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Optical Communications Unit VIII
UNIT 8
1. Explain the first window transmission distance?
Ans:
The curve shown in figure 8.1.1 is for material dispersion in the absence of modal
dispersion. This limit is the distance at which is to present of a bit period.
The modal distortion is derived from the equation,
Where,
L = length of the link.
Q = values between 0.5 to 1.
B0= Bandwidth of 1km length of the cable.
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Optical Communications Unit VIII
When, q = 0.7 and bandwidth distance product of the fiber is 800 MHz.km the value of
tmodal is 70 percent of the bit period.
The achievable distance are shown here by hatched area i.e., below the attenuation limit
curve and left to the dispersion line. The attenuation of transmission distance is till 40 Mb/s, later
on it becomes material dispersion limited. Transmission distances are more when avalanche
photodiode is replaced with laser diode.
2. Explain about RZ and NRZ coding and their effects on the bit rate?
Ans:
RZ CODES
If an adequate bandwidth margin exists, each data bit can be encoded as two optical line
code bits. This is the basis of RZ codes. In this code, a signal level transition occurs during either
some of which are shown in figure 8.2.1. In the unipolar RZ data, 1 bit is represented by a half-
period optical pulse that can occur in either the first or second half of the bit period, A '0' is
represented by no signal during the bit period.
NRZ CODES
A number of different NRZ codes are widely used, and their bandwidths serve as
references for all other code groups. The simplest NRZ code is NRZ-level (or NRZ-L), shown in
figure8.2.2. For a serial data stream, as on-off (or unipolar) signal represents 1 by a pulse of
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Optical Communications Unit VIII
current or light filling an entire bit period, whereas for a 0 no pulse transmitted. These codes are
simple to generate & decode, but they possess no inherent error-monitoring or correcting
capabilities and they have no self-clocking (timing) features.
A disadvantage of the unipolar RZ format is that long strings of 0 bits can cause loss of
timing synchronization. A common data format not having this limitation is the biphase or
optical Manchester code. Note that this is a unipolar code, which is in contrast to the
conventional bipolar Manchester code used in wire lines. The optical Manchester signal is
obtained by direct modulo-2 addition of the-baseband (NRZ-L) signal and a clock signal. In this
code, there is a transition at the centre of each bit interval. A negative-going transition indicates a
1 bit whereas a positive-going transition means a 0 bit was sent. Since it is an RZ-type code, it
requires twice the bandwidth of an NRZ code. In addition, it has no inherent error-detecting or
correcting capability.
3. What are the underlying principles of the WDM technique? What are its
various advantages? How is it different from FDM technique?
Ans:
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
FDM stands for Frequency Division Multiplexing. In this scheme the numbers of
different frequencies are combined together and pass through low pass filling in order to remove
unwanted interferences and an adder, which combines frequencies at the output. At the
demultiplexer the individual frequency signals can be obtained by means of a decoder. FDM
provides high frequency range in order to associate n number of users. This system provides high
capacity. This system is almost in all communications. An interesting and powerful aspect of an
optical communication link is that many different wavelengths can be sent along a fiber
simultaneously in 1300 to 1600 nm spectrum.
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Optical Communications Unit VIII
Each of the streams could be a different data rate. Each information stream maintains
its individual data rate after being multiplexed with other streams and operates at its unique
wavelength. The basic of WDM has to use multiple sources operating at slightly different
wavelengths to transmit and WDM must be properly spaced to avoid inter channel interference.
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Optical Communications Unit VIII
|∆ | ∆
Since the spectral width of a high quality source occupies only a narrow optical
bandwidth. The two loss windows provide many additional operating regions. The light source,
each emitting at different peak wavelengths is sufficiently spaced to avoid interference. Fixed
frequency spacing is selected because the operating mode of laser is locked, which means the
frequency of the laser is fixed. At the transmitter end, there are several modulated light sources
which emit signals at different wavelength. A multiplexer is used to combine these signals into a
spectrum of closed wavelength signals and mix them into a single fiber. At the receiver, the
demultiplexer separates the optical signal into appropriate detection channels for signal
processing. A variety of active and passive devices are required to implement WDM networks.
The passive devices require no external control for their operation. The active devices can be
controlled electronically. Hence they provide a degree of network flexibility.
4. Briefly explain the principle behind the calorimetric method used for the
measurement of absorption loss in optical fiber?
Ans:
Measurement of absorption loss in optical fibers
Generally, the level of impurity content within the fiber material to be checked
in the manufacturing process can be made available by the material absorption loss
measurements. The methods which can be used to determine the temperature rise in the fiber or
bulk material due to the absorbed optical energy within the structure are called as calorimetric
methods, which are the basis for absorption loss measurement. Figure 8.4.1 shows the apparatus
used to measure the absorption loss in optical fibers. The temperature measurement technique
which has been widely adopted for absorption loss measurement is shown in figure 8.4.2.
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The capillary tubes (in which two fiber samples are mounted shown in figure 8.4.2 are
surrounded by a low refractive index liquid with in the same enclosure of the apparatus for good
electrical contact. One of the capillary tubes can be used as dummy fiber (i.e.; reference
junction), where both of them must be wound by a thermocouple. The main fiber (not the
dummy) through which light can be launched from a laser source. The nanovoltmeter can be used
to indicate the temperature rise measured by the thermocouple due to absorption. The electrical
calibration may achieved by,
1. Replacing the optical fibers with thin resistance wires.
2. Passing known electrical power through one of the capillary tubes.
Then, the colorimetric technique with electrical measurement instruments can be used for
independent measurements. The heating and cooling curves for the fiber sample are provided by
calorimetric measurements and which can be used to measure the attenuation of the fiber due to
absorption. The time constant, tc can be obtained using curve as
Where,
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Optical Communications Unit VIII
Where, C = Constant proportional to the thermal capacity per unit length of silica capillary and
the low refractive index liquid surrounding the fiber.
Ans:
Experimental setup for Cutback Technique
Cutback technique is the common technique used for the measurement of fiber
attenuation. In this technique, the white focused light is mechanically chopped [cut into pieces]
at a low frequency [say 200Hz] which enables lock-in amplifier to perform a phase-sensitive
detection. Then the light is passed through a monochromator which uses a prism to select the
required wavelength for the measurement of attenuation.
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Optical Communications Unit VIII
log
Where,
Ans:
There are number of portable measurement test sets specifically designed for
fiber attenuation measurements which require access to both ends of the optical link. These
measurement devices tend to use cut-back measurement technique unless correction is made for
any difference in connector losses between the link and a short length of similar cable. The block
diagram of an optical attenuation meter consisting of transmitter and receiver is shown in the
figure 8.6.1. By keeping the launched optical power absolutely constant, reproducible readings
may be obtained. A constant optical output power is obtained using an injection laser and a
regulating circuit which is driven from a reference output of the source derived from a
photodiode. Hence any variations in the laser output power are rectified^ by automatic
adjustment of the modulating voltage and current.
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A large area photodiode is utilized in the receiver to eliminate any effects from differing
fiber end faces. It is generally seen that when a measurement is made on multimode fiber a short
cut-back reference length of a few meters is insufficient to obtain an equilibrium mode
distribution. Hence unless a mode scrambling device together with a mode stripper is used, it is
likely that a reference length of around 500 m (or) more will be required if the measurements are
made reasonably accurate. When the measurements are made without a steady state mode
distribution in the reference fiber, a significantly higher loss value is obtained which may be as
much as 1 dB/km above the steady state attenuation.
Where,
Intramodel Dispersion
1. Material Dispersion
It is the pulse spreading that occurs when the different wavelengths follow the same
path. It causes a wavelength impendence of the group velocity of any given mode. The
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Optical Communications Unit VIII
main cause of material dispersion is the variations in the refractive index of the core
material as a function of wavelength.
2. Waveguide Dispersion
It occurs because of the inability of the single mode fiber to confine the total optical
power in its core. Practically it is formed that the single mode fiber can confine up to a
maximum of 80% of optical power in its core. So the remaining 20% of light travelling in
the cladding travels faster than the light in the core and giving rise to a dispersion called
waveguide dispersion. It depends on the fiber design.
Given that,
λ = 1.1 µm
L1 = 1.5 km
L2 = 2 m
P1 = 50.1 µW
P2 = 385.4 µW
Fiber attenuation per unit length is,
log
.
= log
. .
.
= log
.
= 5.91 x 10-3
5.91
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10 log
Where,
Optical signal power = 10 log
= 10 log 5
= 6.98 dBm
For 20 µW
Optical signal power = 10 log
= 10 log 0.02
= -16.98 dBm.
(ii) For a 1 µW reference power level
10 log
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Optical Communications Unit VIII
10. Describe eye pattern analysis for assessing the performance of digital fiber
optic link. Is it possible to estimate BER also from eye patterns?
Ans:
Eye pattern is a simple and powerful technique in measuring the capacity and
performance of a digital transmission system. The measurements are in time domain and the
waveform distortion can be seen on the CRO immediately. These eye patterns are formed by
superimposing the 2N possible combinations of N-bit long NRZ patterns.
As said, we need a variety of word patterns to measure the performance of a system using
eye-pattern technique, these word patterns are provided by pseudo random bit generator. This
pseudo random data (bit) pattern generator produces a random data signal that contains 1's and
0's in a random fashion providing uniform data rate. The random data from pseudo random data
pattern generator is applied to the vertical input of CRO and the data rate triggers the horizontal
sweep. This generates an eye-pattern. For example, consider 8 possible 3-bit NRZ patterns as
shown in following figure 8.10.2.
An eye pattern is obtained by superimposing the above 8 patterns as shown in figure 8.10.3
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1. The eye-width opening defines the Inter Symbol Interference (ISI) error free sampling
rate of signal.
2. The best sampling rate is obtained when the height of eye is maximum.
7. Bit Error Rate (BER) is also estimated from the patterns and it can be reduced by
inserting a small amount of redundancy into the transmitted pulse train.
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