC/WORD POINT REQ
112
APPENDIX G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME POINT
CLASS GENERIC/WORD POINT REQ
113
APPENDDC G.—Map Feature Guille—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME POINT
CLASS GENERIC/WORD POINT REQ
114
APPBNDDC G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME POINT
CLASS GENERIC/1 POINT REQ
115
APPENDDC G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME POINT
CLASS GENERIC/WORD POINT REQ
116
APPENDDC G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacrítica! mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME POINT
CLASS GENERIC/WORD POINT REQ
117
APPENDIX G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME POINT
CLASS GENERIC/WORD POINT REQ
summit Solfatara top
summit Sommet top
summit Steeple top
summit Sugar Loaf top
summit Sugarloaf top
summit Summit (physical) top
summit Table top
summit Table Mountain top
summit Tableland (- 3 mi. across) top
summit Teat top
summit Teton top
summit Tilt top
summit Tit(s) top
summit Toe top
summit Tolt top
summit Top top
summit Topsail top
summit Tor top
summit Torbiere top
summit Tourelle top
summit Tournant top
summit Tower (+ 500 ft. across) top
summit Volcano top
summit Whaleback top
swamp Bay center
swamp Baygall center
swamp Baygul center
swamp Bayou center
swamp Bog center
swamp Bogan center
swamp Brake center
swamp Branch center
swamp Buckle center
swamp Cienaga center
swamp Congress center
swamp Cypriere center
swamp Deadening center
swamp Dismal center
swamp Everglade center
swamp Fen center
swamp Flats center
swamp Flatwoods center
swamp Floodplain center
swamp Fly center
swamp Hay Meadow center
swamp Head center
swamp Heath center
118
APPENDIX G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME
CLASS GENERIC/WORD POINT
119
APPENDDC G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME POINT
CLASS GENERIC/WORI POINT REQ
120
APPENDDC G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacrítica! mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME POINT
CLASS GENERIC/WORD POINT REO
121
APPENDIX G.—Map Feature Guide—continued
(* indicates diacritical mark missing)
SOURCE
FEATURE PRIME POINT
CLASS GENERIC/WORD POINT REQ
122
APPENDIX H.—Determining Geographical Coordinates
There are various ways to determine relatively accurate geographical coordinates (latitude
and longitude) of a point located on a large-scale topographic map published by the U.S.
Geological Survey. Two common methods for determining latitude and longitude of a point
are described here. In each case, special tools or interpolation devices are needed; the first
method involves the use of special film-positive templates; the second requires the use of
ten-space dividers. Each method is of equal merit, once the procedures are learned.
Increasing latitude values are read from south to north in the United States. Increasing longi
tude values are read from east to west. The values are based on units of degrees divided into
60 minutes which, in turn, are divided into 60 seconds. When recorded, the latitude values
precede the longitude values; example: 47°15'20" (latitude) and 112°4S,1S" (longitude).
Latitude and longitude values are shown at each of the four corners of a topographic map.
Intermediate latitude values are designated on the right and left (east and west) margins of
the neat-line of the map by tick marks, thin lines projecting a very short distance into the
body of a map opposite the 2 1/2 minute interval values. In a similar way, intermediate
longitudinal values are designated on the top and bottom (north and south) margins of the map
at 2 1/2 minute intervals.
The purpose of the special interpolation devices is to determine latitude and longitude of a
point by degree, minute, and second values from the margins of the map. The following
instructions for the use of the film-positive templates and the ten-space dividers apply to
l:24,000-scale USGS topographic maps.
This procedure requires the use of two linear scales on transparent film marked at S-second
increments, and of sufficient length to encompass 7.S minutes of latitude and of longitude.
One scale is used for latitude and the other for longitude. They are 7.S minutes long because
the latitudinal and longitudinal distances on the l:24,000-scale topographic maps are 7.5
(7 '30") minutes south to north and east to west.
The latitude scale can be used for measuring latitudinal bands on l:24,000-scale maps up to
10 degrees North and South without loss of accuracy. Meridians of longitude converge from
the Equator to the Poles and units of longitude on the map become smaller as one progresses
from south to north. For this reason, a different template is used to conveniently fit the map
scale for each degree band of latitude.
In order to determine the latitude of a point on a map, place the latitude template on the
map in such a way that the 0' mark matches the bottom (south) neatline of the map and the
7.5 (7'30") minute mark at the top of the scale intersects the top (north) neatline. The black
centerline on the template intersects the point to be measured (see fig. 1H). The minute and
second values of the point are then read and added to the latitudinal value of the bottom
(south) neatline of the map. Locations within the 5-second increments on the scale can be
visually interpolated. For example, the latitude of Country Junction on the map in the
illustration is read as 1'32". This value added to the neatline value of 42°37'30" makes the
latitude value of the road junction called Country Junction 42°39'02" N. Keep in mind that
60" equals 1'; thus 62 seconds (62") equals 1 minute 2 seconds (1*2"). Note that all points in
the fifty United States are in north latitude.
123
800 ta" -|
42°48,|
42'30"
40*
'42O37'30*
90°07'30"
Fig. 1H.—To determine latitude (north-south), a film positive template can be used for meas
uring latitudinal bands on l:24,000-scale maps of up to 10 degrees N-S without loss of
accuracy. The template for measuring latitude is placed on the map so that the 0' tick
mark intersects the neatline of the south edge of the map. The 7' 30" tick intersects the
neatline on the north edge of the map and the centerline of the template intersects the
points being measured. Add the reading from the template to the latitude of the south
edge of the map to obtain the latitude of the point. For example, the reading on the
template for Country Junction is 1'32" from the south edge of the map at 42°37'30" +
V32T - 42°39'02" N. For longitude, see fig. 2H.
124
Figure 2H.—To determine longitude (east-west) using a film positive template on 1:24,000-
scale maps, use the following method. Because of convergence of meridians, a separate
template is needed for each 1° band of latitude. For this example, select the longitude
template for 42° latitude. Usually, this template will be slightly longer than the E-W
distance between the map boundaries. Rotate the template until the 0' tick mark inter
sects the neatline of the east edge of the map, the 7' 30" tick mark intersects the neatline
on the west edge of the map, and the centerline intersects the point being measured.
Add the reading from the template to the longitude of the east edge of the map to obtain
the longitude of the point. For example, the reading on the template for Country
Junction is 6'47" from the east edge of the map at 90°07'30" + 6'47" = 90°14'17" W.
125
APPENDIX H.—Determining Geographical Coordinates—continued
The longitude of Country Junction is determined using the same procedure with the longitude
template. In this case, the side (east and west) neatlines of the map are used. Usually the
template is longer than the distance between the map margins and so must be rotated (angled)
in such a way that the 0' mark is on the right (east) neatline and the 7'30" mark is on the left
(west) neatline. The centerline of the template scale then intersects the road junction. In
illustration "b," the road junction is read as 6'47" on the scale. This value is added to the
longitudinal value of the right or east edge of the map; in this case 90°07'30". Thus Country
Junction is located at 90°14'17" W. longitude.
A spacing divider can also be conveniently used to determine the geographical coordinates of
a point on a map. It is a metal device that can be simply adjusted by hand so that its end
points can be separated or closed to fit variable distances on a map. Any distance between
two points on a map is then divided into 10 equally spaced units. For example, the 2 1/2'
(minute) grid tick marks on the margins of a map at 1:24,000 scale can be divided into tenths
or units of IS" (seconds). Ten times IS" equals ISO" or 2'30" (60" divided into ISO" equals
2'30").
A spacing divider is not large and cannot be extended across the face of the map from edge
to edge. For this reason, it is sometimes necessary to divide the topographic map into smaller
units of area by drawing pencil lines across the face of the map connecting equal 2.5-minute
grid tick marks east and west and south and north for feature points in the center of the map.
Note that the places where the 2.5-minute grids cross each other in the body of the map are
printed with fine-line cross tick marks. These points can be used as guides for drawing the
pencil lines.
To determine the geographical coordinates of a particular point on the map, the spacing
divider is adjusted by spreading the device to the exact distance of 2.S minutes of latitude
(south-north) determined from the tick mark on the east or west side of the map. The dis
tance between each point on the divider is one-tenth of 2.5 minutes, or 15 seconds. The
spacing divider can now be moved and used to measure the latitude of the map point reading
from south to north. For example, in figure 3H, there are 6.7 divider intervals to the center
point of Anthony, counting northward from the neatline of the map. As in this case, locations
between spacing divider points are usually interpolated. Thus 6.7 x 15" = 100. 5 seconds or
1'40" (rounded off). This, added to the latitide 37°07'30" of the lower (south) base line on the
map equals 37°09'10" N. for the latitude of Anthony. The same procedure is followed to
determine longitude except that one works from right to left (east to west). The longitude of
Anthony is about 98°01'SO" W.
126
Figure 3H.—Use of the equal spacing divider for determining latitude and longitude. The geo
graphic coordinate system is indicated on the 1:24,000- and l:2S,000-scale maps of the
U.S. Geological Survey by grid ticks located along the neatline of each map 2.S minutes
apart. These grid ticks can be connected across the face of the work map by east-west
and north-south lines. When the equal spacing divider is adjusted with its end points set
at the bounds of the 2. 5 -minute area, the distance between each point represents IS
seconds of latitude or longitude on the map. For example, there are 6.7 divider intervals
counting from the bottom of the map at 3T0T3O"N + (6.7 x 15") 1'40" (rounded) =
37°09'10" N. The longitude of Anthony is determined in the same manner east-west:
98°01,50" W.
127
APPENDIX I.—Statu* Category Classification
128
Appendix J.—National Bibliographic Source Codes
This list is used nationally and is subject to expansion as needed. Contact the GNIS Manager
for the latest list.
129
APPENDIX K.—"a" Format for Encoding Geographic Names
The "a" format is used for all three types of data to be encoded.
The three types of data include the following:
Only the first 69 characters of the format line may be used. In some instances, a data
element will have multiple data items in which case a continuation is signaled by a quotation
mark or " in position one of the 80-character format line. The quotation mark must be
separated from the following data by a blank space.
Example:
al Big Canyon
a3 va'l y
a4 410 41039 41041 53061
aS Coos, Lane, Lincoln, Snohomish (WA)
a6 461410N1233111W 460729N1233101W 455920N1233026W
" 4S5445N1232745W 455231N1232901W
a7 454621N1231903W
a9 Knappa, Wickiup Mountain, Vinemaple, Sager Creek,
" Birkenfield, Clear Creek
al6 Bigger Canyon (OR-T43/p. 14), Big Valley (US-M105),
" Nasty Canyon (US-M104), Nowhere Canyon (OR-T301/p. 84),
" Triple Canyon (US-M105)
al7 42 miles long
al8 BGN
a20 sec 17, T4N, R7W, Willamette Meridian
a99 OR-T43/p. 14
As many continuation lines as necessary may be made as long as only the first 69 positions of
formatted line are used and the continuations follow in a logical sequence. Also, the data
should be broken at logical breaks in words or data items even if less than 69 positions are
used for that particular formatted line. There is no minimum in number of used positions in
this format, but there is a maximum of 69.
Each type of data requires a different processing procedure. NEW names records will require
as a minimum the following data elements: al, a3, a4, a5, a6, a9, al8, and a99. Elements a7,
al6, al9, and a20 are necessary if applicable. The other data elements (all, alS, al7)
enhance the information and are desirable only if obtaining that data does not significantly
interfere with the acquisition and research for the minimum required data. The element a98
is used to convey messages or problems and will not become part of the permanent entry.
130
APPENDIX K.—"a" Format for Encoding Geographic Names—continued
The second type of data includes VARIANT names to records already in the State file. The
data element aO is followed by the appropriate record identification number (eight digits
obtained from the ID Names Listing), and the new variants are entered as data element al6.
All VARIANTS must include a bibliographic code in parentheses after the variant. Do not use
data element "a99" for this procedure. See "Variant Names," p. 00, for instructions.
The third type of data includes additions and/or corrections to records already in the State
file (variants are not included in this procedure). The data element aO is followed by the
appropriate record identification number (eight digits obtained from the ID Names Listing).
The addition or correction is then entered after the data element number. If corrections or
additions are required with multiple entries, then all entries must be re-entered for this data
element. Data element a99 is not necessary.
The final data may be submitted on magnetic tape or magnetic diskette. For data submitted
on 9-track magnetic tape, use the following format:
Record length = 80
Block size = 6160
Tape density = 6,250 or 1,600 Dpi
Character code = ASCII
nonlabeled
For data submitted on floppy diskettes the data must be an American Standard Code for
Information Interchange (ASCII) file and must have been prepared using the Disk Operating
System (DOS).
131
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
132
GLOSSARY OF TERMS—continued
133