Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
REVIEW
Techno-Economic Evaluation of Producing Ethanol from Softwood:
Comparison of SSF and SHF and Identification of Bottlenecks
Anders Wingren, Mats Galbe, and Guido Zacchi*
Department of Chemical Engineering, Lund University, P.O. Box 124, S-221 00 Lund, Sweden
The aim of the study was to evaluate, from a technical and economic standpoint,
the enzymatic processes involved in the production of fuel ethanol from softwood.
Two base case configurations, one based on simultaneous saccharification and
fermentation (SSF) and one based on separate hydrolysis and fermentation
(SHF), were evaluated and compared. The process conditions selected were based
mainly on laboratory data, and the processes were simulated by use of Aspen plus.
The capital costs were estimated using the Icarus Process Evaluator. The ethanol
production costs for the SSF and SHF base cases were 4.81 and 5.32 SEK/L or 0.57
and 0.63 USD/L (1 USD ) 8.5SEK), respectively. The main reason for SSF being
lower was that the capital cost was lower and the overall ethanol yield was higher. A
major drawback of the SSF process is the problem with recirculation of yeast follow-
ing the SSF step. Major economic improvements in both SSF and SHF could be
achieved by increasing the income from the solid fuel coproduct. This is done by
lowering the energy consumption in the process through running the enzymatic
hydrolysis or the SSF step at a higher substrate concentration and by recycling
the process streams. Running SSF with use of 8% rather than 5% nonsoluble
solid material would result in a 19% decrease in production cost. If after distillation
60% of the stillage stream was recycled back to the SSF step, the production cost
would be reduced by 14%. The cumulative effect of these various improvements
was found to result in a production cost of 3.58 SEK/L (0.42 USD/L) for the SSF
process.
Contents Introduction
Introduction 1 In Sweden there is an increasing interest in using
Materials and Methods 3 ethanol as a neat or blended fuel in the transportation
sector as a substitute for fossil fuels such as gasoline and
Process Description 3
diesel. In 2001 the first full-scale plant in Sweden for
General Process and Design Data 4 producing ethanol from a renewable raw material was
Simulation Software 4 started in the city of Norrköping. It has the capacity of
Economics 4 producing 50 000 m3 of ethanol per year to be blended
5 with gasoline up to a level of 5% ethanol. The plant uses
Results and Discussion
wheat as the major raw material. If larger quantities of
Base Cases 5 the gasoline are to be replaced, a cheap and abundant
Sensitivity Analysis 5 raw material needs to be employed. In Sweden lignocel-
Improvements in the Base Cases 6 lulosic materials such as softwood are readily available
Effect of Yield 6 in the form of logging waste and waste from the forest
industry. It has been estimated that there is sufficient
Initial Substrate Loading in SSF 6 biomass available for 26% of the gasoline or 40% of the
and EH Steps diesel used in the transportation sector to be replaced
Process Integration 7 by ethanol (1). Since such biomass is a renewable and
Effect of Residence Time in SSF 7 indigenous raw material, its use would also make Sweden
and EH Steps on Ethanol Cost less dependent on imported gasoline.
Plant Capacity 7 The reasons for using ethanol from renewable sources
Cumulative Effect of 7 as a fuel are many. In contrast with fossil oil, the net
Improvements
Conclusions 8 * To whom correspondence should be addressed. Tel: +46 (0)-
46 82 97. Fax +46 (0)46 45 26. E-mail: guido.zacchi@chemeng.lth.se.
10.1021/bp0340180 CCC: $25.00 © 2003 American Chemical Society and American Institute of Chemical Engineers
Published on Web 06/10/2003
1110 Biotechnol. Prog., 2003, Vol. 19, No. 4
Figure 1. The two base cases, SSF and SHF. SSF: simultaneous saccharification and fermentation. SHF: separate hydrolysis and
fermentation. EH: enzymatic hydrolysis.
future. These include the achieving of a higher overall In the pretreatment step, other components, besides
ethanol yield, carrying out SSF and EH using higher those described above, are also formed. The chemistry is
initial substrate concentrations, reducing the residence very complex, and most of the compounds produced are
times required in SSF and EH, and increasing the unknown. These unknowns were described in the simu-
capacity of ethanol plants. The approach of recycling lations in terms of three components formed from the
process streams to achieve better process integration was degradation of hexoses, pentoses, and lignin, respectively.
evaluated from a technical and economic standpoint. In Ten percent of the lignin was assumed to be degraded or
the cases considered, the streams prior to and after solubilized. For the hexosans and pentosans that did not
distillation were recycled to the hydrolysis or the SSF form monomers, HMF, or furfural, the conversion was
step, reducing the need for fresh water. A sensitivity assumed to be such that 2% remained unchanged after
analysis was also conducted for evaluating the impact of pretreatment.
the cost and/or the load of enzymes on the overall After pretreatment the concentrations of nonsoluble
production cost of ethanol. The study aimed neither at solids (solid fraction remaining after filtration and wash-
determining the absolute costs of ethanol production nor ing) are high, and water is needed to dilute the feedstock
an economic optimization in production of it, but rather into the EH or the SSF units. For each of the two base
at comparing the production costs of the two processes cases examined the water added is considered to be fresh
on an equal basis and studying the effects of different water, the concentration of nonsoluble solid material
parameters on the ethanol production costs. being set to be 5% (w/w). The use of fresh water and the
low substrate concentration in the SSF and EH steps are
Materials and Methods scarcely feasible from a techno-economic standpoint,
Process Description. Figure 1 shows the SSF and because large effluent streams would be created and the
SHF processes that were evaluated in the study. capital costs and energy consumption in the downstream
The raw material was assumed to consist of spruce processing steps would be high. However, this water and
with a water content of 50%; 45% of the dry matter is solid mixture was chosen since most of the laboratory
glucan, 13% is mannan, and 2% is galactan. Pentosans data is based on the use of fresh water and a 5%
and lignin constitute 7% and 28%, respectively. The concentration. Recycling the process streams and the use
balance is made up of ash, extractives, and acetyl groups. of a higher concentration of nonsoluble solid material are
It is assumed that the woodchips are transported to options considered in the study.
the plant by truck and that in the feedstock handling In the SHF process, pretreatment is followed by EH.
area (not shown) the chips are reduced in size if needed The data used in the study is based on the work of
and are stored in a stack before being fed to the Tengborg et al. (15). The residence time was set to 96 h,
pretreatment area. the temperature to 38 °C, and the yield of glucose from
The pretreatment reactor is assumed to work as a cellulose to 69% at an enzyme activity of 19 FPU/g
StakeTech reactor (13). The woodchips are first impreg- cellulose. The total time for filling, cleaning, and empty-
nated with sulfur dioxide and are then subjected to high- ing was assumed to be 12 h. The reactors were assumed
pressure steam. After pretreatment, the pressure is to be agitated tanks, each 1000 m3 in size and with a
reduced in a two-step procedure, being first reduced to 4 working volume of 800 m3 operated in a simple batch
bar and then to atmospheric pressure. Thus, some of the mode. Agitators with a power consumption of 20 W/m3
flash vapor is available at 144 °C and can be used as a (16) ensure good mixing.
heating medium in the distillation or evaporation steps. In the filtration and washing steps 99% of the solubi-
In the pretreatment step most of the hemicellulose is lized material are recovered. The high recovery can be
broken down to monomeric sugars and byproducts. The attributed to the fact that most of the solubilized material
data on process conditions and yields is based on the work is recovered in the filtration step prior to the addition of
of Tengborg (14). The amount of SO2 used was 2.4 kg/ water in the washing step. Filtration and washing are
100 kg dry wood. The residence time, at a temperature performed in a two-stage counter-current procedure, the
of 215 °C, was 3 min. Some 15.5% of the pentosans are washing curve being based on a washing model developed
converted to furfural, and 1.3% of the hexosans to for the recovery of lignin from pulp residue (17). The
5-hydroxy-2-methylfurfural (HMF). Sixty-five percent of equipment involved is assumed to be rotating-drum
the mannan and galactan and 70% of the xylan and vacuum filters. The solid stream leaving the filter
arabinan are converted to monomers. Fourteen percent contains 40% nonsoluble solid material.
of the cellulose is broken down to glucose. Acetic acid is In the fermentation step of the SHF process the
obtained from the acetyl groups in the wood at a hexoses are converted to ethanol, as well as to byproducts
fractional conversion of 97%. and yeast. The fractional conversion of the hexoses to
1112 Biotechnol. Prog., 2003, Vol. 19, No. 4
ethanol was set to 88%. Five percent of the glucose is Table 1. Costs Used in Evaluation
converted to glycerol, and the remaining glucose would price unit
be used for the production of cell mass. No pentose
raw material (spruce) 440 SEK/ton
fermentation was considered in either the SSF or the utilities
SHF case. The residence time was 24 h. The size of the process water 1.4 SEK/m3
fermentor and the 12 h needed for cleaning and filling cooling water 0.14 SEK/m3
where the same as for the hydrolysis step. After fermen- electricity 200 SEK/MWh
chemicals
tation, the yeast is recycled by two centrifuges connected sulfur dioxide 1200 SEK/ton
in parallel, and no additional yeast is needed. ammonia 2000 SEK/ton
The data for the SSF step were taken from studies by base (lime) 1150 SEK/ton
Stenberg (11, 12). The SSF step is assumed to be run defoamer 20000 SEK/ton
sodium hydroxide 2200 SEK/ton
with use of the same type of fermentors as for the SHF enzymes 19 SEK/1 × 106 FPU
process, with a residence time of 48 h. All reactions that yeast 3100 SEK/ton
take place in EH and fermentation in the SHF base case byproduct credit
are also assumed to take place in SSF and to involve the solid fuel 706 SEK/ton
same conversion. For SSF, however, the conversion of carbon dioxide 100 SEK/ton
other costs
glucan to glucose is set to 86%. The amount of enzymes labor 500000 SEK/(employee year)
added, 32 FPU/g cellulose, is higher than in the SHF base maintenance 2 % of fixed capital
case. The yeast load was initially 4 g/L, somewhat less insurance 1 % of fixed capital
than the concentration used by Stenberg. Since the yeast
in the slurry leaving the fermentation step is difficult to of the streams involved in the process. The physical data
separate from the other solid components, it was assumed for the components was obtained either from the Aspen
that no recycling was possible. inhouse databank or from the literature. Data on most
The highly diluted ethanol solution needs to be con- of the wood components, such as cellulose and lignin,
centrated before it can be used as a liquid fuel. The were obtained from NREL’s databank on biomass com-
distillation section consists of a stripper connected to a ponents (21). The data not directly available was esti-
rectifier. The stripper has 20 stages and the rectifier 40, mated by use of rules of thumb or from data on similar
with a stage efficiency of 50% and 70%, respectively. The components.
stripper runs at a higher pressure than the rectifier. The Economics. Most of the equipment was sized with the
vapor leaving the stripper is used as a heating medium Icarus Process Evaluator (IPE) (22). The report file from
in the reboiler of the rectifier. The feed is preheated by Aspen Plus containing the results of energy and material
the stillage from the stripper. balances was used in the sizing calculations. IPE was
The stillage from the stripper, containing nonvolatiles used mainly for the sizing of heat exchangers, tanks
such as pentoses and HMF, must be concentrated before (except for the fermenters and the hydrolysis vessels),
it can be used as a fuel in the steam boiler or be sold as filters, evaporators, and columns. Some equipment was
solid fuel. Concentration is carried out in a 5-effect sized manually for capital cost evaluation. This was done
evaporator train, with a resulting concentrate of 50% for the equipment in the feedstock handling area and for
water content. the fermentor and hydrolysis vessels. The StakeTech
The sugars from the evaporator and the lignin from reactors were sized using data provided by Stake Tech-
the filtration step are mixed and are dried to a water nology (23).
content of 11% and thereafter incinerated to supply the IPE was also used for estimating the material costs
process with steam. Because lignin is a nonfossil fuel the and installation costs for nearly all equipment used in
internal steam production does not result in a net the process. Exceptions were the Stake Tech reactor, for
emission of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. The solid which cost estimates were based on a quotation from
residue not incinerated is made into briquettes and sold Stake Technology (23), and the dryer, boiler, and bri-
as solid fuel. quette machine, for which data was obtained from the
The enzymes employed can either be purchased or literature (24, 25). IPE was also used to estimate the
produced at the plant, using different carbon sources such material costs and installation costs for auxiliary equip-
as prehydrolysate from the pretreatment or residual ment such as piping, insulation, electrical, etc.
cellulose from the SSF or the EH steps (18). Because The total direct cost (TDC) is the total cost of major
there are still many uncertainties in the production of equipment and auxiliary equipment, together with the
the enzymes, a lumped cost of 19 SEK (Swedish Kronor)/ cost of the buildings directly associated with the process.
million FPU (19) was employed (cost originally from Other costs associated with the project were then
discussion with an enzyme company), this cost being added, such as indirect construction costs, freight, engi-
varied then to determine the effect on the overall produc- neering, construction management, overhead, and con-
tion cost of the ethanol. tract fees. The contingencies were assumed to be 10% of
General Process and Design Data. The capacity for the fixed capital investment (FCI).
each of the two base cases considered is 195,600 dry ton Working capital was calculated, in the manner recom-
(metric) of raw material per annum, the plant being mended by Peters and Timmerhaus (26), as the sum of
assumed to be situated in the northern part of Sweden. the cost of the raw material and chemicals needed for 30
The plant has access to large quantities of cooling water days production, 30 days of finished products in stock,
and operates continuously 8,000 h per year. The first accounts receivable, and 30 days of cash on hand for
choice of construction material is assumed to be SS304 monthly payments of wages, raw material, etc. The
except the steam explosion equipment, which is made of yearly capital cost was calculated by use of an annuity
SS316. factor of 0.096, corresponding to a 15-year life of the plant
Simulation Software. The process was modeled by and a 5% rate of return, a straight-line deprecation and
Aspen Plus simulation software from Aspen Tech (20). zero scrap-value being assumed.
This software was used to solve the mass and energy Table 1 summarizes the operating costs employed in
balances and to calculate the thermodynamic properties the evaluation. The cost of the raw material was assumed
Biotechnol. Prog., 2003, Vol. 19, No. 4 1113
Table 2. Stream Data for Two Base Cases; All Values in ton/h
stream 1 2 SHF 3 SHF 4 SHF 5 SHF 6 SSF 3 SSF 4 SSF 5 SSF 6
hexoses 0.0 4.4 0.5 0.0 0.6 0.6 0.3 0.0 0.3 0.3
pentoses 0.0 1.4 1.4 0.0 1.4 1.4 1.4 0.0 1.4 1.4
ethanol 0.0 0.0 5.1 5.1 0.0 0.0 5.9 5.8 0.1 0.0
water 24.4 294.0 287.7 0.3 18.8 1.9 286.9 0.4 18.7 1.8
hexosans 15.2 9.4 0.0 0.0 3.0 3.0 0.0 0.0 1.4 1.4
pentosans 1.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
lignin 6.7 6.1 0.1 0.0 6.1 6.1 0.1 0.0 6.1 6.1
yeast 0.0 0.0 0.4 0.0 0.4 0.4 0.0 0.0 1.8 1.8
other 0.7 3.3 3.8 0.0 3.2 3.2 4.0 0.0 3.4 3.4
total (ton/h) 48.9 318.6 299.0 5.4 33.4 16.5 298.5 6.2 33.2 16.2
Table 4. Cost Breakdown for Two Base Cases and Some Improvements Suggesteda
SSFBC SHFBC SHFIY2 SSF8 SHF8 SSF560A SSF540B
wood 1.36 1.57 1.36 1.36 1.57 1.36 1.36
enzymes 0.70 0.48 0.42 0.70 0.48 0.70 0.70
yeast 0.50 0.00 0.00 0.31 0.00 0.50 0.50
byproducts -0.08 -0.08 0.01 -0.49 -0.61 -0.59 -0.52
other chemicals and utilites 0.35 0.43 0.37 0.29 0.35 0.28 0.30
labor, maintenance, insurance 0.59 0.84 0.73 0.54 0.72 0.57 0.57
capital 1.39 2.08 1.82 1.20 1.70 1.32 1.30
total (SEK/L) 4.81 5.32 4.71 3.91 4.21 4.15 4.21
a SSFBC: SSF base case. SHFBC: SHF base case. SHFIY2: SHF process with the same ethanol yield as SSFBC. SSF8 and SHF8: 8%
nonsoluble solid material in the SSF and EH steps, respectively. SSF560A: SSF process where 60% of the stream after distillation is
recycled. SSF540B: SSF process where 40% of the stream before distillation is recycled.
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