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September 3, 2010
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IN THIS ISSUE
MOLECULAR BIOLOGY SELECT
ESSAY
661 Phosphotyrosine Signaling: Evolving a New W.A. Lim and T. Pawson
Cellular Communication System
CORRESPONDENCE
668 What Controls T Cell Receptor R.A. Fernandes, C. Yu, A.M. Carmo, E.J. Evans,
Phosphorylation? P.A. van der Merwe, and S.J. Davis
669 Response: Multilayered Control of T Cell E. Gagnon, C. Xu, W. Yang, H.H. Chu, M.E. Call,
Receptor Phosphorylation J.J. Chou, and K.W. Wucherpfennig
PREVIEWS
672 Fishing Out a Sensor for Anti-inflammatory Oils A.R. Saltiel
MINIREVIEW
682 The Language of Histone Crosstalk J.-S. Lee, E. Smith, and A. Shilatifard
SNAPSHOT
A Comprehensive Online
Protein Modification Resource
provided by Cell Signaling Technology with grant support from the NIH
Cell Signaling Technology® and PhosphoSitePlus® are trademarks of Cell Signaling Technology, Inc.
© 2010 Cell Signaling Technology, Inc.
PhosphoSitePlus® v3.0 (PSP) is an open web • Expansive and continuously curated content
resource that integrates encyclopedic information • Molecular rendering to visualize the location of modification sites
on experimentally determined protein modification
• On-the-fly generation of kinase substrate sequence logos
sites, upstream and downstream regulation of
• Browsing of high-throughput content by disease, cell line, and tissue
these modifications, and powerful analytical tools
for investigating the structural and biological • New search interfaces that retrieve modification sites and proteins by
significance of protein modifications. subcellular locations, sequence and motifs, domains, responsiveness
to treatments, disease, tissue, and cell type
687 GPR120 Is an Omega-3 Fatty Acid Receptor D.Y. Oh, S. Talukdar, E.J. Bae, T. Imamura,
Mediating Potent Anti-inflammatory H. Morinaga, W. Fan, P. Li, W.J. Lu,
and Insulin-Sensitizing Effects S.M. Watkins, and J.M. Olefsky
699 Anti-CD47 Antibody Synergizes with M.P. Chao, A.A. Alizadeh, C. Tang, J.H. Myklebust,
Rituximab to Promote Phagocytosis and B. Varghese, S. Gill, M. Jan, A.C. Cha, C.K. Chan,
Eradicate Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma B.T. Tan, C.Y. Park, F. Zhao, H.E. Kohrt, R. Malumbres,
J. Briones, R.D. Gascoyne, I.S. Lossos, R. Levy,
I.L. Weissman, and R. Majeti
714 A C-Type Lectin Collaborates with a G. Cheng, J. Cox, P. Wang, M.N. Krishnan,
CD45 Phosphatase Homolog to Facilitate J. Dai, F. Qian, J.F. Anderson, and E. Fikrig
West Nile Virus Infection of Mosquitoes
737 A Bacterial mRNA Leader that Employs S.-Y. Park, M.J. Cromie, E.-J. Lee,
Different Mechanisms to Sense and E.A. Groisman
Disparate Intracellular Signals
749 Structural Basis of Semaphorin-Plexin H. Liu, Z.S. Juo, A.H.-R. Shim, P.J. Focia, X. Chen,
Recognition and Viral Mimicry from K.C. Garcia, and X. He
Sema7A and A39R Complexes with PlexinC1
773 Cell Flow Reorients the Axis B. Aigouy, R. Farhadifar, D.B. Staple, A. Sagner,
of Planar Polarity in the J.-C. Ro€per, F. Ju€licher, and S. Eaton
Wing Epithelium of Drosophila
(continued)
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800 Profiling by Image Registration R. Tomer, A.S. Denes, K. Tessmar-Raible,
Reveals Common Origin of Annelid and D. Arendt
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On the cover: Many epithelial tissues orient external structures such as cilia and hairs, and to
do so they use the planar cell polarity (PCP) proteins, which form polarized cortical domains
at epithelial cell junctions. The mechanisms that globally orient planar polarity have been
mysterious. In this issue, Aigouy et al. (pp. 773–786) show that the pattern of PCP domain
orientation in the Drosophila wing is a consequence of the oriented cell rearrangements and
divisions that shape this tissue.
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In This Issue
For life science research only. Not for use in diagnostic procedures.
454, 454 SEQUENCING, LIGHTCYCLER, and NIMBLEGEN are trademarks of Roche. Roche Diagnostics GmbH
Other brands and product names are trademarks of their respective holders.
Roche Applied Science
© 2010 Roche Diagnostics GmbH. All rights reserved. 82372 Penzberg, Germany
Cell Polarity Goes with the Flow
PAGE 773
Planar polarization of epithelial cells allows the uniform alignment of hairs, cilia, and other cellular structures with tissue shape.
Now, Aigouy et al. combine experimental and theoretical approaches to show that polarity patterns in the Drosophila wing arise
during growth. Specifically, cell polarity is reoriented from a radial to a proximal-distal axis when mechanical stresses during
growth cause the cells to rotate or ‘‘flow’’ with respect to each other. Linking planar polarity to morphogenesis provides a simple
mechanism for coordinating the global polarity pattern with tissue shape.
Interspecies Organogenesis
PAGE 787
A goal of regenerative medicine is to derive organs from a patient’s pluripotent
stem cells (PSCs), but in vitro organogenesis is complex. Here, Kobayashi et al.
generate a functioning rat pancreas in mice without a pancreas by injecting rat
PSCs into mouse blastocysts. These interspecific chimeras provide proof of
principle for in vivo generation of organs derived from donor PSCs and for inter-
specific blastocyst complementation.
The central importance of the tumor suppressor Retinoblastoma protein (Rb) in cell-cycle progression makes
its regulation a focal point for diverse biological processes, as evidenced by recent work described in this
issue’s Molecular Biology Select. These findings reveal new insight into Rb’s involvement in tissue regener-
ation and differentiation, as well as previously unrecognized mechanisms of Rb regulation.
så0ROMOTEåANåUPCOMINGåå
CONFERENCEåORåEVENTå
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Rb Gets Caught in a Custody Battle
Rb is caught in a tug-of-war between cyclin-dependent kinases
(Cdks) that inactivate it by phosphorylation to permit cell-cycle
progression and phosphatases that remove the modification
to promote cell-cycle arrest. New findings of Hirschi et al. (2010)
demonstrate that this conflict is waged over the same binding
interface of Rb. They provide structural evidence that the phospha-
tase PP1 interacts with Rb in a region previously shown critical for
the interaction of Rb with Cdks. They further show that PP1 can
suppress the activity of Cdk2-cyclin A toward Rb to block cell-
cycle progression in a human osteosarcoma cell line, and that
the complex of PP1 and Rb appears to be stable, or at least
more prevalent, at mitotic exit. Among the interesting questions
this work raises is, what factors determine the outcome of PP1
and Cdk competition? The authors propose that concentration
and subcellular localization of the competing proteins likely play
a role, but it remains unclear how this molecular dispute is settled
X-ray crystal structure of Rb (magenta) in complex under specific biological circumstances, for example after DNA
with the PP1 catalytic domain (gray). Image cour- damage.
tesy of S. Rubin.
A. Hirschi et al. (2010). Nat. Struct. Mol. Bio. Published online August
8, 2010. 10.1038/nsmb.1868.
Robert P. Kruger
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Essay
Tyrosine phosphorylation controls many cellular functions. Yet the three-part toolkit that regulates
phosphotyrosine signaling—tyrosine kinases, phosphotyrosine phosphatases, and Src Homology
2 (SH2) domains—is a relatively new innovation. Genomic analyses reveal how this revolutionary
signaling system may have originated and why it rapidly became critical to metazoans.
Throughout human history, new technolo- (TyrK) phosphorylate specific target with an evolutionary process? Proteins
gies and technological platforms have tyrosine residues, phosphotyrosine phos- that bind or remove a posttranslational
constantly been invented. Only a small phatases (PTP) remove the phosphates, modification would seem useless without
fraction of these technologies go on to and Src Homology 2 (SH2) domains an enzyme to generate the modification
be widely adopted, but these can recognize the modifications (Pawson and, in principle, would not provide
ultimately have transformational conse- 1995). Together, these three modules a fitness advantage leading to its retention
quences. In the evolutionary history of form the ‘‘writer,’’ ‘‘eraser,’’ and ‘‘reader’’ and spread. The pTyr signaling platform
living organisms, we know that innovative toolkit that is common to many diverse provides a case study to look for plausible
molecular systems have appeared at key cellular information processing platforms stepwise pathways of the evolution of
points in time, and these are thought to (Figure 1A). A rich array of diverse and a multipart system.
have played a transformative role in major complex regulatory schemes can be Here, we reconstruct a possible history
evolutionary transitions in the tree of life. achieved through the dynamic interplay for the evolution of pTyr signaling. This
But how do such innovative molecular of these three modular functions (Pawson reconstruction is based on the recent
systems emerge, and how and why do et al., 1993; Pawson, 1995; Bhattachar- sequencing of the genomes of a number
some proliferate and become stably yya et al., 2006; Kholodenko, 2006). of organisms that originated both before
adopted by subsequent lineages? A combination of these modules can and after the emergence of metazoans
An example of such an innovative lead to higher-order functions (Figure 1B). from single-celled eukaryotic ancestors
molecular system is phosphotyrosine For example, there are several proteins (King et al., 2008). The genome sequence
(pTyr)-based signal transduction. This containing a combination of SH2 and of the choanoflagellate, Monosiga brevi-
molecular system for transmitting cellular kinase domains that can generate collis, has been particularly illuminating
regulatory information is estimated to positive feedback (phosphorylation of as choanoflagellates are thought to be
have appeared relatively recently in the tyrosine sites leads to SH2-mediated one of the closest single-celled relatives
history of life—600 million years ago, recruitment of the kinase, and subse- of metazoans. We present a model for
just prior to the emergence of multicellular quently, more extensive phosphorylation) how this three-part signaling system
animals (King et al., 2003; Pincus et al., (Pawson, 2004). Similarly SH2-phospha- could have plausibly evolved in a stepwise
2008; Manning et al., 2008). The pTyr sig- tase domain combinations can generate manner. We propose that once the
naling system has become an essential negative feedback (Tonks and Neel, complete three-part system was in place,
part of metazoan biology. For example, 2001). it may have rapidly taken hold in subse-
pTyr signaling plays a central role in many The three-part pTyr signaling toolkit quent lineages because it could generate
cell-to-cell communication pathways, thus raises a classic question in evolu- new regulatory behaviors without signifi-
including those that regulate proliferation, tionary biology: how do complex, interde- cant cross-interference with existing
differentiation, adhesion, hormone res- pendent systems arise? It is clear why regulatory circuits. We also discuss the
ponses, and immune defense (Hunter, a new system encompassing a writer, possible role of this new communication
2009). eraser, and reader might be extremely system in facilitating the transformative
In modern metazoans, pTyr signaling is useful. But, given their interdependence, evolutionary shift to multicellularity.
mediated by a toolkit of three distinct how could these individual components Given the incomplete record, however,
functional modules: tyrosine kinases arise in a stepwise fashion consistent such an evolutionary reconstruction is
between these proteins and those proteins in which the PTP module has transfer enzymes; Bordo and Bork,
found in metazoans (Figure 2). For been functionally recombined with multi- 2002). Thus, fungal PTP proteins are
example, there are far fewer PTPs in ple other signaling modules. In contrast, very simple (one to two domains) and
fungi (5/genome versus 40/genome in fungi, the PTP domains are all either lack the combinatorial complexity of
in metazoans) and they are considerably in simple single-domain proteins or in metazoan PTP proteins. The simplicity
less complex in domain architecture combination with a single rhodanase-like and low number of PTPs in yeast sug-
(Pincus et al., 2008). Metazoan PTP domain (a putative regulatory domain gests that in early single-celled eukary-
proteins tend to be large multidomain that is homologous to a class of sulfur otes, PTP domains had fairly limited
ancient Ser/Thr phosphatase family and Pawson, T., Olivier, P., Rozakis-Adcock, M.,
Alonso, A., Sasin, J., Bottini, N., Friedberg, I., McGlade, J., and Henkemeyer, M. (1993). Philos.
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found in all eukaryotes but has no pTyr
140–146. Sugden, C., Ross, S., Bloomfield, G., Ivens, A.,
binding activity. But this fold, once co-
Jin, J., Xie, X., Chen, C., Park, J.G., Stark, C., Skelton, J., Mueller-Taubenberger, A., and Wil-
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The u-3 fatty acids have anti-inflammatory and antidiabetic effects in humans. Now, Oh et al. (2010)
demonstrate that the G protein-coupled receptor GPR120 is a receptor for u-3 fatty acids on
macrophages and fat cells. Activation of GPR120 by u-3 fatty acids inhibits multiple inflammation
cascades in macrophages and reverses insulin resistance in obese mice.
Evidence providing an inflammatory link evidence indicates that u-3 fatty acids stream signaling molecules (Rajagopal
between obesity and type 2 diabetes is derived from fish oils, such as docosahex- et al., 2010). In a series of gene silencing
accumulating. In numerous animal and anoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentanoic experiments, Oh and colleagues demon-
clinical studies, obesity is associated acid (EPA), have an anti-inflammatory strate that b-arrestin2 is essential for
with a state of low-grade, chronic inflam- effect (Serhan et al., 2008). the anti-inflammatory effects of u-3 fatty
mation in liver and adipose tissue, To sort out the metabolic impact of acids in macrophage cells, but Gq is
which includes activation of the innate various types of fatty acids, Oh et al. surprisingly dispensable for this process.
immune system and the appearance of characterized the tissue expression pat- Moreover, b-arrestin2 inhibits both the
proinflammatory immune cells (Hotamisli- terns of five G protein-coupled receptors JNK and NF-kB pathways by seques-
gil, 2006; Shoelson and Goldfine, 2009). (GPCRs) known to bind and respond tering the TAK1 binding protein TAB1.
Most notably, macrophages conspire to fatty acids. Among these receptors, The inhibition of TAB1 prevents phos-
with increased levels of inflammatory GPR120 was the only one with an expres- phorylation and thus activation of IkB
cytokines to attenuate insulin action and sion profile that correlated well with a kinase upstream of NFkB and MKK4
increase lipid accumulation. potential role in regulating metabolism. (mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 4)
Recent studies indicate that the NF-kB They found that GPR120 is highly ex- upstream of JNK.
and JNK (JUN N-terminal kinase) path- pressed in adipose tissue macrophages, These new insights into the sensing and
ways play important roles in the com- fat cells, and specialized macrophages signaling of GPR120 offered Oh and
munication among macrophages, adipo- in the liver called Kupffer cells. Moreover, colleagues a unique opportunity to study
cytes, and liver cells (Arkan et al., 2005; a high-fat diet increases the expression of the molecular mechanisms underlying
Chiang et al., 2009; Solinas et al., 2007). this receptor on macrophages, suggest- the metabolic benefits of u-3 fatty acids
However, key questions still remain about ing that GPR120 might be controlled by in vivo. First, Oh and colleagues establish
the initial establishment of this inflamma- inflammatory signals. that the high-fat diet given to mice in the
tory state. Do fat and liver cells first sense GPR120 is an orphan receptor for laboratory is low in u-3 fatty acids. They
an overload of energy and respond by which no endogenous ligands are known. then show that supplementing this diet
secreting chemokines, which then recruit Using a heterologous reporter system, Oh with DHA and EPA reverses the delete-
macrophages to the liver and fat? Or do et al. now find that the u-3 fatty acids rious effects that the high-fat diet has on
fatty acids in the diet directly initiate the DHA, EPA, and palmitoleate are agonists glucose homeostasis and lipid storage
inflammatory cascade, and, if so, which of GPR120. Furthermore, activation of (i.e., steatosis). Although the authors do
ones? In this issue of Cell, Oh et al. GPR120 by DHA antagonizes the proin- not address whether u-3 fatty acids can
(2010) address the latter question by iden- flammatory effects of TNFa and lipopoly- prevent insulin resistance or glucose intol-
tifying a sensor for u-3 fatty acids that is saccharide in a macrophage cell line. erance in mice, they do demonstrate that
upregulated in obese mice. Furthermore, DHA not only blocks the NFkB and JNK DHA and EPA reverse insulin resistance
activation of this receptor exerts potent pathways but also prevents expression caused by the high-fat diet. Moreover,
anti-inflammatory effects that improve of cytokines (Figure 1, bottom right). disruption of the GPR120 gene abolishes
insulin resistance and other symptoms of GPR120 is known to couple with the the benefits of u-3 fatty acids on glucose
metabolic syndrome in mice. Gq/11 family of G proteins. After ligand binds homeostasis and insulin sensitivity in
Previous studies suggest that saturated and Gq/11 is released, G protein receptor mice. These results demonstrate the
fatty acids promote inflammation by acti- kinases phosphorylate the receptor. This crucial role GPR120 plays in the meta-
vating Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) on fat generates binding sites for b-arrestins, bolic benefits of DHA and EPA. Interest-
cells and macrophages (Shi et al., 2006). which mediate internalization and down- ingly, mice receiving bone marrow
In contrast, most unsaturated fats are regulation of the receptors. However, transplants from the GPR120-deficient
metabolically neutral. However, recent b-arrestins can also interact with down- mice are also resistant to the beneficial
*Correspondence: marek.mlodzik@mssm.edu
DOI 10.1016/j.cell.2010.08.025
The generation of planar cell polarity (PCP) and tissue shape during morphogenesis is tightly linked,
but it is not clear how. Aigouy et al. (2010) now show in the developing Drosophila wing that PCP
initially has a radial orientation that becomes realigned to the proximal-distal axis of organ shape
by mechanical forces and cell rearrangements mediated by Dachsous.
Most tissues and organs composed of and tion). The core Frizzled/PCP factors form Vang/Stbm signaling as the nonautono-
organized as epithelial cell layers display, two distinct complexes that become mous behavior of frizzled mutant cell
in addition to the common apical-basal localized asymmetrically to either the patches (clones) affecting the polarity of
epithelial polarity, a polarity within the proximal (Vang/Stbm and associated wild-type cells flanking the frizzled mutant
epithelial plane. This is commonly referred proteins) or the distal side of pupal wing cells (Vinson and Adler, 1987) is already
to as planar cell polarity (PCP). Genetic cells (Frizzled and associated proteins). observed at this stage. Strikingly, in
studies in the fruit fly Drosophila mela- These complexes are stabilized by feed- contrast to the nonautonomous effects
nogaster have established that there are back loop interactions among themselves observed at the distal side of frizzled
two molecular systems coordinating the (Seifert and Mlodzik, 2007; Strutt, 2003). In mutant cell patches in late pupal and adult
cellular asymmetries in the plane of addition, Frizzled and Vang/Stbm protein wings (Vinson and Adler, 1987), early friz-
tissues. These include the Frizzled/PCP complexes may be required earlier to zled clones influence the polarity of wild-
signaling pathway containing the Van- coordinate global tissue polarity/PCP type cells residing between the wing
Gogh (Vang, also known as Strabismus/ within the wing epithelium (Classen et al., margin and the clone within the radial
Stbm) protein and other factors (Strutt, 2005; Wu and Mlodzik, 2009). polarity axis. This confirms a ‘‘signaling
2003; Seifert and Mlodzik, 2007) and Supporting this idea, the new study by axis’’ toward the wing margin at early
a pathway mediated by the protocadher- Aigouy et al. (2010) in this issue of Cell stages. Taken together, the observations
ins Fat and Dachsous (Lawrence et al., helps to establish that subcellular asym- of Aigouy et al. (2010) indicate that (1)
2007). Although the molecular relation- metries among the Frizzled/PCP core PCP, mediated by Frizzled-Vang/Stbm
ships between these two systems are group proteins are already present at signaling, is established during late-
unclear, there is strong evidence that early pupal stages during wing develop- larval/early-pupal stages in a radial axis
they act in parallel, probably affect ment (14–15 hr after puparium formation perpendicular to the margin and (2) the
different effectors, and may compensate or earlier). Strikingly, the Frizzled/PCP polarity/PCP seen in the adult wing is
for each other in some tissues (Lawrence complexes display radial polarity that is a result of cellular rearrangements during
et al., 2007; Wu and Mlodzik, 2009). perpendicular to the wing margin wing morphogenesis within the prox-
In the developing Drosophila wing, (Figure 1A), confirming that coordination imal-distal axis that are dependent on
cellular asymmetries in the plane of the of global Frizzled/PCP signaling is estab- Dachsous.
epithelium are first detected at later pupal lished early in pupal fly wings. The authors How is polarity realigned along the
stages along the proximal-distal axis further demonstrate that these early proximal-distal axis as morphogenesis
(at around 24–30 hr after puparium forma- asymmetries indeed depend on Frizzled- proceeds? As PCP is already established
In a tour-de-force study, Kobayashi et al. (2010) describe the first viable rat-mouse chimeras and
demonstrate that rat induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells can rescue organ deficiency in mice.
Rat iPS cells formed a fully functional pancreas when injected into mouse blastocysts lacking the
Pdx1 gene required for pancreas formation.
Experimentally produced chimeras for the mouse and capitalizing on the the geep between a sheep (Ovis aries)
between different mouse strains (Tarkow- recent isolation of rat ES and iPS cells and a goat (Capra hircus) (Fehilly et al.,
ski, 1961) have been an exceedingly (Buehr et al., 2008; Li et al., 2008). Both 1984).
useful tool for developmental biologists, mouse and rat cells were tagged with To test the possibility that viable rat-
contributing to our understanding of the different fluorescent dyes, allowing the mouse chimeras could be formed,
establishment of cell lineages, cell deter- authors to follow their distribution in the Kobayashi et al. (2010) injected fluores-
mination, and the development of the developing chimeras. The authors wanted cently labeled mouse or rat iPS cells into
immune system and other organs. In this to prove, at least in principle, that xenoge- rat or mouse blastocysts, respectively,
issue of Cell, Kobayashi et al. (2010) neic organ complementation could be and returned them to blastocyst-compat-
dramatically extend the potential of mam- achieved, that is, that donor cells of one ible pseudopregnant females (that is,
malian chimeras with their report of viable species could rescue a defect in organ foster mothers of the same species as
rat-mouse chimeras that can develop to development in a recipient of a different the blastocysts). The authors then exam-
term and become fully functional adults. species. So, as a first step, they set out ined the resulting fetuses, newborns, and
In their study, Kobayashi and col- to produce viable chimeras between rats adults and found evidence of a substantial
leagues relied on previous knowledge and mice, even though many previous contribution of donor stem cells to tis-
but also added a few new wrinkles. They efforts to make such chimeras had failed. sues and organs of the host (Figure 1A).
first derived mouse and rat embryonic The only viable intergeneric chimera— Despite a big contribution of donor cells,
stem (ES) cells and induced pluripotent that is, a hybrid between animals from the size of newborn and adult chimeras
stem (iPS) cells using standard methods different genera—reported so far is (with one exception) was determined by
the species of the host blastocyst. It is not produced by combining rat stem cells are injected into tetraploid blastocysts)
clear whether it is the embryo itself or the and mouse blastocysts, the resulting to produce rat-mouse chimeras (Nagy
uterine environment that determines the ‘‘mouse-like’’ chimeras had a gall bladder et al., 1993). Tetraploid blastocyst cells
extent of chimera growth. To distinguish despite the significant contribution of rat cannot participate in formation of the
between these possibilities, one would cells to abdominal organs. Reciprocal embryo proper; thus, the resulting fetus
have to transfer chimeric embryos into chimeras were ‘‘rat-like’’ and, again, (and adult) is derived entirely from the
the uterus of pseudopregnant females of despite a significant contribution from injected cells, whereas the placenta and
the same species as the donor stem cells mouse cells to abdominal organs, the extraembryonic membranes are derived
(not the blastocysts). Previous studies gall bladder was absent. These results from the tetraploid blastocyst. It remains
suggest that such experiments would fail suggest that cells of the blastocyst inner to be seen whether this approach could
because of the need for compatibility cell mass possess a ‘‘morphogenetic’’ produce a fetus derived entirely from
between the fetal part of the placenta and capacity that controls the behavior of mouse ES cells after their injection into
the uterus (Rossant et al., 1982). injected stem cells at all developmental a rat tetraploid blastocyst that then
Besides controlling the size and growth stages. develops in the uterus of a pseudopreg-
of the chimera, the host blastocyst seems This may explain why Kobayashi et al. nant rat female.
to impose additional morphogenetic reg- were able to successfully inject rat stem A major goal of the Kobayashi et al.
ulation. The postimplantation develop- cells into mouse blastocysts, whereas study was to determine whether stem cells
ment of normal rat and mouse embryos insertion of the rat inner cell mass into from a xenogeneic donor mammal could
is very similar, but there are differences the mouse blastocyst cavity did not result correct a genetic defect in a recipient
in organ morphogenesis. One of the in viable rat-mouse chimeras (Gardner mammal of a different species. So, in their
most noticeable differences is the pres- and Johnson, 1973). This notion could next set of experiments, the authors in-
ence of a gall bladder in mice and its be tested further using tetraploid comple- jected rat iPS cells into recipient mouse
absence in rats. In all adult chimeras mentation (that is, donor ES or iPS cells blastocysts that lacked the Pdx1 gene,
gut, and, of course, pancreas—is likely to ducing pig-human chimeras in which the James, D., Noggle, S.A., Swigut, T., and Brivanlou,
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These include the growth of organs immune rejection will still be a problem Kato-Itoh, M., Yamazaki, Y., Ibata, M., Sato, H.,
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and biocompatible scaffolds or the gener- pig will contain pig-derived stromal cells
ation of ‘‘humanized’’ pigs engineered to and blood vessels. Li, P., Tong, C., Mehrian-Shai, R., Jia, L., Wu, N.,
lack certain antigens so that their organs Finally, there are huge legal and ethi- Yan, Y., Maxson, R.E., Schulze, E.N., Song, H.,
Hsieh, C.-L., et al. (2008). Cell 135, 1299–1310.
can be used for transplantation in human cal barriers to creating human-animal
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‘Fore Brain:
A Hint of the Ancestral Cortex
Lora B. Sweeney1,2,3 and Liqun Luo1,2,3,*
1Neurosciences Program
2Department of Biology
3Howard Hughes Medical Institute
By combining gene expression profiling with image registration, Tomer et al. (2010) find that the
mushroom body of the segmented worm Platynereis dumerilii shares many features with the
mammalian cerebral cortex. The authors propose that the mushroom body and cortex evolved
from the same structure in the common ancestor of vertebrates and invertebrates.
The mammalian cerebral cortex underlies identify structures in the developing brain tion factors such as Bf1 (brain factor 1,
many higher-order processes, such as of Platynereis that are possibly related also known as Foxg1) and Pax 6 (paired
perception, memory, language, and ad- to the vertebrate pallium, Tomer et al. box gene 6) (Hébert and Fishell, 2008).
vanced motor skills. With its intricate characterized the expression patterns of With this technique, Tomer et al. iden-
furrows and ridges (i.e., the sulci and many genes at different stages of neural tify a structure in Platynereis with gene
gyri), the complexity of the cerebral cortex development in the worm. The standard patterns that mirror those observed in
is evident even at its surface. Beneath the methods for characterizing gene expres- the vertebrate pallium. The authors then
surface, the cerebral cortex is separated sion are in situ hybridizations and immuno- follow this structure during the develop-
into layers of densely packed neurons staining with antibodies. However, these ment of Platynereis and find that its
with axons reaching deep into the white techniques are generally restricted to neurons develop into the mushroom
matter. These layers are divided further one or two genes at a time and thus are body, a brain region in insects and worms
into functional regions that correspond to unable to provide direct comparisons of involved in sensory processing and
the body plan. How does such a complex expression patterns for a large number of memory (Figure 1). Moreover, this embry-
structure develop such precise organiza- genes. onic structure in the worm gives rise
tion? Many researchers have approached To overcome this technical hurdle, to similar types of neurons as found
this question from a developmental Tomer et al. use advanced image registra- in the pallium (e.g., glutamatergic and
perspective by identifying and perturbing tion methods (including linear transforma- GABAergic neurons).
molecular components that contribute tion and nonlinear warping), in which Similarities between the mammalian
to the structure of the cerebral cortex multiple microscopy images are aligned cortex and the invertebrate mushroom
(Hébert and Fishell, 2008). Alternatively, to one coordinate system, standardized body have been noted previously, but
one can take an evolutionary approach to one size, and smoothed to correct arti- such clear parallels in their gene pattern-
and search for an ancestral precursor to facts due to stretches during sample ing have not been observed (Strausfeld
the cortex. In this issue of Cell, Tomer preparation (Rueckert et al., 1999; Rohlf- et al., 1998; Farris, 2008). Why not? Mush-
et al. (2010) follow the latter approach ing et al., 2001; Kurylas et al., 2008). room bodies are well characterized in in-
and identify a brain region of the seg- Specifically, Tomer et al. use the axon sects, especially in the fruit fly Drosophila,
mented worm Platynereis dumerilii (an scaffold (i.e., bundles of axons in the and choosing to study an annelid was
annelid) called the mushroom body that developing brain) as a landmark to align critical to making this new connection.
shares the same ‘‘molecular fingerprint’’ individual gene expression patterns from Based on the arrangement of the axon
as the developing mammalian cortex. multiple worms onto a standard brain fibers and the function of its neurons, the
The cerebral cortex derives from the template. This allows the simultaneous mushroom body of insects has been
pallium. From the Latin for ‘‘cloak,’’ mapping of expression profiles for an loosely compared to the mammalian
pallium refers to the outer layer of the unlimited number of genes during neural cerebral cortex, the hippocampus, or the
brain. The mammalian palium consists of development. In this manner, the authors cerebellum (Strausfeld et al., 1998).
the cerebral cortex, olfactory cortex, and define the spatial relationship for the However, insects are fast-evolving inver-
the hippocampus. The evolutionary origin expression of more than fifteen genes in tebrates and thus may deviate quickly
of the vertebrate pallium has fascinated Platynereis that were previously shown from their ancestors. By contrast, anne-
biologists for centuries because our high- to regulate the patterning of the cortex in lids evolve slowly and therefore make
est mental functions originate from it. To mammals. These include many transcrip- excellent organisms for comparing the
*Correspondence: ash@stowers.org
DOI 10.1016/j.cell.2010.08.011
It has been suggested that a specific pattern of histone posttranslational modifications and their
crosstalk may constitute a code that determines transcriptional outcomes. However, recent studies
indicate that histone modifications have context-dependent effects, making their interplay more
like a language within the chromatin signaling pathway than a code.
For almost two decades, a primary focus in the field of transcrip- phosphorylation of serine 10 on histone H3 stimulates the ability
tional regulation was to identify DNA elements that control the of Gcn5 to acetylate histone H3 at lysine 14 (H3K14) (Cheung
expression of genes. These efforts were in part motivated by the et al., 2000; Lo et al., 2000) (Figure 1A). Another well-character-
expectation that it would one day be possible to look at a gene ized example is the requirement of histone H2B monoubiquitina-
and its regulatory sequences and predict when and where tion for proper H3K4 methylation by the H3K4 methylase
a gene was going to be transcribed. We then learned that along complex COMPASS (Figure 1B) (Shilatifard, 2006). This process,
with the sequence-specific binding of activators and repressors, initially discovered in yeast (Shilatifard, 2006), is now known to
there is an additional world of factors that modify, interact, and be highly conserved among eukaryotes (Kim et al., 2009). Addi-
remodel chromatin to regulate gene expression. The identification tionally, a recent comprehensive mutation analysis of all histone
of a multitude of histone modifications—some correlated with residues reveals that a single point mutation in histone H3K14,
activation, some with repression—led to the proposal that the a site of acetylation, results in the specific loss of H3K4 trimethy-
modifications constitute a code that could be recognized by tran- lation, but not mono- or dimethylation (Nakanishi et al., 2008).
scription factors to determine the transcriptional state of a gene. This screen also demonstrated that H3K4 trimethylation is regu-
However, additional research has since added layers of lated by both monoubiquitination-dependent and monoubiquiti-
complexity, revealing a nuanced and intriguing language, not nation-independent processes (Nakanishi et al., 2008).
a strict code, as the basis for transcriptional regulation through Given that histone-modifying enzymes are often found in mul-
the chromatin signaling pathway. Here, we review the complex tisubunit complexes, modification of nearby residues can create
crosstalk among histone modifications, including recent studies binding sites for the components of the complex helping to
that illustrate how the context and timing of these modifications anchor an enzyme to a nucleosome. For example, the PHD finger
are critical for a particular transcriptional readout. of Yng1, a subunit of the NuA3 histone acetyltransferase
complex, recognizes methylated H3K4 and helps recruit this
Histone Crosstalk and Gene Activity histone acetyltransferase complex for acetylation of H3K14
In eukaryotic cells, gene expression can be regulated at the level (Martin et al., 2006; Taverna et al., 2006). The Yng1-related
of chromatin structure. Numerous residues within the histone ING2 can also bind methylated H3K4; however, it is present in
tails and several residues within the histone globular domains a histone deacetylase complex (Shi et al., 2006). Therefore,
can be modified in a variety of ways, including acetylation, H3K4 methylation can serve as a landing platform for a variety
phosphorylation, ubiquitination, and methylation. A well-charac- of histone-modifying enzymes with opposing activities.
terized posttranslational modification regulating chromatin Modifications of nearby residues can also prevent the recog-
structure is the acetylation of histone N-terminal tails, which is nition of a substrate by an enzyme, as recently reported to occur
thought to facilitate transcriptional activation either by charge when methylation of histone H3 arginine 2 (H3R2) interferes with
neutralization of the tails’ interaction with DNA or by forming H3K4 methylation by Set1/COMPASS in yeast and COMPASS-
a binding site for bromodomain-containing transcription factors, like complexes in mammalian cells (Guccione et al., 2007;
some of which can remodel nucleosomes. Another well-studied Kirmizis et al., 2007) (Figure 1B). Histone modifications can
histone modification is the methylation of lysine 4 of histone H3 also prevent the recruitment of factors other than enzymes.
(H3K4), a modification generally associated with transcriptionally For example, heterochromatin protein 1 (HP1), which binds
active genes and a binding site for a variety of factors that include methylated H3K9, cannot do so when the adjacent serine 10
histone-modifying and -remodeling activities (Shilatifard, 2006). (H3S10) is phosphorylated during mitosis or during gene activa-
More complex scenarios arise when histone modifications act tion (Fischle et al., 2005; Mateescu et al., 2008).
combinatorially in a context-dependent manner to facilitate or Multiple types of histone crosstalk, involving numerous histone-
repress chromatin-mediated transcription. In some cases the modifying complexes, can occur at any one gene. A major chal-
modification of one residue can alter the ability of a second lenge is to understand the events that regulate changes in gene
residue to be implemented by its modifying enzyme(s) (Figure 1). expression through these modifications/crosstalk. One strategy
The first example of histone crosstalk falls into this category: the has been to profile histone modifications genomewide, with the
*Correspondence: jolefsky@ucsd.edu
DOI 10.1016/j.cell.2010.07.041
GPCRs and couple the receptor to specific downstream sensing GPCR which is highly expressed in adipose tissue,
signaling pathways, as well as mediate receptor endocytosis proinflammatory CD11c+ macrophages (BMDCs), mature adipo-
(Luttrell and Lefkowitz, 2002). Here we find that b-arrestin2 asso- cytes, and monocytic RAW 264.7 cells (Figure 1A and 1B).
ciates with ligand-stimulated GPR120 and participates in down- GPR120 is induced in the stromal vascular fraction (SVF) of
stream signaling mechanisms. adipose tissue (which contains the macrophages), as well as in
Since chronic inflammation is a mechanistic feature of hepatic Kupffer cells, during high-fat diet (HFD) feeding in mice
obesity-related insulin resistance, we postulated that the anti- (Figure 1C). GPR120 is also expressed in enteroendocrine L cells
inflammatory effect of GPR120 stimulation could promote insulin with negligible expression in muscle (Figure S4C available
sensitization. In the present study, we elucidate the role of online), hepatocytes or other cell types (Hirasawa et al., 2005;
GPR120 activation in integrating anti-inflammatory and insulin Gotoh et al., 2007).
sensitizing effects in vitro and in vivo.
Ligand-Stimulated GPR120 Exerts Anti-inflammatory
RESULTS Effects
It has been previously reported that GPR120 signals via
GPR120 Expression a Gaq/11-coupled pathway and can respond to long chain FAs
Fatty acids (FAs) can function as endogenous ligands modu- (Hirasawa et al., 2005). To pursue the biology of GPR120,
lating inflammatory responses, but not all FAs work in the a tool compound was needed, and, some years ago, Glaxo pub-
same way. In general, saturated FAs (SFAs) are proinflammatory, lished GW9508 as a GPR40 selective agonist. However, this
unsaturated FAs are weakly proinflammatory or neutral, and u3- compound was not specific and also stimulated GPR120 (Bris-
FAs can be anti-inflammatory (Lee et al., 2003; Calder, 2005; coe et al., 2006). Since macrophages and adipocytes do not
Solinas et al., 2007). Because of the importance of inflammation express GPR40 (this was confirmed by repeated q-PCR and
in a number of chronic human diseases including insulin resis- RT-PCR measures, Figure S1A), GW9508 is a functional
tance, obesity, and type 2 diabetes mellitus, we surveyed the GPR120 specific compound in these cell types. Using this
family of FA sensing GPCRs (GPR40, 41, 43, 84, and 120). Based approach, we found that GW9508 treatment broadly and mark-
on its tissue expression pattern, GPR120 emerged as a receptor edly repressed the ability of the TLR4 ligand LPS to stimulate
of particular interest. As seen in Figure 1, GPR120 is the only lipid inflammatory responses in RAW 264.7 cells (Figure 1D and E).
*Correspondence: mpchao@stanford.edu
DOI 10.1016/j.cell.2010.07.044
(C) Synergistic phagocytosis by anti-CD47 antibody (B6H12.2) and anti-CD20 mAbs was examined by isobologram analysis and determination of combination
indices (CI). CIobs indicates observed results, and the dashed line indicates the expected results if antibodies were additive.
(D and E) Synergy between anti-CD47 antibody and rituximab in the phagocytosis of NHL and NPB cells was assessed by determining the phagocytic index when
incubated with a combination of both antibodies compared to either antibody alone at twice the dose, with either mouse (D) or human (E) macrophages. NHL17*:
cell line derived from primary sample NHL17.
***p < 0.001, ****p < 0.0001, *****p < 0.00001. Figure 2B p values represent comparison against IgG1 isotype control antibody. See also Figure S2.
(G) Bulk lymphoma cells from a human NHL patient were assessed for ex vivo antibody coating by flow cytometry.
(H) Compared to IgG1 isotype control, anti-CD47 antibody pretreatment inhibited engraftment of NHL cells (p < 0.0001) whereas anti-CD45-coated cells
engrafted similarly to controls (p = 0.54). All p values were determined using Fisher’s exact test.
Error bars represent SD (E and F). See also Figure S3.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Preparation of Human and Mouse Immune Effector Cells, Immune
Effector Cytotoxicity Assays, and In Vivo Depletion of Immune
The authors acknowledge Dr. Christopher Contag for providing luciferase
Effector Cells
constructs, Dr. Robert Negrin for assistance, Dr. Yaso Natkunam for immuno-
See Extended Experimental Procedures.
histochemistry, Libuse Jerabek and Theresa Storm for lab management, and
Adriane Mosely for animal husbandry. We also acknowledge the patients and
Preparation of F(ab0 )2 Fragments surgeons including Drs. Wapnir, Chang, Cheng, Janisiewicz, Koltai, Liebowitz,
See Extended Experimental Procedures. and Messner for providing research specimens. M.P.C. is supported by the
HHMI and the Stanford Cancer Biology Program, A.A.A. by an NIH T32 Ruth
Generation of Luciferase-Positive Cell Lines and Luciferase Imaging L. Kirschstein National Research Service Award (HL007970), R. Malumbres
Analysis by a fellowship from Fundación Caja Madrid, I.S.L. by NIH grant CA122105,
See Extended Experimental Procedures. and R. Majeti by a grant from the AACR. R. Majeti holds a Career Award for
Medical Scientists from the Burroughs Wellcome Fund. I.L.W., M.P.C.,
A.A.A., and R. Majeti have filed U.S. Patent Application Serial No. 12/321,215
In Vivo Precoating Engraftment Assay entitled ‘‘Methods For Manipulating Phagocytosis Mediated by CD47.’’ This
Assay were performed as previously described (Majeti et al., 2009). Precoated research is supported by NIH grant P01CA139490 to I.L.W. and funding from
cells were transplanted intravenously into SCID mice or sublethally irradiated the Smith Family Fund.
(200 rads) NOD.Cg-PrkdcscidIl2rgtm1Wjl/SzJ (NSG). All experiments involving M.P.C., A.A.A., I.L.W., and R. Majeti designed the experiments, and M.P.C.,
mice were performed according to Stanford University institutional animal A.A.A., I.L.W., and R. Majeti wrote the manuscript. M.P.C., A.A.A., C.T.,
guidelines. J.H.M., S.G., M.J., A.C.C., C.K.C., B.T.T., C.Y.P, F.Z., R. Malumbres, and
I.S.L. performed the experiments and analyzed data. J.B., R.D.G., R.L., and
In Vivo Antibody Treatment in a Disseminated Lymphoma I.S.L provided patient samples and clinical data. H.E.K. provided reagents.
Xenograft Model B.V. generated F(ab0 )2 fragments of anti-CD47 antibody and rituximab. All
1.5 3 106 luciferase-labeled Raji cells were injected intravenously into the authors endorse the full content of this work.
retro-orbital sinus of 6- to 10-week-old SCID or NSG mice. Those mice with
luciferase-positive lymphoma were given daily intraperitoneal injections of Received: January 7, 2010
200 mg mouse IgG control, anti-CD47 antibody, rituximab, or 200 mg anti- Revised: April 23, 2010
CD47 antibody + 200 mg rituximab for 3 weeks. Antibody treatment was Accepted: July 6, 2010
then stopped and mice were followed for survival analysis. A complete remis- Published: September 2, 2010
sion (CR) was defined as no evidence of lymphoma by bioluminescence at the
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*Correspondence: erol.fikrig@yale.edu
DOI 10.1016/j.cell.2010.07.038
SUMMARY wide (Nir et al., 1968; Turell et al., 2000). In the United States,
the most important vectors are Culex pipiens in the east, Culex
West Nile virus (WNV) is the most common tarsalis in the midwest and west, and Culex quinquefasciatus in
arthropod-borne flavivirus in the United States; the southeast (Hayes et al., 2005). WNV has also been isolated
however, the vector ligand(s) that participate in infec- from Aedes, Ochlerotatus, and Culisetam mosquitoes (http://
tion are not known. We now show that an Aedes www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvbid/westnile/mosquitoSpecies.htm).
aegypti C-type lectin, mosGCTL-1, is induced by Aedes aegypti, a member of the Culicinae subfamily, is a major
vector for numerous flaviviruses (Gould and Solomon, 2008).
WNV, interacts with WNV in a calcium-dependent
A. aegypti is ideal for viral pathogenesis studies because these
manner, and facilitates infection in vivo and in vitro. mosquitoes are easy to cultivate and the genome has been char-
A mosquito homolog of human CD45 in A. aegypti, acterized (Gubler, 1998; Nene et al., 2007; Halstead, 2008).
designated mosPTP-1, recruits mosGCTL-1 to A. aegypti is readily susceptibility to infection with WNV in
enable viral attachment to cells and to enhance viral the laboratory, and the virus rapidly disseminates throughout
entry. In vivo experiments show that mosGCTL-1 and most of the mosquito after the blood meal. As with Culex spp.,
mosPTP-1 function as part of the same pathway A. aegypti is a threat for the transmission of WNV to humans
and are critical for WNV infection of mosquitoes. (Vanlandingham et al., 2007).
A similar phenomenon was also observed in Culex C-type lectins are a group of carbohydrate-binding proteins
quinquefasciatus, a natural vector of WNV, further (Zelensky and Gready, 2005). Several members of this family
demonstrating that these genes participate in WNV are highly expressed by immune cells, including monocytes,
macrophages, and dendritic cells (DCs), and play a central
infection. During the mosquito blood-feeding pro-
role in activating host defenses (Robinson et al., 2006). Human
cess, WNV infection was blocked in vivo with mannose-binding lectin (MBL) is a pattern recognition molecule
mosGCTL-1 antibodies. A molecular understanding of the innate immune system that binds to sugars on the surface
of flaviviral-arthropod interactions may lead to strat- of invading pathogens, leading to opsonization, phagocytosis,
egies to control viral dissemination in nature. and activation of the complement pathway (Neth et al., 2002).
In contrast, some C-type lectins are recruited to facilitate flavivi-
INTRODUCTION ral infection. In mammals, two membrane C-type lectins,
DC-SIGN (CD209) and L-SIGN (CD209L), interact with flavivi-
West Nile virus (WNV) is maintained in a bird-mosquito transmis- ruses via high mannose glycans on viral glycoproteins (Klimstra
sion cycle and has become the most common arthropod-borne et al., 2003) and are essential host cell factors exploited by
flavivirus in the United States. Humans, horses, and other nona- dengue virus (DENV) and WNV to invade immature DCs and
vian vertebrates are incidental hosts (Monath and Heinz, 1996). macrophages (Geijtenbeek et al., 2000; Soilleux et al., 2002;
Infection in man can result in fever, meningitis, or encephalitis, Tassaneetrithep et al., 2003; Davis et al., 2006). Another
among other symptoms (Hubálek and Halouzka, 1999; Leis C-type lectin, the mannose receptor (MR), also interacts with
et al., 2002). Approved human vaccines or therapeutics are not the DENV envelope protein and may enhance viral attachment
available and preventive measures largely focus upon mosquito to phagocytes (Miller et al., 2008). A recent study identified
control (Reisen and Brault, 2007). C-type lectin domain family 5, member A (CLEC5A), as
The ability of different mosquito species to transmit WNV a DENV receptor. The association between CLEC5A and
varies widely. Culex spp. are the major vectors for WNV world- DENV does not result in viral entry, but rather stimulates the
release of proinflammatory cytokines, potentially contributing to well-known PTP, protein tyrosine phosphatase receptor type C
the pathogenesis of dengue hemorrhagic fever (Chen et al., (PTPRC, CD45), is important for thymocyte development and
2008). T cell activation (Byth et al., 1996; Trowbridge and Thomas,
Protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs) remove phosphate 1994) and is expressed on all nucleated cells of hemopoietic
groups from phosphorylated tyrosine residues and play critical origin (Thomas, 1989). The association between MBL and
roles in cell communication, shape, motility, proliferation, and CD45 in immature T cells influences thymocyte development
differentiation (Alonso et al., 2004; Mustelin et al., 2005). One (Baldwin and Ostergaard, 2001).
(A, C, D and H) Statistical analysis was done with the Mann-Whitney test in all experiments. Each dot represents the mRNA levels in an individual mosquito.
The horizontal line depicts the medians.
(E–G) The Mann-Whitney test was used for statistical analysis. Data are shown as the mean ± standard error (SEM).
See also Figure S2 and Table S2.
hemocytes. The yellow arrows show the infected hemocytes. Images were examined with a Zeiss LSM 510 Meta Confocal Microscope 633 objective
lens.
See also Figure S3.
(E) mosPTP-1 captured mosGCTL-1 to the cell surface by flow cytometry. A stable cell line was generated to express mosPTP-1 in S2 cells. The purified
mosGCTL-1 was inoculated with mosPTP-1-expressing cells at 4 C. An empty DNA vector transfected stable S2 cell line was used as the control. The interaction
between mosPTP-1 and mosGCTL-1 was investigated by FACS. mosPTP-1 was stained by Alexa-488; mosGCTL-1 was stained by Phycoerythrin (PE). Three
independent experiments yielded similar results, and one representative study is shown in this figure.
(F) Confocal microscopy to examine for mosPTP-1 and mosGCTL-1. mosGCTL-1 was stained with Alexa-488 (green) and mosPTP-1 was identified with Alexa-
546 (red). Nuclei were stained by To-Pro-3 iodide (blue). The images were collected using a Zeiss LSM 510 Meta Confocal Microscope 633 objective lens.
The arrows represent the overlap between mosPTP-1 and mosGCTL-1.
See also Figure S4 and Table S3.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
Neth, O., Jack, D.L., Johnson, M., Klein, N.J., and Turner, M.W. (2002). Wilson, R., Chen, C.W., and Ratcliffe, N.A. (1999). Innate immunity in insects:
Enhancement of complement activation and opsonophagocytosis by the role of multiple, endogenous serum lectins in the recognition of foreign
complexes of mannose-binding lectin with mannose-binding lectin-associ- invaders in the cockroach, Blaberus discoidalis. J. Immunol. 162, 1590–1596.
ated serine protease after binding to Staphylococcus aureus. J. Immunol. Xi, Z., Ramirez, J.L., and Dimopoulos, G. (2008). The Aedes aegypti toll
169, 4430–4436. pathway controls dengue virus infection. PLoS Pathog. 4, e1000098.
Nir, Y., Goldwasser, R., Lasowski, Y., and Margalit, J. (1968). Isolation of West Zelensky, A.N., and Gready, J.E. (2005). The C-type lectin-like domain super-
Nile virus strains from mosquitoes in Israel. Am. J. Epidemiol. 87, 496–501. family. FEBS J. 272, 6179–6217.
anti-HA 53.9
53.9
anti-ActiveJNK
53.9
anti-JNK
are homologous to human MBIP. This observation, coupled with genetically with the JNK pathway (Jasper et al., 2001; Morrison
the presence of MAPK signaling proteins in ATAC purifications, et al., 2000).
led us to ask whether CG10238 and ATAC play a role in MAPK
signaling. The ATAC Subunit CG10238 Functions as an Inhibitor
of JNK Activation in Response to Osmotic Stress
RESULTS We tested whether CG10238 plays a role in MAPK signaling like
MBIP (Fukuyama et al., 2000). MAPK cascades can be activated
ATAC Interacts with Proteins Related to the MAPK by osmotic stress, resulting in activation of JNK by phosphoryla-
Pathway tion (Kayali et al., 2000; Yang et al., 2003). We therefore exam-
Affinity purifications of the ATAC complex revealed proteins that ined whether expression of CG10238 affected the activation of
are part of the MAPK signaling pathway (Figure 1A; see Fig- JNK under conditions of osmotic stress (Kayali et al., 2000).
ure S1A available online). Peptides from these proteins were We first titrated the cellular response to osmotic stress
found in purifications via the CG10238, CHRAC14, and D12 stimulated by sorbitol in S2 cells by western blot (Figures S2A
ATAC subunits. Peptides were identified from the transcription and S2B). Maximum activation of JNK was observed between
factor Jra (Jun-related antigen), the Drosophila homolog of 7 and 30 min after treatment with a minimum concentration of
c-Jun, and Misshapen (MSN), the Drosophila homolog of 500 mM sorbitol (Figure S2A, lane 5; Figure S2B, lanes 2–4).
Ste-20 kinase (Figure 1A) (Morrison et al., 2000; Su et al., 1998; We then examined the level of JNK activation in cells expressing
Treisman et al., 1997). We also found peptides from other STE CG10238 in the presence or absence of osmotic stress induced
kinases, such as MKK4, slik, and MEK3/MKK3, as well as by 500 mM sorbitol for 12 min. Expression of CG10238 was
peptides from Chickadee, which has been shown to interact inducible by CuSO4, and parental S2 cells were treated with
80
(%) are shown in (D). The average of four indepen-
anti-HA
60
dent experiments is graphed. Error bars represent
40 standard deviation.
20 See also Figures S1 and S2.
0
anti-ActiveJNK 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
P P P
anti-JNK HA-FL HA-N HA-C
the same amount of CuSO4 and sorbitol as controls. We first examined the two parts of CG10238 to determine which might
confirmed by western blot that the expression level of HA- incorporate it into the ATAC complex. We generated S2 cell lines
tagged CG10238 in the stable cell line without induction was that stably expressed tagged truncated forms of CG10238 that
similar to that of endogenous CG10238 in the parental cells included only the N-terminal MoaE domain or the C-terminal
(Figure S2C). Active JNK was not detected in the absence of MBIP domain (Figure 1B). These tagged proteins were affinity
sorbitol treatment, or upon induction of CG10238 by addition purified from the stable cell lines after their expression levels
of CuSO4 (Figure 1C, lanes 1 and 2). In the presence of sorbitol, were normalized (Figure S1B). Proteins that copurified with
JNK was activated in the parental cells (Figure 1C, lanes 6 and 7). each domain of CG10238 were identified by multidimensional
However, induction of CG10238 expression by CuSO4 inhibited protein identification technology (MudPIT) analysis and
the activation of JNK in a dose-dependent manner (Figure 1C, confirmed by western blots (Figures 2A and 2B; Figure S1A).
lanes 8–10). Thus, CG10238 inhibits JNK activation by osmotic All ATAC subunits except CHRAC14 associated with the MBIP
stress in vivo. Because JNK is also activated by ultraviolet light domain. A few peptides from two of the ATAC subunits were de-
(UV), we examined whether the inhibitory activity of CG10238 tected by purification with the MoaE domain and three subunits
extended to this JNK activation mechanism (Angel et al., 1988; were detected weakly by westerns (Figure 2B). Thus, the MBIP
Devary et al., 1991; Rozek and Pfeifer, 1995). Expression of domain of CG10238 is responsible for incorporating the protein
CG10238 also inhibited activation of JNK by UV (Figure S3). into the ATAC complex.
The MBIP Domain of CG10238 Is Required The MoaE Domain of CG10238 Inhibits JNK Activation
for Incorporation into the ATAC Complex Analysis of the domain structure of MoaE and MBIP orthologs in
The finding that CG10238 prevented JNK activation when a variety of organisms indicates that many insects encode these
expressed in vivo led us to ask whether CG10238 served this two domains as a translational fusion like that of Drosophila
function in isolation or as part of the ATAC complex. We first CG10238. By contrast, orthologs in nematodes, plants, fungi,
Ratio-JNK or Ratio-ActJNK
700
100 2500 100
600
from four independent experiments and plotted as ratios to
Ratio-NC2 beta
80 2000 80 the untreated control cells (A–D, bottom). Dark bars show
Ratio-Atac2
500
JNK JNK
400 60 ActJNK 1500 60 ActJNK
the ratio of JNK intensities, light bars show the ratio of
300
Atac2 NC2beta
Active JNK intensities, and the dotted line shows the ratio
40 1000 40
200 of Atac2 (A), NC2 b (B), Atac2/CSRP2BP (C), or MBIP (D)
100
20 500 20
intensities. Error bars represent standard deviation.
0 0 0 0 See also Figures S2 and S4.
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Sorbitol - + - + Sorbitol - + - +
dsRNA-Cont. dsRNA-Atac2 dsRNA-Cont. dsRNA-NC2beta
Ratio-JNK or Ratio-ActJNK
200
40 incorporate CG10238 into ATAC (Figures 2A– 100 40
100
20 2D). These data raised the question of whether 50 20
Sorbitol - + - +
pathway. To address this question, we exam-
Sorbitol - + - +
dsRNA-Cont dsRNA-CSRP2BP dsRNA-Cont dsRNA-MBIP ined JNK activation in S2 cells where endoge-
nous subunits of ATAC were knocked down by
and all prokaryotes except parasitic bacteria have a MoaE dsRNA interference. The expression level of Atac2 was reduced
homology domain but are missing the MBIP domain. Sequence 60% in cells expressing dsRNA-Atac2 (Figure 3A). Interestingly,
database searches using the PSI-BLAST program (Altschul JNK was partially activated upon reduction of Atac2 even in the
et al., 1997) with human MBIP (GenBank accession number absence of osmotic stress (Figure 3A). Moreover, activation of
119586267) as query revealed sequence matches between the JNK by osmotic stress was enhanced in the Atac2 knockdown
N-terminal portion of MBIP orthologs from Metazoa and MoaE cells (Figure 3A). We observed similar results upon knockdown
proteins. Thus, the N-terminal sequences of mammalian MBIPs of NC2 b or CG10238 subunits of ATAC by dsRNA (Figure 3B;
are related to the MoaE sequences. Hence, our bioinformatic Figure S4A). Although JNK activation was not observed in D12
analysis suggests the N-terminal sequences of MBIP evolved knockdown cells without osmotic stress, its activation was
from MoaE and raises the possibility that the MoaE domain of also increased in these cells under conditions of osmotic stress
CG10238 contributes to the JNK inhibition activity. (Figure S4B). Because human MBIP was recently shown to be a
We generated S2 cell lines that stably expressed tagged component of the human ATAC complex (Fukuyama et al., 2000;
truncated forms containing the MoaE domain (N-terminal) or Wang et al., 2008), it was of interest to determine whether human
MBIP domain (C-terminal) (Figure S1B), and then compared ATAC inhibited the activation of JNK by osmotic stress in human
1.6 1.6
1.4 1.4
Error bars represent standard deviation.
Jra/Control
1.2 1.2 (D) ChIP assays were performed with an antibody against
1 1
0.8 0.8 Jra from S2 cells without sorbitol stimulation (D, left) or with
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
sorbitol stimulation (D, right) expressing dsRNA-LacZ
0.2 0.2 (Cont), dsRNA-Atac2, dsRNA-CG10238, or dsRNA-MSN
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 (D) (Figures 5B–5M). The association of Jra on the probed
RNAi b a RNAi
cZ c2 38 2 Jr MSN cZ c2 38 2b Jra MSN region of the Jra gene as indicated in Figure 5A, and input
La Ata 102 NC La Ata 102 NC
CG CG
chromatin was measured by qRT-PCR and normalized to
Jra Sorbitol (+) Chickadee Sorbitol (+)
input, and the ratios of quantities are represented (see
4 1.6 Figure S6). The average of three independent experiments
1.4
is graphed. Error bars represent standard deviation.
Chickadee/Control
3 1.2
See also Figures S2, S5, and S6.
Jra/Control
1
2 0.8
0.6
1 0.4
0.2
0 0
RNAi
1 2 3 4 5 6
RNAi
in vivo. Endogenous Atac2, CG10238, NC2 b,
1 2 3 4 5 6
2 8 2b Jra SN a
cZ tac 23 cZ c2 38 2b Jr MSN
La A G10 N C M La Ata 102 NC
and D12 coimmunoprecipitated with endoge-
C CG
nous MSN (Figure 4B).
If ATAC serves as a cofactor for Jra, then
D
ChIP-Jra on Jra Sorbitol (-) ChIP-Jra on Jra Sorbitol (+)
Jra-dependent transcription would require
dsRNA-Cont dsRNA-Atac2 dsRNA-CG10238 dsRNA-MSN dsRNA-Cont dsRNA-Atac2 dsRNA-CG10238 dsRNA-MSN ATAC and ATAC should be localized to Jra target
100.00%
90.00%
genes. Because the gene encoding c-Jun, the
80.00%
70.00%
80.00%
70.00%
mammalian homolog of Jra, is positively
60.00%
ChIP/Input
ChIP/Input
50.00%
60.00%
50.00%
regulated by c-Jun protein (Angel et al., 1988),
40.00%
40.00%
30.00% we examined whether ATAC functions in Jra
30.00%
20.00% 20.00%
Probe A B C D E Probe A B C D E
transcripts by quantitative real-time RT-PCR
0.00%
0.80% 0.80%
the coding sequence (CDS), the gray circles indi-
ChIP/Input
cate the enhancer, the white circle indicates pre-
ChIP/Input
0.60% 0.60%
0.40% 0.40%
dicted AP-1 sites, and the black square indicates
0.20%
0.20%
0.00%
the NF-jun-like sequence.
0.00%
A B C D E A B C D E
(B–M) ChIP assays were performed with anti-
D ChIP-H4K16ac on Jra Soro
Sorobitol
r bitol (-) E ChIP-H4K16ac on Jra Sorbitol (+) bodies against Atac2, H4K16ac, Active JNK,
dsRNA-Cont dsRNA-Atac2
dsRNA-At
A ac2 dsRNA-CG10238 dsRNA-MSN
0.60%
dsRNA-Cont
6.00%
dsRNA-Atac2
dsRNA-At
A ac2 dsRNA-CG10238 dsRNA-MSN
phospho-MKK4 (S257T261) (pMKK4), MSN, and
0.50% 5.00% phospho-H3S10 (H3S10P) from ATAC and MSN
ChIP/Input
0.40%
knockdown S2 cells (as in Figure 4D) without
ChIP/Input 4.00%
0.30%
3.00%
0.20%
2.00% sorbitol stimulation (B, D, F, H, J, and L) (Figures
0.10%
0.00%
1.00%
6B, 6D, 6F, 6H, and 6J) or with sorbitol stimulation
0.00%
A B C D E
A B C D E (C, E, G, I, K, M) (Figures 6C, 6E, 6G, 6I, and 6K)
F ChIP-ActiveJNK
ChIP-Active
v JNK on Jra Sorbitol (-) G ChIP-ActiveJNK
ChIP-Active
v JNK on Jra Sorbitol (+)
on the probed region of the Jra gene as indicated
dsRNA-Cont dsRNA-Atac2
dsRNA-At
A ac2 dsRNA-CG10238 dsRNA-MSN dsRNA-Cont dsRNA-Atac2
dsRNA-At
A ac2 dsRNA-CG10238 dsRNA-MSN
in (A), and input chromatin was measured by
1.20% 70.00%
1.00% 60.00%
qRT-PCR and normalized to input. The ratios of
50.00%
measured quantities are represented (see Figures
ChIP/Input
ChIP/Input
0.80%
40.00%
0.60%
0.40%
30.00%
S5A and S6). The average of three independent
20.00%
0.20% 10.00% experiments is graphed. Error bars represent
0.00% 0.00%
A B C D E A B C D E standard deviation.
See also Figures S2, S5, and S6.
H dsRNA-Contt
ChIP-pMKK4 on Jra Sorbitol (-)
dsRNA-Atac2
dsRNA-At
A ac2 dsRNA-CG10238 dsRNA-MSN
I dsRNA-Cont
ChIP-pMKK4 on Jra Sorbitol (+)
dsRNA-Atac2
dsRNA-At
A ac2 dsRNA-CG10238 dsRNA-MSN
0.30% 0.45%
0.40%
0.25%
0.35%
ChIP/Input
0.20% 0.30%
ChIP/Input
0.25%
0.15%
0.20%
0.10% 0.15%
0.10%
0.05% 0.05%
0.00%
the promoter and strongly suppressed
0.00%
A B C D E
A B C D E
downstream of the coding region
J dsRNA-Contt
ChIP-Misshapen on Jra Sorbitol (-)
dsRNA-Atac2
dsRNA-At
A ac2 dsRNA-CG10238 dsRNA-MSN
K dsRNA-Cont
ChIP-Missahpen on Jar Sorbitol (+)
dsRNA-Atac2
dsRNA-At
A ac2 dsRNA-CG10238 dsRNA-MSN
(Figure 5L). Osmotic stress substantially
0.35% 0.30% increased H3S10 phosphorylation levels
0.30%
0.25%
0.25%
across the Jra gene except for the
ChIP/Input
ChIP/Input
0.20%
0.20%
0.15%
0.10%
0.15%
0.10%
upstream enhancer (note the different
0.05%
0.00%
0.05%
scales in Figures 5L and 5M). Induction
0.00%
A B C D E
A B C D E
of H3S10 phosphorylation at the
L ChIP-H3S10P on Jra Sorbitol (-) M ChIP-H3S10P on Jra Sorbitol (+) promoter, the coding region (primer D),
dsRNA-Contt dsRNA-Atac2
dsRNA-At
A ac2 dsRNA-CG10238 dsRNA-MSN dsRNA-Cont dsRNA-Atac2
dsRNA-At
A ac2 dsRNA-CG10238 dsRNA-MSN
2.50% 20.00%
18.00%
and downstream of the coding region de-
pended on ATAC (especially CG10238);
2.00% 16.00%
14.00%
ChIP/Input
ChIP/Input
1.50% 12.00%
1.00%
10.00%
8.00% however, MSN suppressed H3S10 phos-
6.00%
0.50%
0.00%
4.00%
2.00% phorylation across the gene (Figure 5M).
0.00%
0 00%
A B C D E A B C D E
These results suggest that the relation-
ship between H3S10 phosphorylation
and H4K16 acetylation by ATAC at Jra
Finally, binding of MSN to the promoter is suppressed by ATAC differs from what was observed with H3S10 phosphorylation
in the absence of osmotic stress (Figure 5J); however, when it and H4K16 acetylation by MOF at the FOSL1 gene (Zippo
moves to the coding region where Jra is bound (primer D), et al., 2009). Acetylation of H4K16 at the enhancer of FOSL1
upon osmotic stress its binding is independent of ATAC by MOF required H3S10 phosphorylation; however, ATAC is
(Figure 5K). required for H3S10 phosphorylation in the presence of osmotic
A previous study linked the acetylation of H4K16 with stress. Moreover, ATAC-dependent H4K16 acetylation at the
H3S10 phosphorylation in the activation of the FOSL1 gene Jra enhancer in the absence of osmotic stress (Figure 5D)
(Zippo et al., 2009). At this gene, H3S10 phosphorylation was occurred independently of significant H3S10 phosphorylation
reported to recruit MOF-dependent H4K16 acetylation, which (Figure 5L).
then recruited the elongation factor P-TEFb to release paused
polymerase (Zippo et al., 2009). As ATAC is also an H4K16 ace- ATAC Acetylates Nucleosomes and Coordinates
tyltransferase, we tested for a relationship between H3S10 the JNK Upstream Kinases with Jra on chickadee
phosphorylation and H4K16 acetylation, ATAC, or MSN at Jra. The most striking aspect of our ChIP analysis of the Jra gene is the
H3S10P was enriched in the enhancer and promoter regions movement upon osmotic stress of ATAC and MAPKs to the
(primer B) in the absence of osmotic stress (Figure 5L). H3S10 coding region (primer D), which contains an NF-jun binding
phosphorylation levels were suppressed by ATAC and MSN at sequence and is occupied by the Jra transcription factor. This
0.10%
0%
0.80%
0.70%
box indicates the coding sequence (CDS), the gray
ChIP/Input
ChIP/Input
0.08%
8% 0.60%
0.06%
6%
0.50% circles indicate the enhancer, and the white circles
0.40%
4%
0.04% 0.30%
0.20%
indicate predicted AP-1 sites.
2%
0.02%
0.00%
0%
0.10%
0.00%
(B–K) ChIP assays were performed with antibodies
ChicA ChicB ChicC ChicA ChicB ChicC
against Atac2, H4K16ac, pMKK4 (S257T261),
D ChIP-H4K16ac on Chickadee Sorbitol (-) E ChIP-H4K16ac on Chickadee Sorbitol (+) MSN, and phospho-H3S10 (H3S10P) from ATAC
dsRNA-Cont
dsRNA-
A Cont
dsRNA-
dsRNA-CG10238
A CG10238
dsRNA-Atac2
dsRNA-
A At
dsRNA-
A ac2
dsRNA-MSN
A MSN
dsRNA-Cont
dsRNA-
A Cont
dsRNA-
dsRNA-CG10238
A CG10238
dsRNA-Atac2
dsRNA-
A At
dsRNA-
A ac2
dsRNA-MSN
A MSN and MSN knockdown S2 cells with or without
dsRNA-
A Jra
dsRNA-Jra dsRNA-Jra
dsRNA-
A Jra
.90%
0.90% 0.90% sorbitol stimulation (as in Figure 4D) on the probed
.80%
0.80% 0.80%
.70%
0.70% 0.70% region of the chickadee gene and upstream region
ChIP/Input
0.60%
.60% 0.60%
ChIP/Input
.50%
0.50% 0.50% as indicated in (A), and input chromatin was
0.40%
.40% 0.40%
.30%
0.30% 0.30%
0.20%
measured by qRT-PCR and normalized to input
.20%
0.20%
.10%
0.10%
0.00%
.00%
0.10%
0.00%
(see Figure S7A). The ratios of the measured
ChicA ChicB ChicC ChicA ChicB ChicC quantities are represented. The average of three
F ChIP-pMKK4 on Chicadee Sorbitol (-) G ChIP-pMKK4 on Chickadee Sorbitol (+)
independent experiments is graphed. Error bars
dsRNA-Cont
dsRNA-
A Cont
dsRNA-
dsRNA-CG10238
A CG10238
dsRNA-Atac2
dsRNA-
A At
dsRNA-
A ac2
dsRNA-MSN
A MSN
dsRNA-Cont
dsRNA-
A Cont
dsRNA-
dsRNA-CG10238
A CG10238
dsRNA-Atac2
dsRNA-
A At
dsRNA-
A ac2
dsRNA-MSN
A MSN represent standard deviation.
dsRNA-Jra dsRNA-
A Jra
dsRNA-Jra
0.60%
.60% 1.20% See also Figures S2, S5, S6, and S7.
0.50%
.50% 1.00%
0.80%
ChIP/Input
0.40%
.40%
ChIP/Input
0.30%
.30% 0.60%
0.20%
.20% 0.40%
0.10%
.10% 0.20%
0.00%
0.00%
.00%
ChicA ChicB ChicC ChicA ChicB ChicC MSN knockdown cells but not in Atac2
H ChIP-Misshapen on Chickadee Sorbitol (-) I ChIP-Misshapen on Chickadee Sorbitol (+)
knockdown cells (Figure S7A). These
dsRNA-Cont
dsRNA-
A Cont
dsRNA-CG10238
dsRNA-
A CG10238
dsRNA-
A Jra
dsRNA-Jra
dsRNA-
dsRNA-Atac2
A At
A ac2
dsRNA-MSN
dsRNA-
A MSN
dsRNA-
dsRNA-Cont
A Cont
dsRNA-CG10238
dsRNA-
A CG10238
dsRNA-Jra
dsRNA-
A Jra
dsRNA-
dsRNA-Atac2
A At
A ac2
dsRNA-MSN
dsRNA-
A MSN two regions were co-occupied by ATAC
0.30% 0.25%
and H4K16 acetylation (Figures 6B and
0.25% 0.20%
6D). The presence of Atac2 and H4K16
ChIP/Input
0.20%
ChIP/Input
0.15%
0.15%
0.10%
0.10% acetylation at these regions was not
0.05%
0.05%
affected by the knockdown of Jra, sug-
0.00% 0.00%
ChicA ChicB ChicC ChicA ChicB ChicC gesting ATAC does not require Jra to
J K bind the chickadee gene in the absence
ChIP-H3S10P on Chickadee Sorbitol (-) ChIP-H3S10P on Chickadee Sorbitol (+)
dsRNA-Cont
dsRNA-
A Cont
dsRNA-
dsRNA-CG10238
A CG10238
dsRNA-
dsRNA-Atac2
A At
dsRNA-
A ac2
dsRNA-MSN
A MSN
dsRNA-Cont
dsRNA-
A Cont
dsRNA-
dsRNA-CG10238
A CG10238
dsRNA-Atac2
dsRNA-
A At
dsRNA-
A ac2
dsRNA-MSN
A MSN
of osmotic stress. Interestingly, in the
dsRNA-
A Jra
dsRNA-Jra dsRNA-Jra
dsRNA-
A Jra
2.00% 18.00%
presence of osmotic stress, ATAC occu-
1.80% 16.00%
1.60%
1.40%
14.00% pancy and H4K16 acetylation were
ChIP/Input
ChIP/Input
12.00%
1.20%
1.00%
0.80%
10.00%
8.00%
increased at the ChicA region, and this
6.00%
0.60%
0.40% 4.00%
2.00%
increased occupancy was reduced in
0.20%
0.00%
0 00%
ATAC MSN
CG10238
MKK4
DISCUSSION
Osmotic stress
JNK
Jra
K16ac
ATAC shares four subunits with the SAGA transcription coactiva-
MSN
S10P
Chickadee AP-1 tor complex and was anticipated to function as a coactivator.
MKK4-P However, preliminary studies indicated that ATAC did not
AP-1c interact with the activation domains of VP16 or p53 under
E E K160aP JNK-P
D S10P S10P S1
conditions in which SAGA bound (Kusch et al., 2003). Prompted
Jra-P
by the identification of peptides from the Jra (Drosophila c-Jun)
ATAC MSN
CG10238
MKK4
transcription factor in ATAC affinity purifications, we demon-
strated that Jra coimmunoprecipitates with ATAC subunits. We
Jra JNK
K16ac further demonstrate that ATAC is localized to Jra target genes
S10P
Chickadee AP-1 (Jra and chickadee) and is required for H4K16 acetylation at
the Jra and chickadee enhancer and promoter. ATAC was
required for basal levels of expression of these genes, which
Figure 7. Models Summarizing ATAC Functions and the Molecular depended strongly on the Atac2 acetyltransferase subunit.
Events Occurring on Jra and chickadee as Revealed by the ChIP Thus, to our knowledge, this is the first report to demonstrate
Data
that ATAC functions as a transcription cofactor.
Summaries of ChIP data on the Jra gene without and with osmotic stress are
shown in (A) and (B), respectively. Summaries of ChIP data on the chickadee
Our pursuit of the functions of the CG10238 subunit of ATAC
gene without and with osmotic stress are shown in (C) and (D), respectively. and the potential role of its MoaE domain led us to discover
(A) In the absence of osmotic stress, ATAC occupies and acetylates H4K16 that ATAC is intimately integrated into MAP kinase signaling
(K16ac) at the enhancer (E) and promoter regions, containing AP-1 sites and target gene expression. CG10238 was found to inhibit
(AP-1), of the Jra gene and is required for basal levels of Jra transcription (small JNK activation by osmotic stress, an activity mediated through
arrow). ATAC blocks the recruitment of MKK4 to the enhancer and MSN to the
the MoaE domain. Thus, structural features of this protein that
promoter while inhibiting the activation of JNK. The phosphorylation of H3S10
(S10P) on the promoter region is suppressed by MSN.
are utilized for molybdopterin synthesis have been conscripted
(B) When cells are exposed to osmotic stress, the stress-activated kinases in in ATAC to function in the regulation of MAP kinase signaling.
the JNK cascade are recruited to the Jra binding motif (NF-jun) on the Jra gene The MSN kinase is the most likely direct target of CG10238, as
by ATAC, especially dependent on CG10238. In addition to interacting with the it coimmunoprecipitates with ATAC subunits. However, we
promoter region, ATAC also interacts with the NF-jun site by interaction with cannot rule out potential interactions with other kinases; for
Jra and further acetylates H4K16 at this site. ATAC continues to limit the extent example, peptides from MKK4 have been found in ATAC purifi-
of JNK activation. Phosphorylation of H3S10 is increased across the Jra gene
cations (Figure 1). Under conditions of osmotic stress, ATAC
by osmotic stress but is still suppressed by MSN. Jra transcription is rapidly
and transiently induced (large arrow). suppresses the level of target gene expression in a manner
(C) The chickadee gene does not have an apparent NF-jun site. In the absence strongly dependent on CG10238. We believe this is due to inhi-
of osmotic stress, Jra, ATAC, and acetyl-H4K16 are found at two AP-1 sites, bition of JNK activation rather than a direct negative effect of
which are 2 and 7 kb upstream from the coding sequence. Upstream kinases ATAC on transcription. In fact, ATAC may still function as a posi-
occupy these sites and the downstream coding region. tive cofactor for induced Jra expression, as the levels of H3S10P
(D) In the presence of osmotic stress, ATAC preferentially relocalizes to the
on the gene, considered a positive mark for transcription
far-upstream AP-1 site and recruits Jra to this location. Phospho-MKK4
(MKK4-P) and MSN are also relocalized to this far-upstream AP-1 site in
a CG10238- and Jra-dependent manner. The CG10238 subunit of ATAC is the levels of phosphorylated H3S10 are suppressed by MSN across the
required for ATAC, Jra, MKK4-P, and MSN relocalization to the far-upstream chickadee gene.
enhancer. Transcription of chickadee is activated (large arrow) whereas See also Figure S7.
downstream transcriptional cofactor and as an inhibitor of Angel, P., Hattori, K., Smeal, T., and Karin, M. (1988). The jun proto-oncogene
is positively autoregulated by its product, Jun/AP-1. Cell 55, 875–885.
upstream signaling, ATAC serves as a master regulator which
Butterfield, L., Storey, B., Maas, L., and Heasley, L.E. (1997). c-Jun
administers the appropriate level of response to the inducing
NH2-terminal kinase regulation of the apoptotic response of small cell lung
signals.
cancer cells to ultraviolet radiation. J. Biol. Chem. 272, 10110–10116.
Ciurciu, A., Komonyi, O., Pankotai, T., and Boros, I.M. (2006). The Drosophila
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES histone acetyltransferase Gcn5 and transcriptional adaptor Ada2a are
involved in nucleosomal histone H4 acetylation. Mol. Cell. Biol. 26, 9413–9423.
Cell Lines, Extract Preparation, and Complex Purification Das, M., Jiang, F., Sluss, H.K., Zhang, C., Shokat, K.M., Flavell, R.A., and
The nuclear extracts from S2 cell lines were generated as described in
Davis, R.J. (2007). Suppression of p53-dependent senescence by the JNK
Extended Experimental Procedures and were used for FLAG affinity purifica-
signal transduction pathway. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 104, 15759–15764.
tion as previously described (Suganuma et al., 2008).
de Nadal, E., and Posas, F. (2010). Multilayered control of gene expression by
stress-activated protein kinases. EMBO J. 29, 4–13.
Chromatin Immunoprecipitation Assay
de Nadal, E., Alepuz, P.M., and Posas, F. (2002). Dealing with osmostress
The crosslinked S2 cell pellets were washed, resuspended, and sonicated,
through MAP kinase activation. EMBO Rep. 3, 735–740.
and the DNA was immunoprecipitated with antibodies using Dynabeads
(Invitrogen). The bound DNA and input DNA were incubated with RNaseA de Nadal, E., Zapater, M., Alepuz, P.M., Sumoy, L., Mas, G., and Posas, F.
and the crosslinking was reversed. The ethanol-precipitated DNA pellets (2004). The MAPK Hog1 recruits Rpd3 histone deacetylase to activate
were resuspended and then were analyzed by quantitative real-time RT-PCR. osmoresponsive genes. Nature 427, 370–374.
Antibodies, buffer content, and primers for ChIP-qRT-PCR are described in Devary, Y., Gottlieb, R.A., Lau, L.F., and Karin, M. (1991). Rapid and
the Extended Experimental Procedures. preferential activation of the c-jun gene during the mammalian UV response.
Mol. Cell. Biol. 11, 2804–2811.
Osmotic Stress Response in dsRNAi Knockdown S2 Cells Dioum, E.M., Wauson, E.M., and Cobb, M.H. (2009). MAP-ping unconven-
and siRNA Knockdown 293T Cells tional protein-DNA interactions. Cell 139, 462–463.
The dsRNAi was transfected in S2 cells. The siRNA was transfected in 293T Edmunds, J.W., and Mahadevan, L.C. (2004). MAP kinases as structural
cells as described in the Extended Experimental Procedures. The cells were adaptors and enzymatic activators in transcription complexes. J. Cell Sci.
incubated with 500 mM sorbitol for 12 min before harvest. 117, 3715–3723.
Boyer Center for Molecular Medicine, 295 Congress Avenue, New Haven, CT 06536-0812, USA
*Correspondence: eduardo.groisman@yale.edu
DOI 10.1016/j.cell.2010.07.046
Figure 3. The Presence of an Open Reading Frame and Ribosome-Binding Site Is Conserved in the mgtA LR from Salmonella enterica,
Escherichia coli, Shigella flexneri, Citrobacter koseri, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Enterobacter sp. 638, Dickeya zeae, Dickeya dadantii, and
Serratia proteamaculans
(A) Alignment of the RNA sequences corresponding to the ribosome binding site and mgtL from the species listed above. Sequences in blue correspond to mgtL.
Asterisks correspond to nucleotides conserved in all species. The number of nucleotides shown in each line is indicated to the right of the nucleotide sequences.
(B) Alignment of the deduced amino acid sequences corresponding to mgtL from the species listed above. Sequences in yellow correspond to proline residues.
Asterisks correspond to positions conserved in all species. The number of sense codons in the mgtL ORFs is indicated to the right of the deduced amino acid
sequences.
(Figure 4C). Furthermore, the supF-promoted suppression was promoted by protein synthesis inhibitors is not limited to a partic-
specific because the supF-carrying plasmid did not reduce ular mechanism of action. Tetracycline exerts its effect on the
expression in a strain carrying a pYS1010 derivative with an mgtA LR (as opposed to the mgtA promoter) because
opal stop codon at the same position (Figure 4C), nor did it increased lacZ mRNA levels in wild-type Salmonella harboring
it modify it in a strain with the original pYS1010 plasmid carrying plasmid pYS1010 (data not shown). Furthermore, tetracycline
the wild-type mgtA leader sequence (Figure 4C). Second, acts by inhibiting mgtL translation because it did not promote
the structures of the wild-type and stop codon mutant mgtA a significant increase in lacZ mRNA levels in wild-type Salmo-
leaders were comparable when examined by in-line probing nella carrying the pYS1010 derivative with a stop codon at posi-
(Figure S2A). And third, in vitro transcription assays demon- tion 98–100 (data not shown). Taken together, our results
strated that Mg2+ regulated transcription elongation beyond indicate that interfering with mgtL translation by genetic or phar-
the mgtA LR similarly in DNA templates corresponding to the macological means increases the mRNA levels for the mgtA CR.
wild-type and stop codon mutant mgtA leaders (Figure S2B). The mgtL-encoded peptide does not appear to act in trans
We next tested whether inhibiting mgtL translation by means because a plasmid carrying mgtL DNA failed to restore normal
other than mutation of the mgtA LR affected the mRNA levels mgtA-lac expression in strains harboring pYS1010 derivatives
for the mgtA CR. The protein synthesis inhibitor tetracycline with stop codons at different positions in mgtL (Figure S2C).
promoted an 28-fold increase in the mgtA CR mRNA 15 min This suggested that mgtL exerts its regulatory effect in cis and
after its addition to wild-type Salmonella (Figure 4D). Thus, tetra- raised the question as to the physiological signal controlling
cycline could overcome the transcriptional silencing of the mgtA mgtL translation.
CR that normally takes place when wild-type Salmonella experi-
ences 500 mM Mg2+ (Cromie and Groisman, 2010; Cromie et al., Proline Limitation Enhances Transcription
2006). Tetracycline appears to affect the mRNA levels produced of the mgtA CR
from the mgtA CR specifically because there was little change in The Salmonella mgtL sequence includes four proline codons
the mRNA levels of the mgtA LR or the phoP CR, which were (Figure 1), which is a disproportionately high frequency for an
examined as controls (Figure 4D). Addition of chloramphenicol 18 codon ORF. The number and location of the proline codons
also increased the mRNA levels of the mgtA CR in wild-type (at the third, fifth, seventh, and ninth positions) are largely
Salmonella (data not shown), implying that the derepression conserved in the nine examined species (Figures 3A and 3B).
-galactosidase activity
8000 8000
(A) b-galactosidase activity (Miller units) produced
(Miller units)
(Miller units)
6000 by wild-type Salmonella (14028s) harboring 6000
plasmid pYS1010 with the wild-type mgtA leader
4000 4000 (Cromie et al., 2006), or derivatives with stop
2000 2000
codons at different positions in mgtL and/or
mutations that hinder stem loop C formation:
0 0 pstop 80–82; pstop 89–91; pstop 98–100; pstop
2
12
2
-91
0
0
09
12
0C
5G
5G
-82
0C
5G
-91
5G
0C
09
0C
-82
-11
01
-1 0
0-1
7-1
0-1
7-1
12
12
14
14
12
14
12
89
14
80
89
80
S1
S1
0
10
98
98
11
-G
-G
11
0-C
0-C
-G
0-C
0-G
0-C
10
11
10
top
top
pY
top
1
top
top
10
-82
-82
top
top
to p
to p
-10
01
01
-10
01
ps
ps
09
ps
ps
09
0
80
ps
80
S1
S1
S1
S1
ps
ps
ps
98
7-1
98
ps
7-1
top
pY
pY
to p
pY
pY
top
top
10
10
ps
ps
top
ps
top
ps
10 mM Mg2+ for 4 hr. Shown are the mean and
ps
ps
SD from at least three independent experiments.
C D (B) b-galactosidase activity produced by the
pstop 98-100 pstop 98-100 pYS1010
strains listed in (A). Bacteria were grown in
40
-galactosidase activity
5000
(amber) (opal) N-minimal medium with 10 mM Mg2+ for 4 hr.
Shown are the mean and SD from at least three
(Miller units)
Fold change
30
(T15 / T0 )
4000
independent experiments.
3000
20 (C) b-galactosidase activity produced by wild-type
2000 Salmonella (14028s) harboring plasmid pUHsupF
1000
10
or the plasmid vector pUH21-2lacIq, and
0
pYS1010 or its derivatives with UAG (pstop
0
98–100; amber) or UGA (pstop 98–100; opal)
or
or
ng
or
er
ng
F
F
F
up
up
up
ad
ct
ct
ct
di
di
ve
ve
co
le
co
Hs
Hs
Hs
oP
pU
pU
pU
gt
gt
Fold change
ng
er
er
ng
ad
di
di
di
di
co
co
co
le
le
co
A
A
oP
oP
gt
gt
gt
gt
ph
ph
m
m
Because the proline codons are located in the mgtL region where The mRNA level for the mgtA CR was 8-fold higher in organisms
introduction of stop codons heightens expression downstream of grown in the absence of proline than in those grown in its pres-
the mgtA leader (Figure 1), we hypothesized that a drop in the ence (Figure 4E). This effect was unique to the mgtA CR, as no
cytosolic proline levels might decrease the availability of proline- differences were detected in the mRNA levels corresponding
charged tRNAs, causing ribosome stalling at mgtL proline to the mgtA LR or the phoP CR (Figure 4E). Furthermore,
codons, leading to formation of stem loop C and an increase in it was specific for proline, as limitation for histidine, which does
the levels of the mgtA CR mRNA. By contrast, when cytosolic not have codons in the mgtL sequence (Figure 1), failed to
proline is abundant, coupling of mgtA leader transcription and increase the mRNA level for the mgtA CR (data not shown).
mgtL translation would be restored, thereby favoring formation Indeed, despite the presence of three arginine codons in mgtL
of stem loop B and reducing the production of mgtA CR mRNA. (Figure 1), arginine limitation did not promote an increase in the
To explore this hypothesis, we grew a proline auxotroph in the mRNA levels of the mgtA CR in an arginine auxotroph (data not
presence of 1 mM proline for 1 hr, washed the cells, split shown). Perhaps this reflects the location of the arginine codons,
the culture into two different media—one containing and one one of which is in stem loop C, and that the remaining arginine
lacking proline—and then harvested the mRNA 15 min later. codons may not be sufficient to mediate mgtA derepression.
8
attenuation-regulated ilvGMEDA operon (Chen et al., 1991).
Moreover, it is higher than what has been reported for the atten-
6
uation-regulated trp operon, where starvation for tryptophan
4 does not alter trp expression in a tryptophan prototroph
2 (Yanofsky and Horn, 1994).
0
L+
L+
L+
Pr o3
7,9
7,9
o3
9
9
7 ,9
Pr o3
P r 5 ,7 ,
Pr 5,7,
Pr 5,7,
gt
gt
Pr
Pr
Pr
,5,
,5 ,
,5,
m
m
o
o
o3
o3
o3
Pr
70
60 with the isogenic mgtL+ strain, proline limitation had little effect
on the mRNA levels for the mgtA leader and phoP CRs
Fold change
50
40
(Figure 5A). Importantly, the mutant still responded to changes
in the Mg2+ concentration (Figure 5B) (albeit not as well as the
30
isogenic strain with a wild-type mgtA leader), indicating that
20
the proline codon substitutions did not lock the mutant into an
10 inactive conformation. These data indicate that the mgtL proline
0 codons are essential for the response to proline limitation, and
L+
L+
L+
Pr o3
7,9
7 ,9
Pr o3
9
o 3 ,9
9
7 ,9
Pr o3
they suggest that this ability is distinct from the mgtA leader’s
Pr 5,7,
Pr 5,7,
,7
gt
gt
gt
Pr
Pr
Pr
,5 ,
,5,
,5,
o5
m
m
o
o3
Pr
affects indirect proline sensing by the mgtL ORF and vice versa, 4
we grew the mgtL+ proline auxotrophic strain in the presence of 3
500 mM Mg2+ and 1 mM proline for 1 hr, washed the cells, and split
2
the culture into four different media containing either 500 mM
Mg2+ and 1 mM proline, 500 mM Mg2+ and no proline, 5 mM 1
Mg2+ and 1 mM proline, or 5 mM Mg2+ and no proline. Fifteen 0
minutes later, we determined the mRNA levels corresponding - G N NG NP - G N NG NP - G N NG NP
to the mgtA and phoP CRs as well as to the mgtA LR. We found
that the mRNA levels corresponding to the mgtA CR were higher
B
in cells experiencing both low Mg2+ and low proline than in cells Pro3,5,7,9
limited only for Mg2+ or for proline (Figure 5C). As expected, the mgtA leader mgtA coding phoP coding
mRNA levels corresponding to the mgtA LR and the phoP CR 7
were higher in cells experiencing 5 mM Mg2+ than in those Relative mRNA levels
6
exposed to 500 mM Mg2+ (Figure 5C), reflecting that the amount 5
of activated PhoP protein increases as the Mg2+ concentration
4
in the media decreases (Shin et al., 2006). Our results support
the notion that Mg2+ and proline are sensed independently 3
by the mgtA leader RNA. Furthermore, they suggest synergism 2
between the two inducing signals because the mRNA levels for
1
the mgtA CR were higher in cells experiencing both low Mg2+
and low proline than the sum of the mRNA levels produced by 0
- G N NG NP - G N NG NP - G N NG NP
cells experiencing only low Mg2+ or low proline (Figure 5C).
In agreement with this notion, wild-type Salmonella harboring
Figure 6. Hyperosmotic Shock Promotes Transcription of the mgtA
plasmid pYS1010 derivatives with early stop codons in the
CR in a Process that Requires the mgtL Proline Codons
mgtL sequence produced more b-galactosidase when grown in Relative mRNA levels of the mgtA LR and the mgtA and phoP CRs produced
low Mg2+ than the sum of the b-galactosidase activities produced by wild-type Salmonella (YS957) (A), or a derivative in which all mgtL proline
by the same strains grown in high Mg2+ plus the b-galactosidase codons were substituted (EG19870) (B). Bacteria were grown for 1 hr in modi-
activity produced by wild-type Salmonella carrying pYS1010 fied N-minimal medium without casamino acids containing 500 mM Mg2+ and
grown in low Mg2+ (Figures 4A and 4B). either no additional supplements (-), 1 mM glycine betaine (G), 0.3 M NaCl (N),
0.3 M NaCl and 1 mM glycine betaine (NG), or 0.3 M NaCl and 1 mM proline
(NP). Relative mRNA levels were calculated by dividing the mRNA levels of
Hyperosmotic Shock Promotes an Increase in the mgtA
cells grown under the specified condition by the mRNA levels present in cells
CR mRNA Levels grown in 500 mM Mg2+ (i.e., with no additional supplement). Shown are the
Proline plays two major functions in bacterial cells: it is a compo- mean and SD from three independent experiments.
nent of proteins and it can function as an osmoprotectant
(Csonka and Leisinger, 2007). Thus, we hypothesized that
when bacteria experience hyperosmotic shock, the increased the induction of the mgtA CR mRNA promoted by NaCl but
requirement for proline in osmoprotection might decrease its had negligible effects when added in the absence of NaCl
availability to charge proline tRNAs. This could potentially lead (Figure 6A). Proline had a similar (albeit not as strong) effect as
to ribosome stalling at the mgtL proline codons and result in glycine betaine (Figure 6A), presumably because it is not as
derepression of the mgtA CR. We tested this hypothesis by effective as glycine betaine in osmoprotection (Cayley et al.,
comparing the mRNA levels produced by wild-type Salmonella 1992). The increase in the mgtA CR mRNA levels provoked by
experiencing hyperosmotic shock in the presence or absence hyperosmotic shock requires an intact mgtL ORF, because it
of osmoprotectants. was not observed in an isogenic strain substituted in all four
We determined that the mRNA levels corresponding to the mgtL proline codons (Figure 6B). Cumulatively, these data
mgtA CR were 6-fold higher when Salmonella experienced demonstrate that hyperosmotic shock promotes transcription
500 mM Mg2+ + 0.3 M NaCl for 1 hr than in organisms grown in of the mgtA CR in an mgtL-dependent manner.
500 mM Mg2+ (Figure 6A). By contrast, the mRNA levels for the
mgtA LR and the phoP CR were similar under the two growth Formation of Stem Loop C Is Necessary
conditions (Figure 6A), indicative that the induction of the mgtA for Transcription of the mgtA CR
CR mRNA levels promoted by high osmolarity is not mediated Because transcription and translation are coupled in bacteria,
by the PhoP-dependent mgtA promoter. Addition of the osmo- when cytosolic proline is abundant, a ribosome translating the
protectant glycine betaine together with NaCl compromised complete mgtL sequence is likely to occlude the left arm of
stem loop C (Figure 1 and Figure 7A). This would favor formation tive with a stop codon at position 107–109 no longer conferred
of stem loop B, which has been shown to hamper transcription high levels of b-galactosidase upon wild-type Salmonella when
elongation beyond the mgtA LR (Cromie et al., 2006). nucleotides 110–112 were deleted (Figure 4A), which brought
By contrast, conditions that reduce the levels of free cytosolic the mgtL stop codon only six nucleotides away from the left
proline would promote ribosome stalling at the mgtL proline arm of stem loop C. Cumulatively, these results indicate that
codons, thereby advancing formation of stem loop C and result- the distance between the ribosome translating mgtL and the
ing in transcription elongation into the mgtA CR (Figure 1 and nucleotides forming the left arm of stem loop C (as opposed to
Figure 7A). Therefore, the position that a translating ribosome the size of the translated mgtL product) is critical for mgtL-medi-
reaches in the mgtL ORF should determine whether transcription ated gene control.
continues into the mgtA CR (Figure 1 and Figure 7A). If the lack of translation of the full-length mgtL stimulates tran-
We tested our model by investigating the phenotype of wild- scription elongation beyond the mgtA LR by favoring formation of
type Salmonella harboring pYS1010 derivatives with stop stem loop C (Figure 1 and Figure 7A), hindering formation of stem
codons at different positions within mgtL. A derivative with loop C should abolish this stimulation. As predicted, the G120C
a stop codon at position 110–112, which is only six nucleotides and C145G substitutions in the mgtA leader (Figure 1), which
upstream of the left arm of stem loop C (Figure 1), produced were previously shown to impede formation of stem loop C
very low levels of b-galactosidase when grown in 10 mM Mg2+ (Cromie et al., 2006), thwarted derepression in constructs
(Figure 4A), like the isogenic strain with plasmid pYS1010 harboring stop codons at either of two mgtL positions (Figure 4A).
harboring the wild-type mgtA leader (Figure 4A). By contrast,
there were high levels of b-galactosidase in a pYS1010 derivative DISCUSSION
with a stop codon at position 107–109 (Figure 4A), which is nine
nucleotides from the left arm of stem loop C (Figure 1), similar to The LR of many mRNAs can respond to specific nutritional
the behavior of strains with stop codons at positions 80–82, and/or physical signals by modifying expression of the associ-
89–91, or 98–100 (Figure 4A). Furthermore, the pYS1010 deriva- ated downstream coding sequences. Some of these leader
Schiller, D., Kruse, D., Kneifel, H., Kramer, R., and Burkovski, A. (2000). Poly- Yanofsky, C., and Horn, V. (1994). Role of regulatory features of the trp operon
amine transport and role of potE in response to osmotic stress in Escherichia of Escherichia coli in mediating a response to a nutritional shift. J. Bacteriol.
coli. J. Bacteriol. 182, 6247–6249. 176, 6245–6254.
Stanford University School of Medicine, Beckman B171B, 279 Campus Drive, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
*Correspondence: x-he@northwestern.edu
DOI 10.1016/j.cell.2010.07.040
2.4 Å via the method of single isomorphous replacement with propellers are 50 Å for Sema7A-Sema7A, 55 Å for Sema7A-Plex-
anomalous scattering (SIRAS) (Table S1, Figure S2). The asym- inC1, and 80 Å for PlexinC1-PlexinC1.
metric unit of the crystal contains one dimeric complex in a 2:2 Interestingly, the Sema domains of Sema7A and PlexinC1
stoichiometry, comprised of a central Sema7A dimer and two interact ‘‘edge-on’’ using their sides to contact one another,
monomeric PlexinC1-SemaPSI molecules (Figure 2A). rather than the top or bottom faces, as was generally expected.
Overall, the shape of the complex resembles a crab where The planes of the Sema7A and PlexinC1 b propellers are orthog-
Sema7A comprises the body, and the two PlexinC1 molecules onally related. The orientation shown in Figure 2 places the
resemble pincers emanating radially from the body at four and C-termini of Sema7A close to the cell membrane, leading to
eight o’clock. The approximate dimensions of the complex are the GPI anchor. The C terminus of the PSI domain of PlexinC1,
80 Å 3 140 Å 3 160 Å (Figure 2A). The head-to-head docking which is 160 Å from the Semaphorin C terminus, leads to the
architecture of the complex is in an ideal orientation for interac- opposing cell membrane, albeit through one additional PSI and
tion of two cell surface-associated proteins across a cell-cell four Ig domains not present in the current structure. Because
junction. In the complex, both Sema7A and PlexinC1 contain the remaining PSI and Ig domains of PlexinC1 would appear to
large, disk-shaped Sema domains composed of seven-bladed emanate away from the central dyad axis of the complex, they
b propellers, each of which is intimately associated with its are unlikely to contact Sema7A.
respective PSI domain and, in the case of Sema7A, a single Ig We expressed A39R in baculovirus and determined the
domain that would lead to the membrane. In the complex, the unliganded A39R structure, to a resolution of 2.0 Å, by SIRAS
Sema domains mediate the vast majority of the receptor-ligand (Table S1). The structure of A39R shows a dimer of minimal
contact. The center-to-center distances between the Sema Sema domains with no PSI or Ig domains (Figure 2D). The
Sema domains of A39R and Sema7A are clearly built on the domains mediate all the A39R-PlexinC1 contact. The orienta-
same scaffold, with a root-mean-square deviation (rmsd) of tions of the Sema propellers in the complex are nearly identical
1.5 Å for matching Ca atoms (Figure S3). Major structural differ- to those in Sema7A/PlexinC1, as is the ‘‘edge-on’’ interaction
ences are located only at the N-terminal segment and several mode between the ligand and receptor b propellers.
loops remote from the Plexin-binding site of Sema7A. Sema7A,
like Sema3A and Sema4D, has a long N-terminal segment that Dimerization of Sema7A and A39R Are Mediated by
provides an additional, fifth b strand on the outer edge of blade Conserved Structural Elements with Varied Chemistry
6, whereas A39R lacks this segment (Figure S3). Dimerization appears to be a general and probably important
We followed the same approach as Sema7A/PlexinC1- property of Semaphorins (Antipenko et al., 2003; Love et al.,
SemaPSI to obtain the crystals of the A39R/PlexinC1-SemaPSI 2003) that we can now examine within the context of a receptor
complex, which we solved by molecular replacement (Table complex. The Sema7A molecules in the complex, consisting of
S1). The architecture of the A39R/PlexinC1 complex is similar Sema, PSI, and Ig domains, form a dimer roughly similar to the
to that of Sema7A/PlexinC1, except that as a result of the lack Sema4D dimer (Love et al., 2003) and the Sema3A dimers that
of PSI and Ig domains in A39R, it is shorter in its longest dimen- only contain the Sema domains (Antipenko et al., 2003)
sion (Figure 2C). As in the Sema7A/PlexinC1 complex, the Sema (Figure S2C). This is consistent with our gel filtration analysis
Sema7A residues Arg204 and Arg202 both forming salt bridges binding (Figure S4). In the complex structure, the location of the
with PlexinC1 residue Glu219. Sema7A Tyr213 occupies the ridges flanking the groove in the Semaphorin binding site is
space between this salt bridge and a salt bridge involving the consistent with a previous mutagenesis study implicating
important Sema7A residue Lys280 and PlexinC1 Asp200 (Fig- the region between residues 166–235 of the Sema domain of
ure S2A). The second cluster of charged interactions involve Sema3A in its Plexin-binding specificity (Koppel et al., 1997). In
Sema7A Asp216, which forms bifurcated salt bridges with summary, the Sema7A/PlexinC1 interface is extensive and varied
Arg222 and Lys224 of PlexinC1. Mutagenesis data support that in chemical and structural character and is dominated by the
the interactions at this region are important for Sema7A-PlexinC1 insertion of a long loop in Sema7A into a deep groove in PlexinC1.
The A39R-PlexinC1 Interaction Globally Resembles accommodations at the periphery of the interface (Figure 4A).
the Sema7A-PlexinC1 Interaction These small movements result in remodeled pairwise interac-
With strikingly similar orientations of the respective b propellers tions by these surrounding structural elements, relative to the
in the two complexes, the A39R-PlexinC1 interface involves Sema7A/PlexinC1 interface, but still preserving several key
the same set of structural elements as the Sema7A-PlexinC1 contacts that presumably are important for the cross-reactivity
interface (Figure 4). The A39R-PlexinC1 interface buries a (discussed below).
total of 1890 Å2 solvent-accessible surface area, slightly smaller The ‘‘loop-in-groove’’ interaction in A39R/PlexinC1 (Fig-
than the Sema7A-PlexinC1 interface. The protruding loop 4c-4d ure 4D) has six hydrogen bonds between the A39R 4c-4d loop
of A39R is in an almost identical conformation as that of Sema7A, and the PlexinC1 groove, four less than in Sema7A/PlexinC1
inserting into the groove of the blade 3 surface of PlexinC1 (Table S3). Only one of these hydrogen bonds is conserved
(Figures 4A, 4B, and 5). The neighboring segments of this loop, between Sema7A/PlexinC1 and A39R/PlexinC1. The diversity
including the extrusion helix 2 of A39R that contacts the loop of amino acid contacts with PlexinC1 formed by the Sema7A
3b-3c of PlexinC1, and the A39R blade 3 that contacts the Plex- versus A39R 4c-4d loop indicates that the PlexinC1 pocket
inC1 strand 3d, have undergone some relatively minor structural has the capacity for highly degenerate interactions, which
facilitates cross-reactivity. At the edge of this groove in PlexinC1, PlexinC1 residues as in Sema7A/PlexinC1, but the pattern
A39R presents an arginine (Arg207), as opposed to a lysine of interaction is altered. While there are four salt bridges in
(Lys280) in Sema7A, to form a salt bridge with PlexinC1 two clusters in Sema7A/PlexinC1, there are only two (A39R
Asp200 (discussed below). Arg132/Arg134 to PlexinC1 Glu219) in A39R/PlexinC1 at this
Peripheral to the 4c-4d loop, the structural chemistry of the region (Figure 4E). In A39R/Sema7A, the loss of the other cluster
A39R/PlexinC1 interactions at the obstructed (closed) end of of salt bridges seen in Sema7A/PlexinC1 (PlexinC1 Arg222/
the PlexinC1 groove (Figures 4B and 4C) are quite different Lys224 to Sema7A Asp216) is due to the raised A39R blade 3.
than what is seen for Sema7A/PlexinC1 as a result of a slight While PlexinC1 Lys224 is not directly bonded to A39R in the
rigid-body repositioning (Figure 4A). Compared to Sema7A, the A39R/PlexinC1 complex, PlexinC1 Arg222 manages to form
A39R extrusion helix 2 is shifted outwards relative to the center hydrogen bonds with the hydroxyl of A39R Tyr145. The loss
of the interface and tilted away from PlexinC1 (Figures 4A of these two salt bridges from the mammalian complex may
and 4C). Consequently, the A39R/PlexinC1 interaction is not as be further compensated by the strengthening of the A39R
intimate as the Sema7A/PlexinC1 interaction at this region. Arg132-PlexinC1 Glu219 salt bridge, which is more deeply
However, the shifting of the helix also allows A39R Asp300, buried than in Sema7A/PlexinC1, because of the neighboring
corresponding to Sema7A Gln379 (Figures 3C and 4C), to hydrophobic interaction between A39R Ile125 and PlexinC1
move into the position to form a salt bridge with PlexinC1 Leu220 (Figure 4E). Collectively, The A39R/PlexinC1 interface
Arg131, which is not present in Sema7A/PlexinC1. shows variations from the Sema7A/PlexinC1 interface due to
The A39R/PlexinC1 interactions at the open end of the some intermolecular repositioning around the central 4c-4d
PlexinC1 groove (Figures 4B and 4E) involve the same set of loop. Nevertheless, the general scheme of inserting the long
*Correspondence: michael.brunner@bzh.uni-heidelberg.de
DOI 10.1016/j.cell.2010.08.010
2001). VVD is not essential for clock function. Deletion of vvd has homodimers that efficiently activate transcription of vvd. VVD
a mild circadian phenotype, resulting in a slight phase delay of accumulates with a delay after light induction and acts as
the circadian clock (Heintzen et al., 2001). This raises a question a competitive inhibitor of WCC homodimerization, leading to
about the physiologically relevant function of VVD. an attenuation of light-induced transcription. Interaction with
When dark-grown Neurospora is abruptly exposed to light, VVD protects light-activated WCC from rapid degradation and
WCC-dependent transcript levels increase rapidly and adapt to thus allows a sizable fraction of WCC to equilibrate with the
a low steady state within 1–2 hr (Schwerdtfeger and Linden, WCC dark form. In the photoadapted state, VVD synthesis trig-
2001). In the photoadapted state, a second transcription spike gered by light-activated WCC is balanced by VVD-dependent
can be evoked by increasing the light intensity (Schwerdtfeger inhibition of WCC. The VVD-mediated desensitization and stabi-
and Linden, 2001). Photoadaptation and light-sensing in the lization of the light activated WCC explain on a molecular level
adapted state depend on VVD. how Neurospora can robustly entrain to artificial and natural
In nature, mycelia growing deeply concealed behind the photoperiods.
bark of a tree may receive the same light intensity level during
the day as openly exposed mycelia receive by moonlight in the RESULTS
course of a clear night. How the photoreceptor system adapts
to different light intensities and facilitates photoperiodic entrain- Neurospora Responds to Light over Several Orders
ment over a broad range of conditions (Tan et al., 2004) is not of Magnitude
known. To characterize the light-sensing system of Neurospora,
In the present study, we elucidated the molecular mechanism we exposed dark-grown mycelia to increasing light intensities
of photoactivation and adaptation of WCC. We show that WCC (5 mmol 3 m2 3 s1 and 130 mmol 3 m2 3 s1) for two consec-
and VVD form highly dynamic homo- and heterodimers via their utive 4 hr periods, and expression of vvd RNA was analyzed by
activated LOV domains. In response to light, WCC initially forms qPCR (Figure 1A). In dark-grown mycelia, vvd RNA could not
To demonstrate this directly in an EMSA, we generated an binding of the light-activated WCC dimer to its DNA binding
antibody against the LOV domain of WC-1 that should interfere site. Subsequently, LOV antibody was added and the sample
with dimerization of WCC protomers. Nuclear extracts of dark- was then analyzed by EMSA (lane 5). Under these conditions,
grown mycelia were preincubated with an excess of LOV anti- the light-activated WCC was super-shifted, suggesting that the
body over WCC to saturate each WC-1 molecule with one anti- WCC dimer was crosslinked by one antibody bound to two
body. Subsequently, one aliquot was exposed to a saturating LOV domains, a reaction that should be kinetically favored,
light pulse, while the other was kept in the dark. By EMSA anal- when WCC is a dimer. Together, the data demonstrate that
ysis, the dark form of WCC was super-shifted to a single discrete WCC dimerizes in a light-dependent fashion.
band of lower mobility, indicating that one LOV antibody had If WCC dimers are highly dynamic, the monomer-dimer ratio
bound to the WC-1 subunit of the WCC (Figure 2B, lane 3). should be sensitive to the WCC concentration. To vary the
However, a subsequent light pulse did not induce a further concentration of WCC, we performed EMSA in a fixed volume
super-shift (lane 4). This finding indicates that binding of LOV with increasing amounts of light-exposed nuclear extract. As
antibodies to the dark form of WCC interfered with light-depen- expected, the intensity of the EMSA signals increased due to
dent dimerization. In a further assay, nuclear extract was first the increasing amounts of WCC (Figure S2B). At high concentra-
preincubated in light with the pLRE oligonucleotide to allow tions of extract, only the mobility shift corresponding to the
DISCUSSION
Analysis of Photoadduct Formation and Decay Elvin, M., Loros, J.J., Dunlap, J.C., and Heintzen, C. (2005). The PAS/LOV
Purified His6-VVD36 or Neurospora nuclear extract were prepared as protein VIVID supports a rapidly dampened daytime oscillator that facilitates
described above. For analysis of photoadduct formation, samples were entrainment of the Neurospora circadian clock. Genes Dev. 19, 2593–2605.
prepared in red light. His6-VVD36 and nuclear extracts were irradiated with Foster, R.G., Hankins, M.W., and Peirson, S.N. (2007). Light, photoreceptors,
the indicated light intensities. Conditions with different light intensities were and circadian clocks. Methods Mol. Biol. 362, 3–28.
established through the use of a variable number of neon tubes in combination
Froehlich, A.C., Liu, Y., Loros, J.J., and Dunlap, J.C. (2002). White Collar-1,
with light absorber foil. Light intensity was measured with a LI-250A Light
a circadian blue light photoreceptor, binding to the frequency promoter.
Meter (LI-COR Biosciences). For decay analysis, His6-VVD36 or nuclear
Science 297, 815–819.
extracts were irradiated with saturating light (10 min, 130 mmol 3 m2 3 s1)
and transferred to darkness. WC-1 photoadduct formation and decay were Gietz, R.D., and Woods, R.A. (2002). Transformation of yeast by lithium
analyzed by EMSA, and the His6-VVD36 photoadduct was analyzed photomet- acetate/single-stranded carrier DNA/polyethylene glycol method. Methods
rically by measurementof the absorbance spectrum of the FAD cofactor as Enzymol. 350, 87–96.
described (Zoltowski et al., 2007). Harper, S.M., Neil, L.C., and Gardner, K.H. (2003). Structural basis of a photo-
tropin light switch. Science 301, 1541–1544.
SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION
He, Q., and Liu, Y. (2005). Molecular mechanism of light responses in Neuros-
pora: from light-induced transcription to photoadaptation. Genes Dev. 19,
Supplemental Information includes Extended Experimental Procedures and
2888–2899.
five figures and can be found with this article online at doi:10.1016/j.cell.
2010.08.010. He, Q., Cheng, P., Yang, Y., Wang, L., Gardner, K.H., and Liu, Y. (2002). White
collar-1, a DNA binding transcription factor and a light sensor. Science 297,
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 840–843.
Heintzen, C., Loros, J.J., and Dunlap, J.C. (2001). The PAS protein VIVID
We thank Johanna Scholz and Krisztina Makara for excellent technical defines a clock-associated feedback loop that represses light input, modu-
assistance. We are grateful to Cornelia Ulbrich for her experienced help with lates gating, and regulates clock resetting. Cell 104, 453–464.
setting up the yeast two-hybrid system. This work was supported by the
Helfrich-Förster, C. (2002). The circadian system of Drosophila melanogaster
DFG grant BR 1375-3-1 to M.B. and T.S., SFB 638 and the FCI to M.B.,
and its light input pathways. Zoology (Jena) 105, 297–312.
GP1188 to E.M. and by an EMBO-HHMI startup grant by the Hungarian
OTKA (K 68960) and ETT (477-05) to K.K., M.B. is a member of CellNetworks Herzberg, C., Weidinger, L.A., Dörrbecker, B., Hübner, S., Stülke, J., and
and S.C. is a member of HBIGS. Commichau, F.M. (2007). SPINE: a method for the rapid detection and analysis
of protein-protein interactions in vivo. Proteomics 7, 4032–4035.
Received: February 16, 2010 Ito, H., Fukuda, Y., Murata, K., and Kimura, A. (1983). Transformation of intact
Revised: June 16, 2010 yeast cells treated with alkali cations. J. Bacteriol. 153, 163–168.
Accepted: August 7, 2010
James, P., Halladay, J., and Craig, E.A. (1996). Genomic libraries and a host
Published: September 2, 2010
strain designed for highly efficient two-hybrid selection in yeast. Genetics
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Bachleitner, W., Kempinger, L., Wülbeck, C., Rieger, D., and Helfrich-Förster, Domain swapping to assess the mechanistic basis of Arabidopsis phototropin
C. (2007). Moonlight shifts the endogenous clock of Drosophila melanogaster. 1 receptor kinase activation and endocytosis by blue light. Plant Cell 21, 3226–
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 104, 3538–3543. 3244.
50 µm
15 hAPF 30 hAPF
C D E F
Time [hAPF]
20 µm 32h20 APF
16 hAPF 20h50 APF PCP order elongation
Our previous experiments suggested that PCP domain retical analysis to extract key mechanisms that couple cell rear-
polarity does not develop de novo during pupal stages; PCP rangements to PCP reorientation.
domains are polarized in both larval wing discs and prepupal
wings, but polarity is not aligned with the PD axis. At early pupal RESULTS
stages, the PCP axis is oriented at an angle to the PD axis
(Classen et al., 2005). Later, by the time wing hairs form, PCP Planar Polarity Points Initially toward the Wing Margin
domains are oriented along the PD axis of the wing. Alignment and Reorients Distally
with the PD axis occurs during a phase in which wing epithelial To investigate how PCP order evolves during pupal develop-
cells are exchanging their cell contacts (Classen et al., 2005). ment, we imaged wings expressing Stbm:YFP between 15 and
One consequence of remodelling is an increase in hexagonal 34 hr after puparium formation (hAPF). We developed a method
order of the wing epithelium. Theoretical analysis suggested to quantify planar polarity based on the cell perimeter intensity of
that different types of fluctuations could guide epithelial cells Stbm:YFP. This method quantifies the axis and magnitude of
initially disordered by proliferation toward a hexagonal state polarity, but not its vector orientation (Supplemental Theoretical
(Farhadifar et al., 2007). Here, we investigate the relationship Procedures, 1.1 and Figures S1A–S1E available online). We
between these cell rearrangements and the temporal evolution started by quantifying the axis of PCP at 15 hAPF (Figure 1A);
of PCP orientation patterns. We quantitatively analyze time- we also determined the polarity vectors in these wings by
lapses of pupal wing epithelia and combine these data with theo- creating Fz:YFP-expressing clones (Figures S1F–S1H). As
L3 L3 L3
80 µm
ubi-Ecad:GFP 24h00' 31h40'
G H I -1
0.3 h
J K L -1
0.1 h
-1
0.05 h
-1
0.01 h
anti-clockwise clockwise
the decrease in average neighbor number (Figure 4F). These new gation (Figure 4G) and stabilize the tissue shape change caused
cell boundaries have no preferred direction during phase I by cell elongation during phase I (Figures 4C–4E). They also
(Figure 4I). Cells undergo between one and two rounds of increase average neighbor number and the fraction of hexago-
oriented cell division that reduce cell size. Between veins 3 nally packed cells (Figure 4F).
and 4, these divisions are on average oriented 20 to the PD
axis (Figure 4H). As phase I ends, cell elongation peaks (Fig- Severing the Hinge from the Wing Blade Blocks PD
ure 4G) and cell division stops (Figure 4F). At the end of this Elongation and Misorients Cell Divisions and Neighbor
phase, tracked tissue patches have deformed in a way that Exchanges
can be accounted for by the combination of cell elongation To investigate the cellular basis of altered shear and rotation in
and oriented cell division. During phase II (about 24–32 hAPF), severed wing blades, we quantified cell elongation and the
cells assemble new contacts parallel to the PD axis (Figures orientation of neighbor exchanges and cell divisions after
4G and 4I). These oriented neighbor exchanges relieve cell elon- severing from the hinge (Figures S3C–S3G and Movie S5B).
A P D B P DC P D D P D E P D
20 µm
15 hAPF 19h30 APF 24 hAPF 28h30 APF 31h30 APF
persistent disappearing new boundary from neighbor exchange new boundary from cell division
F G
1 6 1
phase I phase II 0.32
5.9 cell number (fraction of maximum)
average neighbor number
PD elongation
0.24
0.6 0.6
fraction
fraction hexagons
fraction
5.7 0.2
PD cell elongation 0.4
0.4 0.16
5.6 new cell contacts
(fraction of maximum) 0.12
0.2 0.2
5.5 cell contacts that will disappear
phase I phase II (fraction of maximum) 0.08
0 5.4 0
14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32
time (in hAPF) time (in hAPF)
H 90 90 I 90 90
oriented cell divisions, cell elongation, and oriented cell rear- PD axis at this time (Shimada et al., 2006). We turned to theoret-
rangements. Because microtubules have been shown to align ical analysis to explore how each of these processes might affect
with the axis of cell elongation (Cortes et al., 2006; Daga and the axis of planar polarity. Previously, we used a vertex model to
Nurse, 2008; Haase and Lew, 2007; Strauss et al., 2006), cell study the effects of proliferation on cell packing geometry
shape may directly influence the distribution of PCP within the (Farhadifar et al., 2007). Here, we add to this model a simplified
cell. Indeed, microtubules in wing epithelial cells align with the description of the dynamics of PCP order.
G H
2 2 2 2
212*103µm 123*103µm 123*103µm 146*103µm 15 hAPF
phase I phase II
D P D
E P D
F P D
G P D
H P D
20 µm
15h45 APF 19h30 APF 24 hAPF 28h30 APF 31h APF
persistent disappearing new boundary from neighbor exchange new boundary from cell division
I 6
J 1
1
phase I phase II 0.32
5.9 cell number (fraction of maximum)
average neighbor number
PD elongation
0.24
0.6 0.6
fraction
fraction hexagons
fraction
5.7 0.2
PD cell elongation 0.4
0.4 0.16
5.6 new cell contacts
(fraction of maximum) 0.12
0.2 0.2
5.5 cell contacts that will disappear
phase I phase II (fraction of maximum) 0.08
0 5.4 0
14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32
time (in hAPF) time (in hAPF)
K 90 90 L 90 90
Figure 7. Early Polarity, Cell Elongation, Division, and Rearrangement Are Perturbed in ds05142 Wings
(A and B) A ds05142, ubi-ECad:GFP wing at 15h300 and 30 hAPF. The hinge is colored blue and the blade red. Numbers indicate blade and hinge areas in mm2.
(C) Average nematic order in a ds05142,act-stbm:YFP/ ds05142 wing at 15 hAPF (compare to Figure 1A).
(D–H) A group of cells anterior to the posterior crossvein in a ds05142, ubi-ECad:GFP wing was tracked between 15h450 and 31 hAPF. Cell boundaries are color-
coded as in Figure 4A.
(I and J) Quantification of cellular changes in the patch of tissue tracked in (D–H). Fraction of maximal cell number (dark blue), average neighbor number (light blue,
averaged over 8 frames), fraction of hexagonal cells (brown, averaged over 8 frames), PD cell elongation (magenta, average maximum values = 0.243, n = 2
(0.2245, 0.261), fraction of boundaries that will disappear (yellow), and fraction of new boundaries resulting from neighbor exchange (green).
(K and L) Angular distribution of cell divisions (blue) (K) and new boundaries (green) (L) at the end of Phase I and Phase II. Yellow and magenta bars indicate
average angle of nematic order of cell division (yellow) and new cell boundaries (magenta) (see Supplemental Theoretical Procedures and Figure 4). Average
magnitude of phase I cell division order is 0.145 (0.180, 0.109 n = 2). Average magnitude of new boundary formation order in phase II = 0.338 (0.278, 0.398;
n = 2).
See also Figure S6.
SUMMARY cells and to transplant those organs into the patient. With the
development of induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) technology,
The complexity of organogenesis hinders in vitro we are now able to obtain patient-derived PSCs (Takahashi
generation of organs derived from a patient’s pluripo- et al., 2007; Takahashi and Yamanaka, 2006), although actual
tent stem cells (PSCs), an ultimate goal of regenera- developmental potentials remain to be defined, as do risks asso-
tive medicine. Mouse wild-type PSCs injected into ciated with somatic cell reprogramming. The real challenge is to
Pdx1 / (pancreatogenesis-disabled) mouse blasto- create a reproductive system for generation of PSC-derived
organs. The interactions among cells and tissues during devel-
cysts developmentally compensated vacancy of
opment and organogenesis are so complex that the recapitula-
the pancreatic ‘‘developmental niche,’’ generating
tion of these interactions to generate organs in vitro is essentially
almost entirely PSC-derived pancreas. To examine impractical. We have challenged this goal using the biology of
the potential for xenogenic approaches in blastocyst blastocyst complementation.
complementation, we injected mouse or rat PSCs into Blastocyst complementation was first reported by Chen et al.
rat or mouse blastocysts, respectively, generating They demonstrated that deficiency of T and B lymphocyte
interspecific chimeras and thus confirming that lineages in Rag2-deficient (Rag2 / ) mice was complemented
PSCs can contribute to xenogenic development by injecting normal mouse embryonic stem cells (mESCs) into
between mouse and rat. The development of these Rag2 / mouse-derived blastocysts (Chen et al., 1993).
mouse/rat chimeras was primarily influenced by Because Rag2 is an indispensable enzyme for rearrangement
host blastocyst and/or foster mother, evident by of immunoglobulin and T cell receptor genes, the T and B cells
generated in the complemented animals were mESC derived;
body size and species-specific organogenesis. We
there were no host T or B lymphocytes. We assumed that this
further injected rat wild-type PSCs into Pdx1 / complementation was possible because the Rag2 / host, inca-
mouse blastocysts, generating normally functioning pable of generating mature T and B cells, provided a ‘‘develop-
rat pancreas in Pdx1 / mice. These data constitute mental niche’’ for ESC-derived T and B cells.
proof of principle for interspecific blastocyst comple- We hypothesized that with blastocysts derived from a mutant
mentation and for generation in vivo of organs derived mouse strain in which the gene necessary to form a particular
from donor PSCs using a xenogenic environment. organ is deficient, the same principle might apply. To test
this hypothesis, we used, in this study, blastocyst complementa-
tion to generate functional pancreas from donor PSCs. The
INTRODUCTION pancreas, consisting of endocrine and exocrine glands, is formed
by early embryonic interactions of mesenchyme and epithelium
Current stem cell therapy mainly targets diseases that can be (Slack, 1995). Pdx1 (pancreatic and duodenal homeobox1) is
treated by cell replacement, such as Parkinson’s disease or dia- a Hox-type transcription factor that plays a critical role in pancre-
betes mellitus. One of the ultimate goals of regenerative medi- atic development and b cell maturation. Homozygous deficiency
cine, however, is to grow organs using the patient’s own stem of Pdx1 in the mouse results in death soon after birth due to
HE
Pa St
Sp
St = stomach, Sp = spleen, and Ki = kidney.
Ki
(C) Immunohistological studies of sections ob-
tained from pancreas revealed clear differences
in the distributions of miPSC-derived cells.
DAPI / EGFP
EGFP
0
via tail vein at intraperitoneal glucose administra-
0 30 60 90 120 tion (1 g/kg; 0 min) and 15, 30, 60, and 120 min
Minutes after glucose administration thereafter.
Sections in (C) were observed under fluorescence
microscopy and in (D) were observed under
confocal laser scanning microscopy. Scale bars
in (C), 100 mm; in (D), 50 mm. Error bars in (E) indi-
cate ± SD.
based on a method developed previously (Gotoh et al., 1985) Blastocyst complementation thus permits demonstration of
and were transplanted beneath the renal capsule of recipient proof-of-principle both for pancreas generation from PSCs and
mice. Nonfasting blood glucose levels were then monitored. As for diabetic therapy using donor iPSC-derived syngenic islets.
these islets were of donor origin (i.e., C57BL/6 strain), an immu-
nosuppressive regimen was not used. Generation of Interspecific Chimeras between Mouse
To prevent nonspecific loss of islets due to inflammation, and Rat
anti-inflammatory cytokine monoclonal antibody (mAb) cocktails Our second goal was to generate interspecific chimeras
were given at transplantation and 2 and 4 days thereafter between mouse and rat. To achieve this goal, we generated
(arrows, Figure 3E), as described (Satoh et al., 2007). Two not only miPSCs but also riPSCs and rESCs using an established
months after transplant, EGFP-expressing miPSC-derived islets protocol (Hirabayashi et al., 2009; Ying et al., 2008). These
were still detectable at the graft site (Figures 3B and 3C). Produc- mouse and rat PSCs enabled us bidirectionally to generate inter-
tion of insulin by the transplanted islets was confirmed immuno- specific chimeras.
histologically (Figure 3D). The induced-diabetic recipients no We injected EGFP-marked GT3.2 miPSCs into rat blastocysts
longer exhibited hyperglycemia; they maintained normal blood (r-blastocysts) or EGFP-marked riPSCs (Figures S4A and S4B)
glucose levels and responded normally to GTT (Figures 3E into mouse blastocysts (m-blastocysts). Because post-implan-
and 3F). This is in contrast to the therapeutic effect conferred tation development reportedly is severely hampered after intra-
by islets, composites of blastocyst- and miPSC-derived cells, uterine transfer of xenogenic blastocysts (Rossant et al., 1982;
obtained from pancreas of Pdx1+/ chimeric mice (C57BL/6 3 Tarkowski, 1962), injected r-blastocysts or m-blastocysts were
DBA2 or C57BL/6 3 BDF1 F1 origin). This effect lasted only for transferred, respectively, into the uteri of pseudopregnant rats
a short time, presumably due to immune rejection by the host or mice. After intrauterine transfer of injected r-blastocysts or
C57BL/6 diabetic mice (Figure 3E). These data strongly indicate m-blastocysts with development to the fetal stage, we evaluated
that the miPSC-derived pancreas, with islets, formed in an allo- EGFP expression by fluorescence microscopy for each trans-
genic host is functional and that the ‘‘autologous’’ islets thus ferred embryo. EGFP-expressing cells were found in the body
formed can be used to treat diabetes, without rejection. of each injected conceptus, but never in placenta (Figure 4A).
E F
(mg/dl) (mg/dl)
600 600
Blood glucose
200 200
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 (days) 0 30 60 90 120 (min)
Days after islet transplantation Minutes after glucose administration
This finding indicates that injected mouse or rat iPSCs can 26.5%, respectively, were detected in mouse and rat inter-
contribute to xenogenic development, with generation of inter- specific chimeras (representative FACS data shown in Fig-
specific chimeras. ure 4B). We also examined chimerism in hematopoietic cells
Next, we tried to quantitate contribution of mouse or rat iPSCs by staining cells from livers of interspecific chimera fetuses
to these interspecific chimeras. Chimerism in interspecific with antibodies specific for mouse and rat CD45 antigens.
embryos appeared to vary individual-to-individual and organ- Cells that expressed mouse or rat CD45 represented distinct
to-organ. Since quantitation of PSC-derived cells was difficult populations in interspecific chimeras, with only cells derived
in organs, we analyzed embryonic fibroblasts and hematopoietic from injected iPSCs expressing EGFP (Figure 4B). Whereas
cells. FACS analysis of embryonic fibroblasts revealed that a high proportion (28.3%) of mouse blood cells was detected
donor-derived EGFP+ cell percentages of about 28.0% and in r-blastocyst-derived chimeric fetal liver, rat blood cells were
rBL + miPSCs
mCD45-APC
103
Phase
mBL + riPSCs
mCD45-APC
103
93.1 0.23
26.5 87.0 manipulation, fetuses were analyzed 11 days after
102
5+
derived from interspecific chimeras. Right panels
in D45 +
5+
5+
te
in 45 +
tem No
r
pla
B
D4
D4
rke
B
D4
D4
mP
rP
D
show cells from fetal liver immunostained with
mC
mC
mC
Ma
rC
rC
rC
rOct3/4 locus = 966bp
mOct3/4 locus = 861bp
rOct3/4 locus
mOct3/4 locus
anti-mCD45 and -rCD45 antibodies. Note that
anti-mouse or -rat monoclonal antibodies (mAb)
against CD45 can distinguish CD45-expressing
E F G hematopoietic cells in a species-specific manner.
No. of
Almost all CD45-expressing cells derived from
(total transferred embryos = 100%)
75 75 75 origin.
(C) Schema of mouse and rat Oct3/4 loci (mOct3/4
50 50 50
and rOct3/4). Of note is that in the rat Oct3/4 locus
Aborted
25 25 25
Non-chimera
Chimera
the 2 introns flanking exon 3 are longer than in the
0 0 0 mouse Oct3/4 locus. This difference in length can
+ +
EF CD45 EF CD45 Embryo Rat Mouse Mouse Rat Embryo Rat Mouse Mouse Rat
distinguish origins of otherwise similar cells.
in FL in FL
Cell miPSC riPSC Cell miPSC riPSC
mBL+riPSCs rBL+riPSCs Arrowheads indicate common primers of each
species for PCR. PCR product sizes for both
species are shown below.
(D) Results of genotyping to identify origin of hematopoietic cells expressing mouse or rat CD45 in fetal liver of interspecific chimeras. Peripheral-blood CD45-
expressing cells from each species served as positive controls.
(E) Correlation of chimerism between embryonic fibroblasts and CD45+ hematopoietic cells in fetal liver. Cells were prepared from interspecific chimeras gener-
ated by injection of riPSCs into m-blastocysts or from intraspecific chimeras generated by injection of riPSCs into r-blastocysts.
(F) Relative frequencies of aborted, nonchimeras, and chimeras embryonic development (E13.5 and 15.5).
(G) Chimerism analysis of embryonic fibroblasts from chimeras generated by injection of miPSCs or riPSCs into mouse or rat blastocysts. Fibroblasts were
obtained from chimeras and analyzed for EGFP intensity by FACS. Plotted dots show degrees of chimerism for individual embryos. See also Figure S5 for inter-
specific chimeras using ESCs.
Scale bars in (A), 5 mm.
only rarely present (less than 3.3%) in m-blastocyst-derived chimeras (Figures 4F and 4G). In addition, high contributions
chimeric fetal liver (Figure 4B). This tendency was specific to by xenogenic cells appeared to be associated with morpholog-
interspecific chimeras and not observed in intraspecific ical abnormalities and embryonic lethality (data not shown). To
chimeras (Figure 4E). It is not clear why the difference in contri- exclude the possibility that these abnormalities were caused by
bution of iPSCs to hematopoietic cells between mouse and rat donor iPSCs, we also attempted to generate interspecific
interspecific chimeras was so marked. chimeras using mouse or rat ESCs. DsRed-marked EB3DR
To further confirm interspecific chimerism, genomic DNA mESCs could also generate interspecific rat chimeras (top
extracted from FACS-sorted cells expressing CD45 was PCR- panels in Figure S5A), with embryonic development rate and
amplified using primers common to the mouse and rat Oct3/4 degree of chimerism similar to those generated by miPSC
loci (Figure 4C). PCR products of different lengths, indicating injection (Figure S5B). The Venus-marked WIv3i-1 and -5
origin in each species, were clearly present (Figure 4D). These rESC lines, with high contribution to rat embryo development
results strongly indicated that the animals harboring these cells and germline competency (Hirabayashi et al., 2009), could
were mouse/rat interspecific chimeras. also generate interspecific chimeras after injection into m-blas-
To investigate the influence of iPSC contribution to xenogenic tocyst (middle and bottom panels in Figure S5A), but embry-
development at the fetal stage, we assessed embryonic devel- onic development rate and degree of chimerism were lower
opment rate of interspecific chimeras, and the extent of chime- than reported for intraspecific chimeras (Figure S5C). These
rism, by FACS analysis using established embryonic fibroblasts. results suggest that generation of interspecific chimeras
Both embryonic development rate and degree of chimerism between mouse and rat is less efficient than generation of intra-
were lower in interspecific chimeras than in intraspecific specific chimeras.
Body weight
5.0 (B) Neonatal body weights of interspecific
Non-chimera chimeras were measured and plotted. One
Non-chimera
EGFP chimera obtained after injection of miPSCs into
2.5
r-blastocyst showed a high contribution of mouse
cells as shown in the insert, with body weight and
EGFP
Interspecific Chimeras Were Live-born; Some Grew black coat) (Figure 5C, r-blastocyst + miPSCs: n = 8, m-blasto-
into Adulthood cyst + riPSCs: n = 4). The full-term development rate of inter-
To investigate the developmental potential of generated specific chimeras, either with miPSCs into r-blastocyst or with
chimeras and to assess the functionality of the cells, tissues, or riPSCs into m-blastocyst, was 20%. In both settings it was
organs derived from injected cells, we analyzed interspecific lower than that for intraspecific chimeras (50%).
chimeras at neonatal and adult stages. Mouse- or rat-iPSC-
injected interspecific chimeras survived after birth and expressed Determination of Body Size in Interspecific Chimeras
EGFP ubiquitously (as did intraspecific chimeras; Figure 5A, Adult rats typically are ten times bigger than adult mice, whereas
r-blastocyst + miPSCs: n = 5, m-blastocyst + riPSCs: n = 10). newborn rats are three times bigger than newborn mice.
As these chimeras developed into adulthood, chimerism could Because mouse and rat gestations are of similar length (19 and
be judged by coat color because miPSCs (C57BL/6, black 21 days, respectively), organogenesis requires more cell prolifer-
coat) were injected into r-blastocyst (Wistar, white coat) or riPSCs ation and differentiation during rat development than during
(Wistar) were injected into m-blastocyst (BDF11 3 C57BL/6, mouse development. What determines the size of interspecific
Body weight
DAPI DAPI
tocyst Complementation
(A) riPSC-derived pancreas in neonatal Pdx1 /
mouse. In Pdx1 / mice complemented with
riPSCs, almost all pancreata expressed EGFP,
Glucagon Somatostatin Insulin indicating riPSC origin (top panel). On the other
DAPI DAPI DAPI
hand, in Pdx1+/ mice complemented with riPSCs,
Pdx1+/- + riPSCs
St DAPI
Du
differences in the distributions of riPSC-derived
Sp
cells after staining by anti-EGFP antibody with
Pa
Ki
DAPI nuclear counterstaining (right panel).
Sections were also stained with HE.
Sections in (F) were observed under light or fluo-
rescence microscopy and in (B) were observed
Pdx1+/- + riPSCs
(data not shown). After injection, 139 embryos were transferred (an exocrine tissue marker) and insulin, glucagon, and somato-
into uteri of pseudopregnant mice and 34 mice were born. statin (endocrine tissue markers; Figure 7B).
They were analyzed at neonatal and adult stages. As in wild-type experiments, successful maturation into adult-
The contribution of EGFP-marked riPSC-derived cells in the hood (8 weeks) was uncommon in Pdx1 / mice complemented
pancreas of neonatal Pdx1+/ interspecific chimeras was small with riPSCs; however, adult mice with riPSC-derived pancreas
relative to that of host-derived cells, as seen in whole-body (Figure 7C; n = 2) had intact pancreas expressing EGFP (Figures
chimerism (Pdx1+/ + riPSCs in Figure 7A bottom panel; n = 5). 7E and 7F). Quantitative analysis of the sections by image J soft-
In contrast, the pancreatic epithelia in Pdx1 / interspecific ware revealed percentages of EGFP-positive cells to be 81.9% ±
chimeras were entirely composed of EGFP-marked riPSC- 3.4%. Additionally, on GTT in adulthood, insulin was secreted in
derived cells (Pdx1 / + riPSCs in Figure 7A top panel; n = 10). response to glucose loading and normal serum glucose levels
Each genotype was confirmed by PCR using genomic DNA were maintained (Figure 7D). These results indicate that genera-
extracted from FACS-sorted mouse CD45 (mCD45)-positive tion of a xenogenic iPSC-derived organ is possible via interspe-
splenocytes (Figure S7A). Neonates with entirely EGFP-positive cific blastocyst complementation.
pancreata thus were clearly identified as of Pdx1 / genotype
(Figure S7B). The existence of interspecific chimeras between DISCUSSION
mouse and rat was also confirmed by FACS patterning, which
demonstrated distinct populations of mCD45- and rat CD45 We report three innovative observations, using proof-of-prin-
(rCD45)-positive cells, with only rCD45-positive cells expressing ciple approaches. (1) If an empty developmental niche for an
EGFP after riPSC injection (Figure S7A). FACS-sorted mCD45- organ is provided (as with the Pdx1 / mouse and the pancreatic
and rCD45-positive cells were also confirmed as, respectively, niche), PSC-derived cellular progeny can occupy that niche
mouse or rat in origin by genomic PCR testing using Oct3/4 and developmentally compensate for the missing contents of
locus primers (Figure S7C), which clearly identified cell origin. the niche, forming an organ almost entirely composed of
On immunostaining, riPSC-derived pancreas expressed EGFP cells derived from donor PSCs. (2) Generation of interspecific
almost universally (Figure 7B) and also expressed a-amylase chimeras between mouse and rat is possible with injection of
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C.T., and Benezra, R. (2004). Rescue of cardiac defects in id knockout fied rat 1-cell embryo culture medium containing a high sodium chloride
embryos by injection of embryonic stem cells. Science 306, 247–252. concentration and bovine serum albumin maintain developmental ability to
the blastocyst stage. Biol. Reprod. 59, 884–889.
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RESULTS
accurately aligning the expression patterns of different genes The Molecular Topography of the Platynereis Brain
acquired from different stained individuals of identical develop- We used our PrImR protocol to determine the molecular topog-
mental stage (Profiling by Image Registration, PrImR, j,primərj). raphy of the Platynereis brain after 2 days of development, to test
In the first step, two-channel image stacks were acquired via whether any of the Platynereis forebrain regions would show
whole-mount reflection confocal laser-scanning microscopy ‘‘telencephalon-like’’ coordinates. At this stage, major subre-
(Jékely and Arendt, 2007). One channel contained information gions of the developing Platynereis nervous system are already
on the expression pattern of a given gene and the other on the established and larger populations of neurons have started
axonal scaffold of the Platynereis larval brain. More than three differentiation (Tessmar-Raible et al., 2007). For our purposes,
biological replicas were acquired for every gene. Next, we it was sufficient to focus on one stage only, because in the
used the axonal scaffold channel to align these images to a absence of drastic morphogenetic changes (such as neurulation
reference average axonal scaffold image (Figure 2A, Figure S1 and vesicle formation in vertebrates), gene expression patterns
available online), first via rigid alignment algorithms and then in the developing Platynereis brain remain spatially constant
by smooth nonrigid transformation (see the Experimental Proce- over time (as shown for example for pax6, six1/2 [Arendt et al.,
dures) (Figures 2B–2D). For each gene, a normalized average 2002] or dach and bf-1 [Figures 5 and 6]), indicating colocaliza-
expression image from (in most cases) five individuals was tion and temporal co-occurrence of differentiated neurons and
thus generated (Figure S1B) that was directly comparable to their precursors.
those of an unlimited number of other genes. As a test for accu- We had previously shown that both the annelid and vertebrate
racy, we obtained almost perfect overlap of signal for single cells brains exhibit a basic subdivision into medial nk2.1+ and lateral
stained for the same gene in different individuals (Figure 2E). We pax6+ subregions (Tessmar-Raible et al., 2007) (Figure 1A)
also found that the coexpression images obtained by our PrImR (transformed into a ventral-dorsal arrangement during vertebrate
protocol fully reproduced those obtained by double-fluorescent neurulation; Figures 1A–1C). It is within this conserved frame-
WMISH (Tessmar-Raible et al., 2005) (compare Figures 2F and work that the vertebrate telencephalon anlage is established,
2G) but tended to be more ‘‘complete,’’ reflecting the higher with the pallium developing from the anterior part of the pax6+
sensitivity of the NBT/BCIP staining and of the reflection micros- region (Figure 1A). The outline of the whole telencephalon anlage
copy technique (Jékely and Arendt, 2007). Finally, to challenge is demarcated early on by expression of bf-1 (Hébert and Fishell,
the accuracy of the protocol, we systematically estimated the 2008) (orange in Figure 1B), a crucial regulator of telencephalic
extent of overlap between individually aligned scans by calcu- development (Danesin et al., 2009). In the course of telence-
lating the Pearson’s correlation coefficient for 171 individually phalic morphogenesis, gsx+ and emx+ (Kimura et al., 2005)
aligned scans with the gene-specific average image (see the domains complement the nk2.1+ and pax6+ subregions (Figures
Experimental Procedures) and found that the probability is 1C and 1D) such that the gsx+, pax6+ overlap demarcates the
highest to obtain a value above 0.9, which implies that the future pallial-subpallial boundary (Danesin et al., 2009; Yun
average expression images used for this study should reliably et al., 2001) and pax6+, emx+ coexpression specifies pallial
reproduce endogenous gene expression. Our protocol thus telencephalic precursors (Kimura et al., 2005). Besides bf-1,
allows the comparison of any newly added expression pattern lhx2 (expressed broadly in the telencephalon and acting highly
to all preexisting patterns at once, with high accuracy and in up in the hierarchy of cortical induction (Hébert and Fishell,
cellular resolution. 2008), COUP-TF1/seven-up (contributing to telencephalic
patterning (Hébert and Fishell, 2008) and soxB family members patterning can be perturbed by ectopic b-catenin activation
(sox1[Ekonomou et al., 2005] and sox2 [Bani-Yaghoub et al., (mimicking the dorsal signal), which accordingly triggers the
2006]) play important roles in early telencephalic development upregulation of dorsal pallial and downregulation of ventral sub-
(Figure 3E), although the spatial distribution and coexpression pallial markers (Backman et al., 2005). Investigating the expres-
of these factors along the anterior-posterior and mediolateral sion of orthologous signals and factors in Platynereis, we indeed
brain axes is not fully resolved for the vertebrates. detected Hh in the medial (Figure 3K) and Wnt8 in the lateral brain
We accordingly examined bf-1, lhx2, svp, soxB, pax6, emx, (Figure 3L), matching the vertebrate situation. We also observed
gsx, and nk2.1 expression in Platynereis and indeed identified lateral expression of Wnt5 (Figure 3M), another dorsal Wnt signal
a brain region with telencephalon-like molecular topography implicated in corticospinal axon guidance (Keeble et al., 2006), of
(Figures 3A–3I; summarized in Figure 1). First, we found bf-1 WntA (not found in vertebrates; Figure 3N) and Gli (Figure 3O),
expressed in a horseshoe-shaped domain in the Platynereis a zinc finger transcription factor essential for dorsal telencephalic
brain (Figure 3A), where it is specifically coexpressed with lhx2, fates (Tole et al., 2000). None of the other Platynereis Wnt genes
svp, and soxB (Figures 3C–3E). (The more lateral part of bf-1+ was expressed in the brain (data not shown; note that Wnt3 does
domain represents the eye anlage; Figure 3B.) Second, from not exist in annelids). For Platynereis, exposure to the chemical
lateral to medial, the Platynereis bf-1 brain domain is subdivided compound 1-Azakenpaullone has been established as an effi-
by spatially restricted coexpression of emx, pax6, gsx, and nk2.1 cient means to ectopically induce b-catenin activation (Schneider
(Figures 3F–3J) in a telencephalon-like fashion. Nowhere else and Bowerman, 2007). We accordingly tested the effect of 1-Aza-
in the developing Platynereis larva was a similar sequence of kenpaullone on Platynereis brain regionalization and observed
emx+/pax6+, pax6+, pax6+/gsx+, gsx+, and gsx+/nk2.1+ subre- upregulation of lateral emx expression (Figures 4B and 4G),
gions (Figure 3J) detected. The emx+/pax6+ and pax6+ regions downregulation of intermediate gsx (Figures 4D and 4I), and
within the bf1+ domain thus represented candidate counterpart medial nk2.1 expression (Figures 4E and 4J), while pax6 ap-
regions to the vertebrate pallium anlage, a notion that we peared unaffected (Figures 4C and 4H). These results mirror
decided to explore further. vertebrate telencephalic patterning (Figure 1) and are thus
strongly indicative of evolutionary conservation.
Comparison of Patterning Mechanisms
In vertebrates, bf-1 coordinates the activity of two opposing The Molecular Fingerprint of Mushroom Body Neurons
signaling centers that pattern the telencephalon anlage. bf-1 In vertebrates, distinct combinations of differentially expressed
acts downstream of the ventral signal, Hh, to induce ventral transcription factors control the fate of the various telencephalic
(subpallial) identities. At the same time, bf-1 inhibits dorsal subregions. We took advantage of PrImR to further determine
Wnt/b-catenin signaling through direct transcriptional repression and compare molecular fingerprints. In mouse, dorsal telence-
of Wnt8 (Danesin et al., 2009), which induces dorsal (pallial) phalic (pallial) pax6+ regions show differential activity of Dach
identities (Houart et al., 2002). Vertebrate telencephalic (Caubit et al., 1999) and ngn1/2, bHLH factors required for pallial
neurogenesis (Nieto et al., 2001). In Platynereis, dach and ngn fingerprint (bf1+, emx+, pax6+, dach+, svp+, tll+, ngn+, asc+)
are similarly restricted to emx+, pax6+ subregions (Figures 3P qualified as possible evolutionary counterpart to the vertebrate
and 3Q; compare Figures 1D and 1I). In mouse, ventral (subpal- pallium anlage (encircled by stippled line in Figures 1C and 1D),
lial) gsx+ regions coexpress vax1, required for GABAergic inter- we set out to determine whether this paired region indeed
neuron generation (Taglialatela et al., 2004), and coe/ebf1, an represented the Platynereis mushroom body anlagen by tracing
HLH transcription factor affecting subpallial development (Garel mushroom body development from adult (Figure 5, Figure S3,
et al., 1999). We accordingly found both genes coexpressed in Movie S4) and juvenile stages (10 days postfertilization [dpf],
Platynereis gsx+ regions (Figures 3R and 3S; compare Figures when they are fully developed and can be easily identified
1D and 1I). In mouse, telencephalic subregions express er81, histologically) back to earlier larval stages. We combined
an ETS factor active in distinct subpallial domains (Yun et al., anatomical (the specific shape of mushroom bodies), histolog-
2001) and direct target of pax6 in the dorsal pallium (Tuoc ical (the dense packing of neurons), and topological (the specific
and Stoykova, 2008). Platynereis er81 is similarly expressed spatial arrangement of mushroom bodies and palpal and
in the pax6+/gsx+ and gsx+/nk2.1+ subregions but not in antennal nerves) evidence, as well as the expression of mush-
between (Figure 3T; compare Figures 1D and 1I). Adding to room body-specific marker genes (dach and pax6), to reidentify
this, expression of Platynereis genes orthologous to ascl1/ and position the developing mushroom bodies at various stages
mash1 (bHLH downstream effector of gsx1 [Wang et al., 2009]; (6 weeks, 20, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, and 2 dpf; Figure 5 and data
expressed in ventral and dorsal telencephalon [Yun et al., not shown). This allowed unambiguous positioning of the mush-
2001]), to brn1/2/4 (POU domain transcription factors required room body anlagen to ventrolateral coordinates at 48 hr postfer-
for cortical migration in dorsal and ventral telencephalon [Ekono- tilization [hpf] that indeed matched the emx+, pax6+, dach+
mou et al., 2005; McEvilly et al., 2002]), and to many other genes candidate region.
implicated in telencephalon development by function or by In juvenile worms, the differentiating emx+, pax6+ mushroom
expression is detailed for Platynereis in Figure S2 and has bodies and the more medial gsx+, nk2.1+ brain tissue (referred
been used to generate the molecular map in Figure 1H. The over- to as ‘‘pars intercerebralis’’[Müller, 1973]) continued to express
all comparison suggests that the molecular fingerprints of bf-1 (Figure 6A) and started to specifically express arx (Fig-
annelid and vertebrate emx+/pax6+, pax6+, pax6+/gsx+, gsx+, ure 6B; expressed in mouse and fish telencephalon and ventral
and gsx+/nk2.1+ subregions are similar to large extent but may thalamus [Miura et al., 1997]). We also detected specific expres-
also differ in the detail (for example, dlx is expressed more sion of two conserved bilaterian microRNAs, miR-9 and mir-9*
broadly in annelid than in vertebrate; rx is expressed in the (Christodoulou et al., 2010) (Figures 6C and 6D). In the verte-
emx+, pax6+, and gsx+ subregions in the annelid but excluded brates, these microRNAs are expressed only in the telenceph-
in the vertebrate; Figure S2). alon, among all differentiated CNS tissues (Deo et al., 2006).
Regarding transmitter usage, large part of the Platynereis mush-
Positioning the Platynereis Mushroom Body Anlagen room bodies proved glutamatergic by expression of vglut,
Since our molecular comparison had identified one unique encoding the vesicular glutamate transporter (Figure 6F). In
candidate region in the Platynereis brain, which, by position, contrast, gad, a marker for GABAergic neurons, was restricted
similar responsiveness to Wnt signaling, and similar molecular to more medial brain tissue (Figure 6E), as was the dopaminergic
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isolated (Figure 1E). Classifier IV is the heavy/light ratio Classifier VI: Domain Analysis
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
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opportunity for a talented individual to play a critical role in the research community away from the
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This is a full-time in-house editorial position, based at the Cell Press office in Cambridge, Mas-
sachusetts. Cell Press offers an attractive salary and benefits package and a stimulating working
environment that encourages innovation.
The minimum qualification for this position is a PhD in a relevant area of biomedical research,
although additional postdoctoral or editorial experience is preferred. We will consider qualified can-
didates with scientific expertise in any area that falls within the scope of the journal, including molec-
ular and cell biology of microbes, host immune response to microbes, immune evasion by microbes,
microbiology, therapeutics, and vaccine design. The key qualities we look for are breadth of scien-
tific interest and the ability to think critically about a wide range of scientific issues. The successful
candidate will also be highly motivated and creative and able to work independently as well as in a
team.
Applications will be accepted through August 31, 2010. To apply, please visit the Careers page at
http://www.elsevier.com and search on keywords “Cell Host & Microbe.” Please submit a resume
and cover letter describing your qualifications, general research interests, and motivation for pursu-
ing a career in scientific publishing. Applications will be held in the strictest confidence.
Cell Press Business Project Editor
Position Available
Cell Press is seeking a Business Project Editor to plan, develop, and implement projects that have
commercial or sponsorship potential. By drawing on existing content or developing new material, the
Editor will work with Cell Press’s commercial sales group to create collections of content in print or
online that will be attractive to readers and sponsors. The Editor will also be responsible for leverag-
ing new online opportunities for engaging the readers of Cell Press journals.
The successful candidate will have a PhD in the biological sciences, broad scientific interests, a
fascination with technology, good commercial instincts, and a true passion for both science and
science communication. They should be highly organized and dedicated, with excellent written and
oral communication skills, and should be willing to work to tight deadlines.
The position is full time and based in Cambridge, MA. Cell Press offers an attractive salary and
benefits package and a stimulating work environment. Applications will be considered on a rolling
basis. For consideration, please apply online and include a cover letter and resume. To apply, visit
the career page at http://www.elsevier.com and search on keywords “Business Project Editor.”
Positions Available
Positions Available
The Dept of Neurobiology & Anatomy at the University of Utah (http://www.neuro.utah.edu/) is seeking an outstanding scientist for a tenure track
faculty position at the Assistant Professor level. After a successful faculty search this past year, we continue with our expansion of the department in the
area of neuroscience.
We are interested in candidates who are using innovative combinations of molecular, genetic, and cellular approaches to pursue fundamental problems
in neuroscience. Areas of interest include but are not limited to in vivo imaging, genetic and epigenetic mechanisms underlying neural circuitry plasticity,
and behavior, as well as aging, regeneration and repair.
Individuals holding Ph.D. and/or M.D., or equivalent degrees, with two or more years of postdoctoral experience are encouraged to apply. Applicants
should demonstrate excellence in research and strong potential for securing and sustaining independent and collaborative extramural funding.
The University of Utah offers excellent resources to support new faculty, including competitive salary and start-up support, a highly collegial research
environment, core facilities and strong interdepartmental graduate training programs. A successful applicant will be expected to develop an innovative,
independent research program, and to share our commitment to excellence in graduate and medical education.
Only electronic applications will be accepted. Please submit a single PDF document including: 1) cover letter, 2) curriculum vitae, 3) research statement
4) one recent publication. Email the application to: facsearch@neuro.utah.edu Three letters of reference should be sent independently to: facsearch@
neuro.utah.edu
The University of Utah is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity employer and does not discriminate based upon race, national origin, color, religion, sex,
age, sexual orientation, gender identity/expression, disability, or status as a Protected Veteran. Upon request, reasonable accommodations in the application
process will be provided to individuals with disabilities. To inquire about the University’s nondiscrimination policy or to request disability accommodation,
please contact: Director, Office of Equal Opportunity and Affirmative Action, 201 S. Presidents Circle, Rm 135, (801) 581-8365.
The University of Utah values candidates who have experience working in settings with students from diverse backgrounds, and possess a demonstrated
commitment to improving access to higher education for historically underrepresented students.
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS
HARVARD MEDICAL SCHOOL
The Department of Genetics at Harvard Medical School invites applicants for a tenure-track faculty position at the
rank of Assistant Professor. The Department of Genetics consists of faculty working on diverse problems using a
variety of approaches and model organisms, unified in their focus on the genome as an organizing principle for
understanding biological phenomena. We are seeking outstanding applicants, with a demonstrated potential for
imaginative research and a clear vision for the future, who are working on exciting problems in any area of genet-
ics, broadly defined. The successful candidate is expected to direct innovative and independent research and
participate in the teaching of graduate and medical students. Significant scholarly and scientific resources are
readily available with this position. Our highly interactive Department provides the opportunity to interact and
collaborate with other dedicated researchers within the diverse Harvard research community. For further informa-
tion about our Department, please see our Web Page: http://genetics.med.harvard.edu.
Applicants should submit electronic copies of curriculum vitae, bibliography, a brief description of research
accomplishments and future research interests (limit to 500 words) by October 31, 2010, and ask three refer-
ences to provide letters of recommendation. These materials should be sent to the following email address:
faculty_search@genetics.med.harvard.edu.
Department of Pharmacology
(with potential joint appointment in the Institute for Translational Neuroscience)
University of Minnesota Medical School
TENURE/TENURE TRACK POSITION
(Assistant Professor, Associate Professor, Professor)
The Department of Pharmacology at the University of Minnesota invites applications for a tenure/tenure track faculty position (Assistant,
Associate or Full Professor). Applicants using molecular, biochemical, cellular, and/or integrative translational approaches to study
problems relevant to pharmacological sciences are encouraged to apply. Positions are also available in this joint recruitment with the
Institute for Translational Neuroscience, whose interest is in how basic science discoveries may lead to new therapeutic principles of
certain neurological disorders (see their website for more details). Qualifications include a Ph.D. in biomedical science, or an M.D.
degree, and relevant postdoctoral research experience. Applicants must have a strong record of research accomplishments, as docu-
mented by publications in leading peer-reviewed journals. The successful Assistant Professor candidate will be expected to develop
an innovative, competitive research program supported by extramural funding and to participate in departmental teaching activities.
Applicants for Associate Professor and Professor positions must demonstrate distinction in published research, evidence of consistent
extramural funding, and a commitment to teaching. For additional information about the department and the Institute for Translational
Neuroscience, visit: www.pharmacology.med.umn.edu and http://www.itn.umn.edu.
Applications are invited for a tenure-track junior faculty appointment in the Department of Structural Biology, Stanford University School of
Medicine. Candidates should have expertise and a commitment to future research in the broad area of structural biology and biophysics. The
predominant criterion for appointment in the University Tenure Line is a major commitment to research and teaching.
To be considered for this position, interested individuals should:
1. Fully complete the Structural Biology Faculty Recruitment Form available at: https://med.stanford.edu/survey/sbio_fclty_recruit.
2. Prepare the application materials as one .pdf file and e-mail the file to sbio_faculty_recruit@lists.stanford.edu. PDF file must contain
all of the following documents:
i) Cover letter
ii) Curriculum vitae
iii) Description of research interests (4 page limit)
iv) List of publications
v) Maximum of 5 representative reprints
vi) Names and contact information of three referees
3. Arrange for three reference letters to be e-mailed by each referee directly to: sbio_fclty_reference@lists.stanford.edu
or send by mail to:
Chair, Faculty Search Committee, Department of Structural Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, 299 Campus Drive West, D100
Fairchild Bldg., Stanford, CA 94305-5126
Candidates must have a PhD and/ or MD degree and a minimum of two years of postdoctoral research experience. Application material and
reference letters must be received by November 1, 2010.
Stanford University is an equal opportunity employer and is committed to increasing the diversity of its faculty. It welcomes
nominations of and applications from women and members of minority groups, as well as others who would bring
additional dimensions to the university's research, teaching and clinical missions.
Positions Available
Positions Available
FACULTY POSITION IN
MOLECULAR, CELLULAR, AND
DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY
University of Colorado at Boulder
For questions or concerns on submitting your materials elec- Dr. Stephen D. Nimer
tronically, please contact mcdbsrch@Colorado.EDU. Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center
1275 York Avenue, Box 575
The University of Colorado at Boulder is committed to diver-
New York, NY 10065
sity and equality in education and employment.
See www.colorado.edu/ArtsSciences/Jobs/ for full job The Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center is an
description. Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Employer.
Positions Available
The Department of Molecular and Cell Biology (MCB), the Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute (HWNI)
and the Center for Computational Biology (CCB) are seeking applications for four faculty positions in
the areas listed below. We seek candidates with Ph. D. and/or M.D. degrees who have a strong inter-
est in undergraduate and graduate teaching and demonstrated excellence, originality and productivity
in research.
60
Although the focus is on tenure-track junior faculty
appointments, applicants for senior faculty ranks may
also be considered. The Department is undergoing a
major expansion under the Chair, Dr. James E. Rothman.
Exceptional candidates in all areas of cell biology will
be considered.
Editor in Chief:
Juan J. Calvete, Valencia, Spain Covered by
PubMed
Executive Editors:
Proteomics in Cell Biology
Jean-Jacques Diaz, Lyon, France
Proteomics in Microbiology
Concha Gil, Madrid, Spain
Biomedical Applications of
Proteomics and Congress
Proceedings
Jean-Charles Sanchez, Geneva,
Switzerland
www.febsletters.com
Just Published!
Editors-in-Chief:
John H. Byrne, W.M. Keck Center for the
Neurobiology of Learning and Memory,
University of Texas Medical School at Houston;
James L. Roberts, Trinity University,
San Antonio, Texas
FUNDAMENTAL
NEUROSCIENCE
THIRD EDITION
EDITED BY:
Larry R. Squire, VA Medical Center and University
of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
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SnapShot: Nuclear Receptors I
Neil J. McKenna and Bert W. O’Malley
Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
Receptor/ Disease
Family* Symbols Ligands Major Functions Associations Target Genes
Estrogen ERα/NR3A1; Endogenous: 17β-estradiol Regulation of cell growth and proliferation Cancer, cardiovascular, ↑ MYC, NGF, BCL2, CXCL2,
receptors* ERβ/NR3A2 in multiple tissues (e.g., female reproductive immune and IGF1, TYMS; ↓ CD36, NDRG1,
Clinical: Mixed agonists (e.g. tamoxifen, tissues, bone, and CNS) inflammatory, NCOR1, NCOA3
raloxifene, and toremifene in breast cancer) metabolic, neurological,
Xenobiotics: Bisphenol A, PCBs reproductive
Androgen AR/NR3C4 Endogenous: Testosterone, Key role in male reproductive organs in Cancer, cardiovascular, ↑ MYC, VEGF, BCL2, IGF1,
receptor dihydrotestosterone addition to other systems (e.g., CNS) immune, metabolic, MUC1, P66(Shc), CCND1;
neurological, ↓ TSHA, TSHB, PTEN, FAS,
Clinical: Flutamide and bicalutamide for reproductive CASP2, CTNND2, ESR2,
prostate cancer and alopecia TMPRSS2
Glucocorticoid GR/NR3C1 Endogenous: Cortisol (hydrocortisone) Diverse developmental and physiological Metabolic, ↑ SCNN1A, GADD45B, GILZ,
receptor roles (e.g., antagonism of inflammatory cardiovascular, immune TAT; ↓ BGLAP, POMC, INS
Clinical: Fluticasone and prednisolonein signaling pathways, mediation of the stress and inflammatory,
inflammatory disorders response, and gluconeogenesis) memory
Vitamin D VDR/NR1I1 Endogenous: Calcitriol (1′,25′ dihdroxy Maintenance of serum calcium and Bone, cancer, ↑ FGF23, CYP24A1, CALB1,
receptor vitamin D3) phosphate levels for skeletal integrity; cardiovascular, BGLAP, SPP1; ↓ IL2, PHEX
antiproliferative in many tissues metabolic, immune and
Clinical: Paracalcitol for 2o inflammatory, renal,
hyperparathyroidism in renal patients; neurological
Tacalcitol for psoriasis
Thyroid hormone TRα/NR1A1; Endogenous: Thyroxine Regulation of oxygen consumption; protein, Thyroid conditions, ↑ ADRB1, PCK2, GH1, UCP1; ↓
receptors* TRβ/NR1A2 (T4),Triiodothyronine (T3) carbohydrate, lipid, and vitamin metabolism cancer DIO2, EHHADH, PRL, EGFR
Progesterone PR/NR3C3 Endogenous: Progesterone Diverse reproductive functions (e.g., Cancer, metabolic, ↑ SERPINB14, FAS, MT2A,
receptor establishing and maintaining pregnancy, reproductive PGC, EGFR , IHH; ↓ ESR1, PGR,
Clinical: RU486 (Mifepristone) as an developing breast tissue, and stopping ANXA6
abortifacient proliferation in the uterus)
Mineralocorticoid MR/NR3C2 Endogenous: Aldosterone Regulating electrolyte and fluid balance in Metabolic ↑ SCNN1A, ATP1A1, ATP1B1,
receptor the kidney; specific roles in the CNS GILZ, SGK1, NDRG2
Clinical: Spironolactone in hypertensive
cardiovascular disease
Peroxisome- PPARγ/NR1C3 Endogenous: FAs and FA intermediates Regulation of adipocytes, insulin sensitivity Cardiovascular, ↑ FABP4, UCP1, AP2, PCK1,
proliferator- and lipogenesis, and broader integration of metabolic, cancer, LPL, ADIPOQ, CD36, AQP7
activated Dietary: FAs and PUFAs energy, lipid, and carbohydrate metabolism neurological
receptor-γ
Clinical: Thiazolidinediones (e.g.,
rosiglitazone) in type II diabetes
Peroxisome- PPARα/ Endogenous: FAs and FA intermediates Regulating energy expenditure; modulating Cardiovascular, ↑ ACBP, ACOX1, APOA1,
proliferator- NR1C1 fatty acid oxidation systems (mitochondria), metabolic, cancer, CPT1A, CYP1A1, CYP4A1,
activated Clinical: Fibrates (e.g., fenofibrate) in peroxisome β-oxidation, and microsomal neurological CYP7A1, SLC27A1, LCAS,
receptor-α hyperlipidemia ω-oxidation MLYCD, SCD, FADS2, RETN,
Dietary: FAs and PUFAs MYC, CCND1, IGFBP1, UCP1,
KRT23, IL6, TF, PEX11A
Xenobiotics: DEHP, DEHA
Peroxisome- PPARδ/ Endogenous: FAs and FA intermediates Regulating cell proliferation, differentiation, Cardiovascular, ↑ ACSL3, CPT1A, RGS3, RGS4,
proliferator- NR1C2 and migration in wound healing and metabolic, cancer, RGS5, ISG20, CXCL7, CCL21,
activated Dietary: FAs and PUFAs inflammatory processes neurological RETN, CPT1A
receptor-δ (β)
Retinoic acid RARα/NR1B1; Endogenous: All-trans and 9-cis retinoic Pleiotropic control of embryonic patterning Neurological and ↑ Numerous HOX genes, STRA6,
receptors* RARβ/NR1B2; acid and organogenesis, cell proliferation, psychiatric, cancer HNF3A, CRABP2, ACADM,
RARγ/NR1B3 differentiation, apoptosis and homeostatic MECOM; ↓ CYP1A1, HOXB9
Clinical: Tretinoin for treating acne and control
acute promyelocytic leukemia
Liver X receptors* LXRα/NR1H3; Endogenous: Oxysterols Cholesterol and steroid sensors with roles in Metabolic ↑ SREBP1C, CYP7A1, ABC8,
LXRβ/NR1H2 lipid and carbohydrate metabolism APOA1, APOE, LPL, PLTP
Retinoid X RXRα/NR2B1; Endogenous: 9-cis retinoic acid Embryonic cell patterning and Neurological and ↑↓ many genes as heterodimers
receptors* RXRβ/NR2B2; organogenesis, cell proliferation and psychiatric, immune with other receptors (e.g.,LXRs,
RXRγ/NR2B3 differentiation, other functions as PPARs, FXR, TRs, RARs; ↑ ABC1
heterodimers with other nuclear receptors (with LXR); ↓ CYP7A1 (with FXR)
Pregnane X PXR/NR1I2 Endogenous: Bile acids Metabolism and transport of pharmaceutical Immune ↑ Multiple CYP2 and CYP3
receptor drugs, xenobiotics, and toxic bile acids in gene family members, MDR1,
Xenobiotic: St. John’s Wort (hyperforin), the liver and GI tract MRP2, OATP2, UGT1A1, SULT,
Taxol, rifampicin, phenobarbital ↓ CYP7A1
Dietary: Vitamin E, sulforaphane, Gugulipid
Constitutive CAR/NR1I3 Endogenous: Androstanol, androstenol Metabolism of xenobiotics and endogenous Involved in ↑ CYP2B10, CYP311A, CYP3A4,
androstane lipids by regulating expression of hepatotoxicity of CYP1A2, CYP2B6 THRSP,
receptor Xenobiotics: Phenobarbital, DEHP, cytochrome P450 genes acetaminophen SLC21A6, MRP2, MDR1, OATP2
Meclizine
Farnesoid X FXR/NR1H4 Endogenous: Bile acids (e.g., A sensor for bile acid that helps regulate bile Metabolic ↑ SLC10A2, ABCB1, ABCB11,
receptor chenodeoxycholic acid) acid homeostasis NR0B2, HSD3B2, FETUB,
ABCB4, FGF19, NOS2; ↓
Dietary: Cafestol, guggulsterone CYP7A1, HNF1A, HNF4A,
SLCO1B1, SLC10A2
822 Cell 142, September 3, 2010 ©2010 Elsevier Inc. DOI 10.1016/j.cell.2010.08.026 See online version for legend and references.
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