The Sun
Solar Factoids (I)
Solar radiation
(Sun Earth-Relationships)
Radiation and Climate Change FS 2012 Martin Wild
The Sun
Solar Factoids (II)
•  Sun consists of 3 parts of hydrogen, one part of helium. Proportion
changes over time.
•  Sun‘s energy output is produced in the core of the sun by nuclear
reactions (fusion of four hydrogen (H) atoms into one helium (He)
atom).
•  Sun is about 4.5 billion years old. Since its birth it has used up about
half of the hydrogen in its core.
•  Sufficient fuel remains for the Sun to continue radiating "peacefully"
for another 5 billion years (although its luminosity will approximately
double over that period), but eventually it will run out of hydrogen fuel.
Radiation and Climate Change FS 2012 Martin Wild
•  The sun, a medium-size star in the milky way galaxy, consisting of
about 300 billion stars.
•  A gaseous sphere of radius about 695‘500 km (about 109 times of
Earth radius) => by far the largest object in the solar system
•  Mass: 1.989 * 1030kg (99.8% of total mass of solar system)
Our Sun
Radiation and Climate Change FS 2012 Martin Wild
The Sun
Solar Factoids (III)
•  The Sun's energy output is 3.84 * 1017Gigawatts:
(a typical nuclear power plant produces 1 Gigawatt)
•  The outer 500 km of the sun (“photosphere“) emits most of radiation
received on Earth
•  Radiation emitted by the photosphere closely approximates that of a
blackbody of 5777K
Radiation and Climate Change FS 2012 Martin Wild
 The Sun
Radiation and Climate Change FS 2012 Martin Wild
Solar fusion
Binding energy per nucleon in He core: 1.1*10-12 J
!  Energy generated by one fusion reaction combining 4 H nuclei into one
He core: 4 *1.1 10-12 J= 4.4 10-12J
!  Total Emission of Sun (in W) distributed
Total energy per second emitted by sun: ETOT=3.84*1026W (Js-1)
!  Number of fusion reactions per second = ETOT/ energy generated per
fusion reaction= 3.84 1026Js-1/ 4.4 10-12 J = 0.9*1038s-1
1 proton mass= 1.67*10-27kg
=> per fusion reaction 4*1.67*10-27 kg of H is consumed.
Total amount of H consumed in the Sun per second:
= number of fusion reactions * amount of H consumed per reaction =
0.9*1038s-1*4*1.67e-27 kg = 6 *1011kg= 600 Mio Tons
=> Every second 600 Mio Tons of H are transformed to He
Radiation and Climate Change FS 2012 Martin Wild
Emission of Sun
Effective surface temperature of the sun: 5778 K
=> Emission Bs (per m2) at the sun surface (Stefan-Boltzman law):
Bs = ! T4=5.67 10-8 Wm-2K-4*(5778K)4= 6.32*107 Wm-2
=> Total emission of Sun ETOT:
ETOT =4 " rs2 Bs with rs=6.955 *108m= radius of the sun:
4 * 3.14* (6.955 *108m)2*6.32 107 Wm-2 =3.84 1026W= 3.84 1017GigaW
cf. World‘s energy cosumption: 15 TerraW (1.5 1013 W)
Area on Sun surface required to cover world‘s energy cosumption:
1.5 1013 W / Bs = 1.5 1013 W / 6.3 107 Wm-2 =2.5 105m2=0.25 km2.
=>if we could harvest energy directly on the sun surface, 0.25 km2
would be sufficient to cover world‘s energy demands.
Radiation and Climate Change FS 2012 Martin Wild
Solar radiation
Total emission ETOT of Sun: S=1366Wm-2
ETOT = 4 " rs2 * Bs
over a sphere (in m2) with radius a,
where a= Earth-Sun Distance (semi major a rs
axis of Earth’s orbit, 149.6 * 109m),
determines the Solar irradiance S per m2
at the Top of the Earth’s atmosphere
(Solar Constant) at distance a :
S = 4 " rs2 Bs / (4 " a2) = (rs/a)2 Bs
=(6.955*108m / 149.6*109m)2*6.32*107 Wm-2 = 1366 Wm-2
Current best estimate from measurements: 1361 Wm-2
5 Wm-2 deviation may to difference from ideal black body and measurement
uncertainties Radiation and Climate Change FS 2012 Martin Wild
 Solar radiation Solar radiation
More generally, if a planet is at distance rp from the sun, then the solar Examples:
irradiance Sp (in Wm-2) onto the planet is:

rs =6.955 *108m
Intensity of solar irradiance decreases with distance according to
Bs=6.32*107 Wm-2
Inverse square law.
=>c=3.057* 1025W

Planet Distance from Intensity of solar

Sun (109 m) radiation (Wm-2)

Venus 108 2620

Earth 149.6 1366
Mars 228 558

Radiation and Climate Change FS 2012 Martin Wild Radiation and Climate Change FS 2012 Martin Wild

Sun Earth relationships Solar radiation

Earth‘s orbit around the Sun:
Earth's orbit is an ellipse and the sun is located in one of its focal points.
Definition Ellipse: The sum of the distances from any point on the
ellipse to the two focal points is constant (equal 2 x semi major axis a)
=> Sun Earth-distance r varies during the course of the year
Definitions:
Perihelion P: point on the orbit which is closest to the Sun
Aphelion A: point on the orbit which is farthest from the Sun
Eccentricity e: Amount by which orbit deviates from a perfect circle,
where 0 is perfectly circular, and 1.0 is a parabola. Ratio of the distance
between the foci of the ellipse to the length of the major axis of the
ellipse.

semi major axis

Radiation and Climate Change FS 2012 Martin Wild Radiation and Climate Change FS 2012 Martin Wild
 Solar radiation Solar radiation
Definitions:
Earth-Sun distance varies over the course of a year:
Solar constant S (1361 Wm-2): Solar irradiance obtained per m2 on a
plane perpendicular to the sunbeam at distance a (semi major axis) !  Insolation Sr at distance r:
from the Sun.

Distance a (semi major axis) Sr S

S
sometimes also called
1 Astronomical Unit (AU) a
# 150 Mio km a a: semi major Axis:
semi major axis

r is a function of time of the year: r(t)

Radiation and Climate Change FS 2012 Martin Wild Radiation and Climate Change FS 2012 Martin Wild

Solar radiation Solar radiation

Special cases: S
Earth in Aphel: Earth in Perihel: S r ( perihel) (1 " e) 2 S (1 + e) 2 (1 + e) 2
= = =
r=a+ae=a(1+e) r=a-ae=a(1-e) S r (aphel) S (1 " e) 2 S (1 " e) 2
2
(1 + e)

Current e=0.0167:
! S r ( perihel) (1 + e) 2 (1 + 0.0167) 2
= = = 1.07
S r (aphel) (1 " e) 2 (1 " 0.0167) 2
7% difference in insolation between Perihel and Aphel

!max. e in Earth history: 0.06:

27% difference in insolation between Perihel and Aphel

Radiation and Climate Change FS 2012 Martin Wild Radiation and Climate Change FS 2012 Martin Wild

=>
 Solar radiation Solar radiation
Insolation G(r) received per m2 on average on the Earth sphere
Mean insolation on Earth GP over an entire orbital period P (annual
mean insolation)

Integrating:

yields:

2
S P" a % S
GP = ( $ ' dt =
Total energy taken out of solar flux by Earth disk: S R2*" 4P 0 # r(t) & 4 1 ) e2
Total solar energy per m2 distributed over Earth sphere S R2*" / (4 R2*") = where e is the eccentricity of the elliptic orbit of Earth around the sun
S/4= 340 Wm-2 Radiation and Climate Change FS 2012 Martin Wild Radiation and Climate Change FS 2012 Martin Wild

!
Solar radiation Solar radiation
Current conditions: e=0.0167: Total solar energy received on earth:
4"r2 Gp=4"(6.37 106m)2 340*Wm-2 =1.74 1017W (174 PetaW)
(174,000,000,000,000,000 J per second from the sun)
=>e effect:0.00014*340Wm-2=0. 033 Wm-2

Compare: 1 average swiss nuclear power plant generates power on the

Maximum eccentricity over past Million years: e=0.06: order of 1 GigaW=109 W
!  Solar energy incident on Earth compares to about 1.7 x 108 nuclear
power plants (170 Mio. nuclear power plants)
=>e effect:0.0018*340Wm-2=0. 61 Wm-2
Compare: World‘s current energy consumption: 15 TeraW (1.5$1013 W)
! term negligible for annual mean calculations !  10’000 times smaller than solar energy incident on the planet
=> GP=S/4= 340Wm-2 annual mean insolation !  solar energy received within less than one hour would be sufficient to
cover one year of World‘s current energy consumption

Radiation and Climate Change FS 2012 Martin Wild Radiation and Climate Change FS 2012 Martin Wild
 Desertec: Solar Power from the Desert Solar radiation
www.desertec.org
Planetary albedo A:
Within 6h deserts receive more energy from the sun than humankind
consumes within a year Fraction of reflected solar radiation with respect to incoming solar radiation

Mean annual energy GA absorbed by the planet per m2 on the sphere:

A = 0.3 for Earth

Radiation and Climate Change FS 2012 Martin Wild Radiation and Climate Change FS 2012 Martin Wild

Effective Temperature Effective Temperature

Effective temperature: (blackbody) temperature at which the emitted
longwave equals the absorbed shortwave radiation.
• If the temperature of a planet is below the effective temperature it will emit
less radiation than it absorbs => planet will warm until it reaches radiative
equilibrium and effective temperature.
• if its temperature is above the effective temperature it will cool toward
radiative equilibrium by emitting more radiation than it absorbs.
In equilibrium, absorbed shortwave energy GA (over the Earth disk) is
balanced by longwave emission (over the Earth sphere) according to planet distance albedo (1-albedo) Teff (K)
from sun
the Stefan-Boltzman law with an effective temperature Teff: (109m)
Mercury 58 0.06 0.94 442
Venus 108 0.78 0.22 227
Earth 150 0.30 0.70 255
Mars 228 0.17 0.83 216
Jupiter 778 0.45 0.55 105

Radiation and Climate Change FS 2012 Martin Wild Radiation and Climate Change FS 2012 Martin Wild
 Effective Temperature of Planets Exercices

Temperature (K)

Distance from sun

Radiation and Climate Change FS 2012 Martin Wild Radiation and Climate Change FS 2012 Martin Wild

Daily course of sun Daily course of sun

Determination of zenith angle !
Surface insolation I (irradiance) at a specific location and time:
Earth centered Cartesian coordinate
system (x; y; z)

z-axis points to the North pole

% solar zenith angle at that position and time x-axis in the equatorial plane
with sun in the x-z-plane
Solar Zenith angle % function of:
•  Time of the day, expressed in hour angle H
•  Latitude &
•  Calender day (season), expressed as declination ' !
n! points to local zenith at P
s points to the Sun
r function of time on Earth orbit.
% is zenith angle
! at observer point P
Radiation and Climate Change FS 2012 Martin Wild Radiation and Climate Change FS 2012 Martin Wild
!
 Daily course of sun Daily course of sun
Determination of zenith angle ! Determination of zenith angle !
Declination ": Hour Angle H:
angle between the
direction to the sun Angle in the equatorial plane
and to equatorial plane between the meridian of the
observer P and the direction
to the sun projected onto the
equatorial plane.

Declination varies over the Hour angle in radiance

year from +23°27’ (21. June) 0: solar noon
to -23°27’ (21. Dec)

Radiation and Climate Change FS 2012 Martin Wild Radiation and Climate Change FS 2012 Martin Wild

Daily course of sun Daily course of sun

Determination of zenith angle ! Determination of zenit angle !
Local Zenith angle:
Zenith angle at point P:
! Angle Unit vector
between local zenith n and
!
the direction to the sun s

!
! 1

Radiation and Climate Change FS 2012 Martin Wild Radiation and Climate Change FS 2012 Martin Wild
 Daily course of sun Daily course of sun
Determination of zenit angle ! Determination of zenit angle !

Unit vector
Unit vector

sin '

Radiation and Climate Change FS 2012 Martin Wild Radiation and Climate Change FS 2012 Martin Wild

Daily course of sun Daily course of sun

Determination of zenit angle ! Determination of zenit angle !

Unit vector Unit vector

"#
sin"#
1 1

cos"cos
H
H

Radiation and Climate Change FS 2012 Martin Wild Radiation and Climate Change FS 2012 Martin Wild
 Daily course of sun Daily course of sun

The astronomical sunrise and sunset, +-H0, are given for

direction to the sun
direction to the local zenith: the mathematical horizon at %="/2
at the location of an observer
cos " = cos H cos # cos $ + sin # sin $
%
with " = when H = H 0
2
0 = cos H 0 cos # cos $ + sin # sin $
sin # sin $
With the scalar product we obtain the zenith angle % : cos H 0 = & = & tan # tan $
cos # cos $
where H0 is defined only for -1 ( cosH0 ( 1. For cos H0 >
Fundamental equation for zenith angle % 1, we have the polar night with no sunrise and for cosH0
<-1 we have the polar day with no sunset.
Radiation and Climate Change FS 2012 Martin Wild ! Radiation and Climate Change FS 2012 Martin Wild

Daily insolation Daily insolation

Daily insolation Id at a given location and date is obtained by integrating

for the hour angle from sunrise at -t0 to sunset at t0. Declination is kept
constant during one day. Horizon at a zenith angle of 90°, => integral is The integral can be evaluated analytically,
evaluated from sunrise at –t0 to sunset at t0, with

where the hour angle H0 is measured in radian,

where H0 is the hour angle for sunrise at the mathematical horizon.

The integral can be evaluated analytically.

Radiation and Climate Change FS 2012 Martin Wild Radiation and Climate Change FS 2012 Martin Wild
 Daily insolation Daily insolation
Ho Ho
Mean daily insolation at TOA (in Wm-2)
$ cos "dH = $ (cos H cos % cos & + sin % sin & )dH =
# Ho # Ho

= sin H cos % cos & + sin % sin & ' H ] #HH 0

0

= sin H 0 cos % cos & + sin % sin & ' H 0 # (sin(#H 0 )cos % cos & + sin % sin & ' (#H 0 ))
= sin H 0 cos % cos & + sin % sin & ' H 0 # (#sin(H 0 )cos % cos & # sin % sin & ' H 0 )
= 2(sin H 0 cos % cos & + sin % sin & ' H 0 )

2 H
86400 * a - o

( Id = S , / $ cos "dH
2) + r . # Ho
2
86400 * a -
= 2S , / (sin H 0 cos % cos & + sin % sin & ' H 0 )
2) + r .

Radiation and Climate Change FS 2012 Martin Wild Radiation and Climate Change FS 2012 Martin Wild