Lecture 16 –

Introduction to Optical Lithography

EECS 598-002 Winter 2006

Nanophotonics and Nano-scale Fabrication
P.C.Ku
 Optical Lithography
„ An optical system that transfers the image from the mask
to the resist layer + the process of forming an etching
mask (i.e. the resist development and etc.)

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 Resolution limits for imaging
„ Small features correspond to large (kx, ky) components.
„ In traditional optical microscopes, the detector sees the
light in the far field
k
region.
k 2 = ω 2 µ0ε = k x2 + k y2 + k z2
⇒ k x2 + k y2 < ωn / c ⇒ k&,max = 2π n / λ
17.5

15

12.5
Resolving power
k-space real-space 10 = λ / ( 2n ) ≡ λ / 2
eff
7.5

5
= diffraction limit
2.5

−2π n / λ 2π n / λ
k& -2 -1 1 2 λ /n

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 Finite-size lens
„ In a real system, the cutoff spatial frequency is often
limited by the size of the lens which is quantitatively
described by a numerical aperture (NA).

NA ≡ n sin θ
k&,max 2π
⇒ = sin θ ⇒ k&,max = NA
k λ

θ Resolving power Æ
λ / ( 2NA ) ≡ λeff / 2
where λeff = λ / NA

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 Patterning process
Dissolution
rate

resist
x

I aerial image

x
Dissolution +
rate
I
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 Some clarifications
„ The minimum feature size:
„ The fundamental limit of optical lithography is not determined by
the optical system alone but rather is an overall contributions from
the optics, resist, develop and etching processes.
„ Process window:
„ Capability of printing small features does not always guarantee a
good quality and a repeatable and controllable patterning.
„ Alignment:
„ Alignment to the underlying layer is equally as important as the
optics.

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 How was our prediction in the past?

1.0 µm
0.7 µm
0.5 µm
0.35 µm
0.25 µm
0.18 µm
0.13 µm
0.10 µm ?

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 ITRS prediction in 1998

ITRS 1998:

193 DUV litho cannot

produce 65 nm process.

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 ITRS 1999

157 nm appears on the map.

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 ITRS 2005 report

Note: 157 nm
off the chart
now.

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 Major challenges (at this moment…)

Data from ENIAC.

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 Evolution of optical lithography
Contact and proximity printing Defects, gap control

1:1 projection printing Overlay, focus,

mask cost

Step-and-repeat projection Reduction possible

printing

Easier focus;
Step-and-scan projection better usage of lens
printing area
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 A step-and-scan system (stepper or scanner)

Mask

Wafer

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 Step-and-repeat vs step-and-scan

Step-and-repeat Step-and-scan

scan

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 Evolution of optics

From Introduction to Microlithography

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 An example of the optics (NA=0.6, 4X
reduction)

US Patent 5969803

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 Challenges in lens design
„ Larger lens (required by better resolution) Æ aberration
„ Suitably rotating the lens in the step-and-scan system can
minimize the aberration
„ Finite linewidth of laser source Æ dispersion
„ Aspheric lens Æ more expensive
„ Tighter spec on surface quality of lens
„ Shortening the wavelength Æ more expensive raw
materials

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 Resolution vs minimum linewidth
„ Resolution often refers to the smallest pitch of a dense
line/space pattern. It is limited by the diffraction limit.
„ Important for DRAM/flash.

„ Minimum linewidth is the minimum line or space that we

can resolve. It has no fundamental limit.
„ Important for logic chips (e.g. the gate length of a transistor)

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 There’s no fundamental limit to optical lithography!

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 Fundamentals of lithographic optics
„ Diffraction
„ Partial coherence
„ Depth of focus
„ Reflection and interference
„ Polarization dependence

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 Fraunhofer diffraction (scalar; far-field)
η y
ξ x
z

Mask plane Image plane

k 2 2
i (x +y )
ikz 2z
e e
U ( x, y ) = F [U (ξ ,η )] f x = x / λ z
iλ z fy =x/λz

EM field

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 Diffraction from an aperture
⎛ ax ⎞
F [U (ξ )] f = a sin c ⎜ ⎟
x =x /λz
⎝ λz ⎠

⎛ ax ⎞
a Intensity ∝ a 2 sin c 2 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ λz ⎠
1

0.9

0.8

0.7
Before the lens
0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 λz/a

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 Diffraction of a line/space (N spaces) pattern
N π px ⎞ π sx ⎞
2 2
⎛ ⎛
⎜ sin ⎟ ⎜ sin
I ( x) ∝ ⎜ λ λ ⎟
s p π px ⎟ ⎜ π sx ⎟
⎜ sin ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ λ ⎠ ⎝ λ ⎠

1 1 1

0.9 0.9 0.9

0.8 0.8 0.8

0.7 0.7 0.7

0.6 0.6 0.6

0.5 0.5 0.5

0.4 0.4 0.4

0.3 0.3
0.3
0.2 0.2
0.2
0.1 0.1
0.1
0 0
0 -5 0 5 -5 0 5
-5 0 5

N=5 N=10 N=100

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 Basic lithographic optics configuration

illumination mask projection lens photoresist

(image plane)

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 Image formation
„ Need to have at least the 0-th and the 1st diffraction
orders being collected to recover the pitch information.

+1 0

-1 -1

Oblique incidence can improve

the minimum pitch but result
in a less image contrast.

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