Afforestation, Reforestation and Forest Restoration in Arid and Semi-Arid Tropics

Panna Ram Siyag
Afforestation, Reforestation
and Forest Restoration in
Arid and Semi-arid Tropics
A Mant1al of Technology & Management
~ Springer
Copyrighted material
Panna Ram Siyag
UN FCCC Secretariat
Bonn
Gem,any
Disclaimer: Tbe views expressed in this book are those of the author and do not necessarily
reflect the views o f the United Nations .
ISBN 978-94-007-7450-6 ISBN 978-94-007-7451-3 (eBook)

DOI I0.1007/978-94-007-7451-3
Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg Londoo New York
Library of Congress CcmLrol Number: 2013947 160
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Contents
Part l 'fechnology
1 l11trocluctio11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
I. I The Imperative of Affo restation and Reforestatio n . .. . . . . • . . . . . . . _,
~
1.2 Afforestation and Reforestation for Conservation . . .. . . . . ...... . • 4

1.3 Afforestation and Reforestation for Subsistence Econorny and
Li vel i h(>ods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 Afforestation, Reforestation, Fo rest Restoration and Tree Planting . . 8
1.5 Afforestation for lndustrial- Con1mercial Pu rposes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.6 The Technology of Afforestatio n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . l0
l.7 Participation of Local Co1nm unities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . . • 10
l.8 Constraints in Afforestation and Reforestation . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . II
1.9 Constraints Specific to Arid and Sen1iarid Areas . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . 13
l . IO Costs in Afforestation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2 Nursery 'fechniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.1. Es tablishm ent of a New Nursery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.1.. 1 Site Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.1.2 Nu rsery Infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2 Plant Production Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.3 Planning Seasonal Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.4 Procuren1 ent and Storage of Seeds .... . . . . . . ... . .. • . . . • .. , . . . . 33
2.5 Procure1nent of l'vfanure, Clay, and Sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.6 Procurc1ncnt and Storage of Polypots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.7 Pilling the Polypots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.8 Preparing Seedbeds and tvlother Beds . . . . • . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . . . . . . 39
2.9 Sowing Seeds in Polypols and Beds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.10 T ransplanting and Potting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2. I I Irrigating Plants in Pots and Beds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4I
2.1 2 \Veedi ng and Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . . . . . . 43
2. 13 Protection fron1 Insects and Pests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . . . . . . 43
ix
X Coments
2.14 Pot Tu rning... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

2. 15 Preparing and Planti ng Cuttings .. . .. .. .. . ..... . . . . .. .. . .. . . .. . 47
2.16 Culling, Selection, and Grading ..... . ...... .. .. . .. . . .. ... .. ... 48
2.17 n·ansportation of Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3 Site Selection, Survey and Treatment Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

3.1 Site Selec tion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.2 S urveying a Site Using Chain and Con1pass . .. . . . . . . .. . . . .... . . . 5'.\
3.3 Plane Table S urvey .... . . ... ................. . .. . . . . . .... . . . 57
3.4 TachyJnetric Survey . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . .. .. . . . 58
3.5 Advanced Auton1atic S urvey ing Equip1ncnt . .. . . . . . . . .. . . .. .. . . . 58
3.6 Setting Out Con tours \.Vith Hydrostatic Level . . . ... . .. . . . .. .. . . . 59
3.7 Setting Out Engineeri ng Structures ,vith HSL .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.8 Site Treat1nent Plan . ...... . ....... ... . ... . .. . • .. . ..... . .. . . . 60
3.8. 1 Choice of Species . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . 62
3.8.2 Choosing a Fence . . .. . . . . . .... . .... . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . 64
3.8.3 Soil and \.Yater Conservation Works . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.8.4 Treatment of Difficult Soils ............. • .. . . .. • ..... . . 71
3.8.4. I Afforesting Sand Dunes . .. . .. . . ... .. ..... . ... . 71
3.8.4.2 Afforesting Saline and Alkaline Soils . ... ... . ... . 72
3.8.4 .'.\ Afforesti ng Rocky and Skeletal Soils . . . . . . . .. . . . 7'.\
3.8.4.4 Afforesting Gullied and Ravined Lands . .. .. . . .. . 74
3 8.5 Planting Design ................... ... . .......... . ... . 75
3.8.6 Layout of Treatrnenl Plan ... .. .. • .. . .. . • .. .. .. • . . . . ... 77
4 Fencing Wor.k . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.1 Stone \.Vall Fence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.2 Ditch-Cu n1-Bund Fence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.3 Barbcd-\.Vire Fence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.4 Live-Hedge Fence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . • . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . 86
4 .5 En trance Gate and Inspection Path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5 Soil and Water Conservation \.Vorks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

5. J i\lignmcnt of Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5.2 Digging of Contour Trench. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
5.3 Digging of Y-D itch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
5.4 Digging of Pits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
5.5 Contour Dik:e-Curn -Terraces . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
5.6 Bench Terraces and Gradoni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.7 Contour Bunds and Contour Furrows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.8 Vegetative Barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5.9 Loose-S tone Check Dan1s. . . . . . . . .. . ... .. . . . . . . .. . ... . .. . . . . . 100
5.10 Stop Dains and Weirs ..... . . . .. . .. . .. . . .. • .. . .. . . .. . . . . . .... 102
5.11 Earthen E1nbankments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 04
Contents xi
6 Planting, Regeneration, Aftercare and J\,l aintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 09

6.1 Time and Season for Planting.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l09
6.2 Transporting Plants co Pits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
6.3 The Operation of Planting.... . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
6.4 Making of Pi t-Saucers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
6.5 Beating up Casualties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l 12
6.6 Ensuring Continued Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
6.7 Replacen1ent of Casualties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
6.8 Ren1oval of Weeds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
6.9 Hoei ng the Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 16
6.1 0 Watering the Plan ts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l 17
6.11 Fertilising and Ivlanuring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
6.12 Growth of Plants . . . .. . . . ...... . . . . . . . . ... ... . .. . ... . .. . . . . . 119
6. l 3 Tending the Rootstock. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
6.14 Maintenance of Soil and Water Conservation Structures . . . . . . . . . . . 122
6.1 5 Plantation Maintenance in Sand Dunes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l 22
6.16 Long-Tenn Maintenance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Part II Manage1nent
7 Costing and Estimation of '\'orks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

7.1 SchedulcofLabourRates . . .. . . . . . .... . . . .. . . . . . .... . .... . . . . 127
7.2 Model Treatn1ent Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l 70
7.2. l Rehabilitation of Degraded Forests (RDF).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
7.2.2 Reforestation of Barren Hills (RBH) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
7.2.3 Fuehvood and Fodder Plantation (FFP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
7.2.4 Silvipastoral Plantation (SPP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
7.2.5 Shelterbelt Plantation (SBP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
7.2.6 Urban Area Plantation (UAP) . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
7.2.7 Regenerat.ive Closures (RC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
7.2.8 Abstract of Afforestation Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
7.3 Units ofMeasure1nent and Conversion Tables . . . ... . .. . . . .. . . . . . 192
8 Organising and Staffing Progran1n1cs and Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 I

8.1 Organ isatio n Structure and Staffing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . 20 l
8.1. l A Lean and Flat Organisation . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 l
8. l.2 The Prograrn1ne Director . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
8.1.3 The Divisional Manager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
8.1.4 The Un it Manager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
8.1.5 The Supervisor . . . . . . . . . • . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . 206
8.2 Organisa tional Effectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
8.2.1 A Sound Value Systern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
8.2.2 A Right Managernent Style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
8.2.3 Strategies for Sustained Perforn1 ance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
8.2.4 A People Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
8.2.5 Effective Leadership. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 14
xi i Coments
9 Planning, Jvlonitoring and Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 L7

9.1 Planning Time-Critical Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
9.1. l ldenti.fying Ti,ne-Critical Activities ... .... .. .. .. ... .. . . . 217
9.1.2 Sequencing with Net\vorking Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
9.1 .2.1 Manag ing with Schedules and Calendars . . . . .. . . . 221
9.2 f\1onitoring, Evaluation and Revie\v . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
9.2.l Collecting Field Data ... ... .. ... . .. • . .. ... . ... . . . • .... 227
9.2.2 Managing lnfonnation Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . 230
9.2.3 Interpreting Reports and Drawing Co nclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
9.2.4 Reviewing T he Progran11ne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
9.2.5 Continued Feedback and Long-tenn Mon itoring . . . . . . . . . . 231
9.2.6 lvleasuring Achieve1nen1s Against Progranune Goals ..... . . 231
9.3 Quality Control and \:York Productivity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
9.3.1 Identify ing Quality Control Indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
9.3.2 Design ing a Quality l'vfanage,ncnt Progran1111e . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
9.3.3 Achieving Higher Productivity in \Vork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
9.4 Recordkeeping and f)ocurneotation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
9.4.1 Fi nanc ial Recordkeep ing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
9.4.2 Recordkeep ing of Physica l Assets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
9.4 .3 Works Docun1entation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
10 Ensu1·i11g Sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

I 0. 1 Institutional Sustainabilitv . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
-
LO. l. l Sustainable institutional Setup . . . . . . . . . . • . . • . . . • . . . . . . . 239
10.1.2 Participation of Local Co1n1nu nities ...... . ...... . ..... . . 241
I0.1.3 Comn1unication and Extension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
I 0.2 Resou rce Sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
L0.2. 1 Need-Based and Resource-Based l\llicroplanning . . . . . . . . . . 244
10.2.2 Sustainable Planta tion Utilisation and l\llanagement. . . . . . . . 244
l0.2.3 Desigo of Util.isation Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
L0.2.4 Sharing of Usufruct.s .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . ... • . . .. . . . 252
L0.2.5 Reinvesting Returns . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Glossar)r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Abbreviations
AC Asbestos cen1ent
ACC 1\sbestos cen1ent corrugated
avg Average
AWG American \Vire gauge
BHC Benzene hexachloride
BSR Basic schedu le of rates
BW Barbed wire
B \ VG Birmingha1n wire gauge
cap Capacity
CB Contour bund
CBLS Contour based linear structure
cc Cen1ent concrete
c/c Centre LO centre
CD Contour dike; cross-drainage
C!vl Cen1en1 rnortar
CP!vl Critical path n1ethod
CT Conto ur trench
CVH Contour vegetative hedge
DAP Dia1nmoniu1n phosphate
DCB Ditch-cu1n-bund (fence)
DPC Da1np proof course
DWML Daily v1ork ineasurement log
EC Electrical conductivity; ecnulsitlable concentrate
EDG Econo1n ically disadvantaged group
exp Expenditure
FFP Fuel and fodder plantation
FRP Fixed reference poin t
FY.tv1 Farmyard manure
GBM General body 111eeting
GT Galvanised iron
GIS Geographical info rn1ation syste111
GL Ground level
xiii
xiv Abbreviations
GLR Ground level reservoir

GPS Global positioning system
HDPE High density polyethylene
HP Horsepower
HSL Hydrostatic level
JAA lndole-3-acetic acid
JBA lndole-butyric acid
ID identification (number)
incl Inc lud ing
lat Latitude
LC Liln e concrete
LDPE Low density polyethylene
Llvl Li111 e rnortar
long Long itude
Is Lu111p stnn
LSCD Loose stone c heckda1n
lvlAI Mean annual iocren1ent
1.n ax Max in1un1
MB Measuren1e nt book
111deq !v1an-day equ ivale nt
111111 !v1ini1nu1n
1Y1IS Manage1nent info nnation syste n1
MPR Month ly progress repo rt
MS Mil d s teel
tvlS L M can sea level
NAA 1-Naph thylacetic acid
no Number
nos Nu1n bers
OHR Overhead reservoi r
op Operation
ops Operations
PJ Plantation journal
p111t Pay1ncnt
POL Petro l, o il and lubricant
pp Polypot
PPR Periodic progress report
PRA Participatory rural appraisal
prod Productio n
PVC Polyv iny l c hl oride
QA Quality assurance
QC Qua lity control
QPR Quarterly progress report
qty Quantity
RBH Reforestatio n of barren hills
Abbreviations xv
RC Reinforced concrete; regenerative closure

RCC Reinforced ce1nent concrete
RDF Rehabilitation of degraded forest
reqd Requ ired
RR Rando1n rubb le
RRM Rando1n rubb le masonry
RSC Residual sodiu1n ca.rbonate
S&\VC Soil and water conservation
SAR Sodiu1n absorption ratio
SBP Shelter belt plantation
SDG Socially di sadvantaged group
SDS Sand dune stabilisation
SN Serial nu1nber
sp Species
spp Species
SPP Silvipastoral plan tation
S\VG S1.andard wire gauge
TDS Total d issolved soli ds
UAP Urban area plantat ion
UG\VR Underground water reservoi r
UM Unit manager
VB Vegetative barrier
VD V-ditch
VFPl'vfS Vi ll age forest protection and n1anagc1nent society
vr Voucher
wee \\later conveyance channel
WCR \Vork control register
Units
cft Cubic foot
Cln Centi1netre
cum Cubic metre
c111nec Cubic n1ctrc per seco nd
cusec Cubic foot per seco nd
gin Gran1
ha Hectare
kg Kilograin
kin Kilon1etre
KVA Kilovolt-an, pere
k\V Kilowatt
Litre
Ill Metre
n1Eq Mi Iii-eq uivalent
1n1n Milli1netre
ms Millisiemens
xvi Abbreviations
N Nev,ton
pa Pascal
pptn Pan per 1nillion
qtl Quintal
sq1n Square 111etre
t Tonne
VA Voll-ampere
About the Author
Panna Rain Siyag is presently \VOrk ing in Sustainable

Developn1ent Mechan is1ns Progra1n1ne at the UNFCCC
Secretariat, Bo1u1, Gennany. He is the lead expert on
afforestation and reforestation methodologies under the
Clean Developn1ent Mechanisn, and also s uppo rts in-
ternatio nal negotiations on cli1nate change mitigation
actions in land-use sector under the Kyoto Protocol
1nechanisn1s. !Vlr. Siyag earlier \VOrked with the Indian
Forest Service in various capacities where he was re-
sponsible for leading projects and progra1n1nes in the fields of afforestation and
refo res tation, co1nbating desertification, con11nuni ty-based fore-s t 1nanagen1ent,
biodiversity conservation and protected area 1nanagen1ent.
Mr. Siyag holds a bachelor's degree in civil engineering, a master's degrees in
co1nputer science and engineering, and a master's degree in forest resource 1nanage-
1nent. He also holds a post-graduate diplon1a in pub li c adrni nistratio n fro1n the Eco le
Nationale d' Adn1inistration (ENA), Strasbourg/Paris, France. He is fluent in Eng lis h
and French and has basic know ledge of Gcrn, an.
xvii
Part I
Technology
Chapter 1
Introduction
Abstract Afforestation and reforestatio n are in1portant activ ities for restorati on of
terrestrial ecosyste1n procl uctivity in arid and se1niarid areas. Overuse of forests and
other vegetation has resulted in large areas of barren land and depletion of soiI cover,
risk ing pennanen t loss of the producti ve capacity of the land. Loss of productiv-
ity of land resources creates a vicious circle of poverty and accelerated reso urce
overuse as hun1an and livestock populations continue to grow. Wh ile the in1perative
of afforestation and reforestation in these areas is beyond question, the actual work
of afforestation and refo restation faces 1nany challenges. \Vhether the obj ective is
protectio n of watersheds or productio n of fuel wood and fodder fo r the local con11nt111i-
ties, the physical constraints of an arid environn1ent coupled with the co1nplex issues
of land tenure and resource ownership 1nake afforestation prograin1nes a challenge
that can only be overco1ne \Vith ullnost consideration and pla1111ing. Deployrnent of
appropriate technology, institutional arrangen1ents, and enabling conditions for par-
tic ipatio n by local con1n1unities are the si ne q ua non of successful affores tation and
reforestation programmes in arid and semiarid tropics.
I.I The Imperative of Afforestation and Reforestation
Defo restation and the conseq uen t degradat ion of land resou rces, in1povcrish1nent of
watersheds and disruption of ecological balance has had a serious adverse ilnpact
on Lhe Jives of rural people the world over, particlll.arl.y in arid aod se,niarid tropics.
lt is esti1nated that forests are being e ither cleared or degraded at the rate of 12
1nillion hectares ann ually. As a result, there are billions of hectares of \vastelands,
a predo1ninant proportion lyi ng in the arid and sc1niarid tropics. Most of the rural
populations in arid and sen1iarid degraded tropical ecosysterns Jive at subsistence
level. Ag ricultural productivity being poor, thesecon1n1uni ties largely depend on the
con1n1o ns for herding thei r livestock, and for n1ceting their fuelwood requ ire1nents.
In several tropical countries, destruction of forests has co1npletely disrupted the
ecological balance with severe adverse effects on the env ironn1ent, jeopardising the
productivity of the ecosyste1ns. This has caused repeated and prolo nged fain ines and
consequently, hundreds of n1 illions of people have suffered.
The pheno1nenon of destruction of forests and the consequent land degradation
has been a historical process. In areas with heavy dependence of people on
P. R. Siyag, Afforestation. Reforestation and Forest Restoration in A rid 3

and Semi-arid Tropics, DOI I0.1007/978-94-007-745 1-3_1,
© Springer Science+Business J\1edia Dordrechl 2014
4 1 Introduction
co1n1nons a nd a galloping increase in bu1nan a nd livestock populations, demand bad

outs tripped the carrying capacity of the reso urce base a nd the traditional sys te1ns
of natural resource 1nanage1nent bad broken down. In the absence of any kind of
regn lation, overuse and 1ni s1nanagen1ent of the forest and ra ngeland reso urces led
to thei r accelerated deg radation. Productivity of the co111111ons decli ned, even as
de,nands for the produce grew. The vicio us cycle of an increasing o verexploitation
and a declining productivity led to the rapid depletion of natural capital. Arid
conditions 1nean1 that the vegetation degradation was irreversible. lo co ntrast to the
111oist reg io ns-where afte r destruct.ion of fo rests, peo ple rni grate elsewhere a nd
conseque ntl y, the forests can regenerate-regeneration does not ha ppen easi ly in
arid areas. To resto re prod uctivi ty of such lands, hu111an intervent ion in the fo rn1 of
closing the area a nd planting seedlings is necessary.
As a res ult of large-scale degradation of land resources and widespread conce rn
an1ong govern rnents a nd pub I ic institutions, affo restation took off as a serious eco-
no1n ic activity. T he \Vo rld Syn1posiun1 o n Man-1n adc Forests, o rganised by the Food
and Agric ulture Organisation of the U nited Nations (f,AO) in 1967, \Vas a turn ing
point in th is regard. 'foday, afforestation a nd watershed pro tection figure prorninently
in 111ost developrnental agendas at the glo bal level, and fi nd a place in the national
devcloprnental plans of n1ost governrnents. There are over 150 n1illion hectares of
111an -111ade fo rests in the world and a bo ut 12 n1illion hectares of new 111an-111ade
fores ts are bei ng added a nnually, half of wh ich are in the tropics. Ho\vever, con1-
pared to the demand for fore.s t produce and th e potential for affo restation, th is rate of
afforestation is 111eagre. World w ide, the re is a need for afforesting 1.5 billion hectares
of degraded lands in the tropics. Goi ng by the unn1et needs of fuel wood and forage
alone, over 900 111illion hectares of concentrated pla ntations would be needed. If
such de1nands a re to be n1et by regene rating the existing forests- with a n1uch lowe r
density of trees-the area requ ired to be re ha bilitated will include aln1ost all the
degraded forest areas of the world.
1.2 Afforestation and Reforestation for Conservation
Reclamation of wastelands, restoration of ecosyste1n productivity, and pro tection of

\vatersheds are ainong then1ost irn po rta nt objectives of afforestation a nd reforestation
prog ra111111es. Inappropriate land use pract ices, fau lty plann ing, and overexploitatio n
of forest resources has resulted in large areas of land being turned into wastelands.
Barren hill slopes and up lands are a nonn rather tha n a n exception in tnost of the
arid and se1n ia.rid tro pical regions of the world. Deforested watersheds are no t only
subject to severe eros ion of to psoil but also a th reat to the lower fertile lands with
fl as h floods a nd soil e rosion.
Planting trees, shrubs and grasses is the rnosl effective 111ethod to protect s uch
watersheds and bring the wastelands in to productive use. The los t fertility of soil
can be, to so rne exten t, regained by planting legurni no us trees a nd shrubs . Vast areas
of deserts can be put to productive use by esta blishi ng vegetat ive cover throug h sand
1.2 Afforestation and Reforestation for Conservation 5
Fig. L.J Commons lying as a wasteland: a result of depiction of vegetatio n be.cause of continued
overgrazing,
dune sta bilisation plantations. Fo rests and savannah vegetat ion in1prove terrestrial
envi ro nrn ent in n1any ways, wh ich inc ludes supporting the su ppl y of clean wate r,
protectio n against erosion and accun1ul ation of carbonates, and preservation of the
landscape.
The rnarginal a nd degraded lands in the tropics have been surveyed and 1napped
in ,n any parts of th e wo rld, but the exact potential for suc h work is probably vast,
and definitely 1nuch rnore than \Vhat is recorded. It wou ld be, perhaps, irn poss ib le
to affo rest all such la nds in the in11nediate future for lack of financ ial reso urces and
ins titutional capacity. It is, therefore, necessary to prioritise s uch lands on the basis
of their productivity and the risk of further degradation. The clilemn1a of choosing
better lands for higher productivity and lower afforestation cos1s vers us choosi ng the
poorest lands- albeit at a greater cost per hectare- lest these cross the threshold of
recovery, is a c haracteristic issue that shou ld be resolved co nsciously and carefully.
T he fact that decisions in this regard sho uld be based o n the needs of the local
corrun un ities and other considerations s uc h as availa bility of labour a nd fi nance,
further rnakes deeper tho ught in this regard necessary (Fig. 1.1).
Conservation afforestation often concerns \Vith prorno ting regeneratio n of natural
fores ts as against planting of artificially raised seedli ngs of rnu ltipu rpose tree species.
An advantage of regeneratio n of natural forests, apart fron1 reduced cost per un it area,
is that the ecological balance is established al an earlier stage and the local biodiver-
sity of ttJe area is conserved at the sanie time. Sustained-use 1nanagem.en1 of s uch
regenerated forests can yield valuab le products and services to the local con11nunities.
The use of n1 ultipurpose fast-gro\v ing tree species in afforestation is in1perative
fro1n the poi nt of view of better returns but it 1n ust be done \Vith a cautious consid-
eration. Conservation forestry should not only ai1n at the protection of soil but also
ensure that ecological balance is restored in the a rea. Introduction of exo tics is likely
to have unpredicta ble effects in th is regard. Tn no case s hould the ex isting wood lo ts
of native species be cleared to 1nake way for the exotics.
6 1 Introduction
Apart fro1n the s uitabili ty, productivity, and the ecological role of !Tee species,
there is also the issue o f livelihood of the peop le being linked to the native forest
species. Lifestyles and socioeconon1ic con texts cannol be altered all of a sudden.
Many co1n 1nu nities, especially tribal soc ieties, a re de pendent upon the direct prod uce
fron1 forests suc h as fl owers, fru its, gum, bark, resi ns, and o ils. T hese con1n1un ities
have traditionally con1e to acq uire generally accepted rights over such forest produce.
ln case of the introdoction of exotic fast growing tree species, the same custo1nary
rights may not be recognised, or may not be nieaningful because such products
1n ay no t be ava.i lab le. With new k ind of produce from the exotics, new c lasses of
stakeho lders ern erge and the benefi ts s hift fron1 one interest g roup to anothe r. This
can lead to conflicts and incur hostility of the local people, leadi ng, in turn, to ass ured
fai lure of the afforestation prograrnrne. The case of introducing teak in place of tbe
less lucrative local species in the Indian state of Bihar is an exarnp le of s uch a case,
where the live li hood of the tribal con1111unities \vas adversely affected and led to
res istance fron1 the tribals, res ulting in a co nsequent failu re of the prog ran1n1e.
It n1us t be understood that the ro le of nat ural forests cannot be replaced, in en -
tirety, by artificially ra ised tree plantations. Natural forests are co1n p lex ecos yste1ns
that evo lved over a long tirne . Often, they are a gene pool \Vi th undocu ,nented and
uncatalogued s pecies of p lants and a ni rn a ls that n1ay be of any pote ntia l use u n-
til such use is discovered. An exan1p le is that of the trop ical plant rosy pcri\vinkle
(Rosa vinca) fron1 which t,vo n1ag ic drugs ,vere extracted that dran1at ically brought
down the ruortality rate of le ukaern ia patients frorn three-fourths to one -fourth . Many
s i111ilar exmnp les can he ci ted.
1.3 Afforestation and Reforestation for Subsistence

Economy and Livelihoods
T here has been a shift in the forest policies of most develop ing countries from the
predo1ni nan ce of national a nd indu stria l inte rests to recogn itio n of the needs of the
loca l people. ·To an extent, the market forces can a utornatically act to re1ned y scarcity
of tin1bcr and pu lpv.:ood, either by dernand-side inte rventi ons (e.g . by find ing a s ub -
stitute product or an a lte rnative reso urce) o r by suppl y-side interventions (e.g. by
increased priva te invcs t1nent). No s us taina bl e sol ution to the pro blems of d efores ta-
tion and des truction of habitats can, however, be found un less the local co1nmunities'
economic interests a re ta ken .into accoun t. Fuelwood, for exainple, is one of tbe
biggest reasons for destruction of forests a nd trees in arid and scn1iarid trop ical a r-
eas. More than 80 % of the wood harvested is used for burning, prcdo1n inantly in
cooking, charcoal 1naking and other household uses. Populations that 1n igra te to
urban areas as a result of destruction of rural habitats-the ecological refugees-
continue to rely on wood as the main source of energy. Not on ly this, 1nany of thern
ru ake a living by illicitl y felling trees in the fores ts and wastelands and selling them
in the ci ties. It is cstin1ated that, \VOrld\vide, o ut of the total 2.5 billion peop le who
depend upon fuel wood for their dai ly do1nestic needs, abo ut 1.5 billion people s uffer
1.3 Afforestation and Reforestatio n for Subsistence Economy a nd Livelihoods 7
Fig. 1.2 Sowing seeds of nutrient and palatable grass Cenclrrus ciliaris in this siJvopastoral
planta tion has tu111ed unproductive land into a productive pasture
fro 1n acute scarciry of fuel\vood, and that thei r unrnet de1nand of fuelwood a111ounts
to 800 n1illi on cub ic n1etres annually. Assu,ni ng, ideally, that a n average vill age of
l 00 fa,nili cs is provided with a 20 ha wood lot reserved for the purpose of n1eeting its
cooking e nergy needs, it turns out that over 120 n1illion hectares of plantations need
to be raised with an inves trnent of over USS 60 billion spread over the next 20 years.
Meeti ng this den1and will not o nly ,nitigate the rnisery and ha rdships of the rural
people-particu larly wo n1enfo lk who spend rnost of thei r day gathe ri ng wood- but
also save the fann waste and crop residues fron1 bei ng burnt.
Rural con1 n1unities' nex t n1ajor need, part.icu larly in a rid tropics, is forage fo r
livestock. ln view of this, productive rangelands and si! vopastoral areas (Fig. l.2)
areas have a great potential to ameliorate the lot of the rural poor. S uch reserves, if
rnanagcd sustainab ly by adopting suita ble n1cthods of grazi ng n1anagernent, can last
for a lo ng titne \Vithout incurring s ubsta ntia l expenses on rn ainte nance. In1proved
variet.ies of perennial grasses, shrubs, a nd fodder trees can be cornbined for produc-
tion of forage, apart fron1 enhancing the ferti lity of soils and ensuring protection of
the watersheds.
For con1n1unities liv ing in or near forest areas and having greate r dependence upon
non-tin1be r forest prod uce, conservatio n forestry can provide a real irnp rovernen t
in livelihood sec urity. Collection of produce such as fibre, bark, tannin, flowers,
fruits, foliage, seeds, gum, resins, essential oils, roo ts , tubers, and medicines is a
non-destructive use of forests which is sustainable over a long period of time. Srnall-
scale and cottage indllstries, such as beekeeping and toy rnaking, can be sustained
through regeneration of forests o n the o ne hand a nd provisio n of train ing in i111proved
technology along \vith short-tenn finance on the o ther (Fig. l.3).
1n addition to the protection of !and reso urces and their productivity, and 1neetwg
local demands of fuel and fodder, afforestation activities can also provide the benefi t
of e rn ployrnen t to the rural populations. Lack of e111ployrnent and co nseque nt lack of
8 Introduction
Fig. 1.3 Protection from b i.o tic pressure can lead to regeneration of forest area
incon1e perpetuates poverty and sustains the vicious cycle of resou rce overuse and
reso urce dep letion. Afforestation prog ra m1nes constitute an ideal 1ncans of providing
e1nployn1ent in such a setting. The period of e n1 ployn1ent can be intermittent, to fill the
gaps between agricultural seasons for exan1ple. About 300 rnan-days of e1nployn1ent,
per hectare, can be generated in an afforesta tio n progran11ne, over a fairly long
period-of 5 years o r longer de pending upon the speed a nd prog ress of \vork. If
the speed of wo rk is regu lated with a view to spreadi ng c1n ploy1ncnt opportunities
over a longer period, the be nefit of e111p loyn1ent can last lo ng e nough to enable the
co1nn111 nities to wriggle o ut of perpetual poverty.
Con11nunity forestry has fo und its own place in glo bal develop1nental planning,
and is n1 aking prog ress at a steady pace (Fig. 1.3). Funds a1no unti ng to US$ l billion
are now pledged in this secto r globally, mainly in developing countries. International
develop1nent institutions, such as the Wo rld Bank, have recognised this as a priority
secto r fo r fi na ncial ass ista nce. Who le new class of ex pe rts has e1nerged as experts in
'social forestry'-the afforestation a nd tree planting prac tices ou tside the trad itional
forest reserves.
1.4 Afforestation, Reforestation, Forest Restoration

and 'free Planting
Role of trees and tree planting outside forests has no t been understood a nd recognised
adeq uately in traditional fo restry practices. It is not j ust the concentrated plantations
that rnatter, the dispersed tree populat.ion 1nakes an even greater contributi on to
environrnental \veil-being, apart fro1n 1neeting local needs of tree products, of rural
1.. 5 Afforestat.ion for l ndustriaJ-Com1nercial Purposes 9
and urban com1n un ities. Trees may be planted as windbreak (shelter bell), field-
bo undary demarcation, field fence, amenity, and groves in vacant lands close to
where hu1nan activities take place. Trees al a farm 1neet the local de1nand of fuel,
fodder, thorn, poles, and agricultural i1nplernents in a better way, since the iss ues
of 1nanagern enl and shari ng of corn rnons do not arise. \Ve il-defi ned property rights
and private initiative ensure 1no re efficient production. Transportation of the produce
is not involved because production and cons u1n ption take place in the sa1ne area.
Trees also have a significant positive effec t on tl1e agricultural productivity. They
reduce desiccation and wi nd eros ion, add to fertility by recyc li ng nutri ents in the
deeper layers of soil, and irnprove stru cture of the soil by add ing organic ,natter to it.
Trees rnoderate the soil ten1pcrature and pron1ote nitrogen -fixi ng bacteria and other
1nicrollora in the soil, leading t.o improved crop production.
Agroforestry and fann forestry are two proven rnodels of tree plan ting by indi-
vidual fann ers in fields. Tf the right condi tions are created by raising a,vareness and
providing quality seedli ngs of suitable species to the n1illions of farn1ers in the arid
and sen1iarid trop ical areas of the world, agroforestry could prove to be very bene-
ficial. Many instances of success in this direction- such as in the case of the lnd.ian
state o f Guj arat-can be cited.
Tree planting in vacant lands a long pu blic utilities and infrastructure such as
roads, rail\vays, canals and other fac ilities has sign ificant potential. Even ,vhere no
such utilities are invo lved, it is ,vorthwhile to plant trees as shelterbelts, particu larl y
in those locations where the adverse effect of wind on crops and habitations can
be 111itigated. T he benefits of trees in urban colonies, parks, hospitals, churches,
playg rou nds, and pren1ises of institutio ns such as schools and colleges, are ,veil
known. Tf planted ,vith thoughtful plann ing, trees can in1prove both the aesthetic
envi ro nment and the local cli,nate in urban areas.
1.5 Afforestation for Industrial- Commercial Purposes
The demand for industrial and co1nmercial wood, particularly paper pulp and timber,
is constantly growing in develop ing countries. ·T he !eve.I of demand can be gauged
from the fact that hundreds of hectares of forests n1ust be cleared to 1neet a day's
dernand of the ne,vspapers throughout the world. Arid and sern iarid areas face an even
greater sho rtage of this type of ,vood, as n1ost of the co1nn1ercial tin1 ber of the ,vo rld is
produced in a few countries with particu larly rich forest resources and moist climate.
Tiln ber and pulp wood, if i1nponed, entail heavy transportation costs and, thus, i1npact
the local econon1 y adverse ly. Raisi ng large -scale plantations geared to n1eet these
den1ands is th e only alte rnative for these countries. The rern nant natura l forests ,viii
otherwise be the target for rn eeting the de1nands of these essential con1n1odities.
lndustrial-con1mercial plantations are characterised by intensive 1nanagernent,
high rate of inputs in terms of i!n proved genetic quality, fertile lands, irrigation,
and use of fertilisers and pesticides. A beartening fact about such pla ntations is that
th is being an entrepreneurial activity, is driven autono,nously by the n1arket forces.
1.0 1 Introduction
Already ten million hectares of indu strial-com1nercial plantations of fast growing

species have been established in the developing countries. New plantations are being
raised at the rate of half a million hectares per year. A recent pheno1nenon, observed
in Ind ia and Africa, bas been the proliferation of nu1nerous fo rest-based con1panies
that promise high ly attract ive retu rns on public investrnent in land that they lease
fro1n governments. 1-\Jthough apparently overplayed, this pheno1nenon is a proof
tha t the shortage of timber has niade private initiatives in rirnber production eco-
no1nicatly v.iable, and tree cultivation ranks the sa1ne as, or perhaps even better than,
the traditional agricultural cash crops. There are 1n any iss ues, such as availab ili ty of
land, wh ich li rn it the size of these program1nes, but as of novv, it is certain ly clear
that private investment in industrial- con1111ercial plan tations is going to expand in
the near fu ture.
1.6 The Technology of Afforestation
Although traditional forestry and silvicultural practices have been primarily rooted
in forest regeneration techn iques, artificial planting of trees in barren lands and
enrichment planting in gaps in natural forests has had a long enough history by now.
T,vo distingu ishing features of large-scale afforestation ,vorks in arid and sc111 iarid
areas are planting of a large nu1n ber of nursery-raised seedlings , and effective in
situ water conservation 1neasures. Nursery techniques for raising plants of desired
species, good health, and vigour have been almost perfected by now. There is a
considerable degree of unifonnity in nursery practices, at least in the case of arid and
se111 iarid areas. Modern techniqu es li ke the use of bio-fertilisers and bio-pesticides
and specialised containers like the root trainers are son1e of the modern practices at
the cutting edge of technology, and it ""ill be some time before these can rep lace
the cornrnonly accepted, standard practices like use of polypols as containers and
che1nical pesticides for plant protection in nurseries. In soil and water conservation,
use of in1proved equ ip1nent and better accuracy in n1arking of contours fo r accu rate
planning and layout of soil working is already a widely accepted practice and is
indispensable to the success of afforestation and reforestation program1nes in arid
and serniarid areas. Even ,vith considerable research work done in areas such as
seed technology and tissue culture, they are not yet ready for adoption in large-scale
afforestation progra,nrnes fo r lack of funds and fo r the reason that poor productivity
of the degraded sites cannot justify high investment.
1.7 Participation of Local Communities
There clearly has been a kind of paradig111 shift in the process of n1anagen1ent of
forests fron1 the old iso latio nist approach of n1ost forest services to a n1odern partici-
pative o ne. Forest services in the in1age of a policing force could not have succeeded
I.. S Constraints in Afforestation and Reforestation I1
in protecting fores ts \vith the n1illions of poor people cornpeting for forest produce.
T he policing paradigm 1nighl have been appropriate \vhen only an occasio nal forest
offender was lO be dealt with, and lhe people, in general, did not need to indu lge in
breaking forest laws. W ith rise in population aod dwindling of resources, it was a
questio n of surviva l for the local people; the pol ice 1neta phor had to beco n1e outdated
and ineffective in the face of overwhehning pressure o n forest resources. The rea li-
sation that the need is to build enduring partnerships wi th the local people rather than
to enter into conflict with then1 came sotnevvhat later, though it is now itnplen1ented
by 1n ost forest services.
Tnvo lven, ent of co rnn1 un ities and user gro ups in execution of afforestation and
refores tation progran1n1es is necessary to evolve local o,vncrship of the resources
and to ens ure sustainable use. lnvol ve,nent of local people sho uld not be li1nited to
n1ere consultative planni ng. To tal in vol ven1ent is ensu red only when the conun un ities
are as ked to execu te the progran1n1e then, selves and contribu te so1ne part of the cost
of such works, perhaps in tenns of free labour. C reating stakes in, and ownershi p
of, the progra1n1n e resou rces are necessary prerequisites of success. The notions of
fores ts being state property, held over centuries, have 1nade forests the obj ects of
exploitation rather than of pruden t use.
Coll aborative vvo rking bet,veen the fo rest services and the co1nn1unities req uires
that the co1n n1unities be organi sed into institutions for enabling group actio n, ,vher-
ever such institutio ns do not al ready exist. Institution buildi ng is in itself a co1nplex
process and has to be carried o ut by trial and error, although success is not difficult if
sincere and honest effo rts are n1ade. Fo r too Jo ng, the issues of bu reaucratic refo rm
and institution buildi ng for en1 po,vcnnent of the local con1n1u niti es have deli ber-
ately been conde1nned to the backwaters by selfish interests of the kleptocratic nexus
between the politicians and the bureaucrats in developing cou ntri es. Any meaning-
ful progress in effective and produc tive natural resource governance can only be
achieved by breaking th is barrier.
1.8 Constraints in Afforestation and Reforestation
Like the classic factors of any other enterprise, the cons traints in afforestation and
reforestation relate to land, labour, capital, techn ical know-hO\V and entrepreneurial
capacity. Land carries wi th itself n1any intricate problen1s, rel ating to both its phys-
ical condition and its O\vnership and use. Vast strelches of waslelands may prompt
one to think thal one could start working rro,n an end and nea tly progress towards
the other, thus affores ting the entire land1nass. But hidden pro ble1ns crop up at every
step: people can assert custo1nary or self-ass urned ri ghts sup ported by local poli tical.
\Yorkers, they can invoke their right of way so that every stretch of planned fencing
may be questioned, and the land may ha ve been used as a grazing or herding ground
for a long tirne, so that any progra1n1ne of reforestation is seen to violate these rights.
None of these proble1ns can be wished a,vay, and there hardly is a piece of land in the
arid and se1niarid tropics where such proble1ns of hu1nan and an in1al pressu res do not
1.2 1 Introduction
exist. ·T he only way of sorting o ut such pro blen1s is engaging the con1n1unities the1n -
selves in the planning and execution of afforestation and reforestation programmes.
Through participative appraisal n1ethods, it is necessary to inquire into the problems
and hardships that the people face, to identify the causes of the saine, and to evolve
solutions in a consensual ,nanner. T he selfish elen1 ents such as the enc roac hers or
the right-of-way demanclers can only be hand led by the ,noral influence of the local
com1nunity rather than the coercive force of law and authority.
Land availability is a particularly serious constraint in the case of high val ue
plantations of eco no1nic i1n portance. Most lands available for afforestatio n today are
degraded up lands and hil ly areas. T his is because o ne of the greatest incen tives of
deforestation has been the access to forest soils, and as a resu lt n1ost of the fertile
portions of forests and other con1mons are already encroached upon for agricullure.
Therefore, availabi lity of good-q uali ty land fo r afforestation and reforestation is 1no re
of an exception than a no nn . T his constraint is the n1ajor reason why conservation
and subsistence forestry has a greater scope than con1111ercial- econon1ic forestry in
arid and sen1iarid tropics.
Availability of labour is a constrain t in areas where only certain seasons of lhe
year are rnarked by Jack of en1 ployn1ent. Jt is necessary to schedule the afforestation
operatio ns in such a ,nanner that these coincide \Vi th the non -agricu ltural season,
so that people have an opportu ni ty to work rou nd the year. In those areas \Vhere
alternative en1ployment is avai lable- such as in the rural hinterland of cities or
in areas with 111ining industries- workers rnay not be available. But afforestation
progra1111nes do not have to be taken up everywhere unifo nn ly. In fact, the econon1ic
retu rns of the arid afforestation progra1n1n cs are j ustified o nly \Vhcn the worth of
the n1uch needed cn1ploym ent is cou nted as o ne of the principal benefi ts of the
prograinn1e.
Capital is often a constraint with most afforestation progra1n1n es. In fact, af-
fores tation progrm11n1es in arid and se1niarid area cannot be taken up as a financ ially
viable activity. Such progran1n1es are often taken up with national or provincial bud-
getary support as social service investlnent rather than as eco non1ic progran1mes,
altho ugh only a rnini scule proportion of the national budget is 1nade available in
n1ost countries. Against this, the requirement of funds is very high. A quick estimate
reveals that funds amounting to US$ 550 billion need to be invested in the next 20
years if all the high-priority lands in poverty-en trenched areas of the \VOrld are to be
afforest.eel. T his ki nd of investment does seem to be daunting for rnost developing
countries, but it is interes ting to con1pare this aino unt with the US$ 178 billion paid
by the US tobacco corn panies as compensation to s1nokers.
Techn ical know-hO\V in the field of afforestatio n is still lin1ited to the forest ctepart-
111ents and forest services. In the case of co111n1ercial- inctustrial plantations, there are
private companies that possess technical knO\v-how in the lat.est frontiers of technol-
ogy, but in the case of community land afforestation and conservation afforestat.ion,
few organisations other than the national forest services have any experience. This
constrai nt can beovercon1e only by disserninating t.echnicalk.nowledge to con11nunity
organisatio ns, non-governn1ent organisations, and other agencies.
1..9 Constraints Specific to Arid and Semiarid Areas 13
Organisational capability is another severe constraint in taking up large-scale

afforestation programmes. The tradi tional forest services are preoccupied ,vith man -
agemen t of the rernaining natural forests and protected areas. They are ill-equipped
to undertake a participative progra,n rne hand-in-hand with the local com rnu nities.
Only a fe,v non-govenunental organisations, co n1n1 un ity service gro ups, and other
agencies exist who possess the necessary technical skills needed in afforestation and
refores tation prograrn1nes, although they do possess the rnuch needed social skills
in tbe field of cornrnunity organisation and institution building.
T he work capacity of fores t services can be increased o nly if they change their role
fron1 one of i1nplen1enters to that of facili tators and leave the actual ,vork execution
to the co mn1 u1tities. This will save the tin1e of the fo rest perso nnel and enable then1
to undertake rnanifold activ ities, while enabling the com rnunity groups to learn tbe
technical details of afforestation. As corn1nunities pick up skills, they wil l gradually
reduce dependence on the interventio n of the forest services. In fact, thi s process
can be very fast and the forest dcpartn1ents can increase thei r total work o utput by
an order of n1agnitude in a fe,v years. The other alternative of bloating govern1nen t
bureaucracies by recruiting n1ore peo ple in the forest services is unlikely co deliver
fruits, as has been adequately den1ons trated in the past.
Lega l provisions regard ing ow nershi p of land and the right to forest produce add
another di111ension of co111plication in affo restation and reforestatio n prog ra111n1es.
A classic exa1n ple of th is is the si1nple ru le that a farmer 111ay plan t a tree in his
field bu t he can not harvest it without tak ing prior pennission of the co1npetent public
authority. Such reactionary provisions o nly n1ake ,natters worse by discouraging
the planting of trees. National and state governn1ents sho uld refonn such archaic
laws to sti1n ulate private en terprise in the field of tree planting. The basic s piri t of
policies in this regard should be neither to freeze trees as inv iolable in the naine of
envi ro nment no r to permit indisc riminate harvesti ng so as to expose soils to erosio n
and i1npoveri shn1ent.
1.9 Constraints Specific to Arid and Semiarid Areas
By definition, the arid and se1niarid areas pose a problem of n1oisture scarcity for
gro,vth of plants and hence natural regeneration of vegetation is unsatisfactory. T his
boo k presu n1 es that areas receivi ng less than 500 111,n of rai nfall ann ua lly-and hav-
ing fewer than 20 rainy days in a year-are classified as arid. Areas with ann ual
rainfall frorn 500 to 800 1nm have been classified as serniarid, whereas areas ,vith
rainfa ll. less than 200 rn n1 can be said to be hyperarid. Defo restation in semi.arid areas
can in fact lead to reduced rainfall, fo ll owed by accelerated degradatio n and deserti -
fication. About o ne-third of the total land surface of the earth suffers fro,n n1oisture
deficiency. An area a,nounting to 45 million square kilometres spread over 75 coun-
tries can be said to suffer fron1 arid conditions adversely affecting productivity of
the terrestrial ecosystem.
1.4 1 Introduction
Afforesting and re-establishing vegetation cover over such lands poses 1nany spe-
cial problems. Growth of plants is slow and they are at risk of damage by anirnals.
Biotic pressure on the wastelands and cornnions is so great that despite fencing,
plantatio ns are often destroyed by an i1nals. lo 1naoy cases, this n1 ay have tnore to do
\V ith institutional arraoge1nents and non -cooperating local con1mu nit ies, but it cer-
tainly has proved to be the most serious threat to the efforts n1acle so far in arid-zone
afforestation. Moisture constraint means that extensive soil and water conserva-
tion 1neasures need to be 1neticulously planned and executed. Often these n1easures
are costly, although they do have the advantage of generating the rnuch wanted
e1nployn1ent for the local con11n unit ies.
1\fforestation in arid areas poses many other proble1ns along wi th institutional
inadequacies. Large tracts of land in arid and se1niarid areas suffer fro1n salinity
and alkaliojty. In 1naoy places, soils are n1obile sand dunes 1nakiog it irnposs ible for
plants to establish \Vithout special treann ent. Extensive up lands are often left \v ith
only roc ky and skeletal soils \Vi th inadequate depth for sustaining tree cover. Large
areas have suffered severe gu lly erosion resulting in formation of ravi nes \vhich are
not only intractable by virtue of their topography bu t also problernatic because of
infertile soils, calcareous crusts, and poor 1noisture infi ltration and retention. All
these proble1ns n1ean that affo restati on prograrnn1es in arid and serni arid areas 1nust
be planned and exec uted \Vith great care. T he vario us activities in an afforestation
progran1111c, taken together, constitute a con1plex task indeed, 1vith each step linked
to the succeeding step and detennining its success or failu re. Far too often, the resu lt
of shoddy and careless execution of affo restation prog ran1n1es is that a large aino unt
of public funds go down the drai n.
I.IO Costs in Afforestation
Social. and econon1ic costs involved in affo restation p.rograrnn1es are SJnall coin pared
to the benefi ts even though financial returns in most cases appear to be 1nodest. Tbe
opportunity cost of the capital invested is more than made up by the employ1nent
generated for the rural poor. Social spending is an important part of national budgets
of 1nost developing countries, and there seems to be no better way of achieving
this tban by ha roessi ng the productive energies o f the peo ple by engaging then1 in
afforestation progra1n n1es \Vi th the long-tern1 goal of rebuildi ng natu ral resource base
\vhile meeting the basic needs of the rural populations.
The financial burden of afforestation prograrnrnes can be calculated using ,node!
sche1nes of affores tation based on the broad types of land and the necessary techn ical
packages (see C hap. 7). Depend ing upo n the type of land, nu1n ber of trees to be
planted per hectare, and the choice of species, the unit afforestation cost 1nay range
f'rorn 200 LO 450 mdeq (man-day equivalent) per hectare. ll is seen that the fence
is the 1nost costly itern in such works, \vhich in case of linear plan tations, such as
shelterbelts and roadside avenues, can lead to very high costs up to 900 1ndeq per
hectare. Given th is, it is in1perative that lo\v-cost rn ethods of afforestation be evolved.
I.. IO Costs in A !'forestation l5
T here is a great potential for fuel wood plantations of fast-growing species o n vacant
lands where either animal visitation is not frequent o r species are so chosen that
these are no t da1naged by a nimals. Another 1netbod of low-cosl afforestation is by
promo ting natural rege neration assisted by seed sowing, which has good pote ntial in
se111 iarid areas, tho ugh it is less feasi ble in arid a nd hyperarid areas. hi pure Iy fi nancial
tenns, it is also possible to reduce costs by using n1achinery instead of hu1nan la bour,
but that \v iii undermine the social advan tage of employrnent generation. Economic
viability in case of rnecha nisecl rnetbods, looking at the poor productivity of si res,
1nay indeed be questionable.
Chapter2
Nursery Techniques
Abstract Planting of nursery-raised seedlings is a n1ajor con1ponent of afforestation

and reforestation progran1mes, especially in arid and se1niarid areas where potential
of afforestation by natural regeneration and direct sowing is limited. Quality of plants
going out of the nursery is the first step towards success of the overall program,ne.
Nurseries can be perrnaneot (also known as cen tral or n1ain nursery) or te1nporary
(also known as site nursery or field nursery), depend ing upon the duration of the
afforestation progra1n1ne or project. In a co ntinu ing progran1me that is likely to go
on for more than 5 years, itis desirable to have at least a few permanent nurseries with
proper infrastructure. However, in case of an afforestation project lasting 5 years or
less, te1npo rary or sen1ipermanenr nurseries can be established io ,v hich the cost can
be reduced by dispens ing with son1e of the infrastructure ele1nents such as buildings,
\Valer reservoirs, and tube 1vells.
2.1 Establishment of a Ne,v Nursery
2.1.1 Site Selection
Site for a new nursery should be selected \Vith a view to 1nini1nisi ng cost of transporta-
tion of plants to the plantation site. Many times a suitable plot of land or su itab le
water source is not available near the plantation si te and it becomes necessary to
transport plants over long distances which, apart frorn resulting in higher cost of
transportation, entails higher 1nortality and wastage of plants. In case of a tc1n porary
nursery, some arrangen1en t can be n1ade with a local fanner for uti lisi ng his private
source of 1vater. If a nursery is located near a natural so urce of water inside forest
area, it should be ensured that good quality loam or forest soil is availab le nearby to
1ninitnise the cosl of transportation of soil for preparing potting mix. "fhe site m ust
be approachabl e by the n1eans of transport available, such as anin1a l carts or 1notor
vehicles.
Quality and quantity of avai lable water 1nust be checked before incurring further
expenditure on creation of a nursery. Salinity of water is a common constraint in arid
and semiarid areas, altho ugh rnosr plants have so1ne tolerance to salinity in water
P. R. Siyag, Afforestation. Reforestation and Forest Restoration in A rid 17

and Semi-arid Tropics, DOI I0 .1007/978-94-007-745 l-3_2,
© Springer Science+Business J\1edia Dordrechl 2014
18 2 Nurse,y Techniques
Table 2.1 Qual ity parameters for water suitable for use in nursery
Parameter Safe limits
Alka linity or acidity (pH value) 6.5- 7.5; though a great deal depends upon the
nature and pH of the soil
Salinity (cotal dissolved solids (TDS)): 0.75 or less is standard: up to 2.25 in soils with
electrical conductivity (EC) value in ,nS/cm1 good drainage or with salt-tolerant species
Sod ium absorption ratio (SA R) IO or Jess; more p rob le matic in so ils with high
cation exchange capacity (fi ne-textured soils)
Boron cations 0.50 ppm or Jess; though concentration in the
range of 0.0~.05 ppm is desirable for
normal plant growth
Residua l sodiu1n carbonate (RSC) 2.50 mEq/1, 1hough 1.25 1nEq/l is pcrfccl! y safe
for al l situations
and soil. Accordingly, the quality stringency of water will depend upon the plant
species used in afforestation and also upon other factors such as presence or absence
of salinity in soils of the plantation site (Table 2. l ). Water with salinity less than 0. 75
111S/c1112 will sui t 1nost of the species co1n 1no nly used in arid zone afforestation.
The terrain that suits a nursery best is a gently sloping terrain, or a flat terrain as
a second choice. Steep slope sho uld be avoided because it involves greater costs in
tenns of terracing aod levelling of the ground. A.rea requ ired depends upon size of
nu rsery (i ts capacity in tenns of plant produc tion per season) an d also upon whether
large-scale growing fields (1nother beds) \vi ll be used for producing tall plants. How-
ever, for a nursery of 100,000- 300,000 plants- to be raised primarily in polypo ts-
an area of l ha will be sufficient.
A nursery should be provided with a cattle-proof fence. Tf wild anin1 als li ke blue
bu lls (Boselaphus tragocan1elus) are present in the area, they n1ight even j u1np the
fence and destroy 1he plants. Therefore, choice of fence will depend upon local
conditions, upon whether the nursery is pennaneat or te1nporary and ho\v n1uch
expenditure can be justi fied on the fence.
2.1.2 Nursery Infrastructure
The essential infrastructure elen1ents of a nursery are a \vater so urce, nursery beds,
\Yater conveyance chan nels or hydrants and \VOrk ing tools (Fig. 2. l). Hov,cver, a
pennanent nursery should also have other infrastructure elen1ents, such as one or
n1ore ground-leve l water reservoir (GLR) or overhead water reservo.ir (OHR), a seed
sto re, staff qu arters, and irrigation sprinklers. Choice of infrastructure is largely a
ques tio n of availab ili ty of funds and the size and ilnportancc of the nursery.
Discharge and quality of \vater are the t,vo para111eters that decide suitability of a
\vater sou rce. Quali ty has already been discussed earlier. D ischarge of ,vater requ ired
in a nursery ,viii depend upon the plant production capacity of the nursery and the
n1ethod of irrigation adopted. On an average 25,000 I of water is requi red dail y fo r
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2. 1 Establishment of a New Nu,·se,y 23
6 m x 6 m (Inside Dimensions}
X
y
Plan
.- - - Maximum Water Level 50 mm CC Coping
Inlet 75 mm dia
75 mm CC 1:2:4 ....,..__ RR Stone

1.40m 1.60 m Masonry
Outlet Outlet
7.5cm 60
150mmLC _ J
1:2:4 LC- --L_ _ __J 20
f-- 90 cm --j f-- 75 --j
Sectional View (X-Y)
Fig. 2.4 Plan and sectional view of a GLR of 50,000-1capacity
An OHR is a structure of considera ble cost and complexity. Nevertheless, it

becornes an indispensable part of a nursery if labour cos ts are so high tha t pressure-
driven sprinklers n1ust be installed for irrigation. The cost of an OHR can be brought
down by designing it for a lower capacity (Fig. 2.5) if availabili ty of electric power
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2.2 Plant P,·oduction Plan 27
larger than what can 1nake it co n1fortable for a worker to reach all the polypo ts for
sowing, weeding, and cleaning. The depth of the bed will depend upon the height
of the polypots to be con tained, and can be kept either 0.30 or 0.40 1n. Sides of the
beds sho uld be li ned \vi th sto ne slabs or son1e other rnaterial if the soil is so Light that
the beds w ill no t retain s ha pe. Tn heav ie r soils, th e beds can be dressed every season
before stoc king these with polypots. Costs involved in lining of beds and in reg ular
1naintenance ol' unlined beds constitute a trade-off tha t can be a basis ror deciding
between the two o ptions.
Sunken beds, ho\vever, s hou ld be avo ided in lov1-lying areas that are prone to
fl oodi ng d uring rai ns. Tn such a case, raised beds o n n1ounds of earth should be
bu il t by laying sto ne slabs o n edge jointed ,vi th ce me nt- sand 1nortar. Raised beds
sho uld be high enough to prevent entry of puddle water into the beds and should be
of sufficient de pth to provide adequate support for sta ndi ng ou r con tai ners.
Relative layou t of the di ffere nt elen1e nts of a nursery is a n i111 portant factor affect-
ing its o pe rationa l effi ciency. S to rage of rn aterials nearer to the place ,vherc req ui red,
locatio n of beds relative to each o ther a nd to the GLR (to 1n in in1 ise le ngth of pipes
and nu n1ber of hydrants), locating 1nother beds suitably to reduce labour spent in po t-
ting o pe ration, a nd si rnil ar other conside rations shoul d be take n into account \vhile
plann ing the layout of a nursery.
Work ing too ls in the nursery arc also in1po rta nt for effi cient operatio n. Tn1proper
or inadeq uate tools will n1ean poor workn1a nship or fa ulty techn iq ues a nd also res ult
in Jo,ver productivity of the wo rkers. A list of tools required for nonnal nursery
operatio ns can be seen in Table 2.2. Tools n1 ust be n1ai nta ined pe riodica ll y and
stored properl y so as to ens ure Jong service.
Nursery shade is required in areas \Vhere extren1e heat a nd cold is con1111only
experienced. Species vary in tolerance to heat a nd frost, but in general, so1ne so rt
of shel ter or shade wi ll be req uired under the tropical s un. Sowing of castor or
other fast g r<l\v ing shrubs can be a solutio n fo r short-tenn 1n anagen1e11t. T-fowever,
other sui table woody plants should also be pla nted bct\vcen castor plants, so that
a pennane nt s hade is m ade in future. Arti ficial shade with brushwood thatches or
co1n1nercial shading nets can also be considered in case of a ten1porary nu rsery. In
large central nurseries, sheds are erected for providing shade to ,vorkers engaged
in filli ng po lypo ts or transplanting seedlings, both fo r creating a better working
envi ro n111ent a nd fo r preventing casualties of plants d ue to s un burns.
2.2 Plaut Production Plan
Production of plants in a nursery is acyc li c (seaso na l) activity. Every planting season,

the nursery n1ust be ab le to prod uce good q uali ty plants of des ired species a nd des ired
si~e. At the beginning of every year (e.g. on the first of April), a plan of plant
production (Fig. 2.8, Table 2.4) sho uld be drawn, specifying nurn ber, species, and
size of plants to be raised; the plant propagation and plant prod uction rnethods to be
en1ployed; and the resources req uired in the prod uction process.
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2.2 Plant P,·oductio n Plan 31
Plant Material
Plants Produced
(Input)
(Output)
10, 000 4 0o/o 10°/o 0% s•;.
Seedlings1---..1"\
Losses in
or Propagation 5 .ooo Beds/Field 5,400 Grade-o ut 5 ,400 Shipment 5,130
Cuttings Losses Losses Losses
or
Stumps
• Cuttings not sprou- • Seedlings die of • Loss in culling • Shock, dessicc-

ting heat • Loss in grade out: atio n a nd handl·
• Transplants die of • Loss in pot turning plants not meeting ing in shipment
shock/displacement • Loss due to pests health and size to site
• Stumps fail to root • Loss in potting requirements • End-use c auses
• Loss due to frost of mortality
Fig. 2.9 Example of losses at different stages in planLproduecion in nursery
Table 2.3 Typical plant material loss factors in di fferent methods of plant production in a nursery
Type of Loss Production method (sec Fig.2 .8)
Cl C2 C3 C4 Fl F2 F3
Pro pagation loss (p) 0 0 0 40 0 0 40
Loss in beds or 20 25 30 5 JO 20 10
fields (/)
Loss due to grade 20 20 20 0 20 20 0
out (x)
Loss in 5 5 5 5 5 5 s
trans po,tation (t)
Final yicld from I00 60.80 57.00 53.20 54. 15 68.40 60.80 51.30
Production ratio (r) J.64 1.75 J.88 1.85 J.46 1.64 1.95
prod uction n1ust be plan ned for extra plants to take care of various loss factors
(Pig. 2.9, Tab le 2.3). Keeping this in vie\v, the plant production targets should be
fixed for each species. Plants to be raised over 1nore than l year \viii repeat in the
ann ual production figures of the successive years. Table 2.4 shows a sa1n ple of the
final version of the production plan of a cen tral nursery.
A. prod uction plan n1ust lay down the exact nun1ber of plan ts to be raised by each
111ethocl. Plants can be raised for bare-root or containerised transport, thro ugh sttnnp
cuttings or branch cuttings, gro\vn for 3 1n onths, 6 months, or l year. Look ing at
these, one has to \VOrk o ut requiremen t of qu antity of seeds, nu1n ber of cuttings
and their source, gro\ving space in 1nother beds, nutn ber of containers required for
sowing, potting and repotting, area of genni nation beds, qu antity of potting rnix, and
other related resources.
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25 Procurement of /\'lanure, Clay, and Sand 35
Table 2.5 Cornponcncs of potting rnix

S r. Type Ro le/i111 portance Desired specifications Portion Test of adequacy
no. o f component (o/o v/v) of component
Clay Fertility. moisture Should be free from 20-40 Potting mix
retention, miacraJ salinicy. Loxieity and forms lumps,
exchange weeds has
mouldabil ity
2 Sand Drainage, aeral ion of Free from salinity, 40---00 \Valer drains
rooLzones .stones~ cox ic wastes, steadily and
a nd weed seeds properly
3 JV!anurc Improves soiJ Free from pests, well 20-40 Coarse
structure. adds to rotten, clear of structurct ca.n
ferL ility stones/pebbles be seen
4 Pesticide Prevents attack of Environmental safety, 1111 inute D irect
pests s uc h as white effectiveness monitoring
ants
ass ured. The three corr1ponents of a good potting tuix are n1anure , clay, a nd sand.
Manure is required to ilnprove fertility of soil, whereas clay provides, apart fro1n
nutrients and 1ninerals, the binding property for clurnp fonnalion so that plants are
not datnaged while handling, potting, and planting. Sand irnproves drainage so that
\Vaterloggi ng can be avo ided.
Correct ratio of the three components shou ld be 1naintained (Table 2.5), as each
of these components controls a partic ular property of the rnix. If cost factor is taken
into consideration, quantity of manure can be changed to s uit quality requirements.
Jf no cornprorn ise in qual ity is to be rnade on gro unds of cost, then a ratio of 1: l :2
(1nanure:clay:sand) n1ay be chosen in n1ost cases. However, most of the xerophytic
species used in arid and semiarid areas are not stringent in nutrient require1nents and
an average 1nix of I :2:3 can also be adopl.ed as a general ru le.
Manure can be procured locally in rnos t places. T he goat and s heep droppings
fo n11 a better rnan ure, as it is less likely to contain weed seeds and te nni tes. Short of
th is, cov1 dung con1post or corn post of other farn1yard n1a nure (FYlvl) can be used,
but care s hou ld be taken to ens ure that such o rganic n1atter is thorough ly dccon1posed
and ro tten. Peat, hu1nus, or forest soils rich in organic inaner can be used io lieu of
FYJvt. Advantage of forest so il is that it inoculates the potting 111.ix \V ith rnicroflora,
such as rn ycorrh izae, \vh ich fonn syn1b io tic association with roots of plants. Manu re
sho uld be clear of stones, sand, g rit, a nd o ther forei gn n1ate rial. It sho uld be dry if
cos t based on unit \Veigh t is to be paid. It s hould be proc ured well in advance of the
tin1e of filling polypots to avo id Jast-tninute rushes and co1npro1nises on cost and
quality.
C lay can be procured fron1 a nearby place. Clay rnay naturall y occur as the no rn1al
so il in the area or, 111ore likely in arid a nd sen1iarid area, found in \vatcr tanks a nd
ponds. If silt fron1 canals o r dams is used, it should rep lace the sand portion as well.
Care s hou ld be taken to e nsure that the clay being procured is free frorn sali n.ity and
seeds of ,veeds. No rn1a ll y, clay shou ld not cos t rno ney by itself but its tra nsportation
inc urs considerable cost and it \v iii be best to proc ure clay fron1 the nearest poss ible
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2.8 Preparing Seedbeds and r.1other Beds 39
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Fig. 2.10 Pilling potting mix in polypots
the soil settle in and fi nn in and then the po t sho uld be fi ll ed agai n. If loosely filled,
so il \viii settle later a nd n1ake polypots lin1p, res ulting in dislodgen1e nt of roots a nd
heavy n1ortali ty of plants d uring ha ndling. At least l to 2 c111 frorn top of the pot
sho uld he kept en1pty to avo id s pillage. Filled po ly pots s hou ld be placed erect in
sunk beds.
2.8 Preparing Seedbeds and Mother Beds
Seedbeds (also k.oown as genn ioation beds) are laid o ut by s preadi ng a uni.fonn layer
of pott ing rni x in I 111 wide strip of s uita ble le ng th , preferab ly l On1. Often the layer is
kepi IO cm deep, as th.is is the 111aximum expected root penetration of the prickli ngs
(seedlings or size suitable for priek.ing out and tra nsplanting). Tbe beds should be
located in shade and close lo the polybeds where the seedlings will be transplanted.
Seedbeds s hou ld be tho rough ly d re nc hed a coup le of tirnes before sowi ng seeds in
thern .
Mother beds are the fields in wh.ich seedlings are transplanted to grow. Tbese beds
occupy a large area- in fact, entire fi elds- wh ich s hou ld be thoroug hly ploughed to
a depth of 35 cin in cross di.rectioos. If the soil in the a rea is of good qu ali ty, 111anure
need not be added, but in soils of poo r quality, FY M s hou ld be s pread over at the
rate of 20 t/ha and plo ug hed in. The fie ld can then be di vided into beds by laterall y
and longitudi nally runn ing furro\vs that also act as water conveyance chan nels fo r
irriga tion. The various rectangu lar or square beds so fonned sho uld be nurn bered and
a plan of these beds shou ld be prepared and en te red into the nu rsery jou rn al. These
beds will receive transp lants of seedlin gs, though son1e ti1nes seeds n1 ay be d irectly
sov,n in regu lar dril ls.
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2. l3 Protectio n from Insects and Pests 43
out by reducing fi rst the q uantity of \Yater in each irrigatio n and then the irrigation
frequency. This s ho uld be planned a bout a 1nonth ahead of taking the plants to the
field for outplanting. Similarly, the plants that have outgrown in size and are likely
to coi l their roots in the pots should be given less than the usual an1ount of irrigation.
Tn ex tre111e cases, irrigation should be sto pped for a ,nonth or so.
2.12 Weeding and Cleaning
\.Veeds con1e with tn anu re, clay, or sand tra nsported into nursery fron1 ou tside. S0n1c-
tirn es undesirable seeds get 1nixed with the seeds sow n. \Vhen \Yeeds have grown and
beco1ne visible a nd identifia ble, these are re n1oved by pricking out. If two seedlings
of the species sown have come up in a pot, one of these should be immediately
pricked o ut and tra nsplanted into another polypot that does not have a plant. If a ny
clutter or n1uck fi lls up the (upper part of) pots, the po ts s hould be cleaned. In n1othcr
beds, it is also desira ble to hoe the soil periodically, apart fron1 ren1oving the ,veeds.
T hese seern ingly sirnple operatio ns n1atter a great deal in determining g row th of the
plants.
\l\leeds may pose a rnore serious problem if it is unavoidab le to use clay or sand
infested ,vith weeds. In s uch a case, a flood irrigation is given to the po lypots a co up le
of ti1nes a nd ,veeds allowed to genni nate, afte r which a U the weeds are destroyed by
pricking o ut. Seeds are then sow n into the pots.
2.13 Protection from Insects and Pests
Tcrn1ite, o r the white ant, and other pests n1ay pose a risk to plants in n1othcr beds.
Pests are less likely to affect plants in seedbeds and pot.s because the period for which
the plants are kept at one place is s ho rt and the soil is confined. However, if the risk
cannot be avoided because of the use of tennite-infested clay, sand o r n1anure, the
potting n1 ix should be treated ,vi th pesticides.
Fungal attack o n the roo ts of plants and leaf defol iators are the com1non pests
affecting con tainerised plants in a nursery. In case of a fungal attack, appropriate
fung icide in liq uid fonn s ho uld be given in between irrigations. Foliar spray of
suitable pesticide (Table 2.8) s hould be adn1 ini stered to conta in defoliato rs. Apes-
ticide s hould not be 111ixed ,vith the regu lar irrigation water because that will bring
concentration of the pesticide do,vn to an ineffective level.
Each pesticide has a lower threshold of concentration below which it is not effec-
tive, \Vhether it acts as a re pellent or by killing the pest. T he refore, the reco1n1nended
dosage in adn1inistc ring pesticides shou ld be adhered to. If used in po,vdcrcd fonn ,
the pesticide pO\vder s ho uld be mixed \Vith soil thoro ug hly. In liqu id form , it sho uld
be diluted to the reco1n1nended concentration and the affected soil shou ld be irrigated
\Vith it, or if used externally, pla nt shoot should be sprayed over wi th the help of a n
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2.15 P.-eparing and Planting Cuttings 47
Table 2.9 Rooting honnoncs and their use

I Iormone/aux in Concentration J\1ethod of appl ication
!AA: indole-3-acetic acid I 00 rng/1 Dip 4 -cm po11ion of cutting for 24 h
IBA: indolebuty.-ic. acid I 00 rng/1 Dip 4 -cm po11ion of cutting for 24 h
NAA : L-na phthy lace1ic acid Not recommended
other reaso ns for s hi fting of plants, they shou ld be shifted a t least once before tak ing
thein to field. Son1e plants n1ay not vvi thstand the s tress and 1nay d ie. This \v iii red uce
1nortality d uring transportation a nd after outp la nting .
S o1neti1nes plants raised for outplanting in a season 1nay be surplussed or left
over. Such plants will become overgrown a nd pot-boun d and n1ay di e s ubsequently,
especially in case of xerophytic s pecies tha t have a large root syste n1 . One optio n in
such cases is to cut off the top portion of shoot (topp ing), o r if poss ible, to prepare
roo t-shoot stu,nps ou t of these. Another option is to change these over to larger pots
(transpotting) so as to let th etn grow into tall plan ts which can be used in the next
plan ting season.
2.15 Preparing and Planting Cuttings
M any species can be preferably and advan tageo usly propagated through c uttings.
Plants raised fro n1 cuttings \Viii be true-to-type, have better and faster growth, and
are likely to be hardy. Cu ttings should be prepared in the right season (e.g. in 1nild-
te1npera ture seasons of October- Nove1n be r and February- 11arch) a nd planted in
polypots or beds almost im n1edi ately.
Branch cuttings are obtained from ,nother plants (raised for this purpose in the
nursery) or fron1 adu lt plants gro\ving ou tside in the field. Branches a bout l-2 cm
th ick a re suita ble for c uttings. While c utting the1n , a sharp tool s uc h as a pair o f
secateurs shou ld be used and a t least two internodes should be inc luded in the cutting.
A ltn os t im1nediately, the cuttings s hou ld be brought to the nursery if it is nearby. If
the cuttings 1nust be transported o ver longer distan ces and kept for longe r duration,
these should be wrap ped in 1noist bags a nd water s prinkled over to keep the n1 1noist
thro ug ho ut. Abo ut a week is the longest these can be kept this way, altho ugh decline
in roo ting rate wil l be seen. O ften it is advantageous LO c ut large entire branches
of planl ,na terial, if available, and after bringing these to the n ursery, the branches
can be cut into s rnall er pieces a nd i1n1nediately put into po lypots or 1nothe r beds.
App lication o f rooting ho rrno nes (Table 2.9) can in1prove rooting pe rcentage in case
of species with low rooting success.
Cuttings of roo Land shoot portion of whole plants (the stu1nps)-raised for the
purpose in the nursery or naturally fo und growing in the field- s hou ld be prepared
in case. of certain s pecies tha t will not grow fro rn bra nc h cuttings. Nonnally, l-1.5-
year-o ld plants a re used. T he plants a re uprooted, and a bout 15-20 cn1 long sturnps
arc prepared. To prepare a stun1p, the s hoot is c ho pped off at 3 c111 above the co llar,
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52 3 Site Selection, Survey and Treatment Plan
ln n1ost n1ulti -purpose long-tern1 afforestation progran1n1es, however, prioritised

selection of sites would fi rst include sites that are of better productivity, are ap-
proachable, and are recognised by the the local people as their o wn priority sites.
Availability of labour and consent of the local co1nrnu nity should al\vays be ensured
before a site is selected for affo restation ,vo rk.
Size of the land parcel selected fo r a plantation sho uld be appropriate. Too small
an area in an iso lated corner \Vill entail heavy logistic overheads, leading to higher
unit cost. Too large a site will create logistic problerns of another kind- such as,
sho rtage of n1anpower-since work of afforestation and refo restation in arid and
serniarid areas is often season-bound. T herefore, a large area of land, if avai lable at a
place, sho uld be considered for afforestatio n in a phased rnanner. Al though no exac t
rule ma y be given as to the right size of a plantatioa, a plantation requiring 1nore
than 50,000 plants at a tirne should be considered too large. T he an1o unt of Jabou r
requ ired in site preparation, nursery ,vo rk, and planting operation will be difficu lt to
arrange, unless the level of uncn1ploy1n ent in the area is very high and a large labo ur
force is availab le and ,villing to work.
T he traditional or custornary rights of local people over the conunons lands should
be taken into co nsideration while selecti ng a site. Right to pasturage, righ t to \Vay,
and right to extract fue hvood frorn the lands could be son1e of such rights. Selecting
a parcel of land for a plantation rn ight restrict sonic of these rights. For exan1 ple,
no thoroughfare can be allo\vcd to pass a plantation or else it \v il l be in1possible to
protec t the plants. Sin1ilarly, no rights of grazing can be exerc ised for a period of at
least a fe\V years. All these issues rnust be discussed with the user co111111uni ties and
a co nsensus in favou r of site selectio n sho uld be evolved, othenvise the plantation
co uld be vandalised by local people and ,viii not succeed.
An afforestatio n prograrn 1n e can include different plan tation or regeneration n1od-
els, each defined by a specific set of practices and interventions, and geared to meet
a specific set of objectives. Fo r exan1ple, silvopas toral plantations, village ,voodlots,
sand-du ne stabilisation, energy plantati ons, and cco-restoration \vo rk in hills and
plains will require differen t plan tation designs (111ode ls). In such a case, a site sho uld
be ass igned to one or the other of these plantation models. \Vhile selecting a site,
the model that will apply wi ll be decided by the aims and objectives set o ut in the
progra111n1e, interests and needs of the local people, and technical and o perational
feas ib ili ty of the si te itself.
Affo restation works in developing co untry contexts are li kely to be highly labou r
intensive and employment generating. It is neither possible nor desirab le to concen-
trate all work at a particular site, since the large num ber of \vorkers req uired rnay
not be available. It is necessary, therefo re, to organize progran1111e in1plen1entatio n
in terms of a nun1ber of clusters o r nuclei (each cluster can add a plantation site
every I or 2 years), so that availability of labo ur is ensu red and a large number of
people benefit frorn the ernployment created. Too 1nuch scattering of plantation sites
will lead to diHicuHies in supervision, co-ordination , and logistics. A balance has to
be SlTuck bet\veen the centralised and the scattered ap proaches. Carefully designed
clusters should be identified, so that ,vo rk can proceed in parallel at all the cl usters.
T herefore, a si te sho uld be so selected that either it falls in an existing cluster, or
there is enough scope for creating a new cluster of plantations.
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gro und surface, if the relief is not too ,narked. In a hilly terrain the ground distance will
have too wide a variation with the actual horizontal distance, and the traverse will not
close (except by 1nistake or by chance). In such cases, plurnb lines should be dropped
and long distances should be broken into step-like pattern to detenni ne the correct
ho rizon tal distance. Distances shou Id be noted in the fie ld book inunediate ly. T he su r-
veyor should not rely upon n1en1ory and think of noting a couple of distances together.
Back-bearings should not be considered extra or redundant \VOrk. They ens ure
that the surveyor does not have to go back to the point where he began ao cl redo the
\vho le \vo rk. Tt is usefu l to include as 111aoy checks and redundancies as possible in
order to eli1n inate chances of n1istakes, gre1nli ns, and blunders entering in the su rvey
\VOrk. Ho,vever, back-bearings need not be measured t\v ice ,vhere these agree \V ith
the fore-bearing.
Tt is very in1portant to rnark every station wi th son1e pennanent or se1ni -pennanen t
artefact suc h as a piece of stone s lab, 1nonolith, wooden peg, or 1naso11.ry pillar. Even
if excellent su rvey \York has been done, and the area has been es tin1ated accu rately,
it serves li ttle purpose if the survey stations can not be located when one con1es to
the site 3 niooths later to start fencing \ VOrk. lo such a case, the entire exercise of
surveying wi.11 have to be re-done and the treatrnent plan will have to be revised to
1nake it agree \v ith the new survey.
T he posi tion of at least t,vo of the survey stations shou ld be detern1ined by record-
ing the ir bearings and distances ,vith respect to a pem1anent reference n1ark hav ing
un ique identity so that it ,vould be possible to reach and spot it in field just on basis of
a verba l description. A pern1anent reference ,nark could, for instance, be the corner
of a school co1npound wal l, a large and isolated tree, or a \Yater ,veil. Tf it is possib le
to have a reference point that is availab le on the general topographical (GT) sheet of
the area it \Viii be even better. Alternatively, the latitude- longitude of the point can
be recorcled with the help of a global posi tioni ng systen1 (OPS) handset.
Tn case of a hilly terrai n, it is desi rab le to survey the hi ll ocks fall ing ,vithin the
plan tation area usi ng sub-traverses. T he foothill den1arcatio n li ne for the different
hi llocks has to be son1e\vhat arbitrary, though criteria such as soil depth and slope ,nay
be used to den1arcate the hill y fro1n the flat terrain. Such an exercise does entai l a little
extra ,vork, but it enables more accuracy in preparation of the treatment plan later.
Map of the area should be plotted on a standard scale. A scale of l cn1 to 50 n1 is
appropriate for n1ost occasio ns. If any su b-traverses have been su rveyed these will
also be plo tted. \Vhile plotting distances and bearings the traverse will seldo1n, if
ever, close without error. A closing error of less than I o/o of the peri1neter of the
area can be considered insignifican t and the traverse can be closed by choosing the
1n id-poi nt of the error-li ne as the fi rst and last station. In this process two distances
and two angles, as observed, wi ll have to be 1nodified. Ho\vever, for more acc urate
work proper error-closure algorith1n such as the Bo,vditch ru le should be fo llowed.
T he area of the traverse can be determined using a graph sheet or by div iding
the figure int.o triangles and 1neasuring tbe bases and heights of these triangles. T he
area can also be calculated using the fonnula for generic polygon after the Cartesian
co-ordi nates of the stations have been read off a graph. It is always better to calculate
the area by two independent 1nethods, so as to eliminate chances of a ,najor error.
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60 3 Site Select ion, Survey and Treatment Plan
skilled labour, and yields high productivity of labour (a tea1n of four persons working
an 8-h day can mark 1000 1n of li ne per day).
3.7 Setting Out Engineering Structures ,vith HSL
Structures li ke earthen embankn1en ts and \veirs can be co nveniently and accurately

located and set o ut using a theodo lite or a durnpy level. However, use of these
equ ipn1ent requ ires trai ned persons often no t ava ilab le in affo restation prog rarnrn es.
To get arou nd th is li rni tation, the fo llowi ng paragraphs briefly explain ho\v the HSL
can be used to align, design, and set o ut such structures.
In order to design an earthen e1n bank111ent or a ,veir, it is o nly necessary to obtain
the cross section of the stream at the desired location. For this, the HSL is positioned
at one bank of the strean1 at the highest po int to be included in the cross sectio n.
The two staffs w ill read equal. Now the forestaff is placed a fixed distance across
the strea111 bed (say J .5 m each tin1e), such distance bei ng n1easured horizontally in
case of a steep bank and along the ground if the slope is not too steep. The difference
between the two staff readi ngs is noted in the relevant colu1nn of a table (Fig. 3.4).
vVhen water in the lower staff reaches rnaxiinutn reading (begins l.O spill) the rearstaff
is shifted ahead and the process co ntinues until one reaches the highest po int o n the
opposite bank. Each of the staff statio ns is n1 arked \vith letter a, b, c or I, 2, 3 etc.
Stone bou lders n1ay be marked \vith paint and placed at these points. The table is then
comp uted for the levels of the points and the cross section is plotted on a graph sheet,
usually the vertical scale being exaggerated by a ratio of two or tl1reecon1pared to the
horizontal scale. The cross section so obtained allo\vS one to choose an appropriate
height and width of the stru cture to be designed. The san1e points n1arked on gro und
will be usefu l while setting o ut the structure.
The longitudinal section of a strearn (t.he L-section) can be obtained similarly.
The ground slope alo ng tile strean1 is likely to be n1uch less co,npared to tile slope
of gro und in its cross section. Therefore, it will suffice to record gro und distance
as the horizontal distance. The horizontal interval bet\veen staff points can be 1nuch
larger (IO n1 or rno re) and the process can be repeated by alternately exchanging the
forestaff and the rearstal'f. lt is possible for a t.ea1n of four persons to draw about I km
of L-section in a day.
3.8 Site Treatment Plan
Treatn1ent plan is the blueprint of the wo rk that n1 ust be carried out in order to
successfully afforest an area. The ain1 s and objectives of the progran1111e and the
technical consideratio ns- based o n factors such as terrain relief, so ils, and clin1ate--
detern1ine the ingred ients of a treatrnent plan. Survey ·work done earlier helps in
estiJnating the q uantities of each type of work. Having detern1ined all the work ite1ns
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64 3 Site Select ion, Survey and Treatment Plan
Table 3.1 Recommendations for overcoming site-s pecific lirnilations

Serial Constraint Overcoming techniques and methods
number
I 2 3
I Lack of soil or the so il is too On slopes contour-dyke-cum-terraces should be built.
rocky, shallow o r skeletal So il transported from outside is filled along the dyke
to prepare a terrace. In flat land, outside soil is used to
fi ll the pits. o r 10 fill raised containers made or
masonry
2 Saline soi.I and waterlogging The in situ soil o f pits can be mixed with 10- 20 %
gypsum powder 01· it can be replaced with outside
good soil. In case of lo ng periods of waterlogging,
mound-pl anting should be practised
3 Severe frost o r cold wave The plants should be covered with brushwood shelter on
top and sides. Extra irrigation should be given during
winte,·. Spray I In, sulphuric acid on the foliage twice
a week, as an extra precaut ion
4 Extreme hot weather or heat Shade and shelter using brushwood should be prov ided.
waves Extra watering should be given during hot season.
Watering to be given only in early morning hours
5 Soil is too de ficient in Soil should be cleaned o r the inorganic waste and tox ins.
nutrients, is tox ic or then mi xed with FYl'vl (10-20% w/w), and refi ll ed in
contains plastics and other pits. In case of extre mely polluted soils, the soil must
wastes be replaced with outside fertile topsoil
6 Climate is roo arid. linlc Species sensitive to droughr should be avoided. There is
rainfall; atmosphe ric no way the atmosphe ric humidity can be improved,
hwnidily is always too low except in green houses. Extra wutedng, 1nanuring and
shade a nd shelter should be considered
7 Risk of damage by livestock Extra-strong fence (such as fence S\V-3 o r B'IV-9)
or wild animals is too high should be considered. At the sarnc time, regular watch
1s necessary
8 Risk of people damaging the People's participation should be ensured. Extensive
plantation is 100 high PRA should proceed before starting the programme
3.8.2 Choosing a Fence
Most land areas in the developing countries in arid and semiari d tropics are likely to
be visited by foraging livestock or by \vild animals. This would require the plantation
site to be fenced at least for several years till trees are tall enough to be beyond the
reac h of the ani,nals. Hav ing decided that the area ,n ust be fenced, an approp riate
choice of fence type (Table 3.2) should be made. This will depend upon the type of
terrain, soil depth, and 1he kind of soil. \Vhere employ,nent generation is one of the
objectives (or a co-benefit) of the afforestation progranune, a fence type with high
labour input should be preferred. Cost of fenc ing is another in1 portan t criterion, but
no nnally no corn prornise should be 111ade on th is count, because if fencing is no t
effective, all other 1neasures, however effect.ive, will come to a nought. Unfenced
plantations 1nay be raised in rare cases, such as those in which only non-palatable
species- species that are not browsed or da111aged by anirnals- are used. Unfenced
plan tatio ns of Prosopis ju.Ii.flora, for exainple, can be successfully raised.
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area, and year of creation-shou ld be displayed on it. Provision for an inspection

path sho uld also be 1nade, indicati ng the layout of the path on the map. Leng th and
alignment of the inspection pa th should be such that the entire area can be inspected
conveniently. T he ins pection path shou ld be rnotorable as far as possible.
3.8.3 Soil and Water Conservation Works
Soil and water conservation (S& \.VC) n1easures are the heart of afforestation work
in arid and semiarid areas. These will vary fro1n site to site and therefore each site
sho uld include in iLS treatment plan carefully designed S&.\.VC 1neasures. Decisions
regarding th e specifications of \VOrk ite1ns and their quantities rnust be rnade care-
fully. Quantities are to be estin1ated on the basis of the surveyed site plan, \Vhereas
specifications will ahnost exclusi vely be determined by the terrain, the soils, and the
basic ai1ns and objectives of the programrne.
D igging of pits is required in 1nos1 plantations, except in sand dunes. Size of the
pits and their spacing and align111 ent are i111po rtant issues to be decided. T he treatn1ent
plan sho uld also include an estirnated nu mber of pits that will be accom1nodated in
the si te. Pitting area is deterniined by deducting from the total area the area that is
not suitable ror p il digging (e.g. areas that have no soils, are too steep, fonn beds
of strea111s, o r have abundan t natural roo tstock). Apart fron1 thi s, the area covered
by other S&WC structures such as the contour trench is further deducted. T he net
pitting area is then divided by the product of the spacing bet\veen the pits in the two
directions 10 get the estimated number of pits.
S ize of pits is deten11ined by a trade-off between cost and effectiveness. A larger
pit is 111ore effective in 111oisture conservation but at the san1e tirne it costs n1ore. It
is not possible to carry out a break-even analys is to deten11ine the opti n1 u111 size of
the pit because no quantitative 111easu re of the effectiveness of n1oisture conservation
can be developed. Past experience is the only guide in this inaner, based on which
pit sizes should be standardised.
Spacing of pits sho uId be deten11 ined on the criteria of soil and n1 oisture availab il-
ity, species used, ai1ns and objec tives of the progra1111ne, and the densi ty of natural
rootstock al ready existing in the area. In plantations to be raised with the specific
ain1 of production of tilnber, poles, pulpwood or fuelwood, however, the spacing
considerations 1nay be n1o re co111plex. W here thi nni ng is to be carried out fo r a fi nal
crop spacing, the init ial spac ing n1ay be half the final spacing. Fo r energy plantations
\vhere bion1ass produced is to be n1aximised, a close spacing- say, 1.5 111 in both
directio ns- m ay be appropriate. In n1ost conservation-cun1-production plantations in
arid and sen1iarid tropics using xerophytic species, the average spacing could be 3 tn
in either d irect ion. T his could be inc reased to 4 n1 x 5 111 in case of broad leaf species
\V ith a larger cro,vn. Even so, a un ifo r111 prescription of spacing cannot be justified
inasn1uch as the clin1ate and the soil type detennine the fi nal spacing as o bserved
in natural stands of trees. Every ecosystem- a piece of land fo r that n1atter- has
a carrying capacity for tree population. No n1atter ho\v ,nany trees are planted in a
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Mu lch lines can be aligned in a parallel, checkerboard, masonry, or dia1nond

pauern. Orientation is set with respect to the prevalent direction of wind. Maxim um
length of the lines shou ld be aligned a cross the direction of wind which is also the
d irection o f sand rnovernent. So rneti rn es, co111 plex patterns of sand 1noven1ents can
be seen, where sand 1noves in all directions ra ndornl y. In such cases the checke rboard
pattern is preferred.
T he stronger the moven1ent of sand, the rnore should be the density of 1n ulchin g.
Densi ty of ,n ulch.lng is reckoned in tenns of the length o f rn ulch line per hectare of
area, or by the average spaci ng between two consecutive rn ulch li nes. In the parallel
patte rn a spacing of 5 n1 is s tandard, tho ug h it can be reduced to 4111 o r even to
3 1n where sand 111ove111ents a re stro nger. In fact, in a g iven area the spacing can be
graded in such a n1anner that the most active part of the dune is given the s1nallest
spacing, and the relatively stable portion is rn ulched with larger interli ne spacing. In
th is rn anner, i.t is poss ible to stri ke a balance bet\veen cost an d effectiveness.
A n1ulc h li ne s hou ld have a standard section, even though it is rno re difficu lt to
specify such a section. The average height of a 111ulch line sho uld be 45 c111 above
the ground an d at least 15 ctn buried in the ground. 1'he average thickness of the line
shoul.d be 30crn. lt is i111portant that the 1nulc h li ne is con1pac t and de nse so that it
acts as a n effective w ind barrier.
Sov..,i ng seeds of s hrubs and grasses a long the mulch li nes is highl y desi ra ble.
Mulc h also acts as a reservoi r of 111oistu re. It provides s helter to the seeds , so that
seeds wil .l not get bl.own away. Jn fact, even if no sowing is done, seeds fro1n the
natura l seedbank of the soil w ill get a rrested a long the n1ulch line. T hough these
seeds n1ay not be of the des ira ble species or of perennia l so il binders, yet they do
perforn1 the usefu l f unc tion of streng the ning the 1n ulch li ne. T he best species to SO\v
are the naturally occ urring ind igenous species of s hrubs and grasses. Pelleted SO\ving
is the standard practice, though naked seeds sown in la rger quanti ties ancl carefully
e1n bedded in so il \Vi ii also be useful.
P lant ing in sand d unes s hou ld be carried out just after the first rai ns of the season.
No pits \viii be required to be dug as the soi l is no t con1pact. No saucers need to be
made, as no flo\v of \vater will occ ur on sand. No hoeing is req uired to be carried o ut,
since the sand is a lways in a naturally hoed condition. Thus, in fac t, sands are easier
to plant in, co111 parcd to other soils. The un it cost of afforestation in sand dunes is
us ually less than that in hills and upla nds.
Species se lection needs specia l attentio n \Vh iJe planni ng a plantation in sand du nes.
Fast growing and d rought resistant species with a long and comp lex root syste1n \viii
perform better. indigenous species will generaUy pro ve to be successJul , but species
like Acacia tortilis, Acacia nubica, and Prosopis juliflora are long tested a nd sho uld
be preferred in a high risk a rea.
3.8.4.2 Afforesting Saline and Alkaline Soils
Sali ne so ils pose the hvi n pro bl e1n s of waterlogg ing and excess sa lts, both inin1ical
to plant g row th. A s trateg y for affo resting s uc h soils shou ld consider c hoice of
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3.8 Site Treatment Plan 77
Fig. 3.9 Fence needs lO

maintained (re-positioned) in
active sand dunes
This will depend upon the species chosen, clin1atic and edaphic conditions of the site,
and funds available. Usually point-to-point watering- that is, spot irrigation- alone
is poss ible. App roxiinately 15 I of \vater is a pplied to a plant in each watering.
Fertilising and 1nanuring 1uay have to be considered in those exceptional cases
where soil fertility is too poor to 1neei the need of the species chosen. l'vlany ti1nes
addition of tnulch to the soil or filling the pit \Vi th fertile soi l brought from outside
1nay be appropriate. Ho\vever, these are special 1neasures to overco,ne constraints
of nutritional deficiency a nd cl in1 atic advers ity, and are not feasible in large scale
afforestation prograin1nes.
Contin uous 1na.intenance of fence is another operation that should for1n a pan of
every trealinent plan (Fig. 3.9). Protection measures agains t pests, animals, wildlife,
fros t, and heat sho uld also be included in the treaun ent plan. 1~he S&WC structu res
,nay be dan1aged by rai n in the first year, a nd therefo re these should be repaired in the
next year just before ra ins. Suitable provision for th.is should be kept in the treatinent
plan.
Replace1nent of casualties should be included in the treatment plan of the second
year. Re-sowing in areas \Vhere seed could no t genninate should be incl uded too.
Casualty replace1nen t \Vould invo lve re-diggi ng of pits, re-planting of sapl ings and
all s ubsequent operatio ns like weed ing and hoeing. During re-planting, the species
selected can be changed if it is found that a particular species has not perforn1ed well
at the si te.
Prun ing and train ing of certa in plants that branc h too low shou ld be provided for.
Nonnally no prun ing is done till a plant is of 2 years of age in the field. Approxi -
111ate nu1nbcr of plants expected to be pruned a nd trained should be recorded in the
treatinent plan.
3.8.6 Layout of Treatrnent Plan
A ll the facts s hould be recorded in a well -designed and unan1biguous fonnat, and all
the spatial features sho uld be marked on the 111ap- poss ib ly usi ng the1natic overlays
1narkecl on different transparent sheets-so that the treat1nent plan is a co1nprehen-
sive self-contained doc ument. Jt n1ay be noted that a treatn1 ent plan is a docu,nent
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Index
A Degraded forests, rehabil ital ion of, I 70

Afforcstalio n and rcforcswlion programmes Difficult soils, 7 l
o bjectives of, 4
Afforestatio n costs, abstract of, 192 E
Afforestatio n programmes, 8, 10-1 4, 53, 7 1 Ecological balance
constraints in,..!..!..:.1.2. adverse effects o f, 3
failure of, .§_ Embankment, 60. 71 , I 04
social and (:(:Onomic costs of,JA construction of, 104, 105
Agroforc.s try, 33 design o f, I 04
F
B Farmyard manu re (FY/vi), 35. 39. 73. 74
Barren. hiJJs, reforestation of. .182 Fence
Basic schedule or rates (BSR) , 78, 167. 170 barbed-wire, 66, 67, 81, 83, 85-87
Bealing up casualties. 1 J2 ditc b-cum-bund , 66, 81 . 83, 87
Beds Livc-hedgc, 67. 86- 88
layout o f, 2 5 social , 67 , 88
BiofertiJise rs ..10 stone-wall, 53 , 6 5-67 , 79, 8 1, 83, 86, 87, 92
advantages of, I I 9 Ferti lisers,51. 110, 113 , 11 4 , 11 8. 119
Biotic pressure, 14 d iammonium phosphate (DAP), 11 8
Forest destn.,ctio n
C causes of. 6
Conservatio n affo restation,.i,, 12, 118 Forest ma nage me nt. I 0
Conservatio n forcslry, 1:.2, Forest regene ration techniques,.lil
Contour Fuelwood a nd fodder plantat ion, 182
bund, 70
dykes, 96 G
trench, 68- 70, 74, 75 , 87, 92 G round level water reservoir (GLR), .1lL 19,
V-ditch, 69 24, 21
vegetative hedges, 74, 87, 170
Culling. 4 1. 46, 48, 49 .H.
Cullings, 25, 33, 47 Hoeing, 76, 77. 87, 88. 100. IJ 2- LJ7, 12 1
branch, 31, 33, 47. 48 freque ncy of, I 17
root-shoot, 33, 47
vegetative, 33,.41 I
Industrial-commerc ial plantatio ns,.2. 48
D Irrigation
Deforestalio n. 12 ..ll in nursery, 4 1
impacts of, 3, 6 in plantations, 5 1
P. R. S iyag, A.{foreslalion, Reforestation and Forest Restoration in Arid

a11d Semi-arid Tropics. DOI 10. 1007/978-94-007-745 1-3,
© Springer Science+Business Media Dord recht 201 4
294 Index
M quality of, 37
~1anure, 35. 37, 43, 73, 74, I JO, I 14, I 19 techniques of, 38
Potting mix, 25. 3 1. 33, 35- 37, 48, I 13, 120.
N 199
Nursery. 1.8 components of, 35
essential elements of, 2S, 27 preparation of, I 7
infrastructure of, .IB
layout of. .21 Q
operation of, .52. 62, 76 , 12 1 Quality control , 37, 48, 49, 83
permanent type,.18.
plant production in, 27, 31 R
production capacity of,J.S. Regene rative clos ures. 120. 192
site selection of, I 7, 51 Reinforced cement concrete (RCC) structure,
techniques of, I 0, 246 19
temporary type, 17, 21 Rooting honnonc, 4 7, 48, 121
use of containers in, 36, 43, 76
water· for, 17- 19, 25
working tools in, 2 7 s
Nursery beds, 1.8 Seed
container type, 26 collection of, 33, 34
motherbed type, .21.. 39-43 quality of, 33, 34
raised type, 27 source of, 34
sun ken type, ? " storage of, 34
Nursery o perations treatment o f, 40
planning of, 33 Seed quality, .3.1.
Seed source, 3 I
0 Shelterbelt plantation, 188
Organisational capability, 13 Silvipastoral plantation, 188
Organisational effecti veness, 206 Silvopastoral plantation, 52
Overhead water reservoir· (OMR), 18, 19, 23 Soil-and-water-conservation works, 192
cost oC 23, 24 imple mentatio n of, I92
Species
p cboice of, 14 , 62, 74
Pests a nd insects Staffing, 20 I
in nursery, 43 . 46 , 99, I I 3 Stopdan,s, 92.99, 102. 104. 122, 124
in pla ntations,.4} maintenance of, 104
Planning a nd monitoring, 205 Stopdams, 58, 70, 7 I, 79
Plantation Surveying
ma intenance of. 8 I, 122. 123. 256. 257 advanced, 58
management p la n for, 247, 248 chain-and-compass, 53, 58
producti vity of, 70, 254 contour Jines, 59, 91 , 92, 97, 99, 11 2
protection of. 85 , 88, I I 3, 188 plane table, 57. 58
site selection of, I 7 tachymetric, 58
Planting Sustainability
methods of, 73, 99 of institutions, 243
pit-sauce rs, 112 of o rganisation, 209, 214
pits for, 92, 113 of resource, 246, 248
season of, 27, 47, 109, 123
timing of, 75, 109, I JO, 115, 118, 120
Plants transportation, 17. 49. 89 T
Poly pots, J0 . I 8, 27, 34-36, 40-42, 48, 49, Treatment plan, 53, 56, 57, 59,.fill.il!L 70, 75
112, 118 design of, 62, 78
materia ls used, 36 layout of, 77
proper1ies of, 37 models of, 78. 170, 182,245
Index 295
Tree planting models. 9 \\I

agroforestry,2 \Vater conveyance c hannels (\VCC), 25
farm forestry, 9 Water reservoir
ground level, 99
\Vater source, 17
u canals, 9, 19, 188
Urban area plantation, 188 openwell, 19
tubewell, 19
\Veedillg, 27, 43, 76, 77, 87. 88, 100, 114- 116,
V 121
Vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizae (VAlvl), 37 \Vein;, 60. 70, 94

Afforestation, Reforestation and Forest Restoration in Arid and Semi-Arid Tropics

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Afforestation, Reforestation and Forest Restoration in Arid and Semi-Arid Tropics

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Panna Ram Siyag

ISBN 978-94-007-7450-6 ISBN 978-94-007-7451-3 (eBook)

Library of Congress CcmLrol Number: 2013947 160

© Springer Science+B us iness Jvledia Dordrecht 2014

Printed on acid-free paper

Springer is part of Springer Science+ Business Media (www.springer.com)

1.2 Afforestation and Reforestation for Conservation . . .. . . . . ...... . • 4

2.14 Pot Tu rning... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

3 Site Selection, Survey and Treatment Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

5 Soil and Water Conservation \.Vorks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

6 Planting, Regeneration, Aftercare and J\,l aintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 09

7 Costing and Estimation of '\'orks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

8 Organising and Staffing Progran1n1cs and Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 I

9 Planning, Jvlonitoring and Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 L7

10 Ensu1·i11g Sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

GLR Ground level reservoir

RC Reinforced concrete; regenerative closure

Panna Rain Siyag is presently \VOrk ing in Sustainable

I.I The Imperative of Afforestation and Reforestation

P. R. Siyag, Afforestation. Reforestation and Forest Restoration in A rid 3

co1n1nons a nd a galloping increase in bu1nan a nd livestock populations, demand bad

1.2 Afforestation and Reforestation for Conservation

Reclamation of wastelands, restoration of ecosyste1n productivity, and pro tection of

1.3 Afforestation and Reforestation for Subsistence

1.4 Afforestation, Reforestation, Forest Restoration

1.5 Afforestation for Industrial- Commercial Purposes

Already ten million hectares of indu strial-com1nercial plantations of fast growing

1.6 The Technology of Afforestation

1.7 Participation of Local Communities

1.8 Constraints in Afforestation and Reforestation

Organisational capability is another severe constraint in taking up large-scale

1.9 Constraints Specific to Arid and Semiarid Areas

I.IO Costs in Afforestation

Abstract Planting of nursery-raised seedlings is a n1ajor con1ponent of afforestation

2.1 Establishment of a Ne,v Nursery

2.1.1 Site Selection

P. R. Siyag, Afforestation. Reforestation and Forest Restoration in A rid 17

2.1.2 Nursery Infrastructure

.- - - Maximum Water Level 50 mm CC Coping

75 mm CC 1:2:4 ....,..__ RR Stone

Fig. 2.4 Plan and sectional view of a GLR of 50,000-1capacity

An OHR is a structure of considera ble cost and complexity. Nevertheless, it

2.2 Plaut Production Plan

Production of plants in a nursery is acyc li c (seaso na l) activity. Every planting season,

• Cuttings not sprou- • Seedlings die of • Loss in culling • Shock, dessicc-

Fig. 2.9 Example of losses at different stages in planLproduecion in nursery

Table 2.5 Cornponcncs of potting rnix

Fig. 2.10 Pilling potting mix in polypots

2.8 Preparing Seedbeds and Mother Beds

2.12 Weeding and Cleaning

2.13 Protection from Insects and Pests

Table 2.9 Rooting honnoncs and their use

2.15 Preparing and Planting Cuttings

ln n1ost n1ulti -purpose long-tern1 afforestation progran1n1es, however, prioritised

3.7 Setting Out Engineering Structures ,vith HSL

Structures li ke earthen embankn1en ts and \veirs can be co nveniently and accurately

3.8 Site Treatment Plan

Table 3.1 Recommendations for overcoming site-s pecific lirnilations

3.8.2 Choosing a Fence

area, and year of creation-shou ld be displayed on it. Provision for an inspection

3.8.3 Soil and Water Conservation Works

Mu lch lines can be aligned in a parallel, checkerboard, masonry, or dia1nond

3.8.4.2 Afforesting Saline and Alkaline Soils

Fig. 3.9 Fence needs lO