An Overview of the

Venomous Snakes
of the Philippines

Venom, envenomation and

species representatives
Wally Suarez
What makes a snake venomous?
■ Snakes regarded as venomous are those which have fangs situated at the
anterior portion of the upper jaw and are connected to venom glands. Snake
families that fall into this category are the Elapidae (cobras and their kin),
Hydrophiidae (the sea snakes) and the Viperidae (vipers).

■ Some subfamilies in the Colubridae (typical snakes) family such as the

Boiginae, Homalopsinae and Natricinae also possess venom fangs but these
are situated on the posterior- rarely around the median- portion of the upper
jaw and are thus not considered to be “true” venomous snakes. Examples
within these subfamilies are collectively known as “rear-fanged snakes”.

■ Fangs in snakes have two evolutionary significance: to secure prey and/or to

inject venom. The presence of fangs does not necessarily mean that the snake
is venomous, as some members of Boidae (pythons and boas) and numerous
subfamilies within the family Colubridae have evolved fangs to aid in the
capture of prey, but this does not include envenomation.
 Significance of venom

■ Venom is primarily a means for the snake to immobilize prey. Those that
employ venom for the purpose of predation typically have less stronger
musculature as compared to the constrictors and are most likely to be injured
when tackling prey items. The capability to deliver venom thus enables
venomous snakes to subdue prey with the least possible contact. The need to
immobilize prey indicates that venom is a predatory device.

■ The secondary purpose of venom is to start the digestive process on the prey
animals even before they are actually consumed. This factor is especially
pronounced in cytotoxic venoms.

■ Venom may also be employed for defensive purposes, but this actually is
disadvantageous to the snake.
 Composition and types of
venom
■ Venom composition varies from one species to the next, and even varies
depending on the snake’s age, and the season and temperature of its
surroundings. It is essentially modified saliva but is a very complex mixture of
enzymes, toxins and smaller molecules such as organic compounds as well as
metals (calcium, zinc, potassium, sodium and manganese). The water content
of snake venoms range from 50-70 %. Snake venoms consist of three types:

■ Cytotoxic- contains tissue-damaging anti-coagulants

■ Hemotoxic- damages the cardiovascular system

■ Neurotoxic- attacks the brain and the nervous system

 Effects of cytotoxic venom

■ Edema
■ Blister formation
■ Local tissue and muscle necrosis
■ Destruction of capillary walls (hemorrhaging)
■ Necessary amputation of damaged area/s, even
death
 Effects of hemotoxic venom
■ This venom type is specifically designed to target
the cardiovascular system.

■ Lowers blood pressure

■ Triggers blood clotting

■ May also attack the heart to cause death

 Effects of neurotoxic venom
■ Stomach pains
■ Thirst
■ Drowsiness and headache
■ Lapses into unconsciousness
■ Nausea
■ Vomiting
■ Dilated pupils
■ Facial paralysis
■ Enlargement of lymph nodes
■ Damage of the heart
■ Kidney necrosis (acute renal failure)
■ Progressive paralysis, since neurotoxins block the transmission of stimulus from nerve cell to
muscle. Paralysis particularly of muscles responsible for swallowing and breathing can be fatal.
■ Muscle breakdown which can lead to cardiac arrest.
■ Death
 Notes on antivenom
■ Antivenom is conveniently grouped in two types:
monovalent and polyvalent.

■ In countries from the subtropical and tropical zones,

venomous snakes are kept for the production of
antivenin and for pharmacological industry. The only
venomous snake farm for this purpose that exists in the
country is the Biological Production Service at
Muntinlupa which specializes in monovalent antivenin
for the Philippine cobra (Naja philippinensis).
 The Snakes
■ Viperidae

■ Elapidae

■ Hydrophiidae

■ Rear-fanged snakes
 Family Viperidae Subfamily
Crotalinae
■ True vipers are not represented in the Philippines, but the pit vipers are.

■ Members of this subfamily possess heat-sensitive pits situated between the

eyes and the nasal openings. These are used to locate prey even in total
darkness.

■ All vipers have solenoglyphic fangs that are capable of independent action.
Venom is delivered thru a small opening at the anterior end of the fang, much
like a hypodermic needle.

■ The venom in vipers are strongly cytotoxic, although a few, such as in the
Mojave rattlesnake, neurotoxins are more dominant.
Tropidolaemus wagleri
Parias flavomaculatus
Parias mcgregorii
Parias sp.
 Family Elapidae

■ This family contains some of the most notorious venomous snakes known and
includes the African mambas (Dendroaspis), the African and Asiatic cobras
(Aspidelaps, Haemachatus, Naja and Ophiophagus) the Asiatic kraits (Bungarus), and
the taipans (Oxyuranus), mulga snakes (Pseudechis), death adders (Acanthophis) and
tiger snakes (Notechis) from Australia. Additionally, the secretive coral snakes from
the Americas (Leptomicrurus, Micrurus and Micruroides), Asia (Calliophis and
Hemibungarus) and Australia (Simoselaps and Vermicella) also belong in this family.

■ The fangs of the elapids are proteroglyphic in nature and venom is delivered thru a
canal on the inner outer wall of the fang. In contrast to the solenoglyphic fangs of the
vipers, those in elapids are far shorter and furthermore are not capable of movement.

■ Venoms of the members of this family are primarily neurotoxic, although some
Australian species have almost equal amounts of cytotoxins and neurotoxins present in
their venom.
Ophiophagus hannah
 Calliophis
intestinalis bilineata
Hemibungarus calligaster calligaster
Hemibungarus calligaster mcclungi
Hemibungarus calligaster gemiannulis
Naja philippinensis
Naja samarensis
Naja sumatrana
Laticauda colubrina
 Family Hydrophiidae

■ These, the “true sea snakes”, are distributed mainly in warm Pacific waters,
although one species, Pelamis platurus, managed to reach the Atlantic Ocean
when the Suez Canal was opened.

■ All sea snakes possess laterally flattened tails which they use for sculling.

■ The venom fangs of sea snakes are also proteroglyphic as with elapids.

■ Drop for drop, these snakes are the most venomous snakes on the planet,
although bites are rare. This may be due to cases that go unreported, or simply
because these are fairly docile snakes that make no attempt to bite. Fatal bites
have however been inflicted by:
Aipysurus laevis
Astrotia stokesii
Hydrophis ornatus
Pelamis platurus
Emydocephalus annulatus
Hydrophis belcheri
Hydrophis semperi
Lapemis hardwicki
 The rear-fanged snakes

■ The designation of “rear-fanged snakes” actually

is a loose term used to encompass colubrid
snakes with opisthoglyphic teeth connected to
venom glands. As a whole, the venom produced
by these snakes are much less potent than those
from the true venomous snakes.

■ In the Philippines, three subfamilies within the

family Colubridae are known to have
opisthoglyphic dentition: Boiginae,
Homalopsinae and Natricinae.
Subfamily Boiginae
■ Snakes referred to in this subfamily are collectively known as tree snakes and
cat snakes. The various vine snakes and flying snakes also are included here.

■ Most genera are found in the Neotropics and the Ethiopian Regions. Few are
Asian, but all the genera known in this respect are found in the Philippines:
Ahaetulla, Boiga (also in Africa), Chrysopelea, Dryophiops, Hologerrhum
(Philippine endemic) and Psammodynastes.

■ Venom type within this subfamily is poorly known, but in studied cases it was
determined that hemotoxins are predominant.

■ Venom highly dangerous to humans have been documented for the Bird
snake (Thelotornis), South African Vine snake (Oxybelis fulgidus) Boomslang
(Dispholidus typus) and the Mangrove snake (Boiga dendrophila).
Ahaetulla prasina
Boiga cynodon
Boiga dendrophila divergens
Boiga dendrophila levitoni
Boiga dendrophila multicincta
Chrysopelea paradisi
Psammodynastes pulverulentus
 Subfamily
Homalopsinae
■ Snakes in this subfamily are commonly found in
rice paddies, rivers, lakes, irrigation systems,
river mouths and mangrove forests; seldom in
marine waters.

■ Preferred prey are fishes, frogs and crustaceans.

■ Venom composition not known but it is highly

prey specific and not dangerous to humans.
Cerberus rhynchops
Subfamily Natricinae
■ To this subfamily belongs the so-called garter snakes
and water snakes which feed predominantly on frogs,
fishes and worms (for small species and juveniles).

■ Not all genera contained here have opisthoglyphic

fangs.

■ Only the Asian tiger snake (Rhabdophis tigrina) is

known to have caused human fatalities. This species is
not present in the Philippines.
Rhabdophis chrysarga
Rhabdophis spilogaster
 Conclusion
■ Venom is delivered only thru venom fangs, not thru normal
fangs, tongue nor skin.

■ A venom’s primary function is to immobilize prey, defense is a

distant second.

■ Venomous snakes are not creatures of malice as the uninformed

would like to think.

■ Not all snakes are venomous, not all venomous snakes bite and
not all venomous snakes that bite have venom dangerous to
humans.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank Mario Lutz and
Ravan Schneider for the additional photos; Ressie
Navarro for supplementary materials pertinent to
the photos taken by the author; and Jet Bernal
for useful information regarding the Wagler’s
vipers.
 References
Cole R., 1997. ‘Australia’s Fierce Snake’. Reptiles Magazine,
December
Schultz, D., 2008. ‘Tread Carefully’. Reptiles Magazine, 16 (4):
34-39
Strimple P. & Covacevich J., 1997. ‘The Taipans of Australia and
New Guinea’. Reptiles Magazine, December
Obst, F.J., Richter, K. & Jacob, U., Atlas of Reptiles and
Amphibians.