INNOVATION-01

DIGITAL-ELECTRONICS
KATHIR COLLEGE OF
ENGINEERING
ECE-2ND YEAR
TITLES:
1.SCR
2.MOSFET
3.BJT
4.JFET
5.UJT
6.DIAC
7.TRIAC
8.DIODE
9.FET

KARTHIK-P
SUBMITTED
DATE:13/09/2010
SILICON CONTROL RECTIFIER (SCR)
Symbol:

SCR

Modes of operation:
In the normal "off" state, the device restricts current to the leakage current. When the gate-
to-cathode voltage exceeds a certain threshold, the device turns "on" and conducts current.
The device will remain in the "on" state even after gate current is removed so long as
current through the device remains above the holding current. Once current falls below the
holding current for an appropriate period of time, the device will switch "off". If the gate
is pulsed and the current through the device is below the holding current, the device will
remain in the "off" state.

If the applied voltage increases rapidly enough, capacitive coupling may induce enough
charge into the gate to trigger the device into the "on" state; this is referred to as "dv/dt
triggering." This is usually prevented by limiting the rate of voltage rise across the device,
perhaps by using a snubber. "dv/dt triggering" may not switch the SCR into full
conduction rapidly and the partially-triggered SCR may dissipate more power than is
usual, possibly harming the device.

SCRs can also be triggered by increasing the forward voltage beyond their rated
breakdown voltage (also called as break over voltage), but again, this does not rapidly
switch the entire device into conduction and so may be harmful so this mode of operation
is also usually avoided. Also, the actual breakdown voltage may be substantially higher
than the rated breakdown voltage, so the exact trigger point will vary from device to
device.

SCR Characteristics
As already mentioned, the SCR is a four-layer device with three terminals, namely, the
anode, the cathode and the gate. When the anode is made positive with respect to the
cathode, junctions J1 and J3 are forward biased and junction J2 is reverse-biased and only
the leakage current will flow through the device. The SCR is then said to be in the forward
blocking state or in the forward mode or off state. But when the cathode is made positive
with respect to the anode, junctions J1 and J3 are reverse-biased, a small reverse leakage
current will flow through the SCR and the SGR is said to be in the reverse blocking state
or in reverse mode.

When the anode is positive with respect to cathode i.e. when the SCR is in forward mode,
the SCR does not conduct unless the forward voltage exceeds certain value, called the
forward breakover voltage, VFB0. In non-conducting state, the current through the SCR is
the leakage current which is very small and is negligible. If a positive gate current is
supplied, the SCR can become conducting at a voltage much lesser than forward break-
over voltage. The larger the gate current, lower the break-over voltage. With sufficiently
large gate current, the SCR behaves identical to PN rectifier. Once the SCR is switched
on, the forward voltage drop across it is suddenly reduced to very small value, say about 1
volt. In the conducting or on-state, the current through the SCR is limited by the external
impedance.

When the anode is negative with respect to cathode, that is when the SCR is in reverse
mode or in blocking state no current flows through the SCR except very small leakage
current of the order of few micro-amperes. But if the reverse voltage is increased beyond a
certain value, called the reverse break-over voltage, VRB0 avalanche break down takes
place. Forward break-over voltage VFB0 is usually higher than reverse breakover
voltage,VRBO.
From the foregoing discussion, it can be seen that the SCR has two stable and reversible
operating states. The change over from off-state to on-state, called turn-on, can be
achieved by increasing the forward voltage beyond VFB0. A more convenient and useful
method of turn-on the device employs the gate drive. If the forward voltage is less than the
forward break-over voltage, VFB0, it can be turned-on by applying a positive voltage
between the gate and the cathode. This method is called the gate control. Another very
important feature of the gate is that once the SCR is triggered to on-state the gate loses its
control.

Application of SCRs:
1. Adjustable motor speed controllers.
2. Adjustable light dimmers.
3. Switching power supplies and battery chargers
4. Inverters.

Advantages:
1. Switches large levels of current using only a small control current.
2. Can switch high voltages.

Disadvantages:
1. Cannot be easily turned off.
2. For this reason, not suitable for high-power DC circuits.
3. In an AC circuit, needs to be turned on each cycle.
 Metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor
(MOSFET)

Symbol:
MOSFET construction:
Gate material
The primary criterion for the gate material is that it is a good conductor. Highly-doped
polycrystalline silicon is an acceptable but certainly not ideal conductor, and also suffers
from some more technical deficiencies in its role as the standard gate material.
Nevertheless, there are several reasons favoring use of polysilicon:

1. The threshold voltage (and consequently the drain to source on-current) is

modified by the work function difference between the gate material and channel
material. Because polysilicon is a semiconductor, its work function can be
modulated by adjusting the type and level of doping. Furthermore, because
polysilicon has the same bandgap as the underlying silicon channel, it is quite
straightforward to tune the work function to achieve low threshold voltages for
both NMOS and PMOS devices. By contrast, the work functions of metals are not
easily modulated, so tuning the work function to obtain low threshold voltages
becomes a significant challenge. Additionally, obtaining low-threshold devices on
both PMOS and NMOS devices would likely require the use of different metals for
each device type, introducing additional complexity to the fabrication process.
2. The Silicon-SiO2 interface has been well studied and is known to have relatively
few defects. By contrast many metal–insulator interfaces contain significant levels
of defects which can lead to Fermi-level pinning, charging, or other phenomena
that ultimately degrade device performance.
3. In the MOSFET IC fabrication process, it is preferable to deposit the gate material
prior to certain high-temperature steps in order to make better-performing
transistors. Such high temperature steps would melt some metals, limiting the
types of metal that can be used in a metal-gate-based process.

While polysilicon gates have been the de facto standard for the last twenty years, they do
have some disadvantages which have led to their likely future replacement by metal gates.
These disadvantages include:
 1. Polysilicon is not a great conductor (approximately 1000 times more resistive than
metals) which reduces the signal propagation speed through the material. The
resistivity can be lowered by increasing the level of doping, but even highly doped
polysilicon is not as conductive as most metals. In order to improve conductivity
further, sometimes a high-temperature metal such as tungsten, titanium, cobalt, and
more recently nickel is alloyed with the top layers of the polysilicon. Such a
blended material is called silicide. The silicide-polysilicon combination has better
electrical properties than polysilicon alone and still does not melt in subsequent
processing. Also the threshold voltage is not significantly higher than with
polysilicon alone, because the silicide material is not near the channel. The process
in which silicide is formed on both the gate electrode and the source and drain
regions is sometimes called salicide, self-aligned silicide.
2. When the transistors are extremely scaled down, it is necessary to make the gate
dielectric layer very thin, around 1 nm in state-of-the-art technologies. A
phenomenon observed here is the so-called poly depletion, where a depletion layer
is formed in the gate polysilicon layer next to the gate dielectric when the
transistor is in the inversion. To avoid this problem, a metal gate is desired. A
variety of metal gates such as tantalum, tungsten, tantalum nitride, and titanium
nitride are used, usually in conjunction with high-k dielectrics. An alternative is to
use fully-silicided polysilicon gates, a process known as FUSI.

OPERATION:
The operation of the MOSFET, or IGFET, is basically the same as the operation of the
JFET. The current flow between the source and drain can be controlled by using either of
two methods or by using a combination of the two methods. In one method the drain
voltage controls the current when the gate potential is at zero volts. A voltage is applied to
the gate in the second method. An electric field is formed by the gate voltage that affects
the current flow in the channel by either depleting or enhancing the number of current
carriers available. As previously stated, a reverse bias applied to the gate depletes the
carriers, and a forward bias enhances the carriers. The polarity of the voltages required to
forward or reverse bias a MOSFET depends upon whether it is of the p- channel type or
the n- channel type.

OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS
APPLICATIONS:
IGBTs see application in switching internal combustion engine ignition coils, where fast
switching and voltage blocking capabilities are important.

The most commonly used FET is the MOSFET. The CMOS (complementary-symmetry
metal oxide semiconductor) process technology is the basis for modern digital integrated
circuits. This process technology uses an arrangement where the (usually "enhancement-
mode") p-channel MOSFET and n-channel MOSFET are connected in series such that
when one is on, the other is off.

The fragile insulating layer of the MOSFET between the gate and channel makes it
vulnerable to electrostatic damage during handling. This is not usually a problem after the
device has been installed in a properly designed circuit.

Advantages of a MOSFET
1. Switching time is about 10 times faster than a bipolar transistor 2.
Very much smaller switching current 3.
Less affected by temperature

Disadvantages:
1. Higher resistance than a bipolar transistor
2. Can be destroyed by high voltages, especially static electricity
 Field-effect transistor
The field-effect transistor (FET) relies on an electric field to control the shape
and hence the conductivity of a channel of one type of charge carrier in a
semiconductor material. FETs are sometimes called unipolar transistors to
contrast their single-carrier-type operation with the dual-carrier-type operation of
bipolar (junction) transistors (BJT). The concept of the FET predates the BJT,
though it was not physically implemented until after BJTs due to the limitations of
semiconductor materials and the relative ease of manufacturing BJTs compared to
FETs at the time.

Symbol:

The channel of a FET (explained below) is doped to produce either an N-type

semiconductor or a P-type semiconductor. The drain and source may be doped of opposite
type to the channel, in the case of depletion mode FETs, or doped of similar type to the
channel as in enhancement mode FETs. Field-effect transistors are also distinguished by
the method of insulation between channel and gate. Types of FETs are:

The DEPFET is a FET formed in a fully-depleted substrate and acts as a sensor,

amplifier and memory node at the same time. It can be used as an image (photon)
sensor.

The DGMOSFET is a MOSFET with dual gates.

The DNAFET is a specialized FET that acts as a biosensor, by using a gate made
of single-strand DNA molecules to detect matching DNA strands.

The FREDFET (Fast Reverse or Fast Recovery Epitaxial Diode FET) is a

specialized FET designed to provide a very fast recovery (turn-off) of the body
diode.
 The HEMT (High Electron Mobility Transistor), also called an HFET
(heterostructure FET), can be made using bandgap engineering in a ternary
semiconductor such as AlGaAs. The fully depleted wide-band-gap material forms
the isolation between gate and body.

The IGBT (Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor) is a device for power control. It has
a structure akin to a MOSFET coupled with a bipolar-like main conduction
channel. These are commonly used for the 200-3000 V drain-to-source voltage
range of operation. Power MOSFETs are still the device of choice for drain-to-
source voltages of 1 to 200 V.

The ISFET is an Ion-Sensitive Field Effect Transistor used to measure ion

concentrations in a solution; when the ion concentration (such as pH) changes, the
current through the transistor will change accordingly.

The JFET (Junction Field-Effect Transistor) uses a reverse biased p-n junction to
separate the gate from the body.

The MESFET (Metal–Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor) substitutes the p-n

junction of the JFET with a Schottky barrier; used in GaAs and other III-V
semiconductor materials.

The MODFET (Modulation-Doped Field Effect Transistor) uses a quantum well

structure formed by graded doping of the active region.

The MOSFET (Metal–Oxide–Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor) utilizes an

insulator (typically SiO2) between the gate and the body.

The NOMFET is a Nanoparticle Organic Memory Field-Effect Transistor.

The OFET is an Organic Field-Effect Transistor using an organic semiconductor

in its channel.

Fet operation:

I–V characteristics and output plot of a JFET n-channel transistor.

The FET controls the flow of electrons (or electron holes) from the source to drain by
affecting the size and shape of a "conductive channel" created and influenced by voltage
(or lack of voltage) applied across the gate and source terminals (For ease of discussion,
this assumes body and source are connected). This conductive channel is the "stream"
through which electrons flow from source to drain.

In an n-channel depletion-mode device, a negative gate-to-source voltage causes a

depletion region to expand in width and encroach on the channel from the sides,
narrowing the channel. If the depletion region expands to completely close the channel,
the resistance of the channel from source to drain becomes large, and the FET is
effectively turned off like a switch. Likewise a positive gate-to-source voltage increases
the channel size and allows electrons to flow easily.

Conversely, in an n-channel enhancement-mode device, a positive gate-to-source voltage

is necessary to create a conductive channel, since one does not exist naturally within the
transistor. The positive voltage attracts free-floating electrons within the body towards the
gate, forming a conductive channel. But first, enough electrons must be attracted near the
gate to counter the dopant ions added to the body of the FET; this forms a region free of
mobile carriers called a depletion region, and the phenomenon is referred to as the
threshold voltage of the FET. Further gate-to-source voltage increase will attract even
more electrons towards the gate which are able to create a conductive channel from source
to drain; this process is called inversion.

For either enhancement- or depletion-mode devices, at drain-to-source voltages much less

than gate-to-source voltages, changing the gate voltage will alter the channel resistance,
and drain current will be proportional to drain voltage (referenced to source voltage). In
this mode the FET operates like a variable resistor and the FET is said to be operating in a
linear mode or ohmic mode.[2][3]

If drain-to-source voltage is increased, this creates a significant asymmetrical change in

the shape of the channel due to a gradient of voltage potential from source to drain. The
shape of the inversion region becomes "pinched-off" near the drain end of the channel. If
drain-to-source voltage is increased further, the pinch-off point of the channel begins to
move away from the drain towards the source. The FET is said to be in saturation mode;[4]
some authors refer to it as active mode, for a better analogy with bipolar transistor
operating regions.[5][6] The saturation mode, or the region between ohmic and saturation, is
used when amplification is needed. The in-between region is sometimes considered to be
part of the ohmic or linear region, even where drain current is not approximately linear
with drain voltage.

Even though the conductive channel formed by gate-to-source voltage no longer connects
source to drain during saturation mode, carriers are not blocked from flowing. Considering
again an n-channel device, a depletion region exists in the p-type body, surrounding the
conductive channel and drain and source regions. The electrons which comprise the
channel are free to move out of the channel through the depletion region if attracted to the
drain by drain-to-source voltage. The depletion region is free of carriers and has a
resistance similar to silicon. Any increase of the drain-to-source voltage will increase the
distance from drain to the pinch-off point, increasing resistance due to the depletion region
proportionally to the applied drain-to-source voltage. This proportional change causes the
drain-to-source current to remain relatively fixed independent of changes to the drain-to-
source voltage and quite unlike the linear mode operation.
Thus in saturation mode, the FET behaves as a constant-current source rather than as a
resistor and can be used most effectively as a voltage amplifier. In this case, the gate-to-
source voltage determines the level of constant current through the channel.

Applications:
1. IGBTs see application in switching internal combustion engine ignition coils,
where fast switching and voltage blocking capabilities are important.
2. The fragile insulating layer of the MOSFET between the gate and channel makes it
vulnerable to electrostatic damage during handling. This is not usually a problem
after the device has been installed in a properly designed circuit.
Bipolar junction transistor
Construction:
A bipolar (junction) transistor (BJT) is a three-terminal electronic device
constructed of doped semiconductor material and may be used in amplifying or
switching applications. Bipolar transistors are so named because their operation
involves both electrons and holes. Charge flow in a BJT is due to bidirectional
diffusion of charge carriers across a junction between two regions of different
charge concentrations. This mode of operation is contrasted with unipolar
transistors, such as field-effect transistors, in which only one carrier type is
involved in charge flow due to drift. By design, most of the BJT collector current
is due to the flow of charges injected from a high-concentration emitter into the
base where they are minority carriers that diffuse toward the collector, and so BJTs
are classified as minority-carrier devices.

The symbol of an NPN Bipolar Junction Transistor.

NPN is one of the two types of bipolar transistors, in which the letters "N" (negative) and
"P" (positive) refer to the majority charge carriers inside the different regions of the
transistor. Most bipolar transistors used today are NPN, because electron mobility is
higher than hole mobility in semiconductors, allowing greater currents and faster
operation.

NPN transistors consist of a layer of P-doped semiconductor (the "base") between two N-
doped layers. A small current entering the base in common-emitter mode is amplified in
the collector output. In other terms, an NPN transistor is "on" when its base is pulled high
relative to the emitter.

The arrow in the NPN transistor symbol is on the emitter leg and points in the direction of
the conventional current flow when the device is in forward active mode.

One mnemonic device for identifying the symbol for the NPN transistor is "not pointing
in, or 'not pointing, no' "[5]

PNP
The other type of BJT is the PNP with the letters "P" and "N" referring to the majority
charge carriers inside the different regions of the transistor.
 The symbol of a PNP Bipolar Junction Transistor.

PNP transistors consist of a layer of N-doped semiconductor between two layers of P-

doped material. A small current leaving the base in common-emitter mode is amplified in
the collector output. In other terms, a PNP transistor is "on" when its base is pulled low
relative to the emitter.

The arrow in the PNP transistor symbol is on the emitter leg and points in the direction of
the conventional current flow when the device is in forward active mode.

One mnemonic device for identifying the symbol for the PNP transistor is "pointing in
proudly, or 'pointing.

Regions of operation
Bipolar transistors have five distinct regions of operation, defined by BJT junction biases.
In order to visualize the modes of operation draw a NPN transistor with its collector on
top, base in the middle and emitter on the bottom. Now, there are two voltage differences:
between Collector and base, and between base and emitter. Note two points: Vcb = - Vbc,
and 'reverse biased base-collector junction' means Vbc < 0 or Vcb>0. In simple words, it
means the collector has a higher voltage than the base(if probed). The mechanical analog
can be a pipe and a valve. The valve is base, and two sides of the pipe are collector and
emitter. Now the amount of Water ( current) going through depends on how much the
valve is open ( base to emitter) voltage, and how much water you have on top of the pipe (
collector to base voltage).

If you write the biases in term of applied voltages (Vcb, Vbe) instead of junction biasing
the modes of operation can be described as:

• Forward Active: Base higher than Emitter, Collector higher than Base ( in this
mode the collector current is proportional to base current by βF).
• Saturation: Base higher than emitter, but collector is not higher than base.
• Cut-Off: Base lower than emitter, but collector is higher than base. It means the
transistor is not letting conventional current to go through collector to emitter.
• Reverse-Action: Base lower than emitter, collector lower than base: reverse
conventional current goes through transistor.

In terms of junction biasing: ('reverse biased base-collector junction' means Vbc < 0 or
Vcb>0)

• Forward-active (or simply, active): The base–emitter junction is forward biased

and the base–collector junction is reverse biased. Most bipolar transistors are
designed to afford the greatest common-emitter current gain, βF, in forward-active
mode. If this is the case, the collector–emitter current is approximately
proportional to the base current, but many times larger, for small base current
variations.
• Reverse-active (or inverse-active or inverted): By reversing the biasing
conditions of the forward-active region, a bipolar transistor goes into reverse-
active mode. In this mode, the emitter and collector regions switch roles. Because
most BJTs are designed to maximize current gain in forward-active mode, the βF in
 inverted mode is several (2–3 for the ordinary germanium transistor) times smaller.
This transistor mode is seldom used, for
• usually being considered only for failsafe conditions and some types of bipolar
logic. The reverse bias breakdown voltage to the base may be an order of
magnitude lower in this region.
• Saturation: With both junctions forward-biased, a BJT is in saturation mode and
facilitates high current conduction from the emitter to the collector. This mode
corresponds to a logical "on", or a closed switch.
• Cutoff: In cutoff, biasing conditions opposite of saturation (both junctions reverse
biased) are present. There is very little current, which corresponds to a logical
"off", or an open switch.
• Avalanche breakdown region

Although these regions are well defined for sufficiently large applied voltage, they overlap
somewhat for small (less than a few hundred millivolts) biases. For example, in the typical
grounded-emitter configuration of an NPN BJT used as a pulldown switch in digital logic,
the "off" state never involves a reverse-biased junction because the base voltage never
goes below ground; nevertheless the forward bias is close enough to zero that essentially
no current flows, so this end of the forward active region can be regarded as the cutoff
region.

Applications:
1. Surviving the stall condition requires the transistor current gain to hold up
at high current densities to ensure the transistor does not drop out of
saturation.
2. The bipolar transistor's higher transconductance at these low drive voltages
in combination with its high forward current gain helps achieve the
required motor current, reduce transistor drive losses, and minimize VCE(sat)
with a cost-effectively sized chip.
Advantages & Disadvantages
Linear power supplies
One advantage of linear power supplies may be familiarity, because they have been
available for many years. They are known to be relatively noise-free and reasonably
reliable. They are generally easy to design and fairly inexpensive to manufacture.

Because of the large transformers required, linear power supplies are generally heavy,
which may be either an advantage or a disadvantage, depending on the need to balance
weight distribution in a given application. As a general rule of thumb, a 16V-output linear
power supply weighs about one pound per ampere. A possible disadvantage of linear
power supplies relates to the power transistor used to regulate the load. Because the power
transistor operates in its linear region, and all the output current must pass through it, it
requires large heat sinks to dissipate energy loss. (Recall that the power transistor is in
series with the load and acts as a variable resistor.) Except in rare instances where heat is
wanted to warm interior space, the inefficiency of linear power supplies 50% has to be
considered a disadvantage.

Switching power supplies

Although switching power supplies have been available for a number of years, higher
production costs, compared to linear power supplies, have limited their use in some
applications. Early switching power supplies used discrete components to control pulse
width, and transistors instead of MOSFETs as main switch components. As a result, the
disadvantages of switching power supplies once included uneven reliability and radiated
EMI (electrical noise). Although they were known to be noisy, unreliable and difficult to
mass produce, switching power supplies had the advantage of being lighter and smaller
than their linear counterparts. In the last few years, big improvements in PWM and
MOSFET design have been made. Today, when all design considerations have been taken
into account, switching power supplies are highly reliable and virtually noise-free.
Production costs have come down because application-specific components are being
designed for use in switching power supplies.
Junction field effect transistor(JFET)
Symbol:

Construction:
The junction gate field-effect transistor (JFET or JUGFET) is the simplest type of field
effect transistor. It can be used as an electronically-controlled switch or as a voltage-
controlled resistance. Electric charge flows through a semiconducting channel between
"source" and "drain" terminals. By applying a bias voltage to a "gate" terminal, the
channel is "pinched", so that the electric current is impeded or switched off completely.

Structure:
The JFET is a long channel of semiconductor material, doped to contain an abundance of
positive charge carriers (p-type), or of negative carriers (n-type). Contacts at each end
form the source(S) and drain(D). The gate(G) (control) terminal has doping opposite to
that of the channel, which it surrounds, so that there is a P-N junction at the interface.
Terminals to connect with the outside are usually made ohmic.

Function
JFET operation is like that of a garden hose. The flow of water through a hose can be
controlled by squeezing it to reduce the cross section; the flow of electric charge through a
JFET is controlled by constricting the current-carrying channel. The current depends also
on the electric field between source and drain (analogous to the difference in pressure on
either end of the hose).

Schematic symbols
The JFET gate is sometimes drawn in the middle of the channel (instead of at the drain or
source electrode as in these examples). This symmetry suggests that "drain" and "source"
are interchangeable, so the symbol should be used only for those JFETs where they are
indeed interchangeable (which is not true of all JFETs).
In every case the arrow head shows the polarity of the P-N junction formed between the
channel and gate. As with an ordinary diode, the arrow points from P to N, the direction of
conventional current when forward-biased. An English mnemonic is that the arrow of an
N-channel device "points in".

To pinch off the channel, it needs a certain reverse bias (VGS) of the junction. This "pinch-
off voltage" varies considerably, even among devices of the same type. For example,
VGS(off) for the Temic J201 device varies from -0.8V to -4V.[1] Typical values vary from
-0.3V to -10V.

To switch off an n-channel device requires a negative gate-source voltage (VGS).

Conversely, to switch off a p-channel device requires VGS positive.

In normal operation, the electric field developed by the gate must block conduction
between the source and the drain.

Output characteristics

Applications of FET:

1. Low Noise Amplifier. Noise is an undesirable disturbance super-imposed on a useful

signal. Noise interferes with the information contained in the signal; the greater the noise,
the less the information. For instance, the noise in radio-receivers develops crackling and
hissing which sometimes completely masks the voice or music. Similarly, the noise in TV
receivers produces small white or black spots on the picture; a severe
noise may wipe out the picture. Noise is independent of the signal strength because
it exists even when the signal is off.

Advantages of JFET

1. It shows a high degree of isolation between input and output.

2. The FET is less noisy than a bipolar transistor.
Disadvantages:
FET has relatively low gain-bandwidth product compared to conventional transistors.

There are two types of FET namely junction field effect transistor (JFET) and insulated-
gate field effect transistor (IGFET).

We will look at one example, called an N-channel Junction-FET (J-FET).

UNIJUNCTION TRANSISTOR (UJT)

UJT:
A Unijunction transistor is a three terminal semiconductor switching device.this
device has a unique characteristics that when it is triggered , the emitter current
increases regeneratively until is limited by emitter power supply the unijunction
transistor can be employed in a variety of applications switching pulse generator saw
tooth generator etc.

Construction
It consists of an N type silicon bar with an electrical connection on each end the leads
to these connection are called base leads. Base 1 B1 Base 2 B2 the bar between the
two bases nearer to B2 than B1. A pn junction is formed between a p type emitter and
Bar.the lead to the junction is called emitter lead E.

Operation
 The device has normally B2 positive w.r.t B1
If voltage VBB is applied between B2 and B1 with emitter open. Voltage gradient is
established along the n type bar since emitter is located nearer to B2 more than half of
VBB appears between the emitter and B1. the voltage V1 between emitter and B1
establishes a reverse bias on the pn junction and the emitter current is cut off. A small
leakage current flows from B2 to emitter due to minority carriers

If a positive voltage is applied at the emitter the pn junction will remain reverse
biased so long as the input voltage is less than V1 if the input voltage to the emitter
exceeds V1 the pn junction becomes forward biased.under these conditions holes are
injected from the p type material into the n type bar these holes are repelled by
positive B2 terminal and they are attracted towards B1 terminal of the bar. This
accumulation of holes in the emitter to B1 region results in the degrees of resistance
in this section of the bar the internal voltage drop from emitter to b1 is decresed hence
emitter curret Ie increases as more holes are injected a condition of saturation will
eventually be reached at this point a emitter current limited by emitter power supply
only . the devices is in on state.

If a negative pulse is applied to the emitter , the pn junction is reverse biased and the
emitter current is cut off. The device is said to be off state.

Characteristics of UJT
 The curve between Emitter voltage Ve and emitter current Ie of a UJT at a given
voltage Vbb between the bases this is known as emitter characterstic of UJT

Initially in the cut off region as Ve increases from zero ,slight leakage current flows
from terminal B2 to the emitter the current is due to the minority carriers in the reverse
biased diode .

Above a certain value of Ve forward Ie begins to flow , increasing until the peak
voltage Vp and current Ip are rreached at point P.

After the peak point P an attempt to increase Ve is followed by a sudden increases in

emitter current Ie with decrease in Ve is a neagative resistance portion of the curve
The negative portion of the curve lasts until the valley point V is reached with valley
point voltage Vv.and valley point current Iv after the valley point the device is driven
to saturation the difference Vp-Vv is a measure of a switching efficiency of UJT fall of
Vbb decreases

Advantages of UJT
1. It is a Low cost device
2. It has excellent characteristics
3. It is a low-power absorbing device under normal operating conditions

Applications:
The simplest application of a UJT is as a relaxation oscillator, which is
defined as one in which a capacitor is charged gradually and then discharged
rapidly.
 DIODE AC SWITCH(DIAC)
A Diac is two terminal , three layer bi directional device which can be switched
from its off state for either polarity of applied voltage.

Construction:

The diac can be constructed in either npn or pnp form.The two leads are connected
to p-regions of silicon separated by an n region. the structure of diac is similar to that of a
transistor differences are

There is no terminal attached to the base layer

The three regions are nearly identical in size. the doping concentrations are
identical to give the device symmetrical properties.

Operation
When a positive or negative voltage is applied across the terminals of Diac only a
small leakage current Ibo will flow through the device as the applied voltage is
increased , the leakage current will continue to flow until the voltage reaches breakover
voltage Vbo at this point avalanche breakdown of the reverse biased junction occurs and
the device exhibits negative resistance i.e current through the device increases with the
decreasing values of applied voltage the voltage across the device then drops to breakback
voltage Vw

V- I CHARECTERISTICS OF A DIAC
 For applied positive voltage less than + Vbo and Negative voltage less than
-Vbo , a small leakage current flows thrugh the device. Under such conditions the diac
blocks flow of current and behaves as an open circuit. the voltage +Vbo and -Vbo are the
breakdown voltages and usually have range of 30 to 50 volts.

When the positive or negative applied voltage is equal to or greater than tha
breakdown voltage Diac begins to conduct and voltage drop across it becomes a few volts
conduction then continues until the device current drops below its holding current
breakover voltage and holding current values are identical for the forward and reverse
regions of operation.

Diacs are used for triggering of triacs in adjustable phase control of a c mains
power. Applications are light dimming heat control universal motor speed control

Diac Applications:
The diacs, because of their symmetrical bidirectional switching characteristics, are widely
used as triggering devices in triac phase control circuits employed for lamp dimmer, heat
control, universal motor speed control etc.

Although a triac may be fired into the conducting state by a simple resistive triggering
circuit, but triggering devices are typically placed in series with the gates of SCRs and
triacs as they give reliable and fast triggering. Diac is the most popular triggering device
for the triac. This is illustrated in the following applications.
 THE TRIAC(TRIODE AC SWITCH)
CONSTRUCTION:
Triacs are three terminal devices that are used to switch large a.c. currents with a small
trigger signal. Triacs are commonly used in dimmer switches, motor speed control circuits
and equipment that automatically controls mains powered equipment including remote
control. The triac has many advantages over a relay, which could also be used to control
mains equipment; the triac is cheap, it has no moving parts making it reliable and it
operates very quickly.

OPERATION:

The three terminals on a triac are called ‘Main Terminal 1’ MT2

(MT1), ‘Main Terminal 2’ (MT2) and ‘Gate’ (G). To turn on
the triac there needs to be a small current IGT flowing
through the gate, this current will only flow when the
voltage between G and MT1 is at least VGT. The signal that G
turns on the triac is called the trigger signal. Once the triac is
turned on it will stay on even if there is no gate current until MT1
the current flowing between MT2 and MT1 fall below the
hold current IH.

The triac is always turned fully on or fully off. When the triac is on there is virtually no pd
between MT2 and MT1 so the power dissipated in the triac is low so it does not get hot or
waste electrical power. When the triac is off no current flows between MT2 and MT1 so
the power dissipated in the triac is low so it does not get hot or waste electrical power.
This means that triacs can be small and are very efficient.

Triacs can be used in d.c. circuits in which case VS

when the triac is triggered it will stay on until
power is removed from the triac. It is easy to
calculate the value of gate resistor needed to turn on R
a triac using the gate characteristics and ohms law.
The maximum value of resistor can be found from
the voltage across the resistor (VS - VGT) divided by
the gate current IGT. So, R = (VS - VGT)/ IGT
0v
In a.c. circuits the triac needs to be repeatedly triggered because the triac turns off when
the a.c. current goes from positive to negative or negative to positive as the current
become momentarily zero. The triac is used in
mains circuits to control the amount of power by
only turning the triac on for part of the wave a bit
like in pulse width modulation. This can be done
by varying the value of the gate resistor so that the
triac does not turn on until the a.c signal reaches a
particular voltage. The problem with this first
dimmer is that there is a very high voltage across
the variable resistor and it will get hot as there is a
lot of power to dissipate (P=V2/R).
 Characteristics of triac

Applications of Triac:
Next to SCR, the triac is the most widely used member of the thyristor family. In fact, in
many of control applications, it has replaced SCR by virtue of its bidirectional
conductivity. Motor speed regulation, temperature control, illumination control, liquid
level control, phase control circuits, power switches etc. are some of its main applications.

However, the triac is less versatile than the SCR when turn-off is considered. Because the
triac can conduct in either direction, forced commutation by reverse-biasing cannot
be employed. So turn-off is either by current starvation, which is usually impracticable,
or else by ac line commutation. There are two limitations enforced on the use of triac at
present state of commercially available devices (200 A and 1,000 PRV). The first is the
frequency handling capability produced by the limiting dv/dt at which the triac remains
blocking when no gate signal is applied. This dv/dt value is about 20 Vmicros-1 compared
with a general figure of 200 Vmicro s-1 for the SCR, so that the limitation of frequency is
at the power level of 50 Hz. The same dv/dt limitation means the load to be controlled is
preferably a resistive one. When high frequencies and high dv/dt are involved then the
back-to-back SCRs cannot be replaced by the triac.
 Diodes
Construction and operation:
As with transistors, diodes are fabricated from semi-conducting material. So, the first
letter in their identification is A for germanium diode or B for silicon diode. They can be
encased in glass, metal or a plastic housing. They have two leads: cathode (k) and an
anode (A). The most important property of all diodes is their resistance is very low in one
direction and very large in the opposite direction.
When a diode is measured with a multimeter and it reads a low value of ohms, this is not
really the resistance of the diode. It represents the voltage drop across the junction of the
diode. This means a multimeter can only be used to detect if the junction is not damaged.
If the reading is low in one direction and very high in the other direction, the diode is
operational.

When a diode is placed in a circuit and the voltage on the anode is higher than the cathode,
it acts like a low value resistor and current will flow.
If it is connected in the opposite direction it acts like a large value resistor and current
does not flow.
In the first case the diode is said to be "forward biased" and in the second case it is
"reverse biased."

Figure:shows several different diodes:

Fig: Several different types of diodes

The diodes above are all single diodes, however 4 diodes are available in a single package.
This is called a BRIDGE or BRIDGE RECTIFIER. Examples of a bridge are shown in the
diagram below:
You must be able to identify each of the 4 leads on a bridge so that it can be inserted into a
circuit around the correct way. The surface-mount device above is identified by a cut @
45° along one side. The leaded bridge has one leg longer than the others and the top is
marked with AC marks and "+." The high-current bridge has a corner cut off and the other
surface-mount device has a cut or notch at one end.

These devices are added to a circuit as shown in the next diagram:

The 4 diodes face the same direction and this means a single diode can be shown on the
circuit diagram:

Symbols in fig show a number of diodes. There are a number of specially-designed

diodes: for high current, high-speed, low voltage-drop, light-detection, and varying
capacitance as the voltage is altered. Most diodes are made from silicon as it will
withstand high temperature, however germanium is used if a low voltage-drop is required.
There is also a light emitting diode called a LED, but this is a completely different type of
diode.
 Fig: Diode symbols: a - standard diode, b - LED,
c, d - Zener, e - photo, f,g - tunnel, h - Schottky, i - breakdown,
j - capacitative

LEDs (Light Emitting Diodes) are constructed from a crystalline substance that emits light
when a current flows through it. Depending on the crystalline material: red, yellow, green,
blue or orange light is produced. The photo below shows some of the colours hat can be
produced by LEDs:

LEDs have a cathode and anode lead and must be connected to DC around the correct
way. The cathode lead is identified on the body by a flat-spot on the side of the LED. The
cathode lead is the shorter lead.

One of the most important things to remember about a LED is the characteristic voltage
that appears across it when connected to a voltage. This does not change with brightness
and cannot be altered.
For a red LED, this voltage is 1.7v and if you supply it with more than this voltage, it will
be damaged.
The easy solution is to place a resistor on one lead as shown in the diagram below:
The LED will allow the exact voltage to appear across it and the brightness will depend on
the value of the resistor.

Zener diodes are designed to stabilize a voltage. Diodes marked as ZPD5.6V or ZPY15V
have operating voltages of 5.6V and 15V.

Photo diodes (5.2e) are constructed in a way that they allow light to fall on the P-N
connection. When there is no light, a photo diode acts as a regular diode. It has high
resistance in one direction, and low resistance in opposite direction. When there is light,
both resistances are low. Photo diodes and LEDs are the main items in an optocoupler (to
be discussed in more detail in chapter 9).

Tunnel diodes (5.2f and 5.2g) are commonly used in oscillators for very high frequencies.

Schottky diodes (5.2h) are used in high frequency circuits and for its low voltage drop in
the forward direction.

Breakdown diodes (5.2i) are actually Zener diodes. They are used in various devices for
protection and voltage regulation. It passes current only when voltage rises above a pre-
defined value.

A Varicap diode (5.2j) is used instead of a variable capacitor in high frequency circuits.
When the voltage across it is changed, the capacitance between cathode and anode is
changed. This diode is commonly used in radio receivers, transceivers and oscillators.

The cathode of a low power diode is marked with a ring painted on the case, but it is
worth noting that some manufacturers label the anode this way, so it is best to test it with a
multimeter.

Power diodes are marked with a symbol engraved on the housing. If a diode is housed in a
metal package, the case is generally the cathode and anode is the lead coming from the
housing.

Diode characteristics:
The most important characteristics when using power diodes is the maximum current in
the forward direction (IFmax), and maximum voltage in the reverse direction (URmax).

The important characteristics for a Zener diode are Zener voltage (UZ), Zener current (IZ)
and maximum dissipation power (PD).

When working with capacitive diodes it is important to know their maximum and
minimum capacitance, as well as values of DC voltage during which these capacitances
occur.

With LEDs it is important to know the maximum value of current it is capable of passing.
The natural characteristic voltage across a LED depends on the colour and starts at 1.7V
for red to more than 2.4v for green and blue.
Current starts at 1mA for a very small glow and goes to about 40mA. High brightness
LEDs and "power LEDs" require up to 1 amp and more. You must know the exact current
required by the LED you are using as the wrong dropper resistor will allow too much
current to flow and the LED will be damaged instantly.
The value of this resistors will be covered in another chapter.

Beside universal transistors TUN and TUP (mentioned in Chapter 4.4), there are universal
diodes as well. They are marked with DUS (for universal silicon diode) and DUG (for
germanium) on circuit diagrams.

DUS = Diode Universal Silicon DUG = Diode Universal Germanium

ADVANTAGES OF DIODES:
1. Rectifiers would convert AC to DC and protect your devices from being swapping +ve
and -ve power supply.
2. LEDs are indicators, comes in various sizes and easy to use than conventional bulbs.
3. Varicaps are used in dynamic TV, radio tuning circuits, easy to use and compact.
4. Zeners are used as voltage regulators, would protect the circuits from over-currents.
5. Photo-diodes would conduct only under light.

- - - - - - - End- - - - - - -

By
KARTHIK.P