Factors affecting variable weld penetration
K. C. Mills and B. J. Keene
The published literature on variable weld
penetration has been reviewed and evaluated,
with particular respect to autogenous TIG and
laser welding processes. It was concluded that
the Heiple-Roper theory provides a
satisfactory explanation for variable weld
penetration, namely, that the direction and the
strength of the fluid flows in the weld pool
caused by Marangoni convection are
responsible for the large differences in weld
penetrption observed with different casts. The
strength and direction of these flows are
determined by the sign and the magnitude of
the temperature coefficient of the surface
tension dy/d T. The sign of dy/d T is determined
by the concentration of specific surfactants
(5,0, and 5e), in the metal, e.g. dy/d T is
negative when 5 < 50 ppm and positive when
5 > 70 ppm. However, reactive elements such
as AI, Ca, and Ce can have an adverse effect
on penetration by reducing the soluble sulphur
(or 0 or 5e) content. Various observations of
the effect of steel composition on weld
penetration have been explained on
thermodynamic grounds. The direction of the
fluid flow in the weld pool is also responsible
for other welding problems, namely, arc
wander, porosity, and humping, etc. In
addi~ion to the Marangoni forces there are
three other flow mechanisms operating in the
weld pool, namely, electromagnetic (Lorentz),
buoyancy, and aerodynamic drag forces.
Mathematical models, which have been
developed to describe the effects of these
forces on the overall fluid flow and the
temperature profiles in the pool, are briefly
described. All of these models predict that
Marangoni convection is the dominant flow
mechanism under normal welding conditions.
Changes in welding procedures (e.g. current,
welding speed, arc length, etc.) have been
analysed in terms of their effects on the four
fluid flow mechanisms and it is necessary to
consider high and low sulphur casts separately
when attempting to improve penetration by
changes in welding procedure.
Recommendations are made for changes in
welding procedure to provide (a) improved
weld penetration and (b) more consistent weld
profiles when using casts with different
sulphur levels. IMR/211
© 1990 The Institute of Metals and
INTERNATIONAL. The authors are with the National
Physical Laboratory, Division of Materials Metrology,
Teddington, Middlesex, UK.
LIST OF SYMBOLS
aA anode area
A aerodynamic drag force
B buoyancy force
C capillary number
d depth of weld pool
D diameter of electrode
E electromagnetic (Lorentz) force
I arc current
J current density
L arc length
M thermo capillary (Marangoni) force:
M( +) indicates an inward flow and
M( -) an outward force
Ma Marangoni number (dimensionless)
Q heat flux density
S welding speed
T temperature, °C or K
V arc voltage
w width of weld pool
Wb/Wf ratio of widths of back and front
faces of weld (full penetration weld)
x coordinate axis in plane of liquid
surface
(l' thermal diffusivity
y surface tension
rJ arc efficiency
f.l dynamic viscosity of metal
a width parameter (anode root)
() vortex angle of electrode tips, deg
Introduction
In the mechanised autogeneous tungsten inert gas
(TIG) welding of steel, sometimes referred to as
gas tungsten arc welding (GTA), it is customary to
select the welding parameters to give a full pene-
tration joint. On occasions, certain casts, which
meet the required material specifications, have
been found to produce joints which differ signifi-
cantly from the norm, with respect to weld pene-
tration and profile.
There have been several attempts to establish a
correlation between 'cast to cast' variation and
systematic variations in the concentrations of spe-
cific minor or impurity elements in the metal.1,2
However, where such a relationship could be
identified it was noted that the variations in the
element concentrations were very small. Thus any
theory proposed to account for variable weld
penetration must explain why such small differences
ASM
in chemical composition can have such a profound
effect on weld ability . Various theories have been
proposed and in these it has been suggested that the
small differences in minor element concentrations
in the steels produced changes in (a) the arc
characteristics1,2 and (b) the surface properties of
the weld pool by affecting either the interfacial
energies3 or the fluid motion in the weld pool.
However, it has also been found that variable weld
International Materials Reviews 1990 Vol. 35 NO.4 .185
186 Mills and Keene Factors affecting variable weld penetration
penetration occurs in conduction limited laser and
electron beam welding4-6 with which there are no
arc effects. Consequently, cast to cast variation
cannot be explained solely on the basis of changes
in the arc characteristics and thus attention has
been mostly focused on changes in the surface
properties of the melt.
Small differences in the concentration of surface
active elements, such as oxygen and sulphur, cause
substantial changes in. the surface tension y of iron
and some other metals. Friedman 7 developed a
model of the weld pool in which it was proposed
that the surface tension forces operating in the pool
could oppose the combined effects of gravity and
arc pressure; thus a high surface tension would lead
to poor weld penetration. More recent theories
have been concerned with the effect of the surface
tension on the fluid flow in the weld pool. Pre-
viously Ishizaki8 had pointed out that the magni-
tude of the surface tension gradient across the pool
could affect the convective flow in the fluid. Heiple
and Roper9 developed this theory, and postulated
that variable weld penetration stemmed from
changes in the direction of the surface flow pro-
duced by the surface tension gradient across the
pool. These surface tension driven flows are usually
referred to as Marangoni convection and it is
customary to denote flows which are produced by
temperature gradients as thermo capillary flows and
those resulting from concentration gradients as
diffusocapillary flows. Surface tension driven flows
are always directed from the region of low surface
tension to the region of· high surface tension. The
direction of the Marangoni flow may also account
for other welding problems such as surface rippling,
arc wander, 'humping', and porosity in welds, and
these are discussed in the section 'Experimental
welding observations' below.
The effect on weld penetration of (a) the
chemical composition of the steel, (b) the various
welding procedures, and (c) the formation of slag
spots and surface films is discussed in the section
'Factors affecting weld penetration' below. Possible
explanations for the various observations are given.
The various fluid flow mechanisms operating in
the weld pool, namely, Marangoni, electromagnetic
(Lorentz), buoyancy, and aerodynamic drag forces
are discussed in the section 'Fluid flow and tem-
peratures in weld pools' below. The mathematical
and physical models of the system are outlined and
the predicted fluid flows are compared with the
visual obs~rvations. For ~ more detailed description
of the .vanous. mathematical models used to predict
the fluId flow In the weld pool the reader is directed
to the recent review by KeenelO of the effect of
Marangoni flow on the weld pool profile.
Experimental welding observations
Variable weld penetration
Variable weld penetration has been observed to
occur with TIG welding, and in defocused electron
beam and laser welding. The explanations given
below relate to TIG welding but would, in prin-
International Materials Reviews 1990 Vol. 35 No.4
(0)
(c)
Wb ;: WHAZ
a partial penetration weld; b full penetration weld; c comparison
of width of back face Wb for full penetration weld with width of
HAZ WHAZ for a partial penetration weld, HAZ shown by broken
line
1 Schematic diagrams of welds
ciple, also apply to the laser and defocused electron
beam welding.
Parameters for expressing weld penetration
There has been some debate concerning the best
parameter for expressing weld penetration. For
partial penetration, the depth d, the width w, and
the d/w ratio have all been proposed as measures of
the penetration. The d/w ratio has been used in this
review since this is the most commonly used
criterion in the published literature (Fig. Ia).
Okada and Nakamurall noted that although the
use of d/w ratios to characterise weld ability was
satisfactory in the case of partial penetration in
thick plate, it was not ideal when considering thin
plate ,,:here it has become customary to use Wb/Wf,
the ratio of the back and front widths of the weld
(Fig. Ib), to express penetration. Figure Ie shows
the heat affected zone (HAZ) boundary in a thick
steel plate together with the shape of the melt
through weld in thin sheet when using the same
welding conditions. There appears to be a corre-
lation between the melted width Wb on the reverse
of the thin sheet and the width of the HAZ at the
same depth WHAZ• Figure 2 shows the relation
between welding speed (under fixed conditions) and
(a) the maximum thickness of the thin steel plate
that would be fully penetrated and (b) the max-
imum depths of the HAZ and the penetration
produced in 25 mm thick plate. For the thick plate
increased welding speed produces a steady reduc~
tion in the depth of the HAZ (as a result of the
reduced rate of local heat input) and an increase in
penetration depth (because of the reverse flow of
~etal in the vicinity of the arc). The upper curve in
FIg. 2 clearly demonstrates the relation between
penetration in thin material and the depth of the
HAZ in thi~k sheet. Okada and Nakamura suggest
that the WIdth Wb would be the most sensitive
factor to characterise full penetration welds. Thus
the ratio of the back and front widths Wb/Wf would
 Mills and Keene Factors affecting variable weld penetration 187

7 1800

E
'Vo
Plate thickness
/causing melt-down i\
E
IE 1600 I

\\
til 5 z
til 'V-o_v E
<lJ
c ~---v0<J----2. v g
~4
I 0_ c 1400
0
.r. Depth of 'in
.•... c
heat affected zone 2
5 3
.r.
Q.
r---e- E
(1)
u 1200 1\
~.
<lJ __ .-- ~
o 21 ~. Depth of
penetration
::J
(f)

1000
\II
\
0.001 0.01 0.1 10
o Sulphur I Wt-o/o
6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Welding speed cm min-1
I 4 Effect of sulphur on surface tension of iron at
1873 K (Ref. 16)
2 Comparison as function of welding speed of:
\J thickness of plate where melt through occurs,
o depth of HAZ, and • depth of penetration
ations to the arc characteristics,1,2 (b) changes
in the li~uid/vapour or solid/vapour interfacial
appear to be the most suitable measure to charac- energy, 3,7, and (c) differences in the direction
terise full penetration welds. of fluid flow in the weld pool,9 produced by surface
Ishizaki et al.12 have reported that the various tension gradients. Initially, variable weld penetra-
weld profiles could be classified into six categories tion was correlated with the concentrations of ele-
which are shown in Fig. 3; the probable fluid flow ments such as AI and Ti (Refs.1~15) and eventually
mechanisms operating in each case are also outlined with the elements known to be surface active in iron,
in this figure. i.e. 0, S, Se, etc.9,15Since variable weld penetration
was also observed in laser and electron beam welding
Causes of variable weld penetration it could be concluded that the arc characteristics
Three explanations have been proposed to account explanation alone could not account for the prob-
for the variable weld penetration resulting from lem of variable weld penetration.
small changes in composition, namely, (a) alter- Heiple and Roper9 proposed that since the weld
profile was not determined by thermal conduction
1. Peripheral type with in ferrous alloys, variable weld penetration was
flat shallow centre related to the direction of the fluid flow along the
A high
S high
surface of the weld pool. Furthermore, this surface
flow resulted in the main from differences in surface
2. Rin'g groove type with tension arising from the temperature gradient
protruded centre between the centre and the edge of the weld pool.
S high Surface active elements such as S or 0 in iron have
two effects on the surface tension y:
(i) each causes a very dramatic decrease in the
3. Pot type with surface tension y,16-18 as can be seen from
flat bottom Fig. 4 (Ref. 16), which shows the variation of
Slow
y with sulphur concentration
E increasing
with time (ii) the temperature coefficient of the surface
tension dy/dT is changed from a negative
4. In out type value for pure iron * to a positive value when
dual penetration the S or 0 content exceeds a critical 'level,
E high
e.g. about 60 ppm S in 304 and 316 stee,ls19,20
(Fig. 5)
Heiple and Roper9 proposed that the change in
5. Spherical type
Heat conduction sign of dy/dT was a critical factor in understanding
variable weld penetration. In the case of a ~ow S
steel, the y-T curve has a negative slope (Fig. 6a)
and thus the surface tension at the cooler edge of
6. Deep cylindrical type
the pool will be higher than that at the centre "and a
E high radially outward thermo capillary flow occurs. In
this case the outward flow will carry hot liqu.id to

3 Classification of weld profile types (after Ref. 12) * All pure metals have negative dy/dT coefficients.

International Materials Reviews 1990 Vol. 35 No.4

188 Mills and Keene Factors affecting variable weld penetration

1.0 T dy/dT changes from a positive to a negative value

0.5
I::s:
'E
y S (Ref. 18) for the Fe-O and Fe-S systems,
z /1
E 0
50/
~It- / steelsl9 (Fig. 5). This last figure should be regarded
"'0 "'0
T
{.
1/
I
./
1/1
I
-0.5
6
I there is reasonable agreement between the experi-
I
I mental value for stainless steels and the value
5 Dependence of dy/dT on sulphur content
and 316 stainless steels (Ref. 19)
the edge of the pool and melt back will occur at the
interface and hence the pool will become wider. By
contrast, in a high S steel, the surface tension will
be highest at the centre (Fig. 6b) and thus the
surface flow will be radially inward and this will
induce a downward flow in the centre such that
melt back will occur at the bottom of the pool and a
deeper weld will result. On this basis it follows that
the direction of the fluid flow along the surface
caused by thermo capillary forces is the principal
cause of variable weld penetration.
In actual fact, since y ~ 0 as the critical tem-
perature is approached, the y- T curve for systems
which exhibit positive coefficients of dy/dT must go
through a maximuml7 and at this point there would
be a reversal in the direction of thermo capillary
flow as shown in Fig. 6c. Sahoo et ai.2l calculated
values for both y and dy/dT for the Fe-O and Fe-S
systems and values of the temperature coefficient
are given in Fig. 7. It can be seen from this figure
that the temperature where dy/dT = 0 (which
corresponds to temperature To in Fig. 6c) is predic-
ted to occur at 1950 and 2200 K for S contents of 20
and 80 ppm, respectively, and that To increases
with increasing S concentrations (Fig. 7c).
The calculated data shown in Fig. 7 can also be
used to derive the concentration of S or 0 at which
I
I for any specified temperature. Thus for a mean
I
I
I
temperature of 2000 K it is predicted that dy/dT
+T would be zero at 60 ppm 0 and 30 ppm S for the
" ./' Fe-O and Fe-S systems, respectively. These values
I ~ J!'
'I /9 can be compared with experimentally determined
I
l.v
I / .1
values of 70-100 ppm 0 (Ref.18) and 80-200 ppm
5, ppm respectively, and 50-60 ppm S for 304 and 316
100 150
as an upper limit since some of the S may have
been present as inclusions, which would have little
effect on the surface properties of the melt. Thus
predicted from thermodynamic data. Keenel8 has
of 304
recently published a comprehensive evaluation of
the surface tension data available for the binary
Fe-O and Fe-S systems and surface tension values
for 304 and 316 stainless steels have been
determined using the levitated drop technique.l9,2o
These latter studies indicated (Fig. 8) that good
penetration correlated with high S levels .
.(>70 ppm), a positive dy/dT coefficient, and low
values of surface tension; whereas steels with poor
penetration had low S concentration «50 ppm), a
negative dy/dT coefficient, and high values of
surface tension. These results are consistent with,
and provide support for, the Heiple-Roper theory. 9
In "light of the available evidence, it is highly
probable that variable weld penetration is, to a
large extent, a result of changes in the fluid flow
resulting from Marangoni convection and that this,
in turn, is largely controlled by the steel compo-
sition, particularly the S content (see the section
'Ferrous alloys, surface active elements' below).
However, there are other convective forces acting
in the weld pool and it has been established that the
heat transfer in the pool is generally controlled not
by thermal conduction but by the convective flow.
In total there are four fluid mechanisms operating
in the weld pool; these are described schematically
in Fig. 9.
Under normal welding conditions the Marangoni
forces are believed to be dominant (see the section
'Mathematical modelling of fluid flow in weld pool'

t
!------ --------- 1

T-+ T--' T--'

TA' Ts<Tc TA, Ts<Tc

0A' OS >oc 0A' 0s<oc
A C B A C B

alow levels of surface active elements;

~
(0) W
( b)

b high levels of surface active elements; c flow pattern that would result in case b where a
maximum exists in y- T relation
6 Fluid flow in weld pool resulting from Marangoni convection (Heiple-Roper theory) for various casts

International Materials Reviews 1990 Vol. 35 No.4

 Mills and Keene Factors affecting variable weld penetration 189

(a) number Ma and the capillary number (C) exceed

Fe-Q
0.6 certain critical values.10

0.4 dy dT 2
'I
~ Ma = CIT dx L f.la' . (1)
IE 0.2
z Surface rippling of welds
E - - - -To
One significant difference noted between 'good'
>CI~ -0.2
"'0"'0
.10 and 'poor' welding steels is the appearance of the
surface of the liquid pool. Video films22,23of TIG
.06
.03
-0.4
weld pools show that material with poor weld ability
is characterised by a flat, placid pool surface, in
1800 2200 2600 3000 contrast with that found with good welding
Tem perature, K material, for which the pool surface is extremely
( b) agitated. Sundell et al.24 noted that the solidified
Fe-S
0.6 welds of high and low S steels exhibited regularly
spaced, fine surface ripples (possibly caused by
0.4 pulsations in the arc current). However, the high S
'I steels also showed a series of deeper ripples of
~ longer wavelength which were superimposed on the
0.2
fine ripple background. Other workers25-28 have
'I
E
z also noted that the ripples on the surface of welds
E 0
were fine for steels exhibiting poor penetration and
>cl~
"'0"'0-0.2
coarse for those with good penetration. Also
surface oscillation was observed29 when a jet of
.030 oxygen was directed on to the surfaces of liquid
.015
-0.4 iron, copper, and tin (oxygen would lower the
surface tension of the melt). The surface roughness
of steel welds has been correlated with the d/w
1800 2200 2600 3000 ratio,13 (Fig. 10).
Tem perature, K
Walsh and Savage30 noted that solidified spot
(c) welds of CN7M stainless steels exhibited a raised
0.12
surface at the centre in the case of material giving
high d/w ratios, while in contrast, steels showing
Fe-O low d/w ratios were characterised by a depression at
Q.I the centre, which would be consistent with the
~ 0.08
o
11I
Heiple-Roper theory of thermo capillary flow in the
pool.
~> Surface rippling is not unique to arc welds and
~ 0.04 has been observed with laser31,32and electron beam
~ Fe-S
:~ welding.33,34 Copley et al.31 conducted laser welding
u
« experiments on a nickel base alloy (Udimet 700)
o and observed on the solidified weld track, a pattern
1600 1800 2000 2200 2400
Temperature (To) at which ~~ = 0 .·C
of coarse ripples superimposed on a fine ripple
background, similar to the results of Sundell et al.24
7 Variation of temperature coefficient of surface Rozniakowski32 produced full weld penetration of
tension for a Fe-O system andb Fe-S system as steel plate using a laser beam under nitrogen.
function of melt composition and temperature, Examination of the solidified weld pool revealed
numerals refer to chemical activities of 0 or S; c the presence of ripple marks not only on the upper
curves derived from a and b showing tem- surface, but also on the lower surface, where
perature To where dy/dT = 0 as function of pulsation of the laser beam would not be expected
composition of Fe-O and Fe-S melts
to have any significant effect.
If the rippling phenomenon is related to the
surface properties of the steel melt, then surface
below) and thus the fluid flow in the weld pool is agitation and coarse frozen ripples superimposed on
largely determined by those factors that affect both a background of fine ripples would be associated
the direction and the velocity of the thermocapillary with low surface tension and a positive temperature
flow, namely, the composition of the steel and the coefficient, while a quiescent fluid surface coupled
Marangoni number, respectively.10 The latter is with very fine ripples on the solidified weld would
defined by equation (1) where f.l is the viscosity, a' be characterised by high surface tension and a
the thermal diffusivity, and L is a characteristic negative temperature coefficient. The fine ripples
length. A more detailed description of the various occur in both cases and may, in some instances,
non-dimensional parameters used to describe fluid stem from the oscillation frequency of the arc or
flow has been given elsewhere.10 Oscillatory flow laser. It is possible that the presence of coarse
may occur in the weld pool when the Marangoni ripples may be related to the magnitude of the
International Materials Reviews 1990 Vol. 35 NO.4
190 Mills and Keene Factors affecting variable weld penetration

00

Steel 2 00
I
2000x

~Stej:--~J
1800 o~o 0
0
0

•. 1700 1900
E 6 'I
6 x
z E
E 1600 A6 6
6
Z 1800 x 1
)o~
66 E
~ 6
)o~

1500 1700
6

Steel 1
1400 1600
6
0
1400 1600 1800 1400 1600 1800
T 1°C T ,oC
(0) (b)
a 304 type; b 316 type
8 Surface tension of stainless steels as function of temperature, steels 1 and 3 gave good weld penetration
and steels 2 and 4 gave poor penetration (Ref. 19)

capillary number C, which is a measure of surface to climb and produce a raised section on solidifi-
deformation and is proportional to the ratio cation. However, examination of sections taken
(dy/dD/y, i.e. with high y, C is relatively small.1o perpendicular to the welding direction (Fig. lIb)
Anthony and Cline35 studied the surface rippling suggests that it is possible that the fluid flow along
resulting from the laser melting of the surface of the surface is actually inward (Fig. 6b or c).
304 steel and attributed this to thermo capillary Both direct observation and mathematical models
forces. Only steels with negative coefficients were of flow in the weld pool show that, in the presence
considered and it was assumed that the outward of a sufficiently high surface tension gradient, fluid
fluid flow caused the liquid at the back of the pool velocities at the surface of up to several metres per
second could be expected. In the case of a system
which has a positive dy/dT, the high velocity, radial
(0)
fluid flow at the surface would be directed towards
the pool centre from all directions, and the result-
ant interaction in the central zone might be
expected to result in some turbulence. This mech-
M (-) anism may account for the observed difference in
surface topography between systems which exhibit
good and poor weldability. In the latter case, the
(b)
liquid metal is likely to have a negative dy/dT and
thus surface flow would be directed towards the

\DT E
edge of the pool where the dynamic energy of the
fluid can be more readily dissipated.
It has been shown from calculations36,37 that a
radially outward fluid flow in the presence of
electromagnetic forces is 'stable' in contrast to an
inward flow which is 'unstable' and would conse-
quently develop a spin similar to that developed by
(c)
water draining from a sink. Lancaster38 applied a

\]) 0.6
..----- --------
I I
B
~ /'
/
,.. -
-0=6 // >&

I
,
I I
\
,
.';:; 0.4
e /
/

(d) /
.r: /
.~+ ~.~
~/
:c 0.2 I
Ix

A c.
Q1
I
o
a thermocapillary (Marangoni) forces M(+) or M(-); b elec-
tromagnetic (Lorentz) forces E resulting from interaction of
current; c buoyancy forces 8 resulting from density differences
o
o 234 5
caused by temperature gradients; d aerodynamic drag forces A
Relative surface roughness
caused by passage of plasma over surface
9 Various fluid flow mechanisms operating in weld 10 Relative surface roughness of frozen weld as
pool function of aspect ratio d/w (Ref. 13)

International Materials Reviews 1990 Vol. 35 NO.4

 Mills and Keene Factors affecting variable weld penetration 191

Start of End of
melt Direction of melt Low(S) High (S)
+ beam travel ~ Ml
• (0) M2

.r:. Heat
Q.
o
(1)
Diffusocapillary
flow
t Thermocapillary
flow

Highl
Low(S)
-1 0 2 3 4 5 (b)
(a) cm
Heat
+--0·5cm-- ..•.
Highl ! Lowl

.r:.
a.
(1)
o
o 0.10 0.25 0.40
(b) cm
a along mid point and parallel to laser beam; b perpendicular
to laser beam path
11 Surface contour of weld
steel (Ref. 35)
similar treatment to the fluid flows developed by
Marangoni forces and concluded that a radially
outward flow would be stable but a radially inward
flow would be unstable and would develop a spin.
This could account for the coarse ripple marks
observed on the surface of the solidified welds.
Lancaster also concluded that if the heat and
current fluxes could be distributed over a substan-
tial proportion of the weld pool the reduced flow
could lead to an increase in stability.
Offcentre weld penetration
When two pieces of steel, which have, respectively,
good and poor weld penetration characteristics
(e.g. high and low S contents), are TIG welded
together, it is commonly observed that the weld
pool is displaced away from the axis of the join.
(a)
(c)
High(S)
13 Diagram illustrating formation of non-
axisymmetric weld pool resulting from different
sulphur levels in the two metals
in 304 type stainless
Figure 12 shows a sketch of the results found by
Tinkler et al.,39 when welding steel samples which
contained 90 and 30 ppm S, respectively. When
both workpieces have the same S levels then, as
expected, either good penetration (Fig. 12a;
90 ppm S) or poor penetration (Fig. 12b; 30 ppm S)
is obtained at the weld join. However, when
samples with different penetration characteristics
are welded together, the weld pool is displaced
toward the material with the lower S con-
tent,24,25,4G-43(Fig. 12c).
This behaviour can be accounted for if the
Marangoni forces dominate the fluid flow in the
weld pool; for the case where two metals with low
(M1) and high (M2) S contents are welded there
will be (a) thermo capillary convection giving out-
ward (M1) and inward (M2) surface flows and
(b) diffusocapillary convection caused by dif-
ferences in the S contents. It can be seen from
Fig. 13b that all of these flows operate in the
direction from high S to low S steel (i.e. right to left
in Fig. 13b). This will result in the transport of hot
metal to the low S side and melt back will occur
preferentially in the low S steel and an asymmetric
weld will be produced (Fig. 13c). This can be taken
as confirmation of the predominance of Marangoni
flow in the weld pool since no other satisfactory
explanation can be given for this behaviour.

Arc wander
It has been observed that slag spots on the surface
attract the arc,44 i.e. they form an anode spot (see
the section 'Effects of slag spots and surface films
on weld penetration' below). When the surface flow
is radially inward (as in a high S steel) the anode
spot will be located directly under the arc.
However, when there is a radially outward flow, the
slag is swept to the outside of th~ pool and after
<30
accumulation of the slag, the arc wIll be attracted to
ppm it, resulting in 'arc wander' and ~n erratic weld
(c) s seam. This explanation has been gIven to account
12 Diagram of weld profiles obtained by welding for arc wander encountered in ferritic materials23
steels containing 30 and 90 ppm S (after Ref. 39) and in the austenitic alloy Incoloy 800 (Ref.45).

International Materials Reviews 1990 Vol. 35 NO.4

 192 Mills and Keene Factors affecting variable weld penetration

(0)

Welding
direction +--
(0) (b)
(b)
a inward surface flows with downward flow in centre; b
outward surface flows with downward flow at periphery of
weld pool
a inward surface flow; b outward surface flow
16 Predicted surface profiles
14 Influence of weld pool motion on porosity

'Undercutting' and 'humping'

Porosity
Kou and Wang46 have proposed that the direction
of the flow in the weld pool could be responsible for
the presence of pores in the weld. When the fluid
flow is radially inwards it can be seen (Fig. 14a)
that the weld pool motion would assist the escape
of the bubbles from the solidification front but
when the fluid flow is radially outwards (Fig. 14b) it
could be possible for gas bubbles to be trapped in
the solidification front. It is obvious that when a
solidified slag film (see the section 'Effects of slag
spots and surface films on weld penetration' below)
is formed around the edges of the pool, this could
further assist the entrapment of gas bubbles since a
stagnant zone would be created beneath the solid
film and the bubbles would be held there until
solidification occurred. Problems with porosity were
encountered during the welding of steels which
contained calcium because of the formation of solid
films23 on the surface of the weld pool.
(a)
304 L= 2mm
0.08
E 0
E OHigh S
.Low S 0
0
:; 0.06
u "0
Undercutting is the depression at the edge of a weld
and humping is the formation of a raised section
(hump) in the centre of the seam.
Ishizaki et al.28 measured the degree of undercut-
ting in 304 and 316 steels and found that this:
(i) was much more pronounced in high S steels
than in low S casts (Fig. 15a and b)
(ii) increased with increasing travel speed
(iii) increased slightly with increasing arc length
(Fig. 15c and d).
Humping appeared to occur only in high S steels
at high travel speeds.
Bradstreet47 noted that in high speed, high
current MIG welding the humping and undercutting
were associated with the formation of a cavity at
the front ~f the weld and flow from the front to the
rear of the pool. It was also found that humping
was more severe when oxygen was present. Lin and
Eager48 have proposed that humping and undercut-
ting result from the combination of (a) the front to
rear movement of the fluid associated with vortex
formation at high currents and (b) the thermocapil-
(b) lary forces operating in the weld pool.
0.10 316 L=2mm The fact that both of these effects are more
E ~High S pronounced in casts with high S contents strongly
E 0.08 ALow S
suggests that they are associated with Marangoni
"5
u flow. It should also be noted that there is a strong
Qj 0.06 similarity to the profile of the weld obtained during

"0
Qj •• • c
::J laser melting of the surface35 (Fig. lIb). One
§ 0.04 15 0.04 characteristic of Marangoni flow is that the surface
15 • • .r:::.
is raised in regions where liquid is being driven
0
a.
=E. 0.02 ~ 0.02 downwards and is depressed where the melt is
0
()) • moving upwards, consequently the flows shown in
0

450 650 850 600 800 1000

Fig. 16 would be predicted. Thus with inward flow
Travel speed, mm min-1 Travel speed ,mm min-1 (high S cast) it is obvious from Fig. 16a that
Marangoni forces can account for both undercutting'
(c) (d)
and humping. The fact that these phenomena are
0.08
prevalent at high travel speeds may be due to· the
316 V= 600mm min'
fact that the volume of the weld pool will be small
~ High S
E ALow S under these conditions and consequently will lead
304 V=450mm min'
E 0.12 E. 0.06 to (a) higher surface temperature gradients
E oHigh S :;
• Low S u
(because of the lower width) and (b) shallower
:; Qj pools in which Marangoni forces would be the
u 0.08 -g 0.04
"0
Qj 0 ::J dominant convection mechanism. Thus enhance-
C
::J 15 ment of the inward flows (Fig. 16a) could lead to
15 0.04 % 0.02 increased humping and undercutting at high travel
.r:::.
1i
0 • o
())
speeds. The slight increase in undercutting with
0
())
0 • increasing arc length may be a. result of the lower
Qe-. ~
0 2 4 6 o 2 4 6 volume, shallower pools, and increase in the rela-
Arc length,mm Arc length, mm tive strength of the Marangoni forces but this must
15 Depth of undercut as function of 8, b travel be offset against the enhanced aerodynamic drag
speed and c, d arc lengh, for 304 and 316 type forces. However, it must be pointed out that on the
stainless steels (Ref. 28) basis of the flow patterns shown in Fig. 16b, it is
International Materials Reviews 1990 Vol. 35 No.4
 Mills and Keene Factors affecting variable weld penetration 193

difficult to account for the undercutting observed

10
with low S steels in terms of thermo capillary forces.

Factors affecting weld penetration

Composition of metal Mn
Ferrous alloys ~ 10-1 Si 1000 E
Very small concentrations of surface active Vl a.
Vl a.
elements such as sulphur or oxygen can have a E
o
01

dramatic effect on the surface properties of the 01

molten metal. Thus one strong argument in support
of the case that variable weld penetration is a
consequence of changes in the surface properties of
the weld pool is that only very small differences in
the concentrations of certain elements are necessary
to produce marked changes in weld penetration.
The Heiple-Roper theory9 suggests that variable
weld penetration is a consequence of the fluid
motion in the weld pool and that this, in turn, is
largely controlled by the concentrations of certain
surface active elements, e.g. Sand 0, present in
the metal. However, some metals such as alumin-
ium, calcium, and cerium react strongly with Group
VI elements, and effectively reduce their solubility
in the steel. The sulphides and oxides formed will
have little effect on the surface tension of the
metal. In order to obtain an understanding of the
effect of certain elements on the fluid flow in the
weld pool (and hence the weld penetration), it is
necessary to appreciate their effect on the surface
tension of the melt. For this purpose, elements can
be classified into three groups, namely,
(i) surface active
(ii) those reacting strongly with surface active
elements
(iii) those having little significant influence on
the surface tension of the melt
It is important to point out that the critical factor
affecting the surface tension of a metal is the
concentration of the soluble sulphur (or soluble
oxygen, etc.) and not the total sulphur content,
which is the value normally reported and which
includes the sulphur (or oxygen) present as inclu-
10
-2
10
10
17 Dependence of soluble oxygen (%0) on concen-
tration of alloying element (M) in Fe-M-O
systems at 1873 K (Ref. 19): concentration of 0
in Fe where dy/dT = 0, - - - (Ref. 18), - - - (Ref. 21)
critical value, below which the surface properties
of the weld pool would be similar to those of a pure
metal (i.e. dy/dT is negative). In contrast to this
behaviour, the presence of Al will have little effect
on the soluble sulphur level. Thus providing the
metal does not contain calcium, cerium, or lantha-
num, it is possible to get substantial solubility of
sulphur (up to 10/0), (Fig. 18).
The use of a ternarl diagram to describe a
multicomponent system! is an over simplification,
since interactions between elements can occur, e.g.
Mn and Si, will react to form MnSi03, which will
produce a lower 0 than that indicated by Fig. 17.
Nevertheless, this model does clearly show the
relative effects of various elements and also why
sulphur often has a more pronounced effect on
weldability than oxygen.
M,ppm
10 100 1000

sions. At present there are no routine techniques

available for determining the level of soluble
sulphur (or oxygen), but it is possible to derive
approximate values from thermodynamic calcu-
lations. 19
In these calculations the alloy was assumed to be ~ 10-1 1000
either a Fe-M-O or a Fe-M-S ternary, where M is til
Vl \ Ce E
o a.
the reactive metal, e.g. AI, Ca, etc. The results of E
\
a.
these calculations are given in Figs. 17 and 18, lI'il 10-2 100 t.ril
respectively, and indicate the maximum levels of
soluble oxygen (Q.) or ~) which can be obtained
with different alloying additions. The horizontal
\Q-~~~-
broken lines in these diagrams represent the critical ~ 10
o or S concentrations in pure iron at which
dy/dT = O. For concentrations above the broken 1
lines dy/dT would be positive, and good weld 10-2 10-1 10
penetration would be expected, whereas for. values M.mass-Ofo

of 0 and S below the lines a· negative coefficient 18 Dependence of soluble sulphur (%S) on concen-
andpoor penetration would be anticipated. It can tration of alloying element (MT in Fe-M-S
be seen from Fig. 17 that only low levels of Ca or systems at 1873 K (Ref. 19): concentration of.!
Al are needed to reduce the 0 content to the in Fe dy/dT = 0, - - - (Ref. 18)

International Materials Reviews 1990 Vol. 35 No.4

194 Mills and Keene Factors affecting variable weld penetration

21-6-9 Stainless steel

0.8

3=
-0- 0.6
.Q

e
.r.
-u
.~
0.4
:c
a.
(1) o 100A
o
0.2 0.1 o 150A
/::;.Low carbon 316 steel
8200A
o Low carbon 304 steel

500 1000 1500 2000

o Oxygen content in torch gas 7 ppm·
o 100 200 300 400
Sulphur content, ppm 21 Effect of oxygen concentrations in shield gas on
aspect ratio of weld pool d/w for 21Cr-6Ni-9Mn
19 Effect of sulphur content on aspect ratio of weld
stainless steel (Ref. 52)
pool d/w for 304 and 316 type stainless steels
(Ref. 25)
the torch gas. In all cases it was found that the d/w
In calculating the levels of 0 and~, by use of ratio increased with increasing sulphur (Figs. 19 and
Figs. 17 and 18, it is necessary to take into account 20). It has been reported that good weld pene-
the relative amounts of 0 and S together with the tration can be obtained if the sulphur content is
various alloying elements. As an example take an >80 ppm (Ref.43) or >90 ppm (Ref.56), and
alloy containing 50 ppm Al and 150 ppm oxygen, Tinkler et al.39 have proposed that for steels with
on the basis of Fig. 17 one would predict that the sulphur contents between 100 and 200 ppm, good
Al would reduce the level of 0 to about 10 ppm weld ability could be guaranteed without hot
but the amount of oxygen needed to react with Al cracking or loss of weld strength. Heiple and
would only be (48/54 x 50 ppm = 44 ppm), which Burgardt50 observed that the d/w ratio increased
leaves ,....,
106 ppm of the available soluble oxygen. steadily with the concentration of S02 in the torch
In multicomponent steels, however, further gas up to a value of 700 ppm (Fig. 20), and this
reactions with other alloying elements would signi- corresponded to a sulphur pick up of less than
ficantly reduce the amount of available oxygen. 30 ppm S by the metal in the weld pool.
Oxygen Oxygen has a similar surface activity in
Surface active elements iron to that of sulphur, 18 and also gives rise to
Sulphur The effect of increasing the sulphur con- positive dy/dT coefficients at concentrations
tents of 304 and 316 stainless steels has been >40 ppm. Glickstein and Yenisavich, 1 reviewing
studied by various investigators.43,49-51 Sulphur was earlier investigations, concluded that weld pene-
added in various forms, namely, as elemental tration was improved with the introduction. of
sulphur,49,52,53as FeS (Ref.6) or FeS2 (Ref.54), as a oxygen into the torch shielding gas and subsequent
sulphur wash,55 and also by incorporating S02 into studies55,57,58have supported this view. Neverthe-
less, others have found very little improvement with
oxygen additions,49,59 and one possible reason lies
0.5 in the relationship between the d/w ratio and the
x
". - - - - - - -x __ oxygen concentration in the torch gas40,52shown in
/ x •.••......•... Fig. 21, which exhibits a sharp maximum around
'i 0.4 I
/ ' 'x 600 ppm oxygen; the decrease in d/w above this
-0-
_ I
IX concentration was tentatively attributed to the
o x formation of an oxide surface film.50 Other investi-
B I
gators have also reported improved penetration
L. 0.3 /
.I::. x/
ii with an increase in oxygen potential (using O2 or
~ CO2 (Ref.60), and the fo.rmation of an oxide
li 0.2 surface film could account for the observations that
o
<lI (a) for good and poor penetrating welds the oxide
formed had yellow and blue colorations, respec-
0.1 tively,60 and (b) heavy oxidation of the surface·
reduced penetration.4 It must also be pointed out,
however, that the progressive decrease in pene-
tration with increasing oxygen concentrations above
o 400 800 1200 1600 2000 600 ppm (Fig. 21) would also be expected to occur
S02 content in .gas,ppm
if oxygen caused a widening of the anode root area
20 Effect of 802 concentration in shield gas on (see the section 'Effect of welding parameters on
aspect ratio of weld pool d/w for 21Cr-6Ni-9Mn weld penetration' below).
stainless steel (Ref. 50) On the other hand, data for the relationship
International Materials Reviews 1990 Vol. 35 No.4

between d/w and the oxygen (total) content for a
large number of steels failed to reveal any corre-
lation between these parameters.24,27 Sundell et
al.49 reported that additions of 400 ppm oxygen to
the shielding gas resulted in increases in pool
length, width, depth, and area but did not increase
the d/w ratio and ascribed this to increased arc
voltage and heat input. Thus, there is some
uncertainty about the influence of additions in
improving weld penetration and the situation is
complicated by the following factors:
(i) the thermodynamic equilibria between the
alloying elements and the oxygen, which can
affect the soluble 0 concentration
(ii) the reported levels are total 0 and not
soluble 0
(iii) the kinetics of oxygen dissolution may be
affected by the nature of the surface, since it
has been suggested43 that sulphur occu-
pation of the surface may inhibit oxygen
dissolution (which could account for the
beneficial effect of FeS (Ref. 55) when
welding with oxygen contents >600 ppm
where oxide film formation may be
anticipated
(iv) the formation of oxide films on the weld
pool surface which could (a) inhibit the fluid
flow induced by thermo capillary forces61
(see the section 'Surface films' below), and
(b) affect the arc characteristics (e.g.
voltage), and thereby influence the heat
input
(v) oxygen in the shield gas increases the arc
voltage and the heat input
(vi) the possible effects of oxygen on the size of
the anode root.
Selenium and tellurium These elements are highly
surface active in iron, and there are strong indi-
cations that positive temperature coefficients of
surface tension18 are produced. Heiple and co-
workers5,52 have shown (Fig. 22) that these
elements are very effective in improving the weld
penetration in 21Cr--6Ni-9Mn stainless steels when
using TIG, defocused laser, and electron beam
welding.
Se(laser weld)
1.0
'i
"'0-
e
0
0.75
£.
:0
0.50
~ of surface active elements are largely controlled by
£.
0.
OJ
0 0.25
""'x 21-6-9 Stainless
Ce'
o 25 50 75 100
Dopant concentration, ppm
22 Effect of various dopant concentrations on
aspect ratio of weld pool d/w for 21Cr-6Ni-9Mn
stainless steel (Ref. 52)
Mills and Keene Factors affecting variable weld penetration 195
Halogens The surface activities of these elements
in molten iron are not known,18 but from various
theoretical considerations10,62 it would be expected
that surface activity would be high and lie in the
hierarchy I > Br > CI > F. However, experimen-
tal confirmation of this is very difficult.
Glickstein and Yeniscavich1 noted in their review
of earlier studies that when F, CI, and Br were
either present as trace elements in steels and
titanium alloys, or applied in the form of fluxes to
the surface of the metal, systematically better
penetration was observed; they noted that arc
constriction was also observed in these cases.
Ludwig63 reported a similar correlation between
weld penetration and chloride content when
welding Zr-base alloys, and attributed this behav-
iour to changes in arc characteristics. Savage64
applied various halides as surface washes and
observed improved weld penetration with NiCh,
FeCh, and CuCh a~ueous solutions.
Wen and Lundin measured the surface tension
of 304 stainless steel under simulated welding
conditions and observed that the addition of 10%
Freon 12 (CF2Ch) to the Ar torch gas resulted in a
7% decrease in surface tension. The oxygen and
sulphur contents of the steel were unspecified, but
on the basis -of the low reported value for y
(1169 mN m-1) the concentration of these elements
must have been high; the 7% decrease in surface
tension results suggests that CI may have replaced
o and S atoms at the surface.
Nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, and antimony
These elements are less surface active10 in iron than
the Group VI elements (0, S, Se, and Te) and
there is no clear experimental evidence to support
the view that a positive dy/dT coefficient will occur
at some compositions.18 Pollard51 reported that
phosphorus contents in the range 50-190 ppm had
no effect on penetration in stainless steels contain-
ing 140 ppm S. However, this is not surprising in
view of the high sulphur content and the fact that
the surface activity of sulphur is much greater than
that of phosphorus. Sundell et al.49 found that
additions of 400 ppm nitrogen to the torch shielding
gas resulted in increases in depth and volume of the
pool and the 2d/w ratio which could be a result of
thermo capillary flows but could also result from the
observed increases in arc voltage and heat input.
Reactive elements
Se
During steelmaking several elements are added to
reduce the oxygen and sulphur contents of the
steels (e.g. Si and Al are used for deoxidation and
Ca for desulphurisation). Since the concentrations
the content of reactive elements the effects of
individual reactive metals on both the 0 and S
steel levels and weld penetration are discussedbelow. -
Aluminium For the Fe-AI-O system it can be
125 150 seen from Fig. 17, that providing the Al additions
are sufficiently large to react with the oxygen
present, concentrations of Al between 20 and
10 000 ppm in iron would reduce the soluble 0
concentration to a level where the dy/dT coefficient
International Materials Reviews 1990 Vol. 35 NO.4
196 Mills and Keene Factors affecting variable weld penetration
0.8
~
-0
~
;:; 0.4
"0
0.6 I x
,
x x
\
x\
0\
\
~ ""
.r.
0.
o
<11
" •.•.•
--- -;-------
x
0.2
a 50 100
AI concentration.
23 Variation of aspect ratio of weld pool d/w with
aluminium content in 21Cr-6Ni-9Mn stainless
steel (Ref. 13)
was negative and, as a consequence, the thermo-
capillary forces would produce a radially outward
surface flow and poor weld penetration. Unfortun-
ately, the thermodynamic data for the Fe-AI-S
system are not as reliable as those for the Fe-AI-O
system but the soluble ~ levels should not deviate
significantly from those shown in Fig. 18. Conse-
quently, it would be anticipated that Al additions
would exert little influence on the levels of soluble
S.
The conclusions deduced from thermodynamic
data (Figs. 17 and 18) can explain the following
observations:
(i) values of d/w were observed13,43 to decrease
markedly with increasing Al additions up to
40 ppm Al (Fig. 23), and Pollard51 has
reported similar results for a range of Al
levels up to about 100 ppm. These findings
are essentially in agreement with the level
predicted from thermodynamic consider-
ations. The values of 0 in Fig. 17 refer to a
temperature of 1873 K and a critical value of
dy/dT would occur around 20 ppm, but the
average temperature of the weld pool is
much higher (say 2100 K), and it can be
seen from Fig. 7a that the' critical value
would occur around 80 ppm
(ii) addition of aluminium to a stainless steel
with good .penetration resulted in the widen-
ing of the pool and a decrease in d/w
(iii) Al additions to 21Cr-6Ni-9Mn stainless52 and
mild steels54 had little effect on the pene-
tration in high S steels, since the aluminium
would not alter the soluble ~ levels appre-
ciably. Pollard51 observed that S additions
did not improve penetration in steels con-
taining <40 ppm Al (since presumably there
was already sufficient soluble 0 present to
guarantee good penetrationT but did
improve penetration in steels containing
200-400 ppm AI.
Silicon and manganese Reference to Fig. 17
reveals that additions of 1°10 Si or Mn to iron would
International Materials Reviews
0.60
1 [5J =140 ppm
""Q..,
!
~
"0
.c
a.
0.50
01
1/"\ ~ "
x
1
~o~
"
x S'
\ I
a
<1J 1
x
x 0.40
x
I
o 0.50 1. 0 1. 5 2.0 2. 5
Mn.5i content. mass-·'.
24 Aspect ratio of weld pool d/w as function of
150 200 manganese and silicon concentrations in
ppm stainless steels (Ref. 51)
not reduce the soluble 0 content to the critical
level where dy/dT becomes negative. However, it is
known 19 that reaction of these elements to form
MnSi03 has the effect of reducing the soluble 0
level below that predicted in Fig. 17. Thus it would
seem that the recommendation of Oyler et aI.6o that
the Si and Mn levels in 304 steel, 1 and 2°10,
respectively, should be reduced to 0·5 ± 0·2 and
1·7 ± 0.3°10 can be justified on thermodynamic
ground~:, There are insufficient thermodynamic data
to calculate the S levels in the Fe-Si-S system, but
it would seem highly unlikely that Si would have
any significant effect on the soluble ~ concen-
tration.
Pollard51 reported maxima in~urves which corre-
lated d/w ratios with Si and Mn concentrations
(Fig. 24). Sundeil et aI.49 also observed that increas-
ing the Si concentration from 0·13 to 0.5°10 in low
alloy steels resulted in increases in weld pool
volume and the d/w ratio, and suggested that this
could be attributed to improvements in the arc
characteristics. In the case of Si the improvement in
the penetration was attributed to the decrease in
viscosity of the iron. However, this is an unlikely
explanation since the change in viscosity would be
very small. It is more probable that the observed
increase in d/w ratio results from the formation of
manganese silicates which float to the surface and
have beneficial effects on the arc characteristics
thereby increasing the heat input and the Lorentz
forces (see the section 'Slag spots' below). The
decrease in penetration (occurring at higher Si and
Mn concentrations) can be attributed to the gradual
reduction of the soluble 0 concentration which, in
turn, would decrease the magnitude of the tem-
perature coefficient dy/dT and consequently the
velocity of the inward acting thermocapillary flow.
Si02 additions to the surface of the weld have been
found to improve penetration,4,58 and this was
attributed to increases in the arc voltage.4
Titanium It can be seen from Figs. 17 and 18 that
Ti additions of between 0·1 and 5°1o would be
expected to reduce the soluble 0 level to the
critical value where dy/dT is negative but have little
effect on soluble sulphur. Binard and Chabenat43
have published data which suggest that the presence
1990 Vol. 35 No.4
 Mills and Keene
of Ti reduced weld penetration. Several investiga-
tors have examined the effect of Ti02 additions to
the surface of the weld and instances of
increased48,58 or of slightly decreased4 penetration
have been reported. It would be expected that Ti02
would form an oxidising slag which could increase
the soluble 0 in the weld pool and hence improve
penetration, but this would depend on other factors
such as the initial 0 and S levels and the arc
characteristics of theSlag formed by the Ti O2.
Calcium Figures 17 and 18 show that less than
10 ppm of Ca is necessary to reduce the soluble 0
and S concentrations to the critical levels where
dy/dT is negative, i.e. providing that the calcium
content is sufficiently large to react with all the
available oxygen and sulphur present. Thus, it
would be expected that calcium would have a very
deleterious effect on weld penetration, and this
view has been substantiated in recent welding trials
where CaSi additions were made to 304 and 316
steels.66 Also studies on ferritic steels23,43 have
shown that calcium has an adverse effect on d/w
because of (a) the reduction in the soluble 0 and S
levels, and (b) the formation of strong surface films
that inhibit the thermo capillary flow at the surface
of the pool.
The presence of CaO in the surface slag film has
been associated with poor weld penetration,58 but
additions of CaO to the surface of the weld pool
were observed to increase d/w (Ref. 11). This
behaviour was attributed to CaO increasing the arc
voltage and, consequently, the heat input.
Cerium and lanthanum It is apparent from Figs.
17 and 18 that cerium and lanthanum behave in a
very similar manner to calcium, and that concen-
trations of > 100 ppm of these elements are capable
of reducing the soluble 0 and S levels below the
critical value where dy/dTbecomes zero (providing
that the rare earths are present in sufficient quantity
to react with all the available oxygen and sulphur).
These elements also form very stable refractory
oxides and sulphides, and cerium forms an oxysul-
phide (CeO)2S. Cerium additions to 2Cr-6Ni-9Mn
stainless steel52 (see Fig. 22) and to AISI 8630 low.
alloy steel49 both resulted in substantial decreases
in the d/w ratio. In the latter study it was observed
that large, refractory slag deposits were formed on
the weld pool surface, and these appeared to
interfere with the weld pool flow and made the
anode spot unstable. Surface films formed in steels
containing cerium can be sufficiently strong to
suppress the natural surface oscillations of levitated
drops of molten steel17 and it is possible that these
surface films may also inhibit the fluid flow originat-
ing from thermocapillary forces.
Other elements
Carbon Differences in the carbon levels would
have very little effect on the surface properties of
the weld pool for the reasons given below:
(i) carbon does not affect the surface tension of
molten iron18 appreciably; (it is also believed
to produce positive dy/dT) coefficients at
higher (>2%) C contents
(ii) the changes in 0 and S resulting from
International
Factors affecting variable weld penetration 197
changes in carbon content would be rei a..;
tively minor, e.g. a change in carbon from
0·01 to 1% would produce changes of only
30% from the plotted values for 0 and S in
Figs. 17 and 18, respectively. - -
Chromium Thermodynamic calculations have
shown that chromium levels of 18% (i.e. typical of
stainless steels) would reduce the soluble 0 concen-
tration to 360 ppm in Fe-Cr-O alloys (cf the critical
value of 20 ppm). Similar calculations for the
Fe-Cr-S system indicated that soluble S levels
would be an order of magnitude higher, i.e.
---3600ppm. Consequently, the chromium content
of steels would not be expected to have a significant
effect on either the 0 or S concentrations or on the
fluid flow arising from thermo capillary forces.
Variable weld penetration in non-ferrous
materials
Variable weld penetration is not unique to ferrous
based metals and has been found in other alloys.
Zirconium alloys Ludwig63 reported differences in
d/w ratios of up to a factor of 10 when GTA
welding zirconium base alloys. Samples of the
alloys were produced by different refining pro-
cesses, and it was found that the highest weld
penetration was obtained with material which had
been produced by melting under inert gas. Without
exception, the chlorine and hydrogen levels in this
material were at least twice as high as those found
in vacuum melted material. To account for the weld
variations, Ludwig suggested that these elements
could be drawn into the plasma and thus modify the
arc characteristics, but it is possible (particularly
with chlorine), that the presence of either of these
elements could alter the surface properties of the
melt in a manner analogous to the effect of sulphur
and oxygen in iron. Unfortunately, there are no
surface tension data to verify this interpretation.
Nickel based alloys Savage et al.2 studied the
effect of six minor elements on the weld zone
dimensions of Inconel 600 (nickel base alloy), and
significant effects were apparent in some instances.
Of the individual elements, silicon had the strongest
effect in increasing the weld penetration. The
authors found that a combination of silicon and
sulphur also increased weld penetration and they
concluded that silicon was considerably more effec-
tive in the presence of sulphur. This work was
undertaken before the Heiple-Roper theory was
formulated, and in light of current knowledge, it is
suggested that the increased penetration could be,
at least in part, a result of the anticipated67 high
surface activity of sulphur in nickel. Savage et ale
also noted that the weld penetration increased with
addition of titanium but decreased when aluminium
was present (cf effects in steel).
Sundell et al.49 studied the effects of additives on
GTA weld penetration of nickel base alloys. Figure
25 shows the results obtained with Inconel 718 for
the d/w ratios with high. S and low S melts under
different partial pressures of oxygen. At low oxygen
levels the d/w ratio is greater with the high S alloy,
and the ratio for this alloy progressively decreases
as the oxygen concentration increases, until it is the
Materials Reviews 1990 Vol. 35 No.4
198 Mills and Keene Factors affecting variable weld penetration

0.47 0.6
Inconel IN 718
~ 0.43 0.5
-0 ~
.Q "tt
0.4
e
0
0' High 5 heat
~ 0.39
.r:.
:0 .r:. 0.3
'3 0.35 ~ -0 ts
'§
:c t1

a. .r:. 0.2 -
<1J
\J 0.31 a. (1)

\J
0 6. Low 5
Qj 0.1 o High 5
3: 0.27
o
0.23 o 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
I
5 5 5 12, 10-4A2
I
1
lx10-3 1X 1 0-2 lx10-1
Oxygen,vol.-% 27 Weld ratio d/w as function of welding current
for low and high S casts of AISI 8630 steel
25 Variation of aspect ratio of weld pool d/w with (Ref. 49)
oxygen content in shield gas for low and high S
samples of Inconel IN 718 (Ref. 49)

Ga2S3. In these instances an elevated region was

same as that found with the low S alloy, i.e. above produced along the centre line of the weld and
a certain oxygen level the sulphur has no effect on undercutting was apparent at the sides, which
d/w. Figure 25 also shows that the low S, nickel suggested the presence of an inward acting fluid
base alloy behaves in a similar manner to stainless flow. Featureless surfaces were produced when
steel (Fig. 21), in that there is a maximum in the welding the low S alloys (in these instances the
curve of d/w as a function of [0]. Sundell et ale argon shield gas contained small additions of
added various flux materials (e.g. NaCI, KCI, FeS, nitrogen) and it was noted that the surfaces of the
Ti02 + CaC03) to the surfaces of Inconel 718 and liquid weld pools were placid, i.e. similar behaviour
Waspalloy before GTA welding. With both materials to that observed with low S steels.
the best weld penetration was obtained with FeS
additions; KCI and NaCI had virtually no effect. Effect of welding parameters on weld
L068 found that increasing sulphur levels in 718 penetration
alloy from 0·005 to 0·016% resulted in a significant
improvement in weld penetration. The effects of Mathematical modelling of the fluid flow* in the
adding various fluxes to this alloy were also studied weld pool (described in the section 'Mathematically
and it was found that increased penetration occur- modelling of fluid flow in weld pool' below) has
red with Se, Zn, Si02, Ga2S3, CuS, ZnS, KCI (aq), indicated that there are four forces influencing the
CuCh (aq), CrCh, NiO, NiS, WC, Cr203, and convective heat transfer in the weld pool (Fig. 9):
SnCh (aq). Surface topography of the solidified (i) electromagnetic (Lorentz) forces E which
welds could be correlated with chemical additives. produce a downward flow at the centre of
Regular, evenly spaced ripple marks were observed the pool
with the presence of S, Se, ZnS, TiS, CrS, FeS, and (ii) thermo capillary (Marangoni or surface
tension) forces M producing surface flows
which are either (a) radially outward, as a
0,5 result of dy/dT being negative M( -), which
is typical of low S steels, or (b) radially
inward as a result of dy/dT being positive
0.4
M( +), which is typical of high S steels
Selenium
doped (iii) buoyancy forces B which produce an
zone upward flow
o 0.3
'e (iv) aerodynamic drag forces A produced by the
action of the arc plasma which induces an
outward flow along the surface

0.1
* There is evidence to suggest that at very low heat input rates
the weld profile is determined principally by thermal conduction
and not by the fluid flow. Under these conditions the tem-
perature gradients and hence the thermocapillary forces would
50 100 150 200 250 be relatively small. Christe~en69 observed that under these
Current (I), A circumstances d/w < 0·5, which is ill-agreement with values'
predicted by mathematical models when only thermal conduc-
26 Weld ratio d/w of weld as function of welding tion is taken into account, i.e. for a distributed heat source.
current for 304 type stainless steel and 304 Presumably these conditions would, apply when welding metals
doped with sulphur or selenium (Ref. 71) with high thermal conductivity, e.g. Al and possibly Ni.70

International Materials Reviews 1990 Vol. 35 No.4

 Mills and Keene Factors affecting variable weld penetration 199

High 5 Low 5
Gas
1.3 cast cast
Ar
• 0

f..0
0.9
Ar-5%H2
• 0

3 Ar -0.1%502 .& ~
o Ar-5%N2 +
0.5 *
He-250f0Ar
• 'V

2 6 10
Arc voltage,V

28 Penetration ratio Wb/Wf as function of arc voltage obtained with various shielding gases for Inconel 800
(Ref. 45)

There is evidence to suggest that for normal
welding conditions M>E>A>B and that the
buoyancy forces do not play an important role in
weld pools where the depth is less than 10 mm. To
improve TIG weld penetration and ensure repro-
ducible welds in steels with variations in sulphur
content, it is necessary to have a full understanding
of what effects the different welding procedures
have on the various flow mechanisms listed above.
There are three principal factors related to the
welding procedures which affect the strengths of the
respective forces acting in the weld pool and these
are described briefly below.
1. The magnitude and sign of the surface tension
coefficient dy/dT, which determine the velocity and
the direction of thermo capillary flow, i.e. radially
outward or inward. It should be noted that since
the dy/dT coefficient of steel is largely determined
by the sulphur content, negative and positive
coefficients have been denoted here as low Sand
high S, respectively.
2. The area of the anode root, which determines
the current density and which, in turn, controls the
strength of both the Lorentz and the thermocapil-
lary forces, since in the latter case, it affects the
heat flux density and, consequently, the tem-
perature gradient. Welding paramet~rs that affect
the size of anode root are the arc length, the size
and shape of the cathode, the nature of the torch
gas,· and the formation of anode slag spots.
3. The arc pressure, which determines the
strength of the aerodynamic drag force across· the
surface of the weld pool and this is affected by arc
length, the electrode geometry, .etc.
The effects produced by different welding pro-
cedures on the various modes of fluid flow are
summarised in Table 1 and this information has
been re-arranged (Table 2) to show how changes in
the fluid flow mechanisms can be brought about by
variations in the welding procedures. The experi-
mental observations used to derive the data sum-
marised in these tables are described below.
Welding current
The welding current affects the strength of the
electromagnetic, thermo capillary , and the aerody-
namic drag forces, and Burgardt and Heiple 71 have
proposed that the power density is the key factor

0.5 0.5

0.4 .Q
o

~ d
'-
-! 0.3
.£
.•....•
"0

"0
Qj .~ 0.25
~
0.2 Base metal

0.1
q)[d
o
o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
o 2 3 4 8
Are length.em Arc length, mm
29 Relation between weld ratio d/w and arc length 30 Relation between weld ratio d/w and arc length
for 304 type stainless steel and 304 doped with for various steel casts; each symbol represents a
sulphur or selenium (Ref. 71) different steel (Ref. 12)

International Materials Reviews 1990 Vol. 35 No.4

200 Mills and Keene Factors affecting variable weld penetration

Table 1 Effect of increases in welding parameters on various fluid forces and weld penetration

Effect on d/w*
Welding parameter Effect produced by increase in welding parameter High S LowS

1) Arc current I Increased electromagnetic forces E i Increased d/w

Arc current density J Increased heat flux density Q i ~~ Ti ~M i (i) i (ii) ~
Increased aerodynamic drag force A i Decreased d/w
Wider arc distribution, ~T ~, M ~ (i) ~ (ii) i
Depression of surface by increased arc pressure Increased d/w
2) Voltage V Increased heat flux density, Q~ ~ T i ~M i (i) i (ij) ~
Arc length L Decreased electromagnetic force, E ~ Decreased d/w
Relative increase in aerodynamic drag force, Ai Decreased d/w
Heat distribution width increased, ~~ T ~ ~ M ~ (i) ~ (ij) i
Decreased arc efficiency, ~~ T ~ ~ M ~ (i) ~ (ij) i
Electrode geometry Conical tipped electrode ~ small anode area

w
Higher electromagnetic forces, J i Increased d/w
Higher heat flux density, Q i ~~ T i ~M i (i) i (ii) ~
Higher aerodynamic drag forces, especially at 8 = 45° Decreased d/w
Increases in diameter, higher aerodynamic drag forces, A i Decreased d/w
Frustum electrode, blunt electrode (larger anode area aA)

U
Anode area increases as cathode area increases
Lower electromagnetic forces, I ~ as aA i Decreased d/w
Lower aerodynamic drag force, A ~ as aA i Increased d/w
Lower heat flux density, Q ~ ~ ~ T ~ ~ M ~ (i) ~ (ii) i
Inclination of electrode Increased electromagnetic forces, E i Increased d/w
Travel speed S Decrease in heat flux per unit length Decreased d/w
Shallower pools increase in relative strength of M (i) i (ii) ~
Torch gas H2, He, O2, and N2 increase heat input (i) i (ii) ~
Any broadening of arc by addition of these gases would oppose changes
produced by increased heat input

* For thermocapillary forces given as (i) radially inward flow (high S) and (ij) radially outward flow (low S):
i increased; ~ decreased; ~ leads to.

Table 2 Welding parameters providing an increase in various fluid flow mechanisms

*i increased; ~ decreased
t (i) radially inward flow (high S); (ii) radially outward flow (low S).
+ See section 'Composition of metal' above.
II See section 'Effect of slag spots and surface films on weld penetration' below.

International Materials Reviews 1990 Vol. 35 NO.4

 Mills and Keene Factors affecting variable weld penetration 201

influencing weld penetration. The power density (or
heat flux density) Q is given by equation (2), where
'YJ is the arc efficiency and a the width parameter
(anode root)
Q = l1V1
2crn
Thus increasing the current would result
increases in the heat input, the temperature grad-
ient, and the strength of the thermo capillary con-
vection, and would be expected to produce better
penetration for high S steels and poorer penetration
for low S steels. However, the situation is more
complex since a larger current would also increase
both the electromagnetic force,12 which would
improve the weld penetration, and the aerodynamic
drag force,12,72 which would produce an outward
flow and cause widening of the weld pool. Thus a
higher welding current could produce changes in
the strengths of opposing flows originating from the
various convective mechanisms operating in the
weld pool. The situation is further complicated
since:
(i) at high current, the electromagnetic forces
can cause significant stirring of the molten
metat71 and the deep penetration obtained
when using currents >250 A has been
attributed to the formation of a vortex
created by the circumferential rotation of
the weld pool48
(ii) increasing currents lead to slightly wider
distribution of power71,73 (i.e. larger anode
root area)
(iii) the higher arc pressure resulting from an
increase in current can depress the surface
and lead to improved penetration.71
Burgardt and Heiple 71 pointed out that the effects
of increasing current on the d/w ratios shown in
Fig. 26 are consistent with the proposition
Marangoni forces M are dominant in the weld pool,
since the enhanced temperature gradients obtained
by increasing the current would produce higher and
lower d/w ratios, respectively, for high and low S
steels. The subsequent decrease in the former case
at higher currents was attributed71 to the flow
reversal resulting from the maximum in the y- T
relationship (Fig. 6c); however, this decrease could
also be a result of the dispersion of the anode root
or the increase in aerodynamic drag forces. In
contrast, Sundell et al.49 reported a decrease in
penetration with increasing current for high S steels
(Fig. 27), and given the balance between
various parameters affected by current it is perhaps
not surprising that there are some apparent incon-
sistencies in the experimental observations.
Lambert45 found that more consistent pene-
tration could be obtained for full penetration welds
(i.e. Wb/Wf ratios) with low and high S batches of
Inconel 800 by the combination of low currents and
low welding speeds.
Arc voltage
It can be seen from equation (2) that increased arc
voltage would lead to an increased heat flux
density, which, in turn, would lead to .higher
temperature gradients and consequently higher and
lower d/w values, respectively, for high and low S
steels.
Yamauchi53 observed voltage decreases of about
5% when using a high S steel, and Ishizaki et al.28
(2) confirmed this finding and suggested that alumin-
ium additions result in an increase in arc voltage.
in Okada and Nakamurall found that the geometry of
the electrode could affect the arc voltage, i.e. the
voltage obtained with a frustum electrode was
slightly less than that from a conical tippeq elec-
trode. Lambert45 has also studied the effect of
variations in arc voltage resulting from changes in
torch gas composition on penetration, i.e. Wb/Wf
ratios, for high and low S casts of Inconel 800. It
can be seen from Fig. 28 that appreciable changes
in voltage and hence input could be produced.
Arc length L
On the basis of published data, increases in the arc
length would have the following effects:
(i) increase the relative strength of the aerody-
namic drag force 74,75
(ii) widen the heat distribution (anode root)71,73
(iii) reduce the arc efficiency71,76 for runs carried
out at constant current
(iv) increase the arc voltage if the current was
maintained at a constant value.
Probably the most important· effect of increasing
the arc length is the increase produced in the
aerodynamic drag force and Matsunawa et al.75
have pointed out that this is the dominant force
acting on the weld pool at long arc lengths (e.g.
8 mm). This is corroborated by the experimental
work of Okada and Nakamura,!1 which showed
that the beneficial effects of sulphur on penetration
pecame less effective as the arc lengthincreased.
The effect of increasing arc length on penetration
that has been studied by Burgardt and Heiple 71 and by
Ishizaki et al., 12 the results being given in Figs. 29
and 30, respectively. These show that the d/w ratio
is reduced with increasing arc length, except in one
case,?1 where a slight increase was noted for a low S
steel. These data corroborate the proposat75 that
for high arc lengths, the aerodynamic drag force is
the dominant mechanism controlling heat flow in
the weld pool.
Electrode geometry
It would appear that the principal effects of
different electrode configurations are that (a) dif-
the ferences in the arc root area are produced and
(b) that the arc pressure (i.e. the aerodynamic drag
force) is altered.
Conical tipped electrodes (Fig. 31)
The main experimental observations are sum-
marised below.
1. The arc pressure (i.e. the aerodynamic drag
force) is at maximum for electrodes with e = 45°,72.-
and this has been attributed to the current density
being at a maximum for electrodes of this design.
2. The arc pressure increases slightly with
increasing electrode diameter.
3. The heat distribution (anode root) area

International Materials Reviews 1990 Vol. 35 NO.4

 202 Mills and Keene Factors affecting variable weld penetration

_ .. - Key(77) - - - Savage (78)

-+- Se doped(71) ........ Spiller(79)
o ---lI--- S doped(71) _.,.- Glickstein (80)
- Base metal(71)

o
ic
.9
ea;
c
<11
a..

30 60 90 120 150
Vertex angle e. deg.
31 Conical tipped electrode
32 Qualitative presentation of penetration as func-
tion of electrode vertex angle to show e
becomes larger with increasing (J (Ref.?3) and this relations reported in the literature
would cause reductions in the strengths of both the
Lorentz and Marangoni forces. For high S casts this
would produce a reduction in penetration, i.e. d/w Frustum and wedge shaped electrodes
ratios, but would result in improved penetration in This configuration is produced by filing away the
the case of the low S steels as a consequence of the apices of conical and pyramidal shaped electrodes
lower temperature gradients and reduced outward to create a flat surface, and they have the following
flow produced by the Marangoni force. characteristics compared with the conical tipped
The effect of increasing tip angle (J (i.e. blunter variant:
electrode) on the d/w ratio has been studied by (i) a more uniform current distribution is pro-
several investigators,71,77-80 and a qualitative duced across the weld pOOlll (Fig. 33) which
description of the results is given in Fig. 32. If the results in lower electromagnetic and thermo-
widening of the anode root is the principal conse- capillary forces
quence of increasing (J, then one would expect the (ii) the arc pressure (aerodynamic drag force) is
d/w ratio to decrease for high S steels and to show a much smaller (Fig. 34) and is inversely pro-
slight increase or decrease for low S steels, depend- portional to the cross-section of the flat
ing on the relative difference between the opposing surface of the electrode, which as Fig. 35
effects of a lower Lorentz force E and a lower shows results in reductions in the width of
thermo capillary force M( - ). It is difficult to the weld pool.
account for the maximum reported for the relation Thus frustum and wedge shaped electrodes are
between d/w and (J on the basis of this theory. particularly useful when welding low S steels, where
However, Hiraoka et al.72 have found that the the outward surface flow produced by the thermo-
current density on the cathode tip increases with capillary force M ( -) is reduced by the lower
increasing (J up to 45° and is a maximum at this temperature gradient. Furthermore Matsunawa et
angle. If it is assumed that the current density of al.75 have reported that increases in both the
the anode follows that of the cathode, the effects cathode and anode radii result in a slight widening
outlined in Table 3 would be produced and result in of the weld pool because of their effects on the
a maximum in the d/w ratio at 45° for high S steels. other three flow mechanisms (electromagnetic,
buoyancy, and aerodynamic drag forces).
Okada et al.12 have reported that the alignment
Table 3 Effect of electrode tip angle (} on d/w
ratio assuming anode current density is
maximum at 45°*
60
Change produced by increasing (J Welding current: 130A
Arc length : 2 mm
Effect
Electrode produced Effect
~E Conical tip with 45° in angle
E 40
tip Current on flow produced ~
angle, deg density J mechanisms on d/w ratio Steel i-
'iii
c
8 < 45 j M(+)j Increased High S <11
"0
Ej
c 20
M(-)i wi Low S ~ Frustum shaped tip
Ej dj :;
u
with 1.2mm in cut diam.

8> 45 M(+)J, Decreased High S

EJ,
o
M(-)J, wJ, Low S o 1
EJ, dJ, Radius.mm

*t increase; J, decrease; d depth; E electromagnetic force; J 33 Current density obtained with conical tipped
current density; M thermocapillary force; w width. and frustum shaped electrodes (Ref. 11)

International Materials Reviews 1990 Vol. 35 No.4

 Mills and Keene Factors affecting variable weld penetration 203

Electrode
\
\
\
lQ = 5 mm
\
\ a= 20 l miri'(Ar) High 5
,
.--
\
8 = 30·
\
\

~Th-W
y!:/( 3.2mm¢)
Welding
direction I
--H....
df mm

Low 5

.--
Welding
direction

WbIWf = 0.74 Wb/Wf = 0.8

36 Effect of different alignments of wedge shaped

electrode on weld penetration

o 0.5
Diameter of flat surface on electrode,
Cdt), mm
34 Arc pressure as function of diameter
surface Df of frustum electrode
of a wedge shaped electrode had a significant
influence on weld penetration, as shown in Fig. 36.
The results can be explained if it is assumed that
the temperature at the centre of the long side of the
anode root T1 is greater than that on the short side
T3, as shown in Fig. 37. Thus the temperature
gradients and the velocities produced by thermo-
capillary forces will be greater in the direction
1.0 1.5 2.0 between the long side and the edge of the pool than
that between the short side and the edge. The
magnitude of the velocities are indicated by the
length of the arrows in Fig. 38a-d. Thus, it would
of flat be predicted that the front face width would be
leas.t in the case of a and greatest for c, and the
Wb/Wf ratio would be in the hierarchy a>b>d>c,
which is in agreement with the results shown in
Fig. 36.
Inclination of electrode
Okada et al.12 have reported that inclination of the
electrode, as shown in Fig. 39, resulted in improved
penetration for both high and low S steels. This
may result from increased strength of the Lorentz
forces.

Welding speed
10 Increasing the welding speed tends to decrease the
Arc length: 2 mm
heat input (per unit length of weld) and hence
o Low 5 steel
6. High 5 steel
reduces the volume of the weld pool, but this
should not affect the weld geometry. 71 Burgardt
and Heiple 71 pointed out that at lower speeds both
150A the peak temperature and temperature gradient
would be higher and also predicted that this would
produce increases and decreases, respectively, in
(5 the d/w ratio for high and low S steels. This
0
a.
prediction was corroborated experimentally by
'0 Burgardt and Heiple71 (Fig. 40), but other investi-
Qj
a; gators have reported that increasing welding speed
E
0 6
0 /
"\ "\
/ /
"\
I
\
I

\
I
\
I

\
I
\
I

\
. I
\
I
I
\
I
I
\
I
5 / /
o 0.5 1 1.5 2 " " "
Cut diameter of frustum, mm
35 Relation between weld pool diameter and cut T, > T2> T3
(flat) diameter of frustum electrode in stationary
arcs 37 Suggested temperature contours on anode root

International Materials Reviews 1990 Vol. 35 No.4

204 Mills and Keene Factors affecting variable weld penetration

High S

....--
Welding
direction
0.5

0.4
(0) ( b) o
e Selenium
Sulphur doped zone
doped zone

0.2~ • •
Base metal

0.1
Low 5

o
~ 5 15 25
Welding Weld travel speed (S) em min-'
direction
40 Weld ratio d/w as function of welding speed for
(c) (d) 304 type stainless steel and 304 doped with
76 ppm S or 47 ppm Se (Ref. 71)
38 Strength of thermocapillary flow (denoted by
length of arrows) for different alignments of
wedge shaped electrode
energy would be expected to produce steeper
temperature gradients across the weld pool which
caused reductions in depth,81 width,28,81 and d/w would result in deeper penetration for high S casts
rati080 for both high and low S steels. and shallower penetration for low S casts. Thus the
Lambert45 determined the ratio Wb/Wf as a results shown in Fig. 41 would appear to support
function of welding speed v for Inconel 800 alloy the Heiple-Roper theory.
using a constant (current/welding speed) ratio and Torch gas
concluded that the penetration was more consistent Changes in the torch gas would appear to affect the
for high and low S casts when using low welding arc voltage (and hence the heat input), and also the
speeds (and low currents). For a given power input, size of the arc root.
high welding speeds would produce a lower volume Burgardt and Heiple 71found that additions of He
of liquid metal and thus a pool with a relatively to Ar torch gas resulted in an increase in heat input
shallow depth. In shallow pools it would be
expected that the strength of the Marangoni forces
would be intensified relative to those produced by 0.42
the other flow mechanisms. This could account for
the strong inward flows M( +) produced at high HS
welding speeds which are probably responsible for 0.38
humping.28
Probably the best parameter for expressing the MS
0.34
combined effects of welding speed S and current I is ~
the lineal energy, which represents the rate at u
which energy is supplied to a unit length of weld ';; 0.30
and which is defined as IV/S. Recent results on 316
stainless steel66 shown in Fig. 41 indicate that the
~ 0.26
d/w ratio increases with increasing lineal energy for <lJ
steels with high (HS) and medium (MS) sulphur ~
concentrations but shows no significant increase for 0.22
low sulphur (LS) casts. Increases in the lineal LS

0.18

0.14
600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
Lineal energy , J 5 m m-1

41 Weld ratio d/w for 316 stainless steels as

function of lineal energy (see text) for casts with
high (HG), medium (MO), and low (LS) sulphur
Welding direction contents; error bars represent standard
•• deviation of combined uncertainties associated
with weld to weld and section to section
39 Inclined electrode variations (Ref. 66)

International Materials Reviews 1990 Vol. 35 No.4

 Mills and Keene Factors affecting variable weld penetration 205

It is obvious that improvements in weld pene-

0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2 •
0.1
o arc root (current, torch gas, electrode geometry,
o 20 40 60 80
Ofo He in torch gas
42 Weld ratio d/w as function of helium content of
torch gas for 304 type stainless steel and 304
doped with 76 ppm 5 or 47 ppm Se (Ref. 71)
and a broadening of the arc,82-84although this may
not be the case for short arc lengths. 71 Oxygen and
nitrogen have also been found49 to increase the arc
voltage. Lambert45 used various torch gas mixtures:
Ar, Ar-5N2, Ar-0·lS02, Ar-5H2, and Ar-15He
(vol. - %and found that the arc voltage increased in
),
that order and that the arc became progressively
more constricted as the arc voltage increased.
The effect of additions to the torch gas on the
weld penetration have been studied by Burgardt
and Heiple71 (Fig. 42), and by Lambert45 (Fig. 28).
The results obtained in the former case are consis-
tent with the proposal that the enhanced heat input
caused increased temperature gradients and
thermo capillary flows [M( +) and M( - )], which
resulted in further divergence of the d/w ratios for
high and low S steels. However, this is not true of
the results for low S casts of Inconel 800 reported
by Lambert45 (Fig. 28), especially with Ar-5H2,
and this suggests that the constriction or dispersion
of the arc root by the torch gas is also an important
factor.
tration by alteration of the welding procedures can
Selenium only be successful if due heed is paid to the effect
doped zone
on the various fluid flow mechanisms operating in
the weld pool. If short arc lengths of about 2 mm
are employed, the aerodynamic drag force can
probably be ignored since thermo capillary forces
are usually dominant in the weld pool. Thus, it is
reasonable to consider first the effect of the welding
procedures on the Marangoni flow, which will be
different for high and low S steels. On the basis of
the published literature and the data given in
Base metal Tables 1 and 2, a set of recommended procedures is
outlined in Table 4. The major uncertainty at
present lies in the factors affecting the size of the
100
slag spots, etc.), and more reliable data on this
topic are urgently needed.
Effect of slag spots and surface films on weld
penetration
Several investigators have suggested that solid and
liquid slags or oxide films formed on the surface of
the weld pool could have an effect on the weld
penetration. These films could be formed from
inclusions floating to the surface or by the oxidation
of the weld pool surface. Several of the oxides
which could be formed have high melting points
and could exist as solids on the surface of the weld
pool, e.g. CaO 2873 K, Alz03 2323 K, Ce203
2573 K, CeS 2373 K, (Ce02)S 2223 K. The infor-
mation concerning the effect of slag spots or oxide
films on the weld penetration is summarised in
Table 5.
Lambert45,86 noted that the surface films formed
on welds of alloy 800 could be classified according
to the nature of the oxide formed: type A consisted
of an oxide film which covered the entire surface
except for a small area directly under the arc in
contrast to type B in which the surface film
contained thicker slag regions at the edge of the
pool. It was observed that although the penetration
associated with type B films was poor it was

Table 4 Recommended welding procedures to improve weld penetration and obtain more consistent weld
penetration for casts with varying S contents*
High S casts (S > 70 ppm) Low S casts (S < 50 ppm)

Changes in fluid Changes in welding procedures Changes in fluid Changes in welding

Objectives flow required required flow required procedures required

Improved weld High E Short arc length High E Short arc length
penetration High M(+) Pointed electrode Low M(-) Wedge electrode ~ to wd
Low A Reasonably high current Low A Optimum I (balance between high E
and low M(-)
Inclined electrode Inclined electrode
Slower welding speed Slower welding speed
Add He, H2, O2, or N2 to torch gas Add S02(Cb 7) to torch gas
More consistent weld High E Short arc length High E Short arc length
penetration for casts Low or medium M(+) Wedge electrode .1to wd Low M(-) Wedge electrode ~ to wd
with varying S content Low A Low A Medium or low current
Inclined electrode
Slower welding speed
Add S02 to torch gas

*A aerodynamic drag force; E electromagnetic force; I welding current; M thermocapillary force [(+) or (-) indicating the sign of dy/dn.
-l to wd perpendicular to welding direction.

International Materials Reviews 1990 Vol. 35 No.4

206 Mills and Keene Factors affecting variable weld penetration

Table 5 Effect of various additives on weld penetration

Additions to surface

Ref. Material S content, ppm Increasing d/w Little effect on d/w Decreasing d/w

59 316 120 CaO,* MgO,* CeO,* Fe304, TiN, Mn02, Ti02

Si02,* Mo03* A1203, TiO
58 304,316 160 Si02, Ti02 CaO
85 304L 20-130 Na2Si03
49 AISI8630 30-230 Ti02 (best)
Inconel718 FeS> (Ti02 + CaC03) > ZnO
> CrCb > KCI NaCI
Waspalloy FeS > (Ti02 + CaC03) KCI, NaCI
49 AISI8630 30-230 Ce-containing slags interfered with
pool flow and made anode spot unstablet

* Increased arc voltage.

t Decreased arc voltage.

superior to that associated with type A films. The
present authors suggest that type A corresponds to
a slag film and type B to a slag spot and this and
other evidence indicates that solid oxide films have
a different effect on weld penetration to that
produced by slag spots.
Surface films
Solid oxide films can be produced on the surface of
a weld pool by elements such as calcium, cerium,
and lanthanum, whose oxides have high melting
temperatures. These particular elements would also
react with sulphur and thus, providing there was a
sufficient amount of the gettering element present,
the levels of Sand 0 would be reduced. Con-
tinuous solid oxide films formed on the surface of
the weld pool would be expected to ~ecrease weld
penetration, since they substantially reduce the
velocity of the thermo capillary flow.61 Experi-
mental evidence45,49,86has confirmed that the weld
penetration is very poor in steels which contain
calcium and cerium where solid films are formed.
The situation is more complex for the case where
the surface of the weld pool is covered with a liquid
film since .thermo capillary flow will be present in
this thin layer but it would be expected that these
conditions would also reduce the velocity of the
surface flow in the metal since the viscosity of the
liquid slag is several orders of magnitude greater
than that of the metal.
Slag spots
An island of slag can result in the formation of an
'anode spot' and this can alter the arc character-
istics since these slag spots have been shown to
attract the arc.44 There are three possible expla-
nations:
(i) the slag island forming the anode spot
causes an increase in arc voltage which
results in an increase in heat input;4,49 a
decrease was reported for Ce-containing slag
films49
(ii) the slag spots produce either vapour with a
low ionisation potential44 or low electron
work functions86,87 and attract the arc,
which results in diffuse arcs for low S casts
and constricted arcs for high S casts, the
latter giving rise to higher Lorentz forces
and deeper penetration
International Materials Reviews 1990
(iii) slag spots are known to attract the arc, and
could affect the size of the anode root; a
constriction of the anode root area would
increase the current density and thus lead to
enhanced thermocapillary and Lorentz
forces.
Since slag spots affect the arc characteristics, it
follows that the direction of the surface flow in the
weld pool could be of vital importance as this
determines whether the slag remains in the vicinity
of the arc or is swept to the edge of the pool.
For a radially inward flow the anode spot would
remain near the centre of the weld pool and all of
the above mechanisms would predict deeper pene-
tration. However, for radially outward, surface flow
the slag would be swept to the edge of the pool and
thus the anode spot would be located at the
periphery of the pool. In the case of the first of the
explanations proposed above, the increased arc
voltage and heat input would result in: (a) higher
temperatures at the edge of the pool and thus a lower
temperature gradient together with a reduced
thermo capillary flow in a radially outward direction
and (b) a local increase in the heat input at the slag
spot. Thus an improved d/w ratio with increased
penetration under the slag spot might be expected.
However, in the second of the proposed mech-
anisms it would be expected that the anode spot
would concentrate the electromagnetic forces and
so improve penetration directly beneath the slag
spot. The results of the third mechanism would be
similar to those predicted by the first mechanism,
but the higher heat input at the edge of the pool
would be reinforced by enhanced Lorentz forces.
It should be noted that solid slag films would tend
to decrease penetration whereas the evidence sug-
gests that the formation of anode spots by the slag
islands usually tends to improve penetration. Slag
films contain high concentrations of refractory
oxides, e.g. CaO, Ce203, whereas slag spots are
usually mixed oxides containing large amounts of
Si02, Ah03, Cr203, and Ti02 and it is not known
whether their effect on the arc characteristics is
related to differences in chemical composition. The
mechanisms postulated above can account for
various reported observations as outlined below:
1. The d/w ratios decreased with increasing
oxygen contents, above 600 ppm oxygen (Fig. 21),
Vol. 35 NO.4

Heating 1348 (0.031% AI) [5]=130 ppm
Welding speed 30in min-1
1.0
0.8 Slag patches\
<::> <> ~
3 globular type slags were formed when the Si/Al
- 0.6 Weld
"3.0
direction
0.4
o from that of the inclusions present in the steel,
o 2 4 6
Distance,in
43 Effect of slag spots or patches on weld pene-
tration in 304 type stainless steel (Ref. 51):
1 in == 25·4 mm
which can be explained if an oxide layer is formed
on the surface of the weld.
2. Refractory deposits arising from the addition
of cerium to the steel resulted in an apparent
interference of the weld fool flow with the anode
spot becoming unstable.4
3. The d/w ratio increased markedly just below
slag spots formed by a steel with a sulphur content
of 130 ppm (Ref. 51) (Fig. 43) since the slag spot
would either increase the temperature gradient
(mechanism (i)), or increase the electromagnetic
forces (mechanism (ii)), or both (mechanism (iii)).
4. Na2Si03 additions to the surface of steel with
a sulphur content of 40 ppm produced a marked
improvement in penetration,85 as it would be
expected that the liquid slag layer would suppress
the outward flow in the pool caused by thermocapil-
lary forces thus the improvement must result from
an increase in the electromagnetic forces, the heat
input, or a more beneficial thermo capillary flow. *
Factors affecting formation of slags and
surface films
Slag spots and oxide films can be formed on the
weld pool surface by two mechanisms: (a) the
oxidation of the metal and (b) the concentration of
inclusions on the surface assisted by the fluid flows
developed in the weld pool. There is little infor-
mation available concerning the formation of slags
or oxide films on the surface, but some recent
studies have indicated that the following factors are
important.
Appearance of slag Pollard51 classified slags into
two categories based on their appearance:
(i) 'globular' types were formed by slags with
high Si02 contents and slags formed by the
(CaO- Ti02-Ah03) systems; furthermore, it
was found that this type of slag had little
effect on weld penetration
* This could be caused by the Na2Si03 producing either a more
dispersed heat source which would sequentially decrease the
temperature gradient and the outward thermocapillary flow or a
change in the direction of the thermocapillary flow.
Mills and Keene Factors affecting variable weld penetration 207
(ii) 'patch' types were formed by slags with high
Ah03 contents and those from MnO-Cr203
and CaO-Ti02 systems; this type of slag
produced variable penetration (Fig. 43).
Relationship between metal and slag compo-
sitions For 304 type steels, Pollard noted that
ratio in the metal was greater than 50, and that
patch type slags occurred when this ratio was less
• than 50. The major constituent of this slag was
Ah03 when the aluminium concentration exceeded
100 ppm.
Relationship between inclusions and slag compo-
sitions The slag composition was found51 to differ
8 10
these differences can be ascribed to:
(i) the effect of small inclusion particles which
were not taken into account in the study and
which may differ in composition from the
larger particles and hence modify the overall
inclusion composition51
(ii) the higher temperature in the weld pool
(>2300 K) compared with steelmaking tem-
peratures (1850 K) which would favour the
formation of more stable oxides (CaO,
Ah03, Ti02, and Si02) at the expense of
the less stable oxides (MnO, Cr203)
(iii) surface films could combine with the inclu-
sions,51 this would be particularly important
where surface films of CaO or Ce203 were
formed;23,49 surface films of this type have
been observed to occur in levitated
drops17,88of steels containing traces of these
elements and in welds of Ce-containing
steels49
(iv) oxidation of the weld surface by reaction
with the oxygen in the shield gas as observed
by: (a) Yamauchi, 53 who showed that the
oxygen content in zirconium welds could be
reduced by 50/0 by using an Ar-filled box to
provide extra shielding from oxygen, and by
the use of lower travel speeds, and (b) Pol-
lard,51 who showed that Ah03 is formed on
the upper and lower surfaces of the weld.
Effect of surface active elements on slag formation
Yamauchi53 observed that slag formation was
increased with (a) increases in silicon, manganese
and aluminium and (b) reduced sulphur levels. It
was proposed that the presence of sulphur in the
surface sites severely restricted the formation of
[I] [IT] [m]
Time
44 Diagram showing various stages in formation of
slag spots in low S steel; stage I shows slag
particles being swept to rear of weld pool,
stages /I and /II show gradual congregation of
these particles until resulting slag spot reaches
a critical size, whereupon it is deposited on
solidified weld and weld pool reverts to stage I
International Materials Reviews 1990 Vol. 35 No.4
208 Mills and Keene Factors affecting variable weld penetration

Table 6 Summarised details of various mathematical models for predicting weld profile

Description of model (a) Forces

Ref. Welding type Assumptions made (b) studied Novel features Principal findings

91 TIG stationary (a) 2D - finite difference - M(-)E,B First model to consider Surface tension forces
1983 arc numerical solution (grid combined convection, dominant M( -), > E > 8
8 x 10) M,E,B Double flow cell produced
(b) assumes weld pool shape and stagnation points within
pool
Surface velocities of up to
1 m S-1

92 TIG moving (a) 2D - time dependent M(-),M(+), E,B Covers moving arc Normal - when M( +) or
1984 arc unsteady behaviour Two welding producers M( -)=f 8 heat transfer
Finer grid (18 x 20) Normal - diffuse current and dominated by fluid flow not
(b) does not assume weld pool E,B heat flow distribution conduction
shape Cathode spot - distribution Cathode spot - must
sharply focused consider fluid flow - M( +)
or M( -) frequently
dominant
93 Laser (a) 2D transient model M(-),B At higher surface velocities
1984 (b) pool surface flat a counterrotating vortex
Laser beam of rectangular produced
uniform intensity Surface tension driven flow
an important factor
70 Laser (a)2D transient model M(-),B Considers Ni for which In Ni heat transfer can be
1985 (b) assumes weld pool shape thermal conductivity high described by conduction
(c) small weld pool radius mode solution
Counterflow predicted
under vaporisation zone in
vicinity of weld axis for
steel
94 TIG stationary (a) 2D - steady state model for M(-),E,B Simultaneous solution of M(-) or M(+) in many
1985 arc AI alloy temperature and velocity cases dominant. 2 loops -
(b) weld pool shape not assumed fields' upper dominated by M( -)
lower by E - if upper loop
very strong it would retard
heat transfer to weld root
95 Electron beam (a) 2D M(-) Studied flow of metal round Surface velocities a function
1985 (b) assumes cavity maintained the cavity - predicted of the angular position, and
by vapour pressure and variations in surface can be of the order of tens
metal flow due to M( -) temperature and thickness of cm S-1

96 TIG stationary (a) 2D stationary model M(-),M(+),E,B Counter eddy below vortex
1985 arc (b) assumed weld pool shape produced by M(-) or M(+)

97 TIG stationary (a) 2D stationary model M(-),M(+),E,B Fine grid (35 x 35) and M(+) and M(-»E
1986 arc (b) weld pool shape assumed increased to (70 x 70) when Only small variations in T
required' when I increased from 100
to 200 A

98 TIG moving arc, (b) 2D transient model grid M(-),M(+),E,B, Allowance made for Shows change in weld pool
1986 spot welds (18 x 20) conduction conduction and convection shape with time
Considered normal and Differences in weld pool
cathode spot modes shape as result of
differences in direction of
M(+) or M(-)
Computed dendrite arm
spacing in agreement with
experiment

oxides. Yamauchi also found that oxidation of the
pool surface could be reduced by decreasing the arc
pressure (with the aid of hollow electrodes) and by
using low welding speeds. He proposed that the
slag spots were formed in the three steps shown in
Fig. 44; these observations were made on the low S
steel which would have had a radially outward flow.
The wetting characteristics of the slag on the steel
surface may determine whether a slag formed a
globular or patch type. However, it also is possible
that these differences in appearance may be related
to the physical state of the slag, i.e. whether the
slag is liquid (globular) or partially solid (patch
type).
International Materials Reviews 1990
Fluid flow and temperatures in
weld pools
Mathematical models of fluid flow in
weld pools
It is generally acknowledged that convection in a
weld pool can radically alter the predicted heat
transfer pattern calculated on the basis of pure
conduction. In many instances the fluid flow has the
dominant role in controlling important weld factors
such as pool shape, variable penetration at the join,
ripple formation, weld porosity, metal homo-
geneity, and structure (i.e. mixing in the pool). To
minimise weld defects arising from differences in
Vol. 35 NO.4
 Mills and Keene Factors affecting variable weld penetration 209

Table 6 cont.

Description of model (a) Forces

Ref. Welding type Assumptions made (b) studied Novel features Principal findings

61 Laser (a) 2D - rectangular cross- M(-),M(+),8 Determined the effect of skin Surface films would
1986 section pool on fluid flow severely reduce M( +) and
M(-) flows
46 TIG moving arc (a) 3D transient model M(-),M(+),8,E 3D model Surface tension forces
1986 (b) assumed thickness of dominant M( + ),M( - ȣ>8
workpiece was finite Porosity would be much
more pronounced with
M(-) than M(+)
99,100 Laser M(+),M(-),8 Some account taken of Weld pool T up to 3473 K
1986 enhanced mass/heat transport velocities of up to 0·3 m S-1
because of turbulence, by use predicted
of 'effective viscosity' model Effect of M verified by
experiment
101 TIG stationary 2D - variable spaced grid M(+),M(-),E,8,A First model to consider At long arc lengths A is
1987 arc finest near heat source aerodynamic drag force dominant
Suggested M(+),M(-)
weaker because of diffuse
heat source at long arc
lengths leading to reduced
temperature gradient
102 TIG stationary (a) stationary axisymmetric heat M(-),M(=0),8,E 3D model which includes Variation in M of crucial
1987 arc source on semi-infinite block effect of additional magnetic significance in TIG weld
of metal field normal to the surface penetration
(b) weld pool shape not assumed Addition magnetic field
a priori helps produce a more
uniform d/w
103 Laser (a) limiting case 3D pool where M(-),8 Approximation of 3D weld Convection currents distort
1987 (stationary) travel speed slow relative pool temperature contours giving
Spot weld to fluid velocities non-uniform cooling along
solid/liquid interface
Increase in Marangoni no.
decreases d/w
104 TIG moving (a) 3D - transient model M(-),E,8 Surface can be deformed M(-) dominates E
1988 arc Applied to microgravity Surface deformation can
condition retard M(-)
Predicts surface distortion in
line with observations
105 MIG (a) transient M(+),M(-),E,8 Account for thermal energy MIG exhibits 3 x faster weld
1988 TIG thermal energy exchange h due to metal spray penetration than TIG
exchange in arc (h = 0 for TIG) Surface properties have
little influence on MIG, major
factor being the transfer of
spray filler metal in arc
106 Laser (a) 2D transient model M(+),M(-),8 Allows for heat losses by M is dominant
1989 evaporation Weld profile near surface is
dependent on power
107 TIG (a) 2D transient M(+)M(-),B Allows for depression of free Depression of free surface
1989 (b) Lorentz forces neglected surface causes changes in
maximum velocity of <10%
Increased penetration DZ
distance by which free
surface is depressed

convective flow, it is necessary fully to comprehend drag forces. Basic assumptions generally adopted to
the effects that changes in system parameters will develop mathematical models of the fluid are:
have on the weld pool. In view of the inherently (i) the fluid is incompressible and exhibits
unfavourable environmental conditions prevailing Newtonian behaviour
at the weld zone, it is extremely difficult to carry (ii) properties of the fluid are invariant, with the
out reliable experimental measurements, and in exception of surface tension, which is
order to provide a better understanding of weld assumed to vary linearly with temperature
pool behaviour it has been necessary to develop (iii) the surface of the pool is planar
mathematical models of the systems. (iv) flow in the pool is laminar i.e. adjacent
In GTA/TIG welding, the four principal layers do not mix except on a molecular
parameters controlling natural convection in the scale.
pool are (a) surface tension forces, (2) buoyancy The justification for the last assumption is that the
forces, (3) Lorentz forces, and (4) aerodynamic pool dimensions are small and very high fluid
International Materials Reviews 1990 Vol. 35 No.4
210 Mills and Keene Factors affecting variable weld penetration

velocities would be predicted only in the surface

layers of the fluid, so that the effective Reynolds
number for the system would be small. However,
work on liquid bridges,89,90 for which the .tem-
perature gradients are considerably lower (tYPIcally
50 K em -1) than those found in a weld pool (o~ the
(0)
o
I {\\\
TIG
arc

order of 80G-1000 K em-I), has conclusIvely ~

~ Steel ~
demonstrated that an oscillatory flow pattern can be
easily achieved. In addition, visual observation of a 45 Comparison of penetration profiles obtained
weld pool surface (particularly with a material with a TIG arc welding with b that obtained in
giving good weld penetration) shows that the simulation experiment using soldering iron and
surface is extremely agitated. Consequently, the paraffin (Ref. 8)
assumption 'of simple laminar flow in a weld pool
may not be valid and in reality the system could be
in an oscillatory or a turbulent regime. exceeded36 and that this instability can lead to a
Mathematical analysis of the weld pool behaviour rotational motion (spin) in the pool.
is generally carried out using the finite differ~nce
technique to solve the relevant equatIons Physical modelling of fluid flows in weld pools
numerically (continuity equation; generalised
Navier-Stokes equation; energy equation) when the Physical modelling has been used to demonstrate
the existence of the fluid mechanisms and to verify
appropriate boundary conditions are applied. In
recent years, a number of models of the weld pool the predicted circulation patterns and velocities
calculated for the various fluid flow mechanisms.
have been produced to predict weld pool sh~pe,
fluid flow, and temperature patterns under vanous Marangoni flow
conditions and an outline of the key features of Ishizaki8 was the first to postulate the influence of
each mod~l is given in Table 6. Further details are surface tension forces on weld pool shape and he
given elsewhere. 10 . demonstrated the effect in an experiment in which
All the mathematical models based on convectIve the heat source was simulated by a soldering iron
flow in a TIG weld pool effectively come to the and the weld metal by paraffin (Fig. 45). The
same conclusion, in that, depending on the magni- thermo capillary forces produced radially outward
tudes of dy/dT and dT/dx, the thermo capillary flow flow and the circulation loops shown were devel-
in the fluid could be the major factor controlling oped; it was noted the shape of the pool was similar
weld pool velocities and shapes, and it follows t~at, to that obtained in TIG welding experiments.
provided the models are correct, surface tenSIon In order to demonstrate that surface tension
forces must always be taken into account when forces and not buoyancy were responsible for these
assessing the weldability of materials. The flows, Anderson108 carried out the experiments
buoyancy forces in the pool were shown to be
depicted in Fig. 46 in which a drop of organic liquid
relatively unimportant. As noted, some reser-
in contact with the cold surface was locally heated
vations may be expressed with respect t.o the by an electric filament. The pattern of convective
validity of assuming simple laminar. flow In ~he flow in the fluid was evinced by the movement of
melt, but predicted trends based on thIS assumptIon
graphite particles. Independence of the flo.w from
agree reasonably well with experimen~al obser- gravity could be demonstrated by rotatIng the
vations. Any models based on an OSCIllatory or
system through 90 and 180 0 0
•
turbulent flow regime would, of necessity, be
Ishizaki et al.109 demo1).strated the possibility of
extremely complex. Most of the mathematical
radially inward and outward surface flows produced
models also assumed a horizontal flat surface to the
by Marangoni forces using the ice experiment
pool and, consequently, none. o~ these .wo~ld shown in Fig. 47. Ethyl ether dissolves in water and
predict the substantial surface. agItatIon an~ npplIng
lowers the surface tension; when an air stream
often observed with matenals possessIng good
containing ethyl ether was directed on to the
weldability, although the model recently developed
surface of the water, dissolution of the ether in the
by Zacharia et al.104 does appear to be capable of
centre of the pool caused a decrease of surface
predicting surface deformation effects in these
tension and an outward flow was observed. By
systems. Ferriss and WOOlf61 developed the only
contrast when air was directed on to the surface of
model to study the influence of a surface film on the
water saturated with ethyl alcohol the surface
thermocapillary flow in the pool, but this is limited
in its applicability by the fact that no Lorentz forces
were considered and the formulation applies to a
2-dimensional, rectangular section pool.
In addition to the fluid flow developed in the
weld pool it has been observed that the surface of
the weld pool develops a swirling motion. Analyti-
cal solutions of the electromagnetically induced
flow have shown that radially outward flows are
stable37 whereas radially inward flows can result in 46 Effect of gravitational field on fluid flow in a
instability when a certain critical current is droplet (Ref. 108)

International Materials Reviews 1990 Vol. 35 No.4

 Mills and Keene Factors affecting variable weld penetration 211

Ni-Cr wire 45
Air Current source ••E Aqueous n-nonanol
:i
E
)c>_

c
0
0(j} 40
c
2
OJ
u
.E
:s
(j)

35
0 10 30 40 50 60 70 80
Tmin
(a) Temperature (T),oe

47 Effect of diethyl ether on direction of motion in

weld pool simulation (Ref. 109)

tension at the centre increased because of local

depletion of alcohol and produced an inward flow, ~Heat source
this is actually a demonstration of diffusocapillary
convection, i.e. one caused by differences in the
concentration of surfactants.
KeenellO has carried out demonstrations of (b)
: )T ( : ) I T<Tmin

thermo capillary flow in the experiments simulating

weld pool conditions (Fig. 48) pertaining to laser
welding i.e. no Lorentz forces. Pure water has a
negative dy/dT coefficient and produced an outward ~ Heat source
surface flow. The circulation patterns were obser-
ved (Fig. 48b) using thermochromic crystals and the
surface velocities monitored by alumina particles (c) Ie • )T( : ) I T>T
min
floating on the surface. It is difficult to find an
organic analogue for high S steels (i.e. a positive 49 Systems with positive dy/dT: a surface tension
dy/dT coefficient) but aqueous solutions of some of of aqueous n-nonanol as function of tem-
the higher monohydric alcohols exhibit a minimum perature, b fluid flow in initial phase where
dy/dT is negative, and c flow in secondary phase
in the y- T relationship, as shown in Fig. 49a.When
where T> Tmin, i.e. positive dy/dT (Ref. 110)
the soldering iron was switched on, an outward
movement was initially produced but when the
surface temperature exceeded Tmin the direction of temperature gradient acting across a shallow layer
convective flow was reversed (Fig. 49b and c). This of liquid.
provides clear proof of the existence and strength of
capillary convection and it should be noted that it Electromagnetic (Lorentz) forces
will always be an important factor when there is a Matsunawa et al.75 used the apparatus shown in
Fig. 50 to determine the Lorentz forces formed in
Woods metal when currents of 100 A were passed

fl.--
U Heat source
(soldering iron)
into the electrode located O·5 mm below the surface

11':~~~=;E:~~=~~=d Electrode
(a) "'GlaSS cell filled

U with fluid

Heat source
Thermocouple

1
,t}>c,"
~;.·.·······ii'.i .• U! •••~.•r·iLT ~q~~~U~a~~i~i:~sion
Sample
(Wood's metal)

(b) Flow pattern I6

48 Diagrams of a apparatus used to simulate fluid 50 Diagram of simulation experiment to determine
flow in weld pool and b fluid flow developed in Lorentz forces generated in Woods metal
liquids with negative dy/dT (Ref. 110) (Ref. 75)

International Materials Reviews 1990 Vol. 35 No.4

212 Mills and Keene Factors affecting variable weld penetration
Electrode
Pitot tube
(a)
a hem i-spherical pool; b cylindrical pool
51 Diagrams of experiments to simulate arc pressure produced by Lorentz forces in mercury (Ref. 109)
of the metal. The weld profile was determined
experimentally and compared with the calculated
weld pool shapes; these were found to be in
reasonable agreement. Ishizaki et al.109 used two
different types of apparatus (Fig. 51) to measure
the pressure produced by electromagnetic forces in
mercury.
Aerodynam ic drag forces
The aerodynamic drag forces produced by the
movement of the plasma over the surface of the
weld pool were simulated (Fig. 52) by directing a
jet of air, supplied at constant pressure and flow
rate, on to the surface of paraffin.75 The flow
patterns in the plasma were revealed by smoke
produced by a joss stick and the velocity distri-
bution and stream lines in the ·paraffinwere
followed by observation of the motion of alu-
minium particles using video recordings coupled
with 'light cut techniques' which provided
essentially 2-dimensional observations in the verti-
cal plane.
Experimental measurements and observations
Visual observations of fluid flow in weld pools
Owing to the inherent opacity of liquid metals, it is
virtually impossible to observe directly the .fluid
Inflow of
air
~ et al.27 studied the surface flow of weld pools in
Glass
~Liquid
~Stainless
-----
52 Diagram ot experiment used to simulate
dynamic drag force (Ref. 75)
International Materials Reviews 1990
I Manometer
I Micro
/ comparator
I
Water
I
Container
I Mercury
I Insulator
I Electrode
I
Water
I
Cathode I
Mild steel I
(b)
flow pattern within the bulk of a weld pool.
However, if thermocapillary flow exists across the
surface of a weld pool, the direction of movement
of any particles on the surface will be governed by
the sign of the surface tension temperature coeffi-
cient dy/dT and their velocity will depend on the
temperature gradient dT/dx across the surface ..
Although the intensity of light emanating from a
welding arc is very high, it is possible to view the
surface of a weld pool by either cine or video
techniques and thus observe any surface motion.
Sundell et al.49 carried out experiments using a high
speed video system (--1000 frame S-l) by introduc-
ing Ah03 particles on to the surface of stainless
steel weld pools. The results obtained were consis-
tent with the flows predicted by thermo capillary
forces, i.e. particles were pushed to the edge of the
pool with low sulphur melts and swept to the centre
of the pool with high S melts. In the latter instance,
the inward radial velocities were estimated to be of
the order of 1 m s-\ which is in accord with the
velocities predicted by mathematical models Heiple
et al. 52 conducted a similar series of experiments on
21Cr-6Ni-9Mn stainless steel, which has been doped
with iron sulphide. The motions of 17 discrete
particles were monitored by cine photography, and
in all instances, the particles moved towards the
heat source at the centre of the pool. The average
velocity of the particles was estimated to be 0·94 m
s-l, which is in very good agreement with the
experimental value found by Sundell et al.49 Okada
mild steel under different welding conditions. Alu-
tube
mina particles were used to reveal the flow at the
surface and it was noted that with a short arc length
(2 mm) the particles on the surface of sulphur
doped mild steel tended to congregate along a circle
situated approximately midway between the arc
point and the periphery of the pool. Okada et al.
paraffin suggested that this circle marked the collision point
column between the outward acting forces caused by the
\
arc plasma and the inward acting forces resulting
aero- from the surface tension and electromagnetism,
although, as noted in the section 'Appearance of
Vol. 35 No.4
 Mills and Keene
slag' above, the outward acting forces could be a
result, at least in part, of thermo capillary forces. It
could also be due to the maximum in the surface
tension-temperature relationship, i.e. To in Fig. 6c.
When the arc length was increased to 8 mm Okada
et ale found that the alumina particles tended to
collect along the periphery of the pool and this
difference in behaviour was ascribed to the domi-
nance of the aerodynamic forces under these
particular welding conditions. Surface tension
forces would probably be significantly less because
of the reduced temperature gradient dT/dx pro-
duced across the pool surface in this case. Brima-
combe and Weinberg29 observed that when an
oxygen jet was directed on to the surface of liquid
tin or copper, oxide particles moved at high velocity
across the surface and they showed that the driving
force for the particle motion was principally a result
of surface tension gradients. In this instance, the
gradient was produced by local differences in
surfactant concentration rather than temperature
differences. From cine photographs the particle
velocities were estimated to be 0·8-1·5 m S-1 on tin
and 0·5-1 m S-1 on copper.
Indirect observation of the fluid flow within a
weld pool has been reported by Sundell et al.49
Platinum wire (0·5 mm dia.) was inserted along the
weld centre line of high S stainless steel before
welding. Incomplete penetration of the steel was
deliberately achieved. When the solidified weld was
sectioned and etched, streamlines of platinum were
revealed along the solidification front which were
consistent with the predicted flow present in a
material with a positive temperature coefficient of
surface tension. However, this is not conclusive
evidence that the flow arises solely from surface
tension effects, since mathematical models of the
arc weld pool show that convective flow resulting
from Lorentz forces would act in a similar manner.
Better confirmation of thermo capillary effects
would have been produced if a laser welding
technique (i.e. no Lorentz forces present) had been
adopted.
Observations of the weld pool indicate that the
pool frequently develops a rotational, swirling
motion. Okada et al.ll1 considered the effects of
this rotational force on the meridional fluid flow
resulting from the thermo capillary forces, etc., and
concluded that they produced a pressure gradient
which effectively reduced the intensity of the
radially inward (meridional) fluid flow.
Measurements of temperatures in weld pools
The temperature profile across a GTA weld pool
will depend on the balance between (a) arc charac-
teristics and welding speed (i.e. heat flux input) and
(b) properties of the material and the environment
(rate at which heat is removed). Since surface
tension is a function of temperature, the strength of
thermo capillary flow is governed by the magnitude
of dT/dx, the peak temperature at the centre of the
pool surface could have a significant effect of fluid
flow in the melt. Practical measurements of GTA
weld pool temperatures are difficult, since the high
light intensity precludes direct observation by
Factors affecting variable weld penetration 213
optical pyrometer, and introduction of thermo-
couples in the melt could interfere with the normal
fluid flow pattern and thus disturb the temperature
profile. Sundell et al.24 monitored the temperature
in spot welds of 304 stainless steel using intrinsic
W/W-Re thermocouples. It was found that the
peak temperature obtained with a low S steel was
--250 K lower than that recorded when the steel
was doped with FeS2, which suggests that the
direction of thermo capillary flow may affect the
peak temperature. With the base material it was
noted that over the duration of the weld, a smooth
temperature trace was recorded, while an oscillat-
ory trace was obtained with the doped material
(Fig. 53). This difference in thermocouple response
could be repeated consistently. As noted in the
section 'Surface rippling' above, materials having
good weld penetration properties are often charac-
terised by a very agitated weld pool surface and
ripple formation on the solidified weld, and the
oscillatory temperature profile is likely to be related
to these surface effects. It is pertinent to note that
during studies of single crystal growth by liquid
bridge techniques, oscillatory temperature readings
were observed,71,89,90 which were related to the·
thermo capillary flow at the surface of the melt.
Sundell et al.49 computed weld pool temperatures
for various surface flow velocities and found a
significant effect in that, as the surface velocity
decreased from 1 to 0·05 m s-1, the computed peak
temperature increased from 2000 to 2700 K. Both
computed and experimental data indicated that the
weld pool temperature was not very sensitive to arc
current, e.g. for one weld test the change in
observed peak temperature was only 400 K when
the arc current was doubled (from 150 to 300 A).
Burgardt and Heiple 71 observed that in the case of
high d/w welds, Ah03 particles on the surface were
obviously molten near the centre of the pool (i.e.
the temperature was ~2320 K, assuming no low
melting point slag had been formed). Various
computer models91,96,101of weld pools predict that
the temperature at the centre of the surface would
be relatively higher with fluids which have positive
temperature coefficients for the surface tension.
2000 Spot-weld 304 stainless steel
200 A
1500
~:J
"§ 1000
<lJ
Q.
E
<lJ
I-
500 Steel doped with FeS2
o 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36
Time,s
53 Temperature-time curves for welds of doped
and undoped steels (Ref. 24)
International Materials Reviews 1990 Vol. 35 NO.4
214 Mills and Keene Factors affecting variable
However, data given by Giedt et al.112 are not
consistent with this general pattern. GTA welding
tests were conducted on types 303S and 304
stainless steels, and the peak weld pool surface
temperatures were calculated from extrapolation of
pyrometer responses after the arc had been
extinguished. Weld penetration for the 303S steel
was almost twice that obtained with the 304 steel
and the respective peak temperatures were found to
be 2020 and 2270 K, i.e. in this instance the shallow
pool exhibited the higher peak temperature.
In recent work by Kraus,113 the peak surface
temperatures of GTA welds on type 304 stainless
steel (150 ppm S) were measured using an 'optical
spectral radiometric/laser reflectance' method. A
range of welding conditions (weld power, welding
speed) was used and the measured peak tem-
peratures varied from 2000 to 2800 K. One factor
noted by Kraus was that weld pool temperature
profiles were never exactly alike, but varied dynam-
ically about some mean value. Consequently, the
supposition of a quasisteady state in a weld pool
would be unrealistic and this could have important
implications since this condition is often an a priori
assumption in the formulation of mathematical
models of the weld pool.
Conclusions
1. In steels variable weld penetration is caused
by differences in the direction of thermocapillary
(Marangoni) flow; casts with negative temperature
coefficients of surface tension dy/dT produce an
outward flow in the weld pool and consequently
poor penetration whereas a positive coefficient
gives rise to inward flow and deep penetration (i.e.
the Heiple-Roper theory is verified).
2. The concentration of certain surfactants, e.g.
S (or 0 or Se), is critical in determining whether
dy/dT is positive or negative, (>70 ppm S, dy/dT is
positive, <50 ppm S, dy/dT is negative).
3. When considering surfactant levels, the
important factor is the soluble sulphur (or 0 or Se)
concentration and not total sulphur, since combined
sulphur in the form of inclusions has little effect on
the Marangoni flow.
4. Elements such as Ca, La, and Ce can have a
deleterious affect on weld penetration since they
(a) could reduce the soluble S or 0 contents to
very low levels and (b) couldfurm asolid, refrac-
tory, oxide, or oxysulphide film, which can suppress
the Marangoni flow.
5. The formation of slag spots would appear to
enhance penetration when the flow is inward (i.e. a
high S cast) since there is a tendency to concentrate
the arc root and thereby increase both the heat flux
and current densities.
6. Radially outward flows produce placid weld
pools, whereas radially inward flows create tur-
bulent, spinning weld pools which result in a
coarsely rippled weld surface.
7. Other welding problems, namely, weld por-
osity and arc wander are also associated with
radially outward surface flows.
8. Humping and undercutting are prevalent in
International Materials Reviews 1990 Vol. 35
weld penetration
high S steels when welded at high speeds and it is
suggested that this is caused by the very strong
inward flows which are produced under these
conditions.
9. Mathematical modelling of the fluid flow in
the weld pool has established that in TIG welding
there are four convective forces, i.e. thermocapil-
lary (Marangoni) M; electromagnetic (Lorentz) E;
buoyancy B; and aerodynamic drag A forces; under
normal conditions M>E>A>B.
10. Although variable weld penetration can be
explained in terms of Marangoni convection, in
order to provide explanations of some observations
or to take remedial action, it is necessary to
consider all four flow mechanisms.
11. In order to obtain improved weld penetration
by changes in welding procedures it is necessary to
use different procedures for high and low S casts:
12. The largest uncertainty at present lies in the
quantification of the various factors affecting the
size of the anode root, i.e. size of the cathode spot,
arc length, torch gas composition, slag spots, etc.
Further information would be useful in determining
the necessary changes in welding parameters
required to obtain better penetration.
Recommendations
1. To ensure that good weld penetration is
achieved the sulphur content of the steel should be
greater than 80 ppm.
2. Where possible the concentration of reactive
elements such as calcium, cerium, and lanthanum
should not exceed 15 ppm to avoid desulphurisation
of the weld rnetal and the formation of solid oxide
or oxysulphide films on the surface of the weld
pool.
3. It is recommended that more information
should be obtained on the effect of various welding
parameters on the size of the anode root since this
affects the currents and heat flux densities and
hence the strengths of the Lorentz and Marangoni
forces.
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge the valuable discussions
held with Dr J. A. Lambert, CEGB, Marchwood
Engineering Laboratory, and J. F. Lancaster, IIW
Study Group 212, and o. Cadman, GEC Turbine
Generators, Rugby, who also supplied unpublished
information.
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International Materials Reviews 1990 Vol. 35 NO.4