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Performance evaluation of ceiling mounted

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© 2009, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers,
Inc. (www.ashrae.org). Published in ASHRAE Transactions 2009, vol. 115, part 2. For
personal use only. Additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either print
or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAE’s prior written permission.

LO-09-036

Performance Evaluation of Ceiling Mounted

Personalized Ventilation System

Bin Yang Arsen Melikov, PhD Chandra Sekhar, PhD

Student Member ASHRAE Fellow ASHRAE Fellow ASHRAE

ABSTRACT -0.5°C (-0.9°F) to -4°C (-7.2°F) under 26°C (78.8°F)/26°C

The interaction of the personalized airflow supplied from
ceiling mounted nozzle (diameter of 0.095 m (0.312ft)) with the
thermal plume generated by a seated thermal manikin with the
body size of an average Scandinavian woman and its impact
on the body cooling was studied. Experiments were performed
in a test room with mixing ventilation at numerous conditions
comprising four combinations of room air temperature and
personalized air temperature (23.5°C (74.3°F) / 21°C
(69.8°F), 23.5°C (74.3°F) / 23.5°C (74.3°F), 26°C (78.8°F) /
23.5°C (74.3°F), 26°C (78.8°F) / 26°C (78.8°F)), four airflow
rates of the personalized air (4 (8.48), 8 (16.95), 12 (25.43),
16 (33.91) L/s (cfm)) and positioning of the manikin directly
below the nozzle (1.3m (4.265ft) distance between the top of
manikin’s head and the nozzle). The asymmetric exposure of
the body to the personalized flow was studied by moving the
manikin 0.2m (0.656ft) forward, backward and sideward. The
blockage effect of the unheated manikin on the personalized
airflow distribution, studied at the case 23.5°C (74.3°F)/
23.5°C (74.3°F), was clearly observed 0.2m (0.656ft) above
the top of manikin’s head where the centerline velocity was
reduced to about 85% under all personalized airflow rates. The
neutral level, Xnl, defined as the distance from the nozzle where
the impact of the thermal plume on the velocity distribution in
the personalized airflow was observed, increased from 0.8m
(2.625ft) to 1.1m (3.609ft) with the increase of the airflow rate.
Above 16L/s (33.91cfm) the personalized airflow was able to
completely destroy the thermal plume. In comparison with the
reference case without personalized airflow, the manikin based
equivalent temperature for the head decreased with the
increase of the airflow rate from -1°C (-1.8°F) to -6°C (-
10.8°F) under 23.5°C (74.3°F)/21°C (69.8°F) case and from
(78.8°F) case, which are the two extreme cases among the four
cases studied. The personalized airflow was least efficient to
cool the body when the manikin was moved forward.
INTRODUCTION
Personalized ventilation aims to provide clean and cool
air in the vicinity of the breathing zone of human body and thus
to improve inhaled air quality. Occupants’ thermal comfort is
also improved, especially at relatively high room temperatures
(Gong et al. 2005, Kaczmarczyk et al. 2006). Most often,
personalized ventilation systems (PV) with desk mounted air
terminal devices (ATD) have been studied (Faulkner et al.,
1999, Tszuzuki et al. 1999, Melikov et al. 2002, Kaczmarc-
zyk et al. 2004, etc.). The idea of ceiling mounted PV ATD
provides more flexibility in arranging the furniture in the
occupied zone. It also improves the indoor aesthetics because
extended air ducts for transporting of clean and cool air to
different workstations are not needed. Occupants may be
provided with individual control of the PV airflow rate in order
to obtain preferred micro-environment in term of thermal
comfort and indoor air quality.
The cooling effect of ceiling mounted nozzle depends on
the PV airflow rate and the temperature of the PV supply air
(Yang et. al. 2008). The size of the nozzle (its diameter if it is
circular nozzle) and the initial airflow conditions at the exit
define the size of the target area in contact with the body. The
system can be regarded as one kind of individual spot cooling
system by vertical air jet, which can provide occupants with
acceptable thermal comfort conditions (Azer et al. 1971, 1972;
Azer and Nevins 1974; Olesen and Nielsen 1980, 1983; Ma
and Qin 1991; Melikov et al. 1994, 1994a). At constant airflow

Bin Yang is a doctoral student in the NUS-DTU Joint PhD program and Chandra Sekhar is an associate professor in the Department of Build-
ing, National University of Singapore (NUS), Singapore. Arsen Melikov is an associate professor in the Department of Civil Engineering,
Technical University of Denmark (DTU), Denmark.

©2009 ASHRAE 395

rate, the increasing of the nozzle outlet diameter will reduce air
velocity of the personalized airflow but will increase the size
of the target area of the jet (target area is defined as the cross
section of the jet where it first meets the occupant) while
decreasing nozzle diameter will increase airflow velocity at
the target area but will decrease its size, i.e. the airflow will not
cover occupant’s body (Melikov et al. 1994a). Human body
will affect the personalized airflow as an obstacle and with the
generated thermal plume. The characteristics of the thermal
plume generated by human body depend on the body posture
(standing and seated), clothing design and thermal insulation,
type of the chair, surrounding air and radiant temperature, etc.
(Hyldgaard 1998, Zukowska et al. 2007, 2007a). The interac-
tion of the personalized airflow with the thermal plume gener-
ated by the human body is of major importance for the body
cooling. It may also affect the air distribution pattern in the
entire space. In reality, people at workplaces will move and
may not be located directly below the nozzle. The asymmetric
exposure of the body, i.e. the changes in positioning of the
thermal plume will affect its interaction with the personalized
airflow, which will result in a non-uniform cooling of the body.
Thus the whole body cooling effect of the personalized airflow
will decrease while the local cooling of some body parts may
increase leading to draught discomfort. These effects need to
be studied for proper design of ceiling mounted personalized
ventilation.
The interaction of the personalized airflow from ceiling
mounted PV nozzle with the thermal plume from human body
and its whole body and local cooling effect was studied under
Figure 1 Personalized ventilation (PV) laboratory.
396
different conditions. The impact of occupant’s movement on
the airflow interaction and thus on the body cooling was
explored. The results are presented and discussed in this paper.
It may be noted that CFD tools could be employed in stud-
ies involving room air distribution. A validated CFD model is
useful for parametric variation studies in which refine grids
become essential, especially for simulating thermal plume
around human body. However, this is beyond the scope of the
present paper.
METHODS
Experimental Set-Up
Experiments were conducted in a field laboratory (4.7m
(15.42ft)×5.4m (17.71ft)×2.6m (8.53ft)) specially designed
for studying PV systems. An air distribution system was modi-
fied to provide personalized air to a nozzle mounted at the ceil-
ing in the middle of the room (Figure 1). The nozzle with a
parabolic contracting profile was designed to generate vertical
downward circular free jet with initial diameter of 0.095m
(0.312ft) and uniform velocity profile. The nozzle was
connected to a circular duct with its larger diameter of 0.16m
(0.525ft). The exit of the installed nozzle was located at the
height of 2.5m (8.202ft) above the floor.
The ambient cooling in the PV lab was managed by a
mixing ventilation system supplying airflow from four swirl
diffusers symmetrically mounted on the ceiling. One return air
grill was located at the upper part of one side wall and a
completely ducted return route was used.
ASHRAE Transactions
Measuring Instruments Experiments were performed at four different personalized
airflow rates (4, 8, 12 and 16 L/s) [8.48. 16.95, 25.43 and
A thermal manikin consisting of 23 individually
33.91cfm]. The supply temperature of personalized airflow was
controlled body segments with the size of an average Scandi-
controlled at 21°C (69.8°F) and 23.5°C (74.3°F). The room air
navian woman was used to resemble human body with the
temperature was controlled at 23.5°C (74.3°F) and 26°C
generated thermal plume. A comfort control mode was used,
(78.8°F). As a result, four temperature combinations were
i.e. the surface temperature of the manikin was controlled to be
achieved: 23.5°C (74.3°F) / 21°C (69.8°F), 23.5°C (74.3°F) /
the same as the skin temperature of an average person in state
23.5°C (74.3°F), 26°C (78.8°F) / 23.5°C (74.3°F), 26°C
of thermal comfort under the exposed environmental condi-
(78.8°F) / 26°C (78.8°F)). The isothermal case 23.5°C (74.3°F)
tions (Tanabe et al., 1994). The control system allows for read-
/ 23.5°C (74.3°F) was selected to explore velocity distribution
ing of the surface temperature of each body segment and the
under the nozzle without manikin, with unheated manikin and
supplied heat power. The manikin was dressed with long
with heated manikin. Average velocity and Reynolds number at
sleeve shirt, trousers, underwear, socks and shoes at about
nozzle exit, centerline velocity at target area without manikin
0.7clo (0.1085m2K/W) thermal insulation and was seated in
under this isothermal case are listed in Table 1.
an office chair with thermal insulation of approximately 0.15-
0.2 clo (0.02325-0.031 m2K/W).
Multi-channel low velocity thermal anemometer with
five omni-directional velocity probes (SENSOR-ELEC-
TRONIC HT-400) was used to perform measurements of
velocity field in the personalized airflow. The velocity
measurement range of the system was 0.05m/s (±0.164fps) to
5m/s (±16.4fps), with the accuracy of ±0.03m/s (±0.098fps).
In order to obtain accurate velocity results, all probes were
calibrated before the measurements in a low velocity wind
tunnel. A rake of five velocity probes placed beside each other
horizontally (Figure 1) was used to measure velocity distribu-
tion at eight cross sections of the airflow above the manikin as
schematically shown in Figure 2. For the two cross sections
close to the nozzle outlet, 5 points were selected. For other
cross sections, velocity measurements at 9 points were
performed. Another single channel low velocity thermal
anemometer with omni-directional probe (SWEMA 300) was
used for measuring velocity at nozzle outlet. The accuracy of
the instrument was ±0.03 m/s (±0.098fps) and it was cali-
brated by the manufacturer. Each of the velocity measure-
ments lasted 3 minutes.

Experimental Conditions
The distance between nozzle outlet and the head of the
seated manikin was 1.3m (4.265ft). The nozzle was selected
according to the jet theory (Awbi, 2003) to provide airflow
with diameter of 0.35-0.5m (1.148-1.64ft) at the target area,
i.e. a airflow covering the head/shoulders of the seated mani-
kin. Depending on the supply airflow rate the potential core
region of the generated personalized airflow was 0.25-0.45m Figure 2 Distribution of omni-directional thermal
(0.82-1.476ft) long. anemometer probes.

Table 1. Personalized Air Velocity at Nozzle Exit and Target Area under Different Personalized Airflow Rates

Personalized Airflow Rate (L/s, cfm) Exit Velocity (m/s, fps) Re Number Target Velocity (m/s, fps)
4 (8.48) 0.55 (1.804) 3393 0.24 (0.787)
8 (16.95) 1.22 (4.003) 7526 0.39 (1.28)
12 (25.43) 1.52 (4.987) 9377 0.61 (2.001)
16 (33.91) 1.96 (6.43) 12091 0.8 (2.625)

ASHRAE Transactions 397

 The Reynolds number is defined as follows: performed in the case of free vertical jet without manikin, with
unheated manikin and with heated manikin. Mean velocity
Re = ud ⁄ υ (1)
profiles measured at selected cross sections without manikin,
υ = μ⁄ρ (2) with unheated manikin and with heated manikin were
compared for exploring the blockage effect and the neutral
Where level. The mean velocity profiles measured at selected cross
u = exit velocity (m/s, fps) sections with a heated manikin at 4 L/s (8.48 cfm) is shown in
d = characteristic length (diameter of nozzle outlet) Figure 3. Velocity profiles similar to those shown in Figure 3
(m, ft) were obtained for the remaining airflow rates of 8, 12 and 16
υ = kinematic viscosity (m²/s, ft2/s) L/s (16.95, 25.43 and 33.91 cfm) and similar results have been
observed. At the two cross sections close to nozzle outlet,
µ = dynamic viscosity of the fluid (N·s/m², lbm/ft·h)
centerline velocities are only slightly lower than the velocity
ρ = density of the fluid (kg/m³) at nozzle outlet because they were within the core region. The
comparison of the results show that at 4 L/s (8.48 cfm) the
Furthermore, experiments with manikin moved 0.2m
blocking effect of the unheated manikin on velocity distribu-
(0.656ft) forward, backward and sideward were performed to
tion in the personalized airflow was observed after approxi-
simulate occupant’s movement in reality at workplace and to
mately. 11.58 initial nozzle diameters, i.e. approximately. at
study its impact on the airflow interaction. All temperature
combinations under different personalized airflow rates were distance of 1.1m (3.609ft) from the exit of the nozzle and 0.2m
explored. Some results, which include 16 L/s (33.91cfm) (0.656ft) from manikin’s head. The centerline velocity in the
personalized airflow rate under different temperature combi- personalized airflow at a distance x/D=11.58 is substantially
nations and isothermal case 23.5°C (74.3°F)/23.5°C (74.3°F) lower with manikin present than without manikin. The veloc-
under different personalized airflow rates were utilized to ity measurements at 8, 12 and 16 L/s (16.95. 25.43 and 33.91
demonstrate the change of local cooling effect. cfm) were analyzed in similar way and show a similar trend.
Figure 4 compares the dimensionless centerline velocity V/Vo
Data Analyses without manikin, with unheated manikin and with heated
manikin at 4 L/s (8.48 cfm). Similar plots were also obtained
The measurements allowed for determination of the
for 8, 12 and 16 L/s (16.95, 25.43 and 33.91 cfm) personalised
blockage effect and the neutral level in the airflow. The block-
airflow. The results identify that the blockage effect of the
age effect was caused by unheated manikin, which can be only
unheated manikin is observed almost at the same cross section,
regarded as an obstacle for the personalized airflow. The
which was 0.2m (0.656ft) above manikin’s head. Centerline
neutral level, Xnl, was defined as the vertical distance from the
velocity began to reduce at that level under different person-
nozzle to the point where the impact of the thermal plume on
alized airflow rates. Although the absolute values of the reduc-
the velocity distribution in the personalized airflow begins to
tions were different, the reduction ratios defined as the
be observed, i.e. the vertical distance from the nozzle to the
centerline velocity with unheated manikin divided by the
point where the difference in velocity distribution across the
airflow with and without the presence of heated manikin was
observed.
In order to quantify the cooling effect of the thermal envi-
ronment which the manikin was exposed to, sensible heat loss
measured from each body segment as well as from the whole-
body of the manikin was transformed into a parameter named
manikin-based equivalent temperature. The manikin-based
equivalent temperature was defined as the temperature of a
uniform enclosure in which a thermal manikin with realistic
skin surface temperature would lose heat at the same rate as it
would in the actual environment (Nilson et al. 1999). The
difference of manikin based equivalent temperature with and
without personalized air supply (ΔTeq) calculated for each
body segment and for the whole body was used as an evaluat-
ing index. The manikin was calibrated before the experiments.

RESULTS

Airflow Interaction
Comprehensive measurements of the velocity field across Figure 3 Air velocity profile under 4 L/s personalized
the personalized airflow at eight different cross sections were airflow rate with heated manikin.

398 ASHRAE Transactions

centerline velocity without manikin were almost same, 85%
(Table 2). Air velocity along the jet radius at this cross section
increased slightly because of the bypass airflow.
The thermal plume generated by the heated manikin
created further resistance for the personalized airflow. For
example the comparison of the centerline velocity measured
with heated manikin at x/D= 10.53 and 11.58 is lower than the
centerline velocity measured with unheated manikin and with-
out manikin. Clear deformation of the velocity profiles and
reduction of the centerline velocity due to the impact of the
interaction of the personalized airflow and thermal plume
from the manikin was observed at a distance of x/D= 8.42 [0.8
m (2.625 ft)] that is much closer to the nozzle exit, i.e. further
from the manikin’s head [0.5 m (1.64ft)], than in the case of
unheated manikin. As expected, stronger deformation of the
velocity field of the personalized airflow was seen at low
airflow rates, because the personalized airflow was not strong
enough to offset the thermal plume close to the manikin, i.e.
the strength of the thermal plume (centerline velocity of about
0.25 m/s (0.82fps)) was comparable to the strength of the
personalized airflow (centerline velocity of 0.3 m/s
Figure 4 Comparison of centreline velocity distribution:
V (m/s)—centreline mean velocity; V0 (m/s)—
mean velocity at nozzle outlet; X (m)—distance
between measuring point and nozzle outlet;
D (m)—nozzle diameter.
Table 2. Centreline Velocity and Reduction Ratio of Centreline Velocity at 0.2m (0.656ft) above Manikin’s Head
Centerline velocity without manikin (m/s, fps)
Centerline velocity with unheated manikin (m/s, fps)
Reduction ratio (%)
Table 3. Dimensionless Neutral Level as a Function of Personalized Airflow Rates
PV air flow rate (L/s, cfm) 4 (8.48)
Dimensionless neutral level (Xn/D) 8.42
Note：Xnl (m) – neutral level; D (m) – nozzle diameter
ASHRAE Transactions
(0.984fps)). The neutral level at 4 L/s (8.48cfm) personalized
airflow rate was 0.8 m (2.625ft). Similarly the interaction of
the two airflows and the neutral levels were identified under all
personalized airflow rates. At 16 L/s (33.91cfm) the person-
alized airflow was strong enough to almost completely destroy
the thermal plume. This can be seen from the centerline
dimensionless velocity shown in Figure 4. The neutral levels
increased from 0.8 m (2.625ft) to 1.1m (3.609ft) when person-
alized airflow rates increased from 4 L/s (8.48cfm) to 16 L/s
(33.91cfm), as shown in Table 3; the stronger the personalized
airflow was, the easier it could offset the opposing thermal
plume generated by the heated manikin.
Based on plots similar to the one shown in Figure 4, it was
observed that the blockage effect of the unheated manikin and
neutral level appeared at the same cross section at 16 L/s
(33.91cfm) personalized airflow rate, which confirms that the
personalized airflow at 16 L/s (33.91cfm) was strong enough
to destroy the thermal plume.
Heat Loss from Manikin’s Body
The interaction of the personalized airflow with the ther-
mal plume generated by the manikin had direct effect on the
equivalent temperature determined by the manikin. Figure 5
shows the difference in segmented equivalent temperature
determined from the reference measurement, i.e. without
personalized airflow, and the measurements with personalized
jet at different airflow rates under 23.5°C (74.3°F)/21°C
(69.8°F) temperature combination. As expected, the results
identify that the head region of the manikin (scull, left/right
face, back of the neck) were the body segments most cooled by
the personalized airflow. For left/right face, ΔTeq changed
from -1°C (-1.8°F) to -6°C (-10.8°F) under 23.5°C (74.3°F)/
21°C (69.8°F) case and from -0.5°C (-0.9°F) to -4°C (-7.2°F)
under 26°C (78.8°F)/26°C (78.8°F) case when the PV airflow
rate increased. These are the two extreme cases among the four
cases. For scull, ΔTeq changed from -0.5°C (-0.9°F) to -4°C (-
7.2°F) under 23.5°C (74.3°F)/21°C (69.8°F) case and from -
0.25°C (-0.45°F) to -2°C (-3.6°F) under 26°C (78.8°F)/26°C
(78.8°F) case. For back of the neck, ΔTeq changed from -0.7 °C
(-1.26°F) to -4.5°C (-8.1°F) under 23.5°C (74.3°F)/21°C
(69.8°F) case and from -0.5°C (-0.9°F) to -2.5°C (-4.5°F)
4L/s, cfm 8L/s, cfm 12L/s, cfm 16L/s, cfm
0.29 (0.951) 0.49 (1.608) 0.7 (2.297) 0.92 (3.018)
0.24 (0.787) 0.42 (1.378) 0.6 (1.969) 0.81 (2.657)
82.8 85.7 85.7 88.0
8 (16.95) 12 (25.43) 16 (33.91)
9.47 10.53 11.58
399
Figure 5 Cooling effect analysis under 23.5°C/21°C temperature combination.
under 26°C (78.8°F)/26°C (78.8°F) case. This means that the
cooling due to the personalized airflow was as much as the
cooling which would be obtained when corresponding room
air temperature drop was achieved. For left and right chest,
ΔTeq changed from -0.5°C (-0.9°F) to -3.5°C (-6.3°F) under
23.5°C (74.3°F)/21°C (69.8°F) case and from -0.25°C (-
0.45°F) to -2°C (-3.6°F) under 26°C (78.8°F)/26°C (78.8°F)
case, when the airflow rate increased. The cooling effect of
whole body was smaller, from -0.25°C (-0.45°F) to -2°C (-
3.6°F) under 23.5°C (74.3°F)/21°C (69.8°F) case and from -
0.1°C (-0.18°F) to -1.5°C (-2.7°F) under 26°C (78.8°F)/26°C
(78.8°F) case, when the PV airflow rate increased. Figure 6
shows the difference in segmented equivalent temperature
determined from the reference measurement, i.e. without
personalized airflow, and the measurements with personalized
jet at different PV/ambient temperature combinations under
16 L/s (33.91cfm) PV airflow rates. Under the lowest person-
alized airflow rates 4 L/s (8.48cfm), ΔTeq changed from -0.6°C
(-1.08°F) to -1.1°C (-1.98°F), from -0.2°C (-0.36°F) to -0.6°C
(-1.08°F), from -0.3°C (-0.54°F) to -0.7°C (-1.26°F) and from
-0.3°C (-0.54°F) to -0.7°C (-1.26°F) for left/right face, for
scull, for back of the neck, for left and right chest, respectively.
Under the highest personalized airflow rates 16 L/s
(33.91cfm), ΔTeq changed from -4°C (-7.2°F) to -6.2°C (-
11.16°F), from -2°C-3.6°F) to -4.5°C (-8.1°F), from -2.5°C (-
4.5°F) to -4.7°C (-8.46°F) and from -2.5°C (-4.5°F) to -4°C (-
7.2°F) for left/right face, for scull, for back of the neck, for left
and right chest, respectively.
The impact of PV/Ambient temperature combination on
the equivalent temperature was demonstrated. Due to an
increase in the airflow rate, the segmented equivalent temper-
ature at the face decreased by 5°C (9°F) at 21°C (69.8°F)
400
personalized air and by 4°C (7.2°F) at 23.5°C (74.3°F) person-
alized air when room air temperature was 23.5°C (74.3°F).
The segmented equivalent temperature at the face decreased
by 3.4°C (6.12°F) at 23.5°C (74.3°F) personalized air and by
3.3°C (5.94°F) at 26°C (78.8°F) personalized air when room
air temperature was 26°C (78.8°F). This indicates that the
influence of personalized air temperature on equivalent
temperature at the face becomes striking when room air
temperature becomes low. Due to an increase in the airflow
rate, the segmented equivalent temperature at the face
decreased by 4°C (7.2°F) at 23.5°C (74.3°F) room air temper-
ature and by 3.4°C (6.12°F) at 26°C (78.8°F) room air temper-
ature when personalized air temperature was 23.5°C (74.3°F).
This indicates that the equivalent temperature at the face was
also affected by room air temperature. The lowest whole-body
equivalent temperature is 21.5°C (70.7°F) at 23.5°C (74.3°F)/
21°C (69.8°F) temperature combination and 24.3°C (75.74°F)
at 26°C (78.8°F)/23.5°C (74.3°F) temperature combination.
Because of obvious cooling effects of the face and the
chest, six body segments were selected for further analysis,
including the scull, the left face, the right face, the back of
neck, the left chest and the right chest. The results from the
analyses of the results for these body segments are shown in
Figures 7 and 8. The decrease of the equivalent temperature in
comparison with the reference case without personalized
airflow is shown in the figures. The results in the figures reveal
that the influence of the PV airflow rate is not striking when
it is lower than 8 L/s. This influence becomes obvious when
PV airflow rate is greater than 12 L/s (25.43cfm) especially at
personalized air temperature of 21°C (69.8°F). The ranges of
the equivalent temperature determined for the selected six
ASHRAE Transactions
Figure 6 Cooling effect analysis under 16 L/s PV airflow rate.
Figure 7 Cooling effect analysis under different personalized airflow rates.
body segments at the four temperature combinations studied
when the personalized airflow changed from 4 L/s (8.48cfm)
to 16 L/s (33.91cfm) are shown in Figure 9. Figure 10 shows
the ranges of equivalent temperature obtained for the 4, 8, 12
and 16 L/s (8.48, 16.95, 25.43 and 33.91 cfm) at the temper-
ature combinations studied. The left face and the right face are
the two body segments cooled mostly when the airflow
increased from 4 L/s (8.48cfm) to 16 L/s (33.91cfm). At 26°C
(78.8°F). the equivalent temperature for the left and right face
ASHRAE Transactions
decreased by 4°C (7.2°F) when the airflow rate increased and
by 5°C (9°F) to 6°C (10.8°F) at 23.5°C (74.3°F) room air
temperature (Figure 9). The cooling effect of the increased
airflow rate on the remaining four body segments was about
2°C (3.6°F) at 26°C (78.8°F) room air temperature and 3°C
(5.4°F) to 4°C (7.2°F) at 23.5°C (74.3°F) room air tempera-
ture. The influence of the PV airflow rate on the equivalent
temperature becomes obvious when PV airflow rate is greater
than 12 L/s (25.43cfm) (Figure 10). The decrease in the
401
Figure 8 Cooling effect analysis under different ambient/PV temperature combinations.

Figure 9 Ranges of segmented equivalent temperature determined at four PV/ambient temperature combinations when PV
airflow rate was changed from 4 L/s to 16 L/s. Each line end indicates the highest and lowest of ET.

equivalent temperature is largest when the PV airflow rate
changes from 12 L/s (25.43cfm) to 16 L/s (33.91cfm), i.e. the
penetration effect of the personalized air over thermal plume
felt at 8 L/s (16.95 cfm) increases with the increase of the
airflow rate and causes more cooling of the body.
The impact of the body positioning with regard to the
personalized airflow on its cooling was studied under all
experimental conditions. The asymmetrical cooling effect of
the body was strongest at high airflow rate. The cooling effect,
i.e. ΔTeq, at personalized airflow rate at 16 L/s (33.91 cfm) and
different temperature combinations is shown in Figure 11. The
cooling effect decreased with the decrease of the airflow rate
however the impact of the positioning of the manikin on the
cooling of the body segments was the same. When the manikin
was moved forward or backward, the cooling effect was
reduced for the body segments remaining outside the person-
alized airflow. As expected, positioning the manikin sideward,
caused asymmetry in the cooling of the face, the hands, the

402 ASHRAE Transactions

Figure 10 Ranges of segmented equivalent temperature determined at four PV airflow rates under four different PV/ambient
temperature combinations. Each line end indicates the highest and lowest of ET.

Figure 11 Occupant movement analysis under 16 L/s personalized airflow rate and different temperature combinations.

forearm, the upper arm and the chest. Moving the manikin
forward decreased mostly the cooling effect of the personal-
ized airflow for the whole body because the lower body part
was moved away from the jet. The cooling effect determined
at 23.5°C (74.3°F)/21°C (69.8°F) temperature combination
and different personalized airflow rates is shown in Figure 12.
The asymmetry in the local cooling of the body increased with
the increase of the airflow rate, especially above 8 L/s
(16.95 cfm).
DISCUSSION
The airflow rate and the temperature of the personalized
air and the ambient air temperature influenced the cooling
effect of the jet from the ceiling mounted nozzle. For the
ranges of these three parameters studied, the personalized
airflow rate is the most important factor which influences the
equivalent temperature, i.e. the heat loss from the manikins’
body. The cooling of the body segments was strongly asym-
metrical, i.e. the head (scull, left/right face, back of neck) and

ASHRAE Transactions 403

Figure 12 Occupant movement analysis under 23.5°C/21°C temperature combination and different personalized airflow rates.
left/right chest were the most cooled body segments. For
example, the equivalent temperature at the face decreased
from 3°C (5.4°F) to 5°C (9°F) in comparison with the refer-
ence condition without personalized airflow when personal-
ized airflow rate changes from 4 L/s (8.48cfm) to 16 L/s
(33.91cfm). For the face segment, the equivalent temperature
decreased by 0.5°C (0.9°F) when the personalized airflow
increased by 1L/s (2.119cfm) under the temperature condi-
tions 23.5°C (74.3°F)/21°C (69.8°F) (ambient temperature/
PV temperature). The equivalent temperature decreased by
0.3°C (0.54°F) when PV temperature decreased by 1°C
(1.8°F) at 16 L/s (33.91 cfm) personalized airflow rates and
23.5°C (74.3°F) room air temperature. Similarly, decrease in
the equivalent temperature was obtained when at 16 L/s
(33.91cfm) and 23.5°C (74.3°F) PV temperature the room
temperature decreased by 1°C (1.8°F). The whole body cool-
ing was much less affected by the change of the airflow rate
than the cooling of the segments directly exposed to the
personalized flow. The feet, lower legs, back thighs and the
back side of the manikin’s body were almost not cooled (ΔTeq
< 0.2°C (0.36°F)) and the hands, forearms, upper arms and
back were cooled only slightly (ΔTeq <0.5°C (0.9°F)) by the
personalized airflow. The identified large asymmetry in the
body cooling suggest that in practice the maximum cooling of
individually controlled personalized air flow from ceiling
mounted nozzles will be limited due to the risk of local thermal
discomfort for the occupants.
Due to the positioning of the air supply nozzles far from
the occupant, the cooling effect of ceiling mounted personal-
ized ventilation system is lower than the cooling effect of desk
mounted PV system. For example, the manikin based equiv-
404
alent temperature obtained for the face with desk mounted PV
at 23.5°C (74.3°F)/21°C (69.8°F) with personalized flow rate
of 16 (33.91) L/s (cfm) as reported by Gong et al. (2006) was
4°C (7.2°F) lower than the equivalent temperature obtained in
this study with ceiling mounted nozzle.
The pressure exercised by the personalized airflow
locally on the body (mainly the top of the head), will be
another factor which will influence the human response to the
vertically applied personalized airflow and thus the perfor-
mance of personalized ventilation with ceiling mounted
nozzles in practice. The results suggest that individual control
of the personalized airflow rate is essential in practice for
compensating the large differences which exist between
people with regard to preferred thermal sensation and air
movement. Individual control of personalized airflow rate
should also be considered as an important factor in the design
of ceiling mounted personalized ventilation nozzles.
People, while performing work at their desks, will typi-
cally move their body and this will affect the interaction of the
thermal plume above the body with the personalized airflow
from the ceiling. The asymmetrical cooling effect of the body
increased when personalized airflow rate increased. For the
cases introducing the movement of manikin forward or back-
ward, cooling effect of corresponding body segments moving
outside the personalized airflow was reduced. As expected, for
the cases of moving the manikin sideward, obvious asymme-
try for cooling effect was observed in the following body
segments: face, hand, forearm, upper arm and chest. For
whole-body cooling effect, the case of moving the manikin
forward was the worst case because lower body part was
moved far away from the jet target area.
ASHRAE Transactions
 For energy conservation purpose, supplying warmer
personalized air is better than supplying cooler personalized
air so as to obtaining the same cooling effect. The largest
equivalent temperature differences obtained for different body
segments change from -1°C (-1.8°F) to -6°C (-10.8°F) under
23.5°C (74.3°F)/21°C (69.8°F) temperature combination
when personalized airflow rates increase from 4 L/s (8.48 cfm)
to 16 L/s (33.91 cfm). 23.5°C (74.3°F)/21°C (69.8°F) temper-
ature combination is the case which can achieve highest cool-
ing asymmetry among the 4 temperature combinations. 16 L/
s (33.91 cfm) personalized airflow rate, which can destroy
thermal plume completely, is suggested as maximum airflow
rate acceptable to people.
CONCLUSION
The interaction of personalized airflow supplied from the
ceiling mounted circular nozzle with a seated full size thermal
manikin was studied with respect to the airflow distribution
and its body cooling effect.
The blocking effect of unheated manikin on the person-
alized airflow supplied from above was observed up to 0.2m
(0.656ft) above manikin’s head and was not affected by the
personalized airflow rate. The centerline velocity was reduced
by 85%.
The neutral level obtained with heated manikin increased
from 0.8m (2.625ft) to 1.1m (3.609ft) with the increase of the
airflow rate.
Under the set-up used in the present study, personalized
airflow at 16 L/s (33.91cfm) was strong enough to destroy the
thermal plume from the manikin and to efficiently provide
cooling to manikin’s body.
The scull, the left/right face and the back of neck were the
body segments most cooled by the personalized airflow. The
cooling effect increased with the increase of the personalized
airflow rate and the decrease of the room and personalized air
temperature. The maximum cooling of the left/right face
obtained at room temperature of 23.5°C (74.3°F) and person-
alized airflow with temperature of 21°C (69.8°F) and airflow
rate of 16 L/s (33.91 cfm) was comparable with the cooling
effect caused by 6°C (10.8°F) decrease of the room air temper-
ature without personalized airflow. The cooling effect of the
personalized airflow on the whole body was smaller.
The influence of personalized air temperature on equiv-
alent temperature at the face becomes striking when room air
temperature becomes low. The equivalent temperature at the
face was also affected by room air temperature. The lowest
whole-body equivalent temperature is 21.5°C (70.7°F) at
23.5°C (74.3°F)/21°C (69.8°F) temperature combination and
24.3°C (75.74°F) at 26°C (78.8°F)/23.5°C (74.3°F) temper-
ature combination. Personalized airflow rate is the most
important factor which influences the equivalent temperature
the most.
For the ranges of change of these three parameters stud-
ied, the personalized airflow rate is the most important factor
ASHRAE Transactions
which influences the equivalent temperature, i.e. the heat loss
from manikins’ body.
Obvious asymmetry for cooling effect was observed
when manikin was moved forward, backward and sideward.
The whole-body cooling effect of the personalized airflow was
minimal when the manikin was moved forward and its lower
body part remain out of the jet.
The findings presented in this paper pertain to a ceiling
mounted PV nozzle working in conjunction with a ceiling
supply mixing ventilation system If a different type of room
ventilation diffuser or ventilation strategy is employed the
results would likely be somewhat different. However, a ceiling
mounted nozzle with high supply momentum would minimize
the influence from other diffusers, either adjacent ones or
those that are used as displacement ventilation or under-floor
air distribution diffusers. It is to be noted that the farther the
distance between ceiling mounted nozzles and normal diffus-
ers, less will be the influence.
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DISCUSSION
John Zhai, Assistant Professor, University of Colorado at
Boulder, Boulder, CO: For a ceiling-mounted PV system,
what about the thermal comfort performance related to draft
issue and the IAQ performance due to the offset of downward
cool jet flow and upward human thermal plume?
Bin Yang: Corresponding human subjective assessments
under this new system were done by introducing 32 tropically
acclimatized persons. The local and whole body thermal
sensation decreased when PV airflow rates increased. No draft
sensation was observed, even under high PV airflow rates and
a low PV supply air temperature. Inhaled air quality improved
when PV airflow rates increased. Compared with conven-
tional mixing ventilation systems, the improvement of inhaled
air quality was validated by both objective tracer gas measure-
ments and human subjective assessments.
ASHRAE Transactions
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