SAE TECHNICAL

PAPER SERIES 961103

NOx Emissions and Efficiency of

Hydrogen, Natural Gas, and
Hydrogen/Natural Gas Blended Fuels

Robert L. Hoekstra
University of Central Florida

Peter Van Blarigan

Sandia National Labs.

Neal Mulligan
Florida Solar Energy Center

The Engineering Society International Spring Fuels

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NOx Emissions and Efficiency of
Hydrogen, Natural Gas, and
Hydrogen/Natural Gas Blended Fuels
ABSTRACT
Engine dynamometer testing of homogeneous charge,
spark ignition lean burn engines fueled by natural gas,
hydrogen/natural gas blends and neat hydrogen was
conducted to determine if NOx emissions from blended
fuel operation can be reduced below those generated
from natural gas operation, approaching those due to a
100% hydrogen fueled engine. The preliminary tests were
conducted at the University of Central Florida/Florida
Solar Energy Center on an eight cylinder automotive
engine. The results indicate that the hydrogen/natural gas
fuel has the potential of meeting highly restrictive NOx
levels. Sandia National Laboratories conducted follow-on,
comparative tests using a single cylinder research engine.
The Sandia results indicate that the proposed CARB
EZEV standard for NOx can be met without exhaust gas
aftertreatment using a 30% hydrogen (by volume) / 70%
natural gas blend fuel in a constant speed/power, hybrid
vehicle application which achieves 60 MPG gasoline
equivalent efficiency.
INTRODUCTION
In response to the Zero Emission Vehicle (ZEV) standard,
established by the California Air Resources Board
(CARB), automotive companies began significant
programs to develop electric vehicles which would meet
the standard. In addition the automotive companies
requested a new standard be established which
recognizes the emissions created in generating the
electricity to charge the batteries of ZEV’s. CARB has now
proposed [1] an Equivalent Zero Emission Vehicle (EZEV)
standard which recognizes the emissions of nitrogen
oxides and reactive organic gases (nonmethane organic
gases) in the California South Coast Air Basin due to the
charging of battery powered electric vehicles. This
proposed standard limits these emissions as well as
carbon monoxide and particulate matter to 10% of the
1997 ultralow-emission vehicle (ULEV) requirements.
With the development of the proposed EZEV
standard interest in lean burn spark ignition engines
fueled on hydrogen has increased. It has been
hypothesized that a hybrid vehicle automotive engine
operating on neat hydrogen at low equivalence ratio could
meet all of the emissions limits established by EZEV
1
961103
Robert L. Hoekstra
University of Central Florida
Peter Van Blarigan
Sandia National Labs.
Neal Mulligan
Florida Solar Energy Center
without exhaust gas aftertreatment and that mixtures of
hydrogen and natural gas could meet the ULEV NOx
requirements with lean burn operation, although
aftertreatment may be required to satisfy, the other
regulated emissions. Mixtures of hydrogen and natural
gas have come to be known as hythane® (a trademark of
Hydrogen Consultants, Inc.) in associated literature [2].
The more general term hydrogen-enriched compressed
natural gas (HCNG) will be used throughout this report for
hydrogen/natural gas mixtures.
To investigate the hypothesis regarding the HCNG
fuels a test program was undertaken at the University of
Central Florida/Florida Solar Energy Center (UCF/FSEC)
exploring the potential of hydrogen to extend the lean burn
limit of CNG in a standard design multi-cylinder
automotive engine to the point where NOx emissions are
drastically curtailed, below the ULEV standard and
potentially below the EZEV standard without exhaust gas
aftertreatment [3]. In part the motivation for exploring
mixtures of hydrogen and CNG rather than pure hydrogen
were the superior energy storage density of hydrogen/
natural gas blends and the Yet unresolved problems of
acceptable range of pure hydrogen vehicles, as well as
the cost of hydrogen when compared to carbon base
fuels. Based on the favorable results obtained in the UCF/
FSEC program, Sandia National Laboratory agreed to
repeat key experiments in their single cylinder hydrogen
research engine, specifically to compare 100% hydrogen,
a 30% hydrogen/70% natural gas blend, and 100%
natural gas in regard to NOx emissions and indicated
thermal efficiency as a function of spark advance.
In the following sections of this report, the literature
on hydrogen and hydrogen addition to both gasoline and
CNG are reviewed, both the UCF/FSEC and Sandia
experimental designs are discussed and results and
conclusions are presented.
PRIOR RESEARCH
The resurgence of interest in compressed natural
gas (CNG) as an automotive fuel, in response to
increasingly more restrictive exhaust emission limits, has
been stimulated by development of competing alternative
power sources. During this same period of increased
activity, lean-burn heavy duty and stationary spark-ignited
CNG engines have demonstrated very low NOx levels
along with very good fuel consumption[2,4,5,6]. The lean
burn large rotary engine [6] NO x values are particularly
low.
CNG vehicles running stoichiometric, closed loop, 3
way advanced NG catalysts exhaust gas recirculation
(EGR) have also demonstrated very low NO x levels and
have met ULEV requirements with conventional gasoline
engines [7] converted to gaseous fuel. In view of projected
emission limits for critical zones, lean-burn CNG engines
offering higher thermal efficiency than stoichiometric CNG
units may appear in the transport engine marketplace.
The tradeoffs will differ for different weight/duty classes
and future technical breakthroughs can shift the balance
between lean burn versus stoichiometric CNG engines
with three way catalytic converters.
Neat hydrogen has been shown to be an attractive
engine fuel by a large number of other investigators
[8,9,10]. Its advantages and limitations are well
documented. For a spark ignition engine hydrogen was
shown to be particularly well suited to the rotary Wankel-
type engine [9] because isolation of the cold induction
section from hot components resolved problems of pre-
ignition. However, the lack of a similar data base for
hydrogen-enriched CNG prevented an objective
evaluation of automotive heavy duty transport and Figure 1 (SAE 740187)
stationary engine potential.
Fulton, et al [11] observed that hydrogen can be and Hoehn continued to investigate direct generation of
burned in lean-burn internal combustion engines with hydrogen from gasoline with an onboard hydrogen
virtually zero carbon-based emissions. Unburned reactor. Although they were able to demonstrate a
hydrogen is neither toxic nor photochemically reactive. hydrogen generator their proposed concept was not
The only source of hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide pursued.
(CO), sulfur, or particulate emissions in a hydrogen-fueled
engine is trace lubricating oil. Hydrogen peroxide has
been observed near the lean limit of combustion, and
ammonia can be formed in rich combustion over a
catalyst. However, the only significant exhaust emissions
from a hydrogen engine in good operating condition are
oxides of nitrogen (NO x). Although the numerical values
are engine specific and load dependent, numerous
studies have shown that with lean mixtures, in the
equivalence ratio (Φ) range of 0.4. NOx emissions can be
extremely low. Figure 1 [12] is a representative example
of this trend.
Despite the clean burning characteristics of
hydrogen, its use as an alternative fuel has been limited
by a number of problems. The main impediments to the
use of hydrogen in motor vehicles are the loss of vehicle
range due to the low energy density of the compressed
gas, fuel injectors requiring very large volumes of gas
flow, and the high cost of hydrogen. These restrictions are
reduced in applications where hydrogen is used sparingly,
in conjunction with other fuels, to derive leveraged
benefits.
Houseman and Hoehn [13] reported on tests of a Figure 2 (SAE 741169)
V-8 engine operated on a mixture of gasoline and
hydrogen in the early 70s. The addition of hydrogen Stebar and Parks [12] demonstrated very low NOx
allowed the engine to be operated much leaner than was and CO emissions for hydrogen-isooctane mixtures with
possible on gasoline alone. In addition to demonstrating 0.55 equivalence ratio, both in a CFR engine and in a
extended lean burn and NOx emissions below the 1977 modified passenger car at the General Motors Research
EPA standard (0.4g/mile), the tests showed a significant Labs (GMRL). However, hydrocarbon emissions were
improvement in thermal efficiency as shown in Figure 2 unacceptably high. Figure 3 [12] summarizes the results
[13], taken from their paper. Houseman of their testing.

2
 for calibration drift due to heating of the strain gage by
engine exhaust heat.
TEST ENGINE SPECIFICATIONS

Type: Spark ignited V8

naturally aspirated
Displacement: 4.6L
Bore and Stroke: 90.2 × 90.0mm
Cam: Stock, single overhead design
per cylinder bank
Cylinder heads: Stock, overhead design
Valves: Intake 44.5mm
Exhaust 34mm
Compression Ratio: 9.0:1
Exhaust Manifold: Stock cast iron
Intake Manifold: Stock Aluminum
Fuel Delivery, Gasoline Port injected
Figure 3 (SAE 740187)
Fuel Delivery, HCNG Throttle body mixing
MacDonald [14], also from GMRL, emphasized the Cylinder Block: Cast iron no liners
desirability of keeping the quantity of hydrogen required
for acceptable engine operation to a minimum, reporting
that when 14.4% of the fuel mass was hydrogen, the EMISSION MONITORING - A chemiluminescent
engine operated satisfactorily with an equivalence ratio of detector was used to measure NOx. The instrument was
0.52. NOx levels achieved were below the EPA mandated zeroed and spanned per manufacturer’s
level, at that time, of 0.4g/mile. Parks’ [15] 1976 results recommendations for all detector ranges used in the tests
extended the earlier GMRL investigations to additional before and after each series of tests. Data was only
limits and applications. accepted when both zero and span repeated within the
limits of the instrumentation.
Nagalingam. et al [16] investigated 20% and 50%
hydrogen added to methane. The study was conducted The emissions pickup tube was mounted in a 45
using a research engine operating at 1200 rpm at wide mm collector pipe 35 cm from the exhaust manifold. Only
open throttle (WOT). Nagalingam noted that the peak stainless steel and Teflon tubing were used for gas
engine power was reduced due to the lower volumetric delivery. The exhaust gases were passed through an ice
heating value of hydrogen compared to methane. bath water separator to remove most of the water vapor
However, with hydrogen fuel less spark advance was from the exhaust prior to emissions measurement.
required to produce best torque. In this work the average DATA MONITORING - The following engine and
spark timing for 100% methane was approximately 40° atmospheric parameters were monitored during testing.
BTDC while the optimum timing for 20% hydrogen All of the test stand dynamometer system data were
addition was found to be approximately 36° BTDC. automatically recorded.
Yusuf [17] tested the flame speed for a mixture that Oil Pressure
was 80% methane and 20% hydrogen. He concluded that Barometric Pressure
the operating equivalence ratio for maximum thermal
efficiency using pure methane can be reduced from 0.775 Exhaust Gas Temperature
to 0.60 when operating on 20% hydrogen enriched Water temperature
methane.
RPM
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS Carburetor Air Temp
Torque
A. MULTI-CYLINDER UCF/FSEC EXPERIMENT
Air Flow Rate
TEST ENGINE -The test engine was a modern, Oil Temperature
overhead cam V-8 used in full size passenger vehicles
and light trucks. Air Humidity
POWER MEASUREMENT- The dynamometer AIR MASS FLOW - Was measured using a 4 inch
used was a computer-controlled water brake with a turbine meter supplied by the dynamometer manufacturer.
maximum torque specification of 1000 ft-lbs. The Air turbine readings were checked against a Meriam
dynamometer was calibrated prior to the beginning of Laminar Flow Element. Turbine meter flows are estimated
testing using the calibration procedure specified by the to be accurate within + 0 to - 5%. Exhaust gas
manufacturer. In addition, the dynamometer was checked temperature for each cylinder was monitored using a
K- type thermocouple mounted in the exhaust manifold at
the center of the exhaust stream for each cylinder.

3
 IN-CYLINDER PRESSURE - data (cylinder 1) were
taken using an engine cycle analysis (ECA) system
supplied by the dynamometer manufacturer (Superflow®).
The system used a standard (Kistler) piezoelectric
transducer mounted in the cylinder head which had been
modified for this purpose by the engine manufacturer.
Crankshaft position was measured using an optical
encoder with a resolution of 0.2 degree of crank angle.
The ECA system was supplied with a statistical software
package for performing engine cycle analyses (IMEP,
etc.).
FUEL FLOW MEASUREMENT -The mass flow of
all gaseous fuel mixtures was measured by a Micro
Motion mass flow sensor. This sensor operates using the
Coriolis effect for a direct measure of mass flow. Physical
properties of the gas mixture that can affect the reading of
alternative methods of measuring mass flow, such as
temperature and kinematic viscosity, do not affect this
device. Due to the importance of engine thermal efficiency
on this measurement, the instrument was supplied with an
NIST-traceable calibration. The manufacturer’s certified
accuracy is 0.44% at 11.00 kg/hr flow. In addition, a
calibration was performed in our laboratory to assure that
the instrument was reading properly.
ENGINE CONDITION CHECKS - Engine condition
was checked initially and at intervals of approximately
every 10 hours of operation using hot motoring tests with
the in-cylinder pressure transducer. No significant change
in the cylinder expansion cycle was detected over the
testing period. In addition, a power balance test
(alternately disabling spark to each cylinder and,
recording rpm variations) was performed at the end of the
testing. This test confirmed that no severe fuel distribution
or cylinder problems were present. The brake thermal
efficiency calculations are dependent on the accuracy of
the lower heating value of the mixed fuel as well as the
measurement accuracy of test data. The heating values
used were 49.929 kJ/kg for NG and 119.960 kJ/kg for
hydrogen.
The natural gas used for this testing was from the
Florida pipeline and consisted of 96% methane.
B. SINGLE CYLINDER SANDIA EXPERIMENT
To explore the performance of these fuels in a more
detailed experimental environment, a single cylinder
research engine was employed. Single cylinder engines
eliminate the possibility of fuel distribution variability
problems confounding the results.
Sandia National Laboratory, in collaboration with
Los Alamos and Lawrence Livermore National
Laboratories is currently developing a hydrogen flueled
engine for a generator set or series type hybrid vehicle
application. The design approach is to utilize first
principles to take advantage of hydrogen’s unique
characteristics of high flame speed, ability to spark ignite
homogeneous mixtures at low equivalence ratios and high
effective octane to achieve high thermal efficiency while
satisfying low emissions requirements. The goal is to
comply with the California Air Resources Board proposed
EZEV limits for NOx, the principal emission from hydrogen
fueled engines. The other regulated emissions are due
principally to lubricating oil and thus were not measured in
this research engine environment. Sandia National
4
Laboratory intends to build a multi-cylinder engine based
on the results of the single cylinder experiments, at which
time the other regulated emissions will be addressed.
The current experiments at Sandia are being
performed in a modified for spark ignition Onan 0.491 liter
Diesel engine. While this engine has been modified for
operation on pure hydrogen fuel, the experiment is
carefully instrumented and precise comparison between
100% hydrogen, 30% hydrogen/natural gas by volume
and 100% natural gas has been made regarding indicated
thermal efficiency, as calculated by integration of the
pressure volume relationships, and NOx emissions. As
the intent of these experiments was to verify the low NOx
emissions potential of these fuels as measured by UCF/
FSEC, hydrocarbons were not measured.
The Onan engine employed is a modification of the
Diesel engine used to power cooling systems of
refrigerated truck trailers. The existing iron cylinder head
was discarded and replaced with a custom machined
aluminum unit designed and built by Lawrence Livermore
National Laboratory with provision for pressure
measurement and two point spark ignition. The fuel and
air are mixed prior to entering the combustion chamber.
Both the piston top and the cylinder head are flat, resulting
in a right cylinder combustion chamber shape at top dead
center. The spark plugs are located on a common
diameter line equidistant from the wall and the cylinder
center.
The inlet port runner was configured to generate as
little swirl as possible, the desire being to build a
quiescent combustion chamber. This was hoped to
minimize combustion gas heat loss near top dead center,
with sufficient reaction rate provided by the dual spark
plugs, thus enhancing thermal efficiency. However,
experimentation with various shrouded valves revealed
that thermal efficiency was higher with a 1.5 mm, high,
180 degree coverage shroud than with either no shroud or
a larger shroud and all data presented is with this valve
shroud in place.
The compression ratio of the Onan engine was
determined by measuring the volume of the cylinder head
when bolted to a flat plate using a gas volume
measurement system at Sandia. The system uses
precision measurement of pressure / volume /
temperature relationships. In addition, the leakage of the
engine through valves and past the piston was carefully
quantified and found to be representative of a well
functioning modern engine. No exhaust or crankcase gas
recirculation was employed.
TEST ENGINE SPECIFICATIONS
Bore: 82.55 mm
Stroke: 92.08 mm
Displacement: 0.4928 liter
Compression ratio: 14.04:1
Valve timing: stock
Spark plugs: Champion 53R
Ignition system: Mallory HyFire 667 CDI
(2 systems)
Mallory ProMaster 28880 coils
Inlet system Pressurized, unthrottled
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
The Onan engine is coupled to an Emerson Electric
Co. model 2110B321E00-DC dynamometer that
maintains a constant engine speed regardless of engine
output. A Lebow model 1604 torque transducer is located
between the engine and dyno, the output being indicated
on a strip chart recorder. This record is useful to
determine best torque vs. ignition timing as well as engine
roughness. We do not use this record to calculate thermal
efficiency due to the large friction component present in
research engines.
Figure 4 is a system schematic of the fuel / air inlet
system. The intent of the experiments with hydrogen is to
operate in the premixed homogeneous charge regime,
and great care is taken to assure this condition. The
hydrogen and air to the engine are both supplied at 800
kPa. The hydrogen is controlled by a MKS model 1559A
mass flow controller calibrated by MKS for hydrogen. Air
and hydrogen are then mixed in a stagnation chamber,
passed through a sonic orifice and conveyed through the
inlet manifold to the engine. Stagnation chamber pressure
is measured with a Heise model 901 pressure transducer
(1.400 kPa full scale). The orifice is machined with a 2:1
elliptical contour on the upstream side and the diameter is
measured to within 0.0025 mm.
Figure 4
Thus the mass flow rate of the mixed gases can be
calculated using standard sonic orifice relationships. Air
flow rate can now be calculated by subtracting off the
hydrogen flow.
5
This inlet system has several attractive features.
First, the pressure upstream of the orifice is steady,
resulting in continuous mixing of the fuel and air devoid of
the flow fluctuations characteristic of single cylinder
engines. Second, the passage of the gases through a
sonic orifice develops a violent mixing environment. Third,
the engine can be supercharged or run at sub-
atmospheric pressure by adjusting the upstream air
pressure. No inlet throttling, other than the sonic orifice, is
employed.
Crankshaft position is determined by a BEI Motion
Systems Co. model H25E-F3-SS-720-ABZC-7406R-LED-
EM18 optical shaft encoder coupled directly to the
crankshaft. This unit provides 720 position pulses every
revolution of the crankshaft, as well as a top dead center
pulse.
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT - The engine is
equipped with an AVL model QC42D-X quartz pressure
transducer for in cylinder pressure measurement. The
charge output of the transducer is converted to a voltage
by a Kistler type 5010A dual mode amplifier and fed to a
Data Translation DT2821-F-16SE 12 bit analog to digital
translation board. A Pentium-based 90 MHz PC controls
the system and records crankshaft position and inlet
manifold pressure at two locations using Teledyne-Taber
model 254 strain gage transducers, each amplified by
Daytronic model 3270 signal conditioners. The AVL quartz
transducer is set by the PC to a defined value at 150
degrees into the cycle (the end of the inlet stroke) during
each cycle as a reference point.
Calibration of the AVL transducer is accomplished
by rapidly applying a pressurized gas and comparing the
output of a calibrated Heise 901B transducer of
appropriate range with the AVL output measured by the
Data Translation system. Agreement between the two
transducers was within 0.2% at full scale (8,000 kPa).
NO x MEASUREMENT - The exhaust gases are
sampled 8 cm from the cylinder head. The sample is
transferred through a heated sample line to a Rosemont
Analytical Inc. model 951A chemiluminescent NO/ NOx
analyzer. Calibration of this instrument with both zero
emissions and 12 PPM NO calibration gases was
performed both before and after each test series.
SYSTEM FLOW CALIBRATION - The fuel flow rate
calibration of the MKS flow meter was checked by two
methods. First, a precision orifice was made to measure
fuel flow only using the existing sonic flow diagnostic.
Second, a precision 300 liter volume was used in PVT
analysis to measure steady flow for a fixed (6 minute) flow
time. Results of these two methods and the MKS flow
meter agreed within 1%.
A similar procedure for the air flow system based on
sonic flow and PVT measurements verified agreement
within 1%.
FUELS AND AIR - The hydrogen used is at least
99.9% pure, supplied from pressurized cylinders. The
natural gas was purchased as Tennessee natural gas,
consisting of 93.6% methane, 3.6% ethane, 1% propane,
0.7% carbon dioxide, 0.5% nitrogen and 0.4% butane.
The 30% hydrogen blend was made up containing 67.5%
methane, 2.5% ethane and 30% hydrogen.
 The air is supplied from an 11 kW air compressor at
800 kPa, run through a dessicator and filtered.
TEST PROCEDURE - The engine was operated at
a comfortable operating point until water temperatures
had stabilized at 45 - 50 C (typically 45 minutes). While
this temperature is less than typical for modern engines,
concern for the aluminum head (due to rather small
coolant passages) motivated this limit. During this time the
NOx analyzer was calibrated with both zero emission gas
and span gas. After the initial warm-up the test conditions
were set and the engine was allowed to reach steady
state. Following the warm-up, data was taken. Pressure
data was recorded for 100 cycles and stored as the
average at 0.5 degree sample point intervals.
TEST RESULTS
A- UCF/FSEC MULTI-CYLINDER ENGINE
Effect of hydrogen addition - The objective of the
first set of experiments at UCF/FSEC was to quantify the
effects of hydrogen addition on NOx and lean burn limits.
6
In addition, during initial testing, procedures for objectively
determining the lean limit were resolved. To quantitatively
determine lean limit, in-cylinder pressure data was used.
Cycle-to-cycle variations in IMEP were statistically
analyzed. The coefficient of variance (COV, standard
deviation/mean) for 25 engine cycles was determined. It is
generally accepted that a COV above 10% will be
perceived by a driver as a poor running condition.
Therefore, for this testing, the lean limit of combustion was
defined as a COV of 0.1.
Figure 5 shows a family of parts per million (PPM)
NOx curves plotted against equivalence ratio. Hydrogen
concentrations were varied from 0 to 50% by volume in
10% (absolute) increments. Mass calculations are made
on a dry gas basis due to the condensing column used.
Figure 6 displays the COV for natural gas and the 30%
hydrogen blend. All of the data presented in Figures 5
and 6 were obtained with the engine operating at 1700
rpm and 12.7 kW (17 hp) power output to simulate a full-
sized passenger vehicle or light truck at highway cruise.
Engine ignition timing for these data was set as follows:
1. Engine dynamometer set to hold constant 1700 rpm.
2. Set throttle position to achieve 12.7 kW.
3. Vary fuel flow to achieve desired equivalence ratio.
4. Repeat step 2.
5. Set ignition timing to minimum advance for best torque
(MBT).
6. Repeat steps 2 and 3 as necessary.
During lean operation of the engine, the test setup
employed was not capable of maintaining rpm, power
output, and equivalence ratio while confirming MBT spark
timing. The listed procedure was adopted to improve
consistency between individual tests even though an
exact value for MBT ignition timing was not verified in
many cases.
Examination of Figure 5 shows the same general
results that have been reported earlier [3,18]. That is, as
equivalence ratio decreases (excess combustion air
increases) NOx emissions decrease. Generally, the
addition of hydrogen to natural gas increases NOx
emissions for a given equivalence ratio. As the hydrogen
percentage increases, the lean limit of combustion is
significantly extended.
Notice, particularly in Figure 5. the data scatter
associated with NOx emissions as hydrogen is added to
the fuel. The combination of hydrogen addition and lean
burn created a condition where it became extremely
difficult to establish an MBT ignition timing data point. The
relatively flat spark timing curves led to development of
B- SINGLE CYLINDER SANDIA ENGINE
Tests were conducted with three fuels (hydrogen,
30% hydrogen/70% natural gas by volume, and natural
gas) at 1800 RPM for equivalence ratios which would
produce NOx levels in the CARB proposed EZEV
standard range. Since the proposed standards are
specified as emissions in grams per mile, the vehicle
efficiency affects the results. Equivalence ratio (Φ) is also
a factor when emissions are measured in parts per million
7
the test procedure outlined earlier in this paper and later,
to the test direction chosen for continued testing.
A close examination of Figure 6 shows that the lean
limit of combustion (based on an IMEP COV of 0.1)
ranged from 0.7 for NG to 0.58 for 30% hydrogen. The
COV for NG at an equivalence ratio of 0.65 was 0. 11.
Variable Ignition Timing - The difficulties of
precisely determining MBT data points during earlier
testing, along with the lack of distinct NO x differences as a
function of hydrogen content as shown in Figure 5
inferred that spark timing was likely to be a critical
parameter for HCNG emissions.
Figure 7 confirms the strong influence of the
ignition timing NO x emissions in PPM are plotted against
spark timing for 30% hydrogen, 2350 rpm, and 420 kPa
BMEP for equivalence ratios of 0.65, 0.72, and 0.8.
The trends are as follows: As equivalence ratio
increases, the relative effect of spark timing on NOx
emissions increases. Also shown in Figure 7 is the brake
thermal efficiency (BTE) based on the lower heating value
of the mixed fuel
The amount of throttling change required to
maintain the load at different spark angles, within each
fixed equivalence ratio test series, was relatively small, as
could be inferred from the small to moderate changes in
efficiency. For example, for the Φ = 0.65 test runs
(Figure 7), the total manifold pressure variation was
within one inch of mercury corresponding to an airflow
variation of less than 5%.
(PPM). For our case we have assumed a 60 miles per
gallon (MPG) gasoline equivalent performance level. We
believe this is reasonable for a hybrid vehicle. Therefore
the standards are valid for any test cycle provided the
vehicle achieves this 60 MPG during the cycle. In addition
the engine is assumed to operate in the constant power,
on/off mode with startup/shutdown emissions the same as
the operating emissions. Figure 8 portrays the NOx level
in PPM that must not be exceeded as a function of Φ to
meet the proposed EZEV standard.
Figure 8
Additional tests were conducted to determine the
minimum Φ at which the engine would operate. This
turned out to be Φ = 0.2 for hydrogen, Φ = 0.48 for the
30% hydrogen fuel and Φ = 0.62 for natural gas. These
values were determined by the inability to ignite the fuel at
lower equivalence ratios, meaning the engine abruptly
failed to generate power. Tests were conducted at
volumetric efficiencies of approximately 100% which in
our experiment means that the mass of fuel/air charge
inducted each cycle is equivalent to the mass that would
be contained in the displacement volume at local
atmospheric pressure and room temperature.
Indicated mean effective pressure is calculated
through 2 revolutions (a full 4 stroke cycle) of the
crankshaft. The average pressure from 100 cycles is
integrated as a function of volume to determine the work:
WORK = ∫P(θ θ) dV (θ
θ)
The indicated thermal efficiency, is calculated using
the lower heating value of the appropriate fuel. When
experimental results for volumetric efficiencies of other
than 100% are presented the indicated thermal efficiency
8
is calculated from the power stroke only (one revolution of
the crankshaft), thus removing from the calculation the
work produced or absorbed by the inlet process.
While it is difficult to quantify the absolute accuracy
of indicated thermal efficiency, relative changes are
confidently ascertained. The single cylinder results are
intended to show relative differences between fuels and
operating conditions, not to directly compare with the
multi-cylinder brake thermal efficiency data.
Figure 9 presents NOx and indicated thermal
efficiency results as a function of spark advance before
top dead center (TDC) for hydrogen fuel at three
equivalence ratios. The EZEV NOx standard is included. It
can be seen that operation above Φ =0.4 is not possible in
compliance with this NOx limit for the spark advances
recorded. A similar presentation of results for natural gas
is contained in Figure 10. From this plot it can be seen
that the EZEV levels can not be met with this fuel, for
operation at Φ = 0.62 was erratic. When Φ was increased
to 0.64 the engine smoothness and torque improved
markedly.
Figure 9

Figure 10

9
 The same type of plot for the 30% hydrogen fuel is
shown in Figure 11. Operation at less than Φ = 0.52
incurs a large efficiency penalty but at Φ = 0.52 operation
seems reasonable. From these series of plots it can be
inferred that operation near MBT with hydrogen at Φ =
0.40 and with 30% hydrogen at Φ = 0.52 give similar NOx
results, and these conditions are shown in Figure 12. The
burn duration for each of these two cases was calculated
Figure 11
DISCUSSION
The UCF/FSEC multi-cylinder engine results
presented here report that it is possible to operate a
conventional automotive engine on a 30% hydrogen/70%
natural gas fuel at part throttle, steady state conditions
with NO x emissions of less than 10 PPM (Φ = 0.65). In
addition, the brake thermal efficiency at these conditions
is near the maximum achieved. In fact, Figure 7 confirms
that efficiency remains nearly constant over a wide range
of spark advances and thus NOx emissions.
The Sandia single cylinder engine tests confirm that
low NOx emissions are possible on the 30% hydrogen
fuel. Perhaps the principal contribution of the single
cylinder engine test series is to clarify the efficiency and
NOx dependence on spark advance and equivalence
ratio. The Sandia engine measures indicated thermal
efficiency at high (14:1) compression ratio, characteristics
leading to greater sensitivity to spark advance variation.
Comparison of Figures 9, 10 and 11 leads to the
conclusion that each of these fuels behaves in a similar
10
from the cylinder volume / pressure data according to the
method of Rassweiler and Withrow[19]. The mixed fuel
was found to take 35% longer to react, perhaps
contributing to the 6% drop in efficiency of the 30%
hydrogen fuel relative to 100% hydrogen.
and conventional fashion regarding these parameters.
Careful comparison of the efficiency curves by the
exacting observer tends to support the hypothesis that
100% hydrogen is more sensitive to timing variation than
natural gas, with the 30% hydrogen mixed fuel in between
these extremes. In any case there is a clear relationship
between spark advance and efficiency, as well as the
expected large differences in NOx emissions.
It is possible that fuel distribution problems are
contributing to the spark advance insensitivity of the
multicylinder engine. This is being investigated.
Another difference between the two engine results
is the equivalence ratio required to produce the same NOx
levels. Figures 5 and 11 show that comparable NOx
emissions are produced when the multi-cylinder engine is
at Φ = 0.65 and the single cylinder engine is at Φ = 0.52.
This is possibly due to the part throttle, lower compression
ratio operation of the multi-cylinder engine. It should also
be noted that there was no knocking recorded with any of
the tested fuels on the Sandia engine at 14:1 compression
ratio and MBT timing.
 A result of interest is the possibility of operating a
hybrid vehicle engine at CARB EZEV NO x specifications
with no exhaust gas aftertreatment and at higher
equivalence ratio than is possible with hydrogen. This
30% hydrogen fuel is thus an attractive option due to both
the higher output of the engine and the storage density
advantage when stored as a pressurized gas as
compared to 100% hydrogen. However, the contribution
of the carbon based fuel component to regulated
emissions will have to be addressed.
The reason that a relatively small addition of
hydrogen results in a relatively large NOx reduction
involves the extreme temperature dependence of the NOx
formation rate, 100% natural gas would meet the NOx
standards if it was possible to spark ignite at slightly lower
equivalence ratios. Figure 10 shows the natural gas
relationships for Φ as low as 0.62, where the operation of
the engine is deteriorating as evidenced by the lower
thermal efficiency. However, the NOx level is below 20
PPM, not far from the EZEV requirement. If this engine
could be made to run at a slightly lower Φ, the standard
might be met.
Thus the effect of the hydrogen addition is to
extend the lean operation limit to the point where the peak
cylinder temperature is reduced below the critical limit by
dilution, resulting in low NOx formation.
The indicated efficiency penalty for the mixed fuel
measured in this single cylinder test series (6% less for
the 30% hydrogen fuel relative to hydrogen) is both small
and, possibly, correctable. This engine has been
optimized for 100% hydrogen and such an optimization
carried out for the 30% hydrogen fuel may lead to more
nearly equivalent efficiency.
Figure 12
11
The low equivalence ratios required to meet these
stringent emission standards do not produce attractive
power densities in naturally aspirated engines. Super or
turbo charging would increase this density to a more
useful range, and the effect on NOx emissions and
indicated thermal efficiency with 100% hydrogen fuel in
the single cylinder engine is shown in Figure 13. It can be
seen that while there is an increase of NOx the sensitivity
is small. Note that the two points included for the 30%
hydrogen fuel appear to follow the hydrogen performance.
Also note that this data was recorded at peak torque
values: it would be possible to reduce these NOx values
significantly with slight retardation of the spark advance.
CONCLUSIONS
The purpose of this experimental investigation was
to measure the NOx emissions and thermal efficiency of
spark ignition, lean burn engines when operated on
hydrogen/natural gas blended fuels. In particular, a 30%
hydrogen (by volume) blend was emphasized as a fuel
that produces lower NOx emissions than natural gas,
comparable to the low levels achieved on 100%
hydrogen.
Results from a multi-cylinder engine at 9:1
compression ratio confirm that NOx levels of less than 10
PPM are possible at steady part throttle (Φ = 0.65)
operation with the 30% hydrogen fuel, with negligible
efficiency penalty relative to MBT efficiency. Additional
tests performed in a single cylinder research engine at
14:1 compression ratio and 100% volumetric efficiency
measured NOx emissions in the same range, but at lower
(Φ = 0.52) equivalence ratio. It was not possible to
achieve these low NOx results with 100% natural gas.
Figure 13

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The single cylinder engine testing was performed at

the Combustion Research Facility, Sandia National
Laboratories / California and supported by the U.S.
Department of Energy, Office of Energy Efficiency and
Renewable Energy.
The multi-cylinder tests were performed at the
University of Central Florida/ Florida Solar Energy Center
and were supported by Praxair. Ford Mot or Co., Florida
Energy Office and NASA Kennedy Space Center.

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