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International Journal of Laboratory Hematology
The Official journal of the International Society for Laboratory Hematology
Leukocytosis
D. S. CHABOT-RICHARDS, T. I. GEORGE
Department of Pathology, S U M M A RY
University of New Mexico,
Albuquerque, NM, USA An increased white blood cell count, or leukocytosis, is a common
laboratory finding. Appropriate specimen evaluation depends on
Correspondence:
Devon Chabot-Richards, Tricore
which lineages are increased and the morphologic findings on
Reference Laboratories, Depart- peripheral blood smear review to guide further testing. The pres-
ment of Hematopathology, 1001 ence of blasts is concerning for acute leukemia and may require
Woodward Pl NE, Albuquerque, bone marrow biopsy. Lymphocytosis may be morphologically
NM 87102, USA.
Tel.: +1 505 938-8456; divided into polymorphic and monomorphic populations. Polymor-
Fax: +1 505 938-8414; phic lymphocytosis is most consistent with a reactive process, while
E-mail: dchabot-richards@salud. monomorphic populations are concerning for lymphoproliferative
unm.edu
neoplasm. The differential can be further narrowed based on mor-
phologic findings. Myeloid leukocytosis can occur in a number of
doi:10.1111/ijlh.12212
reactive conditions as well as myeloid malignancies. The types of
Received 17 January 2014;
cells present and morphology can help to guide additional workup.
accepted for publication 5 Feb- This study provides guidance for the appropriate evaluation and
ruary 2014 further workup of leukocytosis.
Keywords
Leukocytosis, lymphocytosis,
neutrophilia, morphology,
lymphoma
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Int. Jnl. Lab. Hem. 2014, 36, 279–288 279
280 D. S. CHABOT-RICHARDS AND T. I. GEORGE | LEUKOCYTOSIS
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Int. Jnl. Lab. Hem. 2014, 36, 279–288
D. S. CHABOT-RICHARDS AND T. I. GEORGE | LEUKOCYTOSIS 281
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e) (f)
Figure 1. Myeloblasts. (a) Large
blasts with irregular nuclei,
prominent nucleoli, and
moderate cytoplasm. (b)
Myeloblast with cytoplasmic
Auer rod. (c) Monoblasts with
abundant blue cytoplasm. (d)
Cytoplasmic nonspecific esterase
positivity in monoblasts. (e)
Acute promyelocytic leukemia
(APL) showing multiple Auer
rods. (f) Bright myeloperoxidase
staining in APL.
clinical history, and morphologic findings. Absolute to exclude a neoplastic process. Lymphocytes are
lymphocyte counts are higher in children, and pedi- fragile, and both clonal and reactive lymphocytes
atric lymphocytosis is most commonly benign. may appear as smudge cells on peripheral blood
Benign causes of lymphocytosis commonly include smear. Albumin preparations preserve lymphocytes
infection, particularly viral, autoimmune disorders, to allow morphologic examination when many
transient stress, and polyclonal B-cell lymphocytosis. smudge cells are present in the initial blood smear
Lymphocytosis in adults requires a diligent workup [11] (Figure 2).
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Int. Jnl. Lab. Hem. 2014, 36, 279–288
282 D. S. CHABOT-RICHARDS AND T. I. GEORGE | LEUKOCYTOSIS
Lymphocytosis
Monomorphic Pleomorphic
FL Flow cytometry
T-cell
MCL FISH CCND1, BCL2
Folded or cleaved nuclei Pertussis*
Atypical CLL Tissue biopsy
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Int. Jnl. Lab. Hem. 2014, 36, 279–288
D. S. CHABOT-RICHARDS AND T. I. GEORGE | LEUKOCYTOSIS 283
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Int. Jnl. Lab. Hem. 2014, 36, 279–288
284 D. S. CHABOT-RICHARDS AND T. I. GEORGE | LEUKOCYTOSIS
Peripheral blood involvement by mycosis fungo- tions or cytoplasmic blebbing; however, the more
ides (MF) or Sezary syndrome (SS) features medium typical forms usually predominate.
to large lymphocytes with characteristic dark, cere-
briform nuclei. The neoplastic cells are most often
Monomorphic lymphocytosis with plasmacytoid
CD4-positive T-cells with loss of CD7. T-cell clonality
lymphocytes or plasma cells
studies can be helpful. While the peripheral blood
features overlap, the distinction between MF and Lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma is typically a tissue-
SS is made based on the clinical course. In SS, based disease; however, in 10% of cases, it may
erythroderma and lymphadenopathy with blood involve the peripheral blood with circulating plasma-
involvement are present at diagnosis, while MF does cytoid lymphocytes and occasional plasma cells [18].
not exhibit peripheral blood involvement at presen- The red blood cells may show rouleaux formation.
tation [19]. Flow cytometry shows a CD5-negative, CD10-negative
Adult T-cell leukemia is an aggressive disease monoclonal B-cell and plasma cell populations.
caused by chronic infection with human T-cell leuke- Small numbers of circulating plasma cells can
mia virus (HTLV)-1. Only a small percentage of those rarely be seen with plasma cell myeloma. If plasma
infected with the virus develop leukemia. Patients cells account for >20% of WBCs, a diagnosis of plasma
often show systemic manifestations, including skin cell leukemia should be made. The circulating
rash, hypercalcemia, and lytic bone lesions. The plasma cells in plasma cell leukemia may be smaller
peripheral blood smear shows a severe lymphocytosis with less cytoplasm and may be difficult to distinguish
with highly irregular nuclei. Cytopenias are common; from plasmacytoid lymphocytes.
however, there may be eosinophilia. The neoplastic
cells are typically CD4-positive T-cells with expression
Monomorphic lymphocytosis with large granular
of CD25 and loss of CD7.
lymphocytes
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Int. Jnl. Lab. Hem. 2014, 36, 279–288
D. S. CHABOT-RICHARDS AND T. I. GEORGE | LEUKOCYTOSIS 285
round nucleus, abundant blue cytoplasm, and a single plasms. Patient history and clinical findings are neces-
prominent nucleolus. The morphologic appearance of sary to ensure appropriate classification (Figure 3).
T-PLL is more variable than B-PLL. T-PLL is an aggres-
sive disease. Patients often present with systemic symp-
Neutrophilia
toms, including abdominal distention, skin rash,
organomegaly, and lymphadenopathy. The neoplastic Neutrophils are the most abundant leukocyte and play
cells can show a range of morphology including small a key role in immune defense from bacterial infec-
cells with condensed chromatin and cells with cyto- tions. These cells are short-lived, and the bone mar-
plasmic projections. row production rate is astronomical, with an
B-Cell Prolymphocytic Leukemia is a very rare dis- additional reserve pool of cells available. Typically,
ease which should only be diagnosed when a prol- only the mature, polymorphonuclear forms are pres-
ymphocytic transformation of CLL can be excluded. ent in the peripheral blood, with 5–10% band forms.
The clinical course is generally extremely aggressive. Immature granulocytes or ‘left-shifted’ forms can be
B-PLL requires >55% prolymphocytes at diagnosis. If seen in both reactive and neoplastic conditions. It
the percentage is lower and typical CLL cells are pres- should be noted that the ‘band count’ is not reproduc-
ent, a diagnosis of prolymphocytic transformation of ible and its use is not recommended [22].
CLL is preferred. Reactive neutrophilias can be seen with infection,
Occasionally, HCLV will present with a cells show- particularly bacterial, inflammation, drugs (particularly
ing prominent nucleoli; however, the characteristic steroids, epinephrine, and lithium), colony-stimulating
cytoplasmic villi are usually also present. Mantle cell factors such as G-CSF, metabolic disorders, trauma,
lymphoma can also present with circulating lym- stress, pregnancy, other malignancy, and smoking [17].
phoma cells that mimic prolymphocytes. Reactive neutrophilias are associated with activated
changes, including toxic granulation, vacuoles, and Do-
hle bodies. The other lineages are generally unremark-
Monomorphic lymphocytosis with large cells
able; however, monocytes may also show toxic changes.
Burkitt lymphoma/leukemia (BL) is the most common There can be significant morphologic overlap
cause of circulating large lymphocytes. BL is an between reactive neutrophilias and MPN and MDS/
aggressive disease that is most commonly nodal based. MPN. Chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) is often
If >25% of bone marrow is involved, the process is associated with a very high WBC count. There is gen-
classified as leukemia. BL generally shows intermedi- erally a pronounced left shift with increased myelo-
ate to large cells with deeply basophilic cytoplasm, cytes. Toxic changes are typically absent. An associated
often with vacuoles. The nuclei are oval to round basophilia and eosinophilia are usually present.
with multiple nucleoli. Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma Definitive diagnosis of CML requires demonstration of
and B-cell lymphoma with features intermediate the BCR-ABL1 translocation by cytogenetics, FISH, or
between BL and DLBCL can also show circulating molecular genetic methods. Chronic neutrophilic leu-
neoplastic cells. Very rarely, anaplastic large cell lym- kemia (CNL) is a myeloproliferative neoplasm charac-
phoma may have circulating lymphoma cells. These terized by a mature neutrophilia accounting for >80%
cells typically have irregular nuclei. Circulating lym- of WBC with limited left shift. Definitive diagnosis can
phocytes in MCL may be large; these cells usually be difficult, as a reactive process must be excluded.
have irregular nuclei and blastic appearing chromatin. Recent identification of an oncogenic mutation in
CSF3R in CNL may aid in diagnosis [23]. Other MPNs
may show neutrophilia, particularly as a part of a leu-
M Y E L O I D L E U KO C Y TO S I S
koerythroblastic picture due to underlying bone mar-
Myeloid leukocytoses are elevations of neutrophils, eo- row fibrosis. Dacrocytes (tear-drop shaped red blood
sinophils, basophils, or monocytes. Causes vary by the cells) may be present in this case. Atypical chronic
type of cell increased, but include infection, medica- myeloid leukemia (aCML) is a MDS/MPN with neutro-
tion, autoimmune disorders, metabolic disorders, and philia and left shift. There are prominent dysplastic
other reactive states as well as clonal myeloid neo- changes with nuclear hypolobation or bizarrely
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Int. Jnl. Lab. Hem. 2014, 36, 279–288
286 D. S. CHABOT-RICHARDS AND T. I. GEORGE | LEUKOCYTOSIS
Myeloid Leukocytosis
Neutrophilia
9 9
WBC >50 x 10 /L WBC <50 x 10 /L
Pronounced left shift Predominantly mature
Basophilia or Eosinophilia Toxic granulation and vacuoles
Dacrocytes Döhle bodies
Dysplasia Thrombocytosis
Monocytosis
Features supporting neoplastic Features supporting reactive
Persistent Transient
Promonocytes and blasts Predominantly mature
Dysplasia Reactive changes
Eosinophilia
Features supporting neoplastic Features supporting reactive
Figure 3. Diagnostic algorithm for
Persistent
myeloid leukocytosis. Most
Transient
Immature cells present Clinical presence of drugs, allergy or infection myeloid leukocytoses are
Cytopenias and dysplasia in other lineages
reactive. If there is concern for a
neoplastic process, further
Basophilia
workup including bone marrow
Features supporting neoplastic Features supporting reactive
biopsy and appropriate ancillary
Other lineage abnormalities Rare
testing is required.
segmented nuclei, abnormal chromatin clumping, and Pulmonary disease, cardiac disease, gastrointestinal
hypogranularity. There may also be dysplasia in red disease, and adrenal insufficiency can also cause
blood cells and platelets. A subset of aCML has been eosinophilia. Reactive eosinophilia is typically tran-
associated with CSF3R mutations. sient; however, depending on the cause, some may be
chronic. Chronic eosinophilia can lead to systemic
symptoms due to eosinophil degranulation, including
Eosinophilia
cardiovascular symptoms with cardiac fibrosis.
Eosinophilia is most often reactive in nature. The When reactive causes have been excluded, a clonal
most common causes are infection, particularly para- process may be considered. The WHO classification sys-
sitic, hypersensitivity reaction, connective tissue dis- tem recognizes a category of myeloid and lymphoid
ease, and other malignancy, particularly Hodgkin neoplasms with eosinophilia and abnormalities of PDG-
lymphoma and T-cell lymphoproliferative disorders. FRA, PDGFRB, and FGFR1. Cytogenetics can detect
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Int. Jnl. Lab. Hem. 2014, 36, 279–288
D. S. CHABOT-RICHARDS AND T. I. GEORGE | LEUKOCYTOSIS 287
abnormalities of PDGFRB and FGFR1; however, the tive monocytosis, flow cytometric identification of aber-
common FIP1L1-PDGFRA fusion is cryptic and requires rant expression of two or more antigens on monocytes
FISH or molecular studies for identification [24]. is correlated with CMML [27]. Identification of a clonal
Chronic eosinophilic leukemia is a rare MPN character- abnormality is helpful to confirm the diagnosis. Bone
ized by eosinophilia with either >2% blasts in the blood, marrow evaluation should be performed as AMML may
>5% blasts in the bone marrow, or a clonal cytogenetic present with mature monocytosis in the peripheral
or molecular genetic abnormality. A reactive cause must blood while immature forms predominate in the mar-
be excluded. If there is no increase in blasts and a clonal row. JMML is a rare disease seen in children with persis-
abnormality cannot be identified, the process may be tent monocytosis with marked hepatosplenomegaly and
classified as idiopathic hypereosinophilic syndrome if increased hemoglobin F. There is often left shift of the
eosinophil-related tissue damage is present or idiopathic granulocytes, and dysplasia is minimal.
hypereosinophilia if no damage is identified [25].
CONCLUSION
Basophilia
Accurate classification and diagnosis of leukocytosis
Isolated basophilia is extremely uncommon. Reactive require confirmation of automated differential counts
basophilia has been linked to hypersensitivity disor- and examination of the peripheral blood smear.
ders, iron deficiency, chronic inflammation, and rarely Increased blasts should prompt a workup for acute leu-
infection, including influenza and chicken pox [26]. kemia, including flow cytometric immunophenotyping
As reactive causes are rare, a finding of basophilia and bone marrow examination with cytogenetic and
should prompt further workup to exclude a myelopro- molecular genetic tests. In cases with lymphocytosis, a
liferative neoplasm such as CML. pleomorphic population of lymphocytes favors a reac-
tive process. Cases with very high lymphocyte counts
or homogenous morphology should be evaluated for a
Monocytosis
lymphoproliferative disorder. Flow cytometric immu-
Reactive monocytosis is associated with chronic infec- nophenotyping can be helpful as an initial ancillary
tion, autoimmune disease, splenectomy, and a range test following morphologic review to prove clonality
of malignancies, including carcinoma, lymphoma, and and guide additional cytogenetic and molecular tests.
plasma cell myeloma. It can also be seen with neutro- Myeloid proliferations can be more difficult to classify.
penia and in regenerating bone marrow following Correlation with clinical presentation and persistence
bone marrow transplant or chemotherapy. If monocy- of abnormalities can be helpful. Features such as dys-
tosis is persistent and reactive causes are excluded, plasia, basophilia, prominent left shift, increased blasts,
the differential diagnosis includes chronic myelomon- and a very high WBC count (>50 9 109/L) favor a
ocytic leukemia (CMML), acute myelomonocytic leu- malignant process. Activated features such as toxic
kemia (AMML), CML, juvenile myelomonocytic granulation, vacuolization, and Dohle bodies favor a
leukemia (JMML), atypical CML, and MDS/MPN- reactive etiology. Flow cytometric immunophenotyp-
unclassifiable. ing is often less helpful in myeloid disorders, but may
Chronic myelomonocytic leukemia is most com- demonstrate an aberrant phenotype or abnormal mat-
monly seen in older adults and is associated with a per- uration pattern. A combination of CBC data, clinical
sistent monocytosis with dysplasia in one or more and laboratory findings, and morphologic evaluation is
myeloid lineage. There may be increased blasts, with needed to guide further testing and appropriately clas-
promonocytes counted as blast equivalents. Although sify patients with leukocytosis.
immunophenotypic abnormalities may be seen in reac-
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Int. Jnl. Lab. Hem. 2014, 36, 279–288
288 D. S. CHABOT-RICHARDS AND T. I. GEORGE | LEUKOCYTOSIS
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