ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Thermal and mechanical characteristics of

stainless steel, titanium-molybdenum,
and nickel-titanium archwires
Robert P. Kusya and John Q. Whitleyb
Chapel Hill, NC

Introduction: In recent years, nickel-titanium (Ni-Ti) archwires have been developed that undergo thermal
transitions. Before the practitioner can fully utilize these products, the effect of those transitions within the
clinical application must be understood. Methods: The transitional temperatures and mechanical stiffnesses
of 3 archwire alloys—stainless steel, beta-titanium, and Ni-Ti—were investigated were for 7 products. Among
the nickel-titanium alloys, 2 were thought to represent classic Ni-Ti products and 3 copper (Cu)-Ni-Ti
products. By using 2 techniques, differential scanning calorimetry to measure heat flow and dynamic
mechanical analysis to measure storage modulus, transition temperatures were evaluated from ⫺30°C to
⫹80°C. Results: With regard to the first technique, no transitions were observed for the stainless steel alloy,
the beta-titanium alloy, and 1 of the 2 classic Ni-Ti products. For the other classic Ni-Ti product, however,
a martensitic-austenitic transition was suggested on heating, and a reverse transformation was suggested on
cooling. As expected, the Cu-Ni-Ti 27, 35, and 40 products manifested austenitic finish temperatures of
29.3°C, 31.4°C, and 37.3°C, respectively, as the enthalpy increased from 2.47 to 3.18 calories per gram. With
regard to the second technique, the storage modulus at a low frequency of 0.1 Hz paralleled static
mechanical tests for the stainless steel alloy (183 gigapascal [GPa]), the beta-titanium alloy (64 GPa), and the
Nitinol Classic (3M Unitek, Monrovia, Calif) product that represented a stable martensitic phase (41 GPa). The
remaining 4 Ni-Ti products generally varied from 20 to 35 GPa when the low-temperature or martensitic
phase was present and from 60 to 70 GPa after the high-temperature or austenitic phase had formed.
Conclusions: From the clinical viewpoint, the Orthonol (Rocky Mountain Orthodontics, Denver, Colo),
Cu-Ni-Ti 27, Cu-Ni-Ti 35, and Cu-Ni-Ti 40 (SDS/Ormco, Glendora, Calif) products increased at least twofold
in stiffness as temperature increased, best emulating the stiffness of Nitinol Classic below the transforma-
tional temperature and the stiffness of TMA (SDS/Ormco, Glendora, Calif) above the transformational
temperature. Of the 3 Cu-Ni-Ti products, the least differences were found between Cu-Ni-Ti 27 and Cu-Ni-Ti
35, thereby questioning the justification for 3 similar products. (Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop 2007;131:
229-37)

P
revious investigators measured the tensile and
flexure characteristics of archwires with differ-
ing outcomes, which depended on specific in-
strumentation, test methodology, and wire geometry.1-5
For example, stainless steel values varied from 22 ⫻
106 to 30 ⫻ 106 psi,1,3 which in Systeme Internationale
units corresponded to 150 to 200 gigapascal (GPa).
Such differences profoundly influence the strength-to-
range ratio and consequently change the resilience by
From the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill.
a
Department of Orthodontics and Dental Research Center, School of Dentistry.
b
Dental Research Center, School of Dentistry.
Supported in part by NIH grant 5 RO1 DE13201-03.
Reprint requests to: Robert P. Kusy, University of North Carolina, DRC
Building 210H, Room 313, CB#7455, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7455; e-mail,
Robert_Kusy@dentistry.unc.edu.
Submitted, March 2005; revised and accepted, May 2005.
0889-5406/$32.00
Copyright © 2007 by the American Association of Orthodontists.
doi:10.1016/j.ajodo.2005.05.054
the same proportions. Once either the working strength
or its range is known along with the stiffness, the
effectiveness of an archwire to move teeth is estab-
lished.4,6,7
Primarily within the last 10 years, investigators
have begun to characterize the transformational char-
acteristics of archwires.8-12 Such studies are important
for nickel-titanium (Ni-Ti) archwires whose reversible
phase transformations occur from austenite to marten-
site, or sometimes an intermediate metastable R-phase
occurs. Knowledge of the austenitic start and finish
temperatures (on heating) and the martensitic start and
finish temperatures (on cooling) establishes the stiff-
nesses of each archwire at ambient and oral-cavity
conditions (34°C),13 and at the temperatures of ice
cream (about 0°C) and hot coffee (about 60°C).14
Since the first commercial thermal analysis instru-
mentation in the 1960s, hardware and software capa-
229
230 Kusy and Whitley
bilities have grown so that today some 2 dozen tech-
niques are available—2 of which are differential
scanning calorimetry (DSC) and dynamic mechanical
analysis (DMA). DSC measures heat flow as tempera-
ture changes.15 When changes occur from solid to
liquid states (eg, the melting of ice) or, in the present
case, from 1 phase to another in the same state (from
martensite to austenite in the solid state), an endother-
mic (or exothermic) reaction occurs as a result of
heating (or cooling). Thereby, the transitional temper-
atures and enthalpy changes associated with latent heat
of transition can be measured.16 On the other hand,
DMA measures the real component of the complex
modulus—the storage modulus—as the temperature
changes.17 When such a specimen is appropriately
vibrated at 1 or more known frequencies, the response
might not only lag behind but also become attenuated.
These changes are most apparent as the temperature
traverses a transformation such as a solid-state phase
change that is found in some Ni-Ti products.18
In this article, the DSC and DMA techniques are
used to determine both the phase transformations and
the magnitude of storage moduli (a measure of wire
stiffness) for 3 alloy groups. From these measurements,
we show not only the moduli of invariant alloys but
also the temperatures, enthalpies, and moduli of alloys
undergoing solid-state phase transformations. Specifi-
cally, Ni-Ti products can exhibit storage moduli that
vary with temperature by a factor of 2, when only small
changes in composition and temperature occur. There-
fore, Ni-Ti products should be selected on the basis of
their properties and clinical applications—not on the
basis of their costs and vendors.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Seven archwire products comprising 3 alloy groups
were studied (Table I): a traditional austenitic stainless
steel, the first-marketed titanium-molybdenum binary
called beta-titanium, and 5 Ni-Ti alloys. Of the 5 Ni-Ti
alloys, 2 were thought to be stabilized martensitic
alloys in which processing prevented further transfor-
mations, and 3 were thought to be active alloys in
which the amounts of copper (Cu) and chromium19,20
influenced the transformations from austenite to mar-
tensite on cooling (A ¡ M) and martensite to austenite
on heating (M ¡ A).21,22 When both transformations
were possible, the alloy was said to be reversibly
thermoelastic, and the notation appears either as M ↔
A or, equivalently, as A ↔ M.
In standard DSC mode, specimens (10-11 mg) of
wire products were scanned 3 times with a differential
scanning calorimeter (Q100, TA Instruments, New
Castle, Del) and an attached refrigerated cooling sys-
American Journal of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics
February 2007
Table I. Materials evaluated
Product Alloy Constituents Manufacturer
Standard Stainless steel Fe, Cr, Ni, C American
Rectangular Orthodontics
TMA Beta-titanium Ti, Mo, Zr, Sn SDS/Ormco
Nitinol Classic Nickel-titanium Ni, Ti 3M Unitek
Orthonol Nickel-titanium Ni, Ti Rocky Mountain
Orthodontics
Cu-Ni-Ti 27 Nickel-titanium Ni, Ti, Cu, Cr SDS/Ormco
Cu-Ni-Ti 35 Nickel-titanium Ni, Ti, Cu, Cr SDS/Ormco
Cu-Ni-Ti 40 Nickel-titanium Ni, Ti, Cu, Cr SDS/Ormco
All wire specimens were nominally 0.016 ⫻ 0.022 in.
Mo, Molybdenum; Zr, zirconium; Sn, tin; Cr, chromium; Fe, iron; C,
carbon; Ni, nickel; Cu, copper; Sn, tin; Ti, titanium.
tem (Fig 1, A). The instrument was calibrated with
matched sapphire disks and then was run with indium.
All specimens were scanned from ⫺30°C to 60°C
under an atmosphere of ultrahigh purity nitrogen. Im-
mediately after this temperature ramp, the specimens
were scanned from 60 to ⫺30°C at the same rate. When
both the specimen and the reference pans were heated
at the programmable rate of 5C° per minute in the
temperature-controlled chamber (Fig 1, B), changes in
heat flow occurred when a phase transition happened.
(In this article, there is an important difference between
5°C and 5C°. The former refers to a specific tempera-
ture on the Celsius scale; the latter indicates the
magnitude of a thermal change that is independent of
the actual Celsius temperature.) When the phase tran-
sition is a solid-solid transformation, an endothermic
absorption peak is observed on heating that begins at
the austenite start (AS) temperature and ends at the
austenite finish (AF) temperature.23 This peak appears
like other first-order transformations— eg, melting amd
boiling peaks. After cooling at the same programmable
rate, the transformation occurs somewhat later, and the
phase change appears supercooled. That is, the trans-
formation of A ¡ M occurs at the martensite start (MS)
temperature, and the completion occurs at the marten-
site finish (MF) temperature (Fig 1, C ). After we
measured these 4 temperatures, we calculated the en-
dothermic peaks on heating and the exothermic peaks
on cooling. These peaks are proportional to the enthal-
pies of heating (⌬HH) and cooling (⌬HC), respectively,
and were calculated by using the sigmoidal tangent
algorithm of Universal Analysis 2002 (TA Instru-
ments).
By using a 5-mm span, wire specimens were
scanned in the 3-point bending fixture of a dynamic
mechanical analyzer (2980, TA Instruments) outfitted
with a liquid nitrogen gas cooling accessory (Fig 2, A).
After preloading with 5 g at an amplitude of 0.0005 cm,
American Journal of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics Kusy and Whitley 231
Volume 131, Number 2

Fig 1. DSC: A, Loading platform with centrally located reference pan and specimen pan;
B, schematic of temperature-controlled chamber in vertical plane; C, typical heating and cooling
thermograms defining 6 parameters of importance.

Fig 2. DMA: A, Three-point bending fixture; B, schematic of temperature-controlled chamber and its
hardware in vertical plane; C, typical heating and cooling thermograms defining 7 parameters of importance.

the specimens were scanned by using frictionless air controlled chamber (Fig 2, B). The responses from 3
bearings and a drive motor from ⫺20° to 80°C at a rate frequencies (0.1, 1.0, and 10 Hz) were sequentially
of 1C° per minute. This was followed by a scan from measured at each temperature with an optical encoder.
80° to ⫺30°C at the same rate in a temperature- The lowest frequency best mimicked the static test
232 Kusy and Whitley American Journal of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics
February 2007

conditions of conventional tensile or bending tests. By

using the same phase notation as the DSC tester, each
storage modulus (which is directly proportional to the
dynamic force applied) showed a similar relative delay
of the cooling curve compared with its heating curve
(Fig 2, C). This shift resulted in a hysteresis loop,22-25
which (as in hard vs soft magnets26) indicates the ease
of the transformation. The low temperature phase (M)
at temperature (T) ⬍MF has a lower storage modulus
than the high temperature phase (A) at T ⬎AF. Conse-
quently, on heating, the dynamic force is at its mini-
mum for the martensitic phase as AS is approached and
at its maximum for the austenitic phase once AF has
been exceeded. On subsequent cooling, the A phase
persists down to MS, but transformation to all M phase
is not complete until MF. The horizontal magnitude
associated with each hysteresis loop (⌬T) was calcu-
lated by first determining the storage modulus at the Fig 3. Comparison of DSC thermograms of 4 archwires
midpoint between AS and AF of the heating curve. for which no transitions were expected: (top to bottom)
Then, by extrapolating this modulus onto the cooling Standard Rectangular, TMA, Nitinol Classic, and Ortho-
curve, the difference between the temperature of the nol (see Table I).
heating and cooling traces, ⌬T, was obtained.

Statistical analysis
For both the DSC and DMA techniques, the
means ⫾ 1 SD were determined for transition temper-
atures of all products that had first-order transforma-
tions. In both techniques, specific values were aver-
aged: for DSC, representing the 3 runs; for DMA, these
were the 3 frequencies.

RESULTS
Figure 3 shows the DSC results, from top to bottom,
of the heating and cooling thermograms for stainless
steel, beta-titanium, and 2 Ni-Ti alloys, respectively. As
expected, the Standard Rectangular (Am Orthodontics,
Sheboygan, Wisc), TMA (SDS/Ormco, Glendora,
Calif), and the Nitinol Classic (3M Unitek, Monrovia,
Calif) products showed no transitions in the tempera-
ture regime of the oral cavity. Contrary to earlier beliefs Fig 4. Comparison of DSC thermograms in which at
and possibly because of a change in this Ni-Ti alloy, the least 1 transition occurs on heating and cooling: (top to
Orthonol (Rocky Mountain Orthodontics, Denver, bottom) Cu-Ni-Ti 27, Cu-Ni-Ti 35, and Cu-Ni-Ti 40 (see
Colo) product had a small endothermic (or exothermic) Table I).
peak on heating (or cooling).8 Whether this represents
an M ¡ A transformation on heating and an A ¡ M
transformation on cooling will be verified by the DMA diate R-phase27 followed by the high-temperature or
results. austenitic phase. When cooled, all had the appearance
Figure 4 details the 3 Cu-Ni-Ti products, which the shown in Figure 1 (see Material and methods). The
manufacturer designates by their transitions of 27°C, thermograms of the Cu-Ni-Ti 27 and Cu-Ni-Ti 35
35°C, and 40°C (SDS/Ormco). When heated, all Cu- products appear more alike than the 35 and 40 products,
Ni-Ti products had endothermic reactions in the order regardless of whether heating or cooling.
that their thermal monikers would imply. Two distinct Insofar as individual runs are concerned (Table II,
transformations occurred for Cu-Ni-Ti 40, the interme- M and A entries), the 3 Cu-Ni-Ti products repeatedly
American Journal of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics Kusy and Whitley 233
Volume 131, Number 2

Table II. Transition temperatures of products with first-order transformations via DSC
Properties on heating Properties on cooling

⌬HH ⌬HC
† ‡ ‡
Number AS (°C) RS* (°C) RF (°C) AF (°C) (cal/g) MS (°C) MF (°C) (cal/g)

1 Cu-Ni-Ti 27 6.1 28.9 2.42 11.7 ⫺15.4 2.78

2 6.4 29.3 2.49 12.1 ⫺14.3 2.77
3 7.1 29.7 2.49 11.8 ⫺14.0 2.77
6.5 ⫾ 0.5§ 29.3 ⫾ 0.4 2.47 ⫾ 0.04 11.9 ⫾ 0.2 ⫺14.6 ⫾ 0.7 2.77 ⫾ 0.01
1 Cu-Ni-Ti 35 9.1 31.3 2.86 13.0 ⫺9.9 3.22
2 10.1 31.4 2.84 13.0 ⫺10.8 3.23
3 10.2 31.4 2.88 13.1 ⫺10.7 3.23
9.8 ⫾ 0.6 31.4 ⫾ 0.1 2.86 ⫾ 0.02 13.0 ⫾ 0.1 ⫺10.5 ⫾ 0.5 3.23 ⫾ 0.01
1 Cu-Ni-Ti 40 22.4 30.8 35.7 37.7 3.15 19.9 5.7 3.39
2 21.0 27.6 30.2 37.1 3.17 20.6 4.5 3.48
3 20.2 27.6 30.1 37.2 3.23 20.2 4.7 3.49
21.2 ⫾ 1.1 28.7 ⫾ 1.8 32.0 ⫾ 3.2 37.3 ⫾ 0.3 3.18 ⫾ 0.04 20.2 ⫾ 0.4 5.0 ⫾ 0.6 3.46 ⫾ 0.05
1 Orthonol 10.8 32.2 0.57 29.5 8.8 0.57
2 11.4 32.2 0.55 29.4 8.5 0.57
3 11.5 32.3 0.57 29.5 9.1 0.57
11.2 ⫾ 0.4 32.2 ⫾ 0.1 0.56 ⫾ 0.01 29.5 ⫾ 0.1 8.8 ⫾ 0.3 0.57 ⫾ 0.00

See Fig 1 for definitions of AS, AF, ⌬HH, MS, MF, and ⌬HC.
*Temperature of transformation from martensite to R-phase.
†
Temperature of transformation from R-phase to austenite.
‡
Where 1 cal/g ⫽ 4.18 Joule/g.
§
Mean ⫾ 1 SD.

suggest that the ends of the endothermic peaks on
heating (ie, the temperature at which the thermogram
returns to its baseline value on heating, AF) correspond
to the manufacturer’s designations as follows: the 27
product vs 29.3°C, the 35 product vs 31.4°C, and the 40
product vs 37.3°C (see also references 9, 28, and 29).
Overall, enthalpy changes for the 3 Cu-Ni-Ti and
the Orthonol products (Table II, ⌬H entries) averaged
about 3.00 and 0.57 calories per gram, respectively. For
each Cu-Ni-Ti product, the magnitude of ⌬H increased
as the transition temperature increased from the 27 to
the 40 products, independent of heating or cooling.
However, the ⌬HC values were always about 10% more
than the values associated with ⌬HH. Overall, these
observations agree with the results reported by Mc-
Coy30 and detailed in Orthodontic Materials: Scientific
and Clinical Aspects.16 The means and standard devi-
ations of those references were somewhat more scat-
tered than our results.
Table III summarizes the influence of frequency on
the transition temperatures of the DMA technique.
Unlike polymers, in which each decade of frequency
shifts a transition by about 7C°,31 here the differences
were only about 1C°. Consequently, only the lowest
frequency needs to be further investigated for these
intermetallic Ni-Ti alloys, although the mean values are
just as informative, also.
The DMA results at 0.1 Hz (Fig 5) corroborated
static tests on a tensile or bending machine.1-3 Specif-
ically on heating, the storage modulus of the stainless
steel alloy, Standard Rectangular, equaled 183 GPa at
20°C. The modulus of the beta-titanium alloy, TMA,
equaled 64 GPa at 20°C. For the Ni-Ti alloy, Nitinol
Classic, the modulus monotonically increased by 0.12
GPa per C° and equaled 41 GPa at 20°C. The only real
surprise was the Orthonol product, which clearly ex-
hibited an M ¡ A phase transformation as its modulus
increased from 38 to 67 GPa. On cooling, the moduli
values of this product generally replicated the heating
traces, except for the 5C° to 10C° thermal delay that
occurred between AS and MF as the transformation
from A ¡ M started.
When each Cu-Ni-Ti product was tested at 0.1 Hz,
the values of ⌬T between the cooling and heating scans
were 24.3°C and 23.3°C for Cu-Ni-Ti 27 and Cu-Ni-Ti
35, respectively, and 26.6°C for Cu-Ni-Ti 40 (Table
III). When the cooling or heating scans of the Cu-Ni-Ti
products were compared (Fig 6), the moduli of the
low-temperature transformation ranged from 20 to 35
GPa, and the high-temperature transformation ranged
from 60 to 70 GPa. Although the transformation region
of Cu-Ni-Ti 27 and Cu-Ni-Ti 40 showed about a 10C°
differential on heating and about a 7.5C° differential on
cooling, the transformation region of Cu-Ni-Ti 35
showed a low start temperature (AS) that was most like
Cu-Ni-Ti 27 and a high finish temperature (AF) that
234 Kusy and Whitley American Journal of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics
February 2007

Table III. Transition temperatures of products with first-order transformations via DMA
Properties on heating Properties on cooling

Frequency Min. Dynamic Max. Dynamic

(Hz) Products AS (°C) AF (°C) Force (g)* MS (°C) MF (°C) Force (g)* ⌬T (C°)

0.1 Cu-Ni-Ti 27 18.2 27.5 11.6 5.4 ⫺6.3 38.5 24.0

1.0 19.8 27.5 13.1 6.4 ⫺6.8 38.5 24.5
10.0 19.4 27.3 13.5 6.5 ⫺6.5 38.6 24.3
19.1 ⫾ 0.8† 27.4 ⫾ 0.1 12.7 ⫾ 1.0 6.1 ⫾ 0.6 ⫺6.5 ⫾ 0.3 38.5 ⫾ 0.1 24.3 ⫾ 0.3
0.1 Cu-Ni-Ti 35 21.2 36.5 13.8 13.7 ⫺1.4 40.9 23.8
1.0 20.9 35.6 15.3 14.0 ⫺1.0 41.0 23.1
10.0 20.9 35.2 15.7 13.2 ⫺1.3 41.0 23.1
21.0 ⫾ 0.2 35.8 ⫾ 0.7 14.9 ⫾ 1.0 13.6 ⫾ 0.4 ⫺1.2 ⫾ 0.2 41.0 ⫾ 0.1 23.3 ⫾ 0.4
0.1 Cu-Ni-Ti 40 31.0 39.2 14.0 14.2 4.0 39.5 26.6
1.0 29.9 39.9 14.8 15.1 3.1 39.5 26.6
10.0 29.6 39.8 15.1 15.6 2.7 39.5 26.5
30.2 ⫾ 0.7 39.6 ⫾ 0.4 14.6 ⫾ 0.6 15.0 ⫾ 0.7 3.3 ⫾ 0.7 39.5 ⫾ 0.0 26.6 ⫾ 0.1
0.1 Orthonol 22.4 36.4 19.3 30.2 13.5 41.4 9.5
1.0 22.2 35.9 19.8 30.0 13.4 41.5 9.2
10.0 22.4 36.1 20.2 30.5 13.4 41.4 9.3
22.3 ⫾ 0.1 36.1 ⫾ 0.3 19.8 ⫾ 0.5 30.2 ⫾ 0.3 13.4 ⫾ 0.1 41.4 ⫾ 0.1 9.3 ⫾ 0.2

See Fig 2 for definitions of AS, AF, MS, MF, ⌬T, and minimum and maximum.
*Where 10 g ⫽ 0.098 N.
†
Mean ⫾ 1 SD.

Fig 5. With DMA at 0.1 Hz, clearer differentiation oc- Fig 6. With DMA at 0.1 Hz, further differentiation occurs
curs among materials shown in Fig 3. among materials shown in Fig 4.

was most like Cu-Ni-Ti 40. This combination of values

maximized the range over which the transformational
temperature of Cu-Ni-Ti 35 occurred, thereby decreas-
ing the slope of its transformation region to the least
among these 3 Cu-Ni-Ti products.
When the minimum and maximum dynamic forces
were compared, a factor of about 3 was found for the
Cu-Ni-Ti products but only a factor of about 2 for the
Orthonol product (Table III). These applied forces,
used to maintain constant deflection during testing, are
proportional to the ratios of the minimum and maxi-
mum storage modulus values reported in Figure 6 and
to the ratios of 2 to 4 reported by Kousbroek.23
DISCUSSION
At first glance, the connection between thermal-
mechanical characteristics and archwire mechanics ap-
pears remote. In reality, however, much insight can be
gained about the true nature of commercial products—
ie, how they might perform and whether they are a
prudent investment. In this context, here are some
American Journal of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics Kusy and Whitley 235
Volume 131, Number 2

Table IV. Storage modulus (GPa) at 0.1 Hz at specific temperatures

Storage modulus (GPa)*

Ice cream Room temperature Oral temperature Hot coffee

Condition Product @ 0°C @ 25°C @ 34°C @ 60°C

Heating Cu-Ni-Ti 27 26.4 44.9 58.6 63.6

Cu-Ni-Ti 35 28.2 31.2 53.3 64.4
Cu-Ni-Ti 40 29.1 24.6 40.2 65.1
Orthonol 39.7 37.3 55.9 67.4
Nitinol Classic 40.2 41.3 42.1 46.0
TMA 66.5 63.7 66.3 63.6
Standard Rectangular 187.4 182.4 181.2 179.2
Cooling Cu-Ni-Ti 27 41.0 59.0 61.7 65.9
Cu-Ni-Ti 35 30.5 60.0 62.6 66.6
Cu-Ni-Ti 40 30.2 64.2 64.4 67.5
Orthonol 36.3 56.9 65.4 69.9
Nitinol Classic 40.7 42.9 44.2 48.1
TMA 65.0 64.3 64.1 63.3
Standard Rectangular 186.8 183.8 183.2 180.1

*Determined from databases used to construct Figs 5 and 6.

examples of how evidence-based science complements
experience-based practice.
When Orthonol was first offered, this alloy behaved
like another martensitic-stabilized alloy, Nitinol Clas-
sic. When heat flow is measured (Fig 3), a reversible
transformation is suggested; this is better seen when the
storage modulus is measured (Fig 5). Here one ob-
serves that Orthonol has biomechanical characteristics
that mimic Nitinol Classic in the low-temperature
region (T ⱕ10°C) but mimic TMA in the high-temper-
ature region (T ⱖ40°C). Moreover, when the enthalpy
is measured and compared with Cu-Ni-Ti wires (Table
II, ⌬HC and ⌬HH entries), a value of 0.56 is obtained,
which is only 20% that of a Cu-Ni-Ti wire. From these
thermal-mechanical measurements (Figs 3 and 5, Table
II), we adduce that Orthonol is about 20% thermoelas-
tic active martensite, with the rest stable passive mar-
tensite.
Meta-stable behavior is also observed in Ni-Ti
archwires. In this context (Fig 4), Cu-Ni-Ti 40 suggests
the presence of a meta-stable R-phase on heating. This
does not occur on cooling, but it does recur when
second and third heating cycles are run. From a
clinician’s perspective, however, this intermediate
transformation has no effect on the stiffness of this
wire, as shown in the storage modulus data (Fig 6).
Figure 6 broaches a clinical question of some
importance. In a specialty with so many alternative
products, are 3 Cu-Ni-Ti wires really necessary? The
midpoints of the transformations follow expectations
during heating or cooling. But, clinically speaking, the
differences between Cu-Ni-Ti 27 and Cu-Ni-Ti 35 from
AS to AF and from MS to MF are only a few degrees
(Table II).
One advantage of Cu-Ni-Ti wires reportedly in-
volves their thermal-activation characteristics. It is
theorized that the ambient temperatures of various
foods can activate and reactivate these wires. To
investigate this phenomenon, we determined the stiff-
nesses from the averaged data (eg, Figs 5 and 6) at 4
salient temperatures9,11,13,14,32: ice cream (0°C), room
temperature (25°C), oral temperature (34°C), and hot
coffee (60°C). For such a thermal cycle, the following
4 cases can be considered (Table IV), all of which are
influenced by hysteresis.
Hot coffee and Cu-Ni-Ti 27: using this mode and
the heating data, the practitioner takes the wire at 25°C
(modulus ⫽ 44.9 GPa) and places it in the oral cavity
at 34°C (modulus ⫽ 58.6 GPa). The patient drinks hot
coffee at 60°C and raises the modulus to 63.6 GPa. As
a consequence, the force per unit of deactivation is
immediately increased by more than 40%. After the
coffee is consumed, the cooling data show that the
modulus (61.7 GPa) remains nearly constant down to
oral temperature. Only when the temperature is sub-
stantially reduced below room temperature to about
0°C does the modulus drop to 41.0 GPa, a value below
its starting modulus (Table IV, Fig 6).
Hot coffee and Cu-Ni-Ti 40: here the practitioner
takes a wire out of the package at 25°C (modulus ⫽
24.6 GPa). At this point, this wire is more compliant
than the other Cu-Ni-Ti wires (Table IV). When placed
in the oral cavity at 34°C, the modulus rises somewhat
(40.2 GPa), although it is still less than either Cu-Ni-Ti
236 Kusy and Whitley
27 or Cu-Ni-Ti 35 at 34°C. When the hot coffee is
consumed, the modulus rises to 65.1 GPa, the same
value found for all Cu-Ni-Ti wires. After cooling to
oral temperature (34C°), the modulus (64.4 GPa) is
very much like the 61.7 and 62.6 values that were found
for Cu-Ni-Ti 27 and Cu-Ni-Ti 35, respectively.
Ice cream and Cu-Ni-Ti 27: once again, the
practitioner starts with the as-received wire at 25°C
(modulus ⫽ 44.9 GPa). After the modulus increases
to 58.6 GPa in the oral cavity, the patient eats a bowl
of ice cream. This cooling reduces the modulus to as
little as 41.0 GPa, which is very similar to that of the
as-received product.
Ice cream and Cu-Ni-Ti 40: in this case, the starting
point of the as-received product has the lowest modulus
(24.6 GPa). Once placed in the patient at 34°C, how-
ever, the modulus rises to 40.2 GPa. After drinking a
cup of coffee during a meal, the patient consumes a
bowl of ice cream for dessert. Now, the modulus drops
to 30.2 GPa, which is more than the as-received wire
(24.6 GPa) but only 75% the value at 34°C (40.2 GPa).
Three more observations should be made with
regard to Table IV— one that relates Orthonol to the
Cu-Ni-Ti wires; another that considers Nitinol Classic,
TMA, and Standard Rectangular wires relative to Cu-
Ni-Ti wires; and a final comment that uses Standard
Rectangular wires to illustrate how far the materials of
the specialty have progressed.
First, over the entire scenario outlined in the 4 cases
above, the Orthonol product transitions were compara-
ble with the Cu-Ni-Ti 27 and Cu-Ni-Ti 35 alloys. For
example, when presented in the order—Cu-Ni-Ti 27,
Orthonol, and Cu-Ni-Ti 35— on heating, the moduli
equaled 58.6, 55.9, and 53.3 GPa at 34°C and 63.6,
67.4, and 64.4 GPa at 60°C; on cooling, the moduli
equaled 61.7, 65.4, and 62.6 GPa at 34°C. Second, the
moduli of Nitinol Classic, TMA, and Standard Rectan-
gular are rather invariant with temperature. Further-
more, Nitinol Classic has a modulus that is typical for
stabilized martensite, but TMA appears most like the
austenitic phase of Cu-Ni-Ti alloys. Finally, the Stan-
dard Rectangular product exemplifies how far clinical
practice has progressed in its quest for light continuous
forces—ie, with regard to the force per unit activation
via the moduli, from a high of 183 GPa at 34°C to a low
of 40.2 GPa for Cu-Ni-Ti 40.
CONCLUSIONS
By using 2 techniques, the AF measurements of the
Cu-Ni-Ti 27, 35, and 40 products equaled 29.3°C,
31.4°C, and 37.3°C by DSC and 27.4°C, 35.8°C, and
39.6°C by DMA. The latter technique is favored
American Journal of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics
February 2007
because it can simulate clinical scenarios and provide
both thermal and mechanical data.
The Orthonol product and the 3 Cu-Ni-Ti products
had the stiffness qualities of Nitinol Classic at low
temperatures and the stiffness qualities of TMA at high
temperatures. This permits the wire to be more readily
engaged with less patient discomfort because its stiff-
ness is substantially less than the activated state at high
temperature.
“Does the transition temperature of Cu-Ni-Ti arch-
wires affect the amount of tooth movement during align-
ment?” 33 If tooth movement is assumed to occur mainly
when wires are activated by high-temperature excursions,
our results show no difference between the alloys at high
temperatures and little difference after cooling to oral
temperature. The main difference occurs during engage-
ment, in which Cu-Ni-Ti 40 provides the least force, and
Cu-Ni-Ti 27 provides the most force.28,29
We thank the manufacturers for donating the mate-
rials for this study.
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