CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

To find auto break when enter accident area by proximity system when the
two disciplines (Mechanical &Electronic) are brought together, a whole new world
of interesting possibilities opens up. Here is a very simple and useful circuit for
security purposes.
Any vehicle when entered without break in proximity area become safe,
one can seek the help of security proximity system. The project has two main parts
an intruder sensor cum transmitter and a receiver.
IR transmitter and receiver pair can be used to realize a proximity detector.
The circuit presented here enables you to detect any object capable of reflecting the
IR beam and moving in front of the IR LED photo detector pair up to a distance of
about 5 meter from it.
Here is a illustrative project, where a simple hardware circuit is directly interfaced
to other vehicle. It can object counter for an assembly line conveyer belt, and so
on. With a little modification of the hardware.

Braking system of vehicles:-

The hybrid vehicle brake system includes both standard hydraulic brakes during
this phase of braking; the hydraulic brakes are not used. When more rapid
deceleration is required, the

hydraulic brakes are activated to provide additional stopping power.

The sensors can become contaminated with metallic dust and fail to detect wheel
slip; this is not always picked up by the internal ABS controller diagnostic.
Here, two more sensors are added to help the system work: these are a wheel angle
sensor, and a gyroscopic sensor. The theory of operation is simple: when the
gyroscopic sensor detects that the direction taken by the car doesn't agree with
what the wheel sensor says, the ESC software will brake the necessary wheel(s)
(up to three with the most sophisticated systems) so that the car goes the way the
driver intends. The wheel sensor also helps in the operation of CBC, since this will
tell the ABS that wheels on the outside of the curve should brake more than wheels
on the inside, and by how much.

Typical System (No ABS):-

Typical Layout of System (with ABS) :-

Typical System (ABS):-
COMPONENTS:-

Sliding Caliper

Fixed Caliper
Pressure Control Valves

HARDWARE DESCRIPTION
The transmitter part consists of two 555 timers (IC1, IC2 for driving an
infrared LED. the infrared detector to sense the transmission; To save power, the
duty cycle of the 38kHz a stable multi vibrator is maintained at 10 per cent.
The receiver part have an infrared detector comprising (IC3, IC4, IC5, IC7 )
wired for operation and timer, followed by (T1) & (T2) transistor. Upon reception
of infrared signals to pin-2 of IC-4, the 555 (IC4) timer (mono) is turned ‘on’ and it
remain ‘on’ as long as the infrared signals are being received.

Effectiveness

A 2003 Australian study by Monash University Accident Research Centre found

that ABS:

 Reduced the risk of multiple vehicle crashes by 78 percent.

 Reduced the risk of run-off-road crashes by 35 percent.
On high-traction surfaces such as bitumen, or concrete many ABS-equipped cars
are able to attain braking distances better (i.e. shorter) than those that would be
easily possible without the benefit of ABS. Even an alert, skilled driver without
ABS would find it difficult, even through the use of techniques like threshold
braking, to match or improve on the performance of a typical driver with an ABS-
equipped vehicle, in real world conditions. ABS reduces chances of crashing,
and/or the severity of impact. The recommended technique for non-expert drivers
in an ABS-equipped car, in a typical full-braking emergency, is to press the brake
pedal as firmly as possible and, where appropriate, to steer around obstructions. In
such situations, ABS will significantly reduce the chances of a skid and subsequent
loss of control.

In gravel and deep snow, ABS tends to increase braking distances. On these
surfaces, locked wheels dig in and stop the vehicle more quickly. ABS prevents
this from occurring. Some ABS calibrations reduce this problem by slowing the
cycling time, thus letting the wheels repeatedly briefly lock and unlock. The
primary benefit of ABS on such surfaces is to increase the ability of the driver to
maintain control of the car rather than go into a skid — though loss of control
remains more likely on soft surfaces like gravel or slippery surfaces like snow or
ice. On a very slippery surface such as sheet ice or gravel it is possible to lock
multiple wheels at once, and this can defeat ABS (which relies on detecting
individual wheels skidding). Availability of ABS relieves most drivers from
learning threshold braking.

When drivers do encounter an emergency that causes them to brake hard and thus
encounter this pulsing for the first time, many are believed to reduce pedal pressure
and thus lengthen braking distances, contributing to a higher level of accidents than
the superior emergency stopping capabilities of ABS would otherwise promise.
Some manufacturers have therefore implemented Mercedes-Benz's "brake assist"
system that determines that the driver is attempting a "panic stop" and the system
automatically increases braking force where not enough pressure is applied.
Nevertheless, ABS significantly improves safety and control for drivers in most
on-road situations
The ABS equipment may also be used to implement traction control on
acceleration of the vehicle. If, when accelerating, the tire loses traction with the
ground, the ABS controller can detect the situation and take suitable action so that
traction is regained. Manufacturers often offer this as a separately priced option
even though the infrastructure is largely shared with ABS. More sophisticated
versions of this can also control throttle levels and brakes simultaneously.

Design and selection of components

Given the required reliability it is illustrative to see the choices made in the design
of the ABS system. Proper functioning of the ABS system is considered of the
utmost importance, for safeguarding both the passengers and people outside of the
car. The system is therefore built with some redundancy, and is designed to
monitor its own working and report failures. The entire ABS system is considered
to be a hard real-time system, while the subsystem that controls the self-diagnosis
is considered soft real-time. As stated above, the general working of the ABS
system consists of an electronic unit, also known as ECU (electronic control unit),
which collects data from the sensors and drives the hydraulic control unit, or HCU,
mainly consisting of the valves that regulate the braking pressure for the wheels.

How Automatic-Braking System Work

The communication between the ECU and the sensors must happen quickly and at
real time. A possible solution is the use of the CAN bus system, which has been
and is still in use in many ABS systems today (in fact, this CAN standard was
developed by Robert Bosch GmbH, for connecting electronic control units!). This
allows for an easy combination of multiple signals into one signal, which can be
sent to the ECU. The communication with the valves of the HCU is usually not
done this way. The ECU and the HCU are generally very close together. The
valves, usually solenoid valves, are controlled directly by the ECU. To drive the
valves based on signals from the ECU, some circuitry and amplifiers are needed
(which would also have been the case if the CAN-bus was used).

The sensors measure the position of the tires, and are generally placed on the
wheel-axis. The sensor should be robust and maintenance free, not to endanger its
proper working, for example an inductive sensor. These position measurements are
then processed by the ECU to calculate the wheel-spin.

The hydraulic control unit is generally located right next to the ECU (or the other
way around), and consists of a number of valves that control the pressure in the
braking circuits. All these valves are placed closely together and packed in a solid
block. This makes for a very simple layout, and is thus very robust.

The central control unit generally consists of two microcontrollers, both active
simultaneously, to add some redundancy to the system. These two microcontrollers
interact, and check each other's proper working. These microcontrollers are also
chosen to be power-efficient, to avoid heating of the controller which would reduce
durability. The software that runs in the ECU has a number of functions. Most
notably, the algorithms that drive the HCU as a function of the inputs, or control
the brakes depending on the recorded wheel spin. This is the obvious main task of
the entire ABS-system. Apart from this, the software also needs to process the
incoming information, e.g. the signals from the sensors. There is also some
software that constantly tests each component of the ABS system for its proper
working. Some software for interfacing with an external source to run a complete
diagnosis is also added. As mentioned before the ABS system is considered hard
real-time. The control algorithms, and the signal processing software, certainly fall
in this category, and get a higher priority than the diagnosis and the testing
software. The requirement for the system to be hard real-time can therefore be
reduced to stating that the software should be hard real-time. The required
calculations to drive the HCU have to be done in time. Choosing a microcontroller
that can operate fast enough is therefore the key, preferably with a large margin.
The system is then limited by the dynamic ability of the valves and the
communication, the latter being noticeably faster. The control system is thus
comfortably fast enough, and is limited by the valves.

Parts of automatic braking system:-

There are four main components to an ABS system:

 Speed sensors
 Pump
 Valves
 Controller

Speed Sensors:

The braking system needs some way of knowing when a wheel is about to
lock up. The speed sensors, which are located at each wheel, or in some cases in
the differential, provide this information
Valves
There is a valve in the brake line of each brake controlled by the ABS. On some
systems, the valve has three positions:

 In position one, the valve is open; pressure from the master cylinder is
passed right through to the brake.
 In position two, the valve blocks the line, isolating that brake from the
master cylinder. This prevents the pressure from rising further should the
driver push the brake pedal harder.

In position three, the valve releases some of the pressure from the brake.

Pump
Since the valve is able to release pressure from the brakes, there has to be some
way to put that pressure back. That is what the pump does; when a valve reduces
the pressure in a line, the pump is there to get the pressure back up.

Controller
The controller is a computer in the car. It watches the speed sensors and controls
the valves.

methodology for the interpretation of sensor data, route planning, and vehicle
control

Radar
Signal processing software provided with the Epsilon Lambda Electronics
ELSC71-1A 3D radar will produce a data map of the field of view with the range,
azimuth, elevation, velocity, and signal amplitude for each object detected. The
azimuth is known as a function of time because the radar antenna is mechanically
scanned across the field of view by a stepper motor. The range
is found from a beat signal with amplitude. The velocity is found by Doppler
frequency, and the elevation angle is found by taking the phase difference between
two IF channels. Range resolution is approximately 1 meter, azimuth resolution is
1.8 degrees, and elevation resolution is about 1 degree.
We will interpret abrupt changes of elevation as obstacles for the vehicle to avoid.
Targets which seem to be moving relative to most of the field of view will be
interpreted as moving obstacles, probably other Challenge Vehicles, and given an
especially wide berth. We may be able to use the amplitude of a signal return to
further classify objects (e.g., a stronger return would be expected from a metal
vehicle than from a desert plant).