DON'T

GUESS,
MEASURE
A Guide to Soil Thermal Resistivity
Thermal
Resistivity
\`th r-m l, rē-zis-`ti-v -tē\

The heat transfer

capability through
a substance by
conduction1

NOTE:

Thermal
Resistivity is
also referred
to as Rho.

National Electric
1

Code (2014)
 C P

PREFACE 05

THEORY 06
1
Never Use Standard Values 09
2
Understand Water Content 14 Electricity flowing in a It is the reciprocal of thermal
conductor generates heat. Any conductivity. In buried cable
3
Density Affects Rho 19 resistance to heat flow between applications, soil thermal
the cable and the ambient resistivity is an essential factor in
4
Rho Must Be Measured 22
environment causes the cable the Neher-McGrath calculations
5
Consider Site-Specific Variables 24 temperature to rise. When which allow engineers to
cables are buried, soil forms predict the temperature of
MEASURE 26
part of the thermal resistance, buried cable and determine
1
Two Ways to Test 29 and thus soil thermal properties cable ampacity ratings.
become an important part of
2
Create a Dryout Curve 32 cable design. Thermal resistivity is often
3
Things to Keep in Mind 38 reported in different
Even in a well-designed system, measurement units.
4
Reporting Rho 40 the soil may account for half Internationally it is reported in
of the total thermal resistance. SI units as °K-m/W (degrees
5
Standards 41
Engineers need to treat soil Kelvin-meter per watt). In
STUDIES 42 thermal resistivity with as much the United States it is more
respect as they do the cables commonly reported as
1
Wind Farms 45 and ducts. °C-cm/W (degrees Celsius-
2
Data Centers 46 centimeter per watt).
Thermal resistivity, or Rho,
3
Public Utilities 49 is defined in the National
Electrical Code (2014) as “the
4
Underwater Cables 50
heat transfer capability through
REFERENCES 52 a substance by conduction.”

04 05
 1
Never Use “Standard” Values 09

Look at the Variables 11

What to Learn from the Models 12

2
Understand Water Content 14

T
Water Content in the Field 15

Critical Water Content 16

3
Density Affects Rho 19

Grading Counts 20

4
Rho Must Be Measured 22

Instrumentation 22

Lab Services 22

5
Consider Site-Specific Variables 24

Unique Situation 24

Watch the Surface 24

Consider Engineered Backfill Material 25

Hot Spots 25
 T 1
NEVER USE
STANDARD
VALUES

In February 1998, The official report cites “insufficient

a series of four appreciation of the importance of soil
power cable conditions” as a primary cause of the crisis.
failures blacked
out New Zealand’s That failure, while spectacular, is far from the
most important only one. Power engineer Keith Lane always
commercial district educates his clients about the importance
This [thermal for nearly five
weeks.
of assessing thermal Rho. “We tell them,
‘This is a real thing. If you don’t account for
resistivity] is a this condition, you will have a failure.’”

real thing...
Thermal Properties

Volumetric MJ g
Density
Heat Capacity m 3K cm3

Thermal ˚C-cm W Thermal

Resistivity W m-K Conductivity

09
 LOOK AT THE VARIABLES

The variables that affect You can find mathematical

thermal resistivity in soils models for making this
and other porous materials computation in several scientific
include density, water content, publications, including
temperature and composition. Introduction to Thermal
Properties of Soils (deVries,
years Table 1 shows the thermal 1963) and Environmental
of
THERMAL properties of the elements in Biophysics (Campbell and
a typical soil. These elements Norman, 1998). These models
RESEARCH
SHOWS
normally occur as mixtures in are based on dielectric mixing
soil. The thermal resistivity of models, and treat the overall
the mixture is quite difficult to resistivity as a weighted parallel
••Thermal resistivity compute, since it depends not combination of the constituent
of porous materials
like soil, rock, only on the thermal resistivities resistivities.
and concrete are of the components, but also on
not constants. their geometric arrangement. We used these methods to
calculate how the thermal
••There is no resistivity of soil varies with
“typical” value for
90% of soil types. changes in water content,
TABLE 1 composition, density and
••Soil and rock Rho Thermal Properties of Common Soil temperature. The results of
values actually
vary from 10 to Constituents. Adapted from Campbell these computations are shown
& Norman (1998) in Figures 2, 4 and 5.
1,000 ˚C-cm/W.

••Resistivity changes
with density,
water content,
Thermal Thermal Vol. Heat
temperature, and
Density Conductivity Resistivity Capacity
soil composition.
g/cm3 W/m-K ˚C-cm/W MJ/m3K

Quartz 2.66 8.8 11 2.13

Soil Minerals 2.65 2.5 40 2.31

PHOTO
Granite 2.64 3.0 33 2.16
Studying the effect of heat
on shale rock on the Energy Organic Matter 1.30 0.25 400 2.50
Research and Development
Administration’s Water 1.00 0.58 172 4.18
reservation in Oak Ridge, Ice 0.92 2.5 40 2.10
TN (DOE, c. 1977)
Air 0.0012 0.026 3846 0.0012

11
 WHAT TO Without knowing anything about the
LEARN FROM weighting factors for these in an actual soil
THE MODELS or fill material, four things should be clear:

Organized in 01 Air is bad. In order to achieve

Figure 1 are five
constituents that
are important in
determining the
thermal resistivity
of soil.
acceptably low thermal resistivity,
fill must be tightly packed.
02 Organic matter, no matter how wet,
will still have a very high resistivity.

03 Replacing air with water helps,

but water alone is still not a
very good conductor.
FIGURE 1
Thermal Resistivities of
Common Soil Constituents 04 Fill materials high in quartz
will have the lowest resistivity,
other things being equal.
In general, the thermal FIGURE 2
3846 resistivity of a mixture is strongly Water Content and Thermal Resistivities
Air
influenced by the component of Common Soil Components
400 with the highest resistivity. Dry
Organic Matter
quartz sand and dry loam soil
172 have comparable resistivities,
Water
even though the resistivity of
the minerals differs by a factor
of 3 (Table 1). As the limiting
resistivity becomes smaller,
differences in the resistivities
40 of the other components have
Other Soil Minerals
a larger effect. For example, THE RESISTIVITY OF WET ORGANIC
11 dry quartz and loam differ in SOIL, THOUGH BETTER THAN
Quartz WHEN DRY, IS STILL MUCH TOO
resistivity by about 10%, while
HIGH TO PROVIDE REASONABLE
water-saturated quartz sand HEAT DISSIPATION FOR BURIED
Thermal Resistivities has about half the resistivity of CABLE (SEE FIGURE 2).
(˚C-cm/W)
saturated loam (Figure 2).

12 13
 T 2 Higher
Resistivity
WATER CONTENT
IN THE FIELD
Soil Profiles

Understand Figure 3 is a graphical

representation of different
Water mineral, water and air mixtures

CARBONTON SERIES
that make up a soil. At a static
Content density, the soil minerals are
constant whereas water and air
compete for the same space.
A quick draining soil like Soil thermal resistivity changes
coarse sand will respond based on the amount of water
differently to precipitation or air held in the soil pores.
than a fine silt soil. Asphalt Figure 2 shows the impact
and concrete coverings like of the air and water ratio on
roads and sidewalks with the thermal resistivity of three
good drainage systems different soils. It is clear that the
can prevent moisture from thermal resistivity of a soil will

DUCKSTON SERIES
reaching soil. Plants can draw vary by a factor of 5 to 10 as its
moisture out of soil, but only water content changes.
to a certain point. And soil
below and even slightly above Since thermal resistivity varies
a water table can remain so much with water content,
saturated (all pores filled with and water content in soil is so
water) as is displayed in the variable due to precipitation,
bottom frame of Figure 3. drainage, evapotranspiration,
and moving water tables, it is
important to fully understand
the water content of soil.

YEAGER SERIES
Lower
Resistivity
FIGURE 3 PHOTOS
Continuum of Mineral, Water, and Air Soil profiles by John A. Kelley, USDA
Mixtures Relating to Thermal Resistivity Natural Resources Conservation
Air Molecules Service (Kelley, 2010)
Mineral Particles
Water Molecules

14 15
 CRITICAL WATER CONTENT
Minimum water content in
the root zone of growing
plants typically ranges from
0.05 m³/m³ in sands to 0.1 or
0.15 m³/m³ for finer texture
soils. These water contents
correspond, roughly, to the
water contents threshold
in Figure 2 where resistivity
increases rapidly with
decreasing water content. This
threshold is sometimes called
the critical water content and
FIGURE 4
Water Content and Thermal Resistivities
of a Silt Loam at Different Temperatures
16
is more closely related to the
hydraulic properties than the
thermal properties of the soil.
Above the critical water
content, soil acts like a “heat
pipe” to rapidly and effectively
transport heat through soil
pores. In this process the water
within the pores evaporates
on the “hot” side, transports
latent heat across the pore,
then condenses on the “cool”
side and flows back across the
particle surfaces to re-evaporate
on the “hot” side. In a moist
soil at room temperature,
10 to 20% of the total heat
transport occurs in this way.
This phenomenon is strongly
PHOTO
Electrical utility
installation
temperature dependent,
roughly doubling for each
10 °C temperature rise.
The critical water content point
is significant in buried cable
design, because when the
soil moisture level around the
cable approaches this point,
the cable heat will drive the
moisture away, drying the soil
SOIL THERMAL
STABILITY IS A MORE
ACCURATE MODEL FOR
GETTING AT CRITICAL
WATER CONTENT. SOIL
THERMAL STABILITY IS
CONTROLLED BY THE
SYSTEMATIC COUPLING
OF HEAT, WATER
VAPOR, AND LIQUID
WATER THROUGH
THE TRANSPORT
OF LATENT HEAT BY
VAPOR FLUX IN THE
SOIL (DEVRIES, 1963,
TAYLOR & CAVAZZA,
1954). FOR MORE ON
THERMAL STABILITY
VISIT:
THERMALRESISTIVITY.COM/STABILITY
around the cable and increasing
its resistivity. This results in
additional heating, which drives
away additional moisture. This
is a thermal runaway condition.
Temperature does play a role
in determining the thermal
resistivity of the soil in the
critical water content zone as
can be seen in Figure 4.
17
 T 3
Density NOTICE THAT THE
GREEN CURVE IN
FIGURES 2, 4, AND 5
Affects Rho ARE THE SAME PLOT
AS THEY REPRESENT
THE SAME DATA FOR A
Figure 5 shows how important COMMON LOAM SOIL.
compaction is for achieving acceptably
low thermal resistivity in backfill
materials.

A value often assumed for thermal

resistivity of soil in buried cable calculations
is 90 °C-cm/W. Typical density for a field FIGURE 5
soil that can sustain plant growth is around Bulk Densities and
1.5 g/cm³. At this density, even a quartz Thermal Resistivities
soil has a resistivity more than 4 times the for a Loam Soil
assumed value.

PHOTO
Electrical conduit
pipe in trench

19
GRADING COUNTS

It is worth mentioning that

arbitrarily high densities are not
6 LESSONS
Frome
Th DATA
attainable just by compaction.
Uniform sized particles pack 01 Soil thermal resistivity
to a given maximum density. values are influenced
To attain densities beyond that by soil composition,
without crushing particles, compaction, moisture,
smaller particles are added to and temperature.
the voids between the larger
particles. Highest densities are
therefore attained by using well- 02 Soil composition high
graded materials. in organics is bad;
composition high in
quartz is good.

03 Increasing soil
moisture can lower
resistivity values.

04 The compaction/solid
fraction/density of soil
plays an important role
in thermal resistivity
because air spaces
limit the flow of heat.

05 Temperature becomes
more critical as soil dries.

06 Air is bad, water is better,

PHOTO but a high quartz content
Dozer lined up soil, well graded and
on the jobsite compacted with high
levels of moisture is best.

From Table 1 and Figures 2, 4, and 5

21
 T 4
Rho
Must Be
Measured
While it is possible to
compute thermal resistivity, it
is usually easier to measure it
directly. The measurement of
soil thermal properties should
be guided by a standard like
ASTM D5334-14, “Standard
Test Method for Determination
of Thermal Conductivity of
Soil and Soft Rock by Thermal
Needle Probe Procedure,”
IEEE 442 (1981), “Guide
for Soil Thermal Resistivity
Measurements” or “Methods
of Soil Analysis” by Soil
Science Society of America.
Measuring the thermal resistivity
of soil using the heated needle
technique as suggested in the
standards mentioned above is
straightforward. Adhering to
a few measurement tips can
ensure you get accurate data.
22
INSTRUMENTATION
ASTM D5334 suggests “a
needle probe having a large
length to diameter ratio to
simulate conditions for an
infinitely long, infinitely thin
heating source.” There are
two types of heated needle
instruments. As outlined in IEEE
442 (1981), a “Field Thermal
Needle” is approximately 200
cm long and 8 mm in diameter.
IEEE 442 (1981) suggests a
“Laboratory Thermal Needle”
is 100 mm long and 2.4 mm
in diameter. The terminology
of field and laboratory is a little
misleading as a small needle
can be used in the field as
long as one can access the soil
of interest. The field needle
is an acceptable method for
measuring soil thermal resistivity
where the soil of interest can’t
be reached through a test pit or
sample boring.
LAB SERVICES
There are numerous companies
that are willing to do thermal
resistivity lab tests and/or
create thermal dryout curves.
For information on labs in your PHOTO
area or Decagon lab services Measuring rho in
call 509-332-5599 or email the field during
an installation
thermal@decagon.com.
 T 5
Consider In addition to the issues
discussed above there are
Site- also several site-specific issues
that need to be taken into
Specific account when designing and
implementing underground
Variables power cable systems. These
include the depth of burial,
surface conditions, backfill,
and surrounding vegetation.

UNIQUE SITUATION
Powering data centers is a unique challenge. Data Centers have
enormous building footprints with rain drainage systems that move
water away from the soil under the building. If the soil is dry to
begin with or dries out from cable heat, there is no chance for soil
moisture replenishment. Data centers also have large, constant
power demands coming through highly concentrated cable
configurations. Applying “standard” values in this unique situation
is a recipe for disaster.
WATCH THE SURFACE
Surface conditions will also impact the water and energy exchange
between the soil and atmosphere and hence the thermal
environment around the cables. In cities the surface will more than
likely be covered by roads, buildings, parks or gardens, while in
rural areas bare soil or vegetative cover will be most common. It is
important that surface condition and its impact on the underlying
thermal environment be taken into account, and especially
any change in surface condition that could result in unwanted
consequences. Adding vegetation for example could result in
significant soil drying, with potential consequences as discussed
earlier.
PHOTO
Excavator begins
backfilling a trench
CONSIDER ENGINEERED BACKFILL MATERIAL
Lower dry resistivities than those shown in Figure 2 can be
achieved using specially designed backfill materials. For example,
one thermally stable backfill can be poured in place, and has a
dry resistivity of around 75 °C-cm/W, decreasing to below 50
°C-cm/W when wet. When native backfill is not suitable, thermally
enhanced engineered backfill may be required to ensure adequate
thermal conditions.
HOT SPOTS
Potential ‘hot spots’ along the cable route (such as zones of well
drained sandy soils or vegetated areas that could lead to significant
soil drying) should receive particular attention to ensure long-term
success of any installation. Clay soils in particular can crack on
drying, resulting in development of air gaps around cables, and
every effort must be made to avoid these situations.

24 25
 1
Two Ways to Test 29

Field Testing 29

Lab Testing 30

M
2
Create a Dryout Curve 32

3
Things to Keep in Mind 38

Oven Dry VS. Air Dry 38

Methods for Clay Soils 38

Finding Rho at Maximum Density 39

Temperature Considerations 39

4
Reporting Rho 40

5
Standards

ASTM 5334-14 41

IEEE 442 (1981) 41

SSSA Book Series: 5 41

 M 1
Two Ways
to Test
There are two ways to test the
thermal resistivity of soil. You
can either test directly in the
field or take a soil sample and
test in a lab.

If you don’t FIELD TESTING

Field measurements
account for this typically don’t give you
much information. A field
condition you will measurement is a single
snapshot of soil thermal

have a failure... resistivity in time. Relying on

the snapshot of Rho can lead to
poor design because thermal
resistivity is dependent on soil
water content, which is affected
by precipitation, drainage,
evapotranspiration, and moving
water tables.

PHOTOS
TOP: Needle is inserted into
ground during field testing

BOTTOM: Soil sample from

the field is tested in the lab

28
 If a client insists on specifying field testing even after you explain
why this is a bad idea, make sure to measure thermal resistivity No matter if you
••Small needles will ••Allow the needle to
bend so do not force thermally equilibrate
at the depth of the buried cable, and make sure that the soil are measuring in them into the soil. with the soil/material
temperature is not changing rapidly during the measurement the field or lab, Instead, attempt being measured. For
(ie., that direct sunlight is not heating the soil in the bottom of the here are some tips a few insertions small needles 2-5
trench). It would also be a good idea to measure soil water content to find a site that minutes is usually
the needle can be enough time.
and report that value with the thermal resistivity. completely buried in
the soil. If necessary ••Make sure the
use a pilot pin or sample’s temperature
LAB TESTING drill a pilot hole. is stable. Changing
temperatures (other

The lab environment allows for of intact cores or specifying

soil variable manipulation to
better represent the changing
soil characteristics over time.
As you have read throughout
this guide, water content
and density are critical values
in determining the thermal
resistivity of soil. In the lab
the water content can be
manipulated to generate a
complete picture of the soil’s
thermal resistivity, typically
through the creation of a
thermal dryout curve. In the lab
different densities can also be
established for cases where soil
will be compacted to densities
different than the natural state.
When sampling for lab testing,
be sure to consider bulk density
by either preserving natural bulk
density through the collection
••Ensure there is good than the heating
needle to sample needle) can throw
bulk density for loose soils. If contact. If the needle off calculations.
the field soil is to be compacted feels loose in a pilot
during cable installation (e.g. hole, start over with ••Take multiple
a new hole or use measurements at
packed to 95% of maximum different sites in
thermal grease to
density as determined by the improve needle to the same soil. A
Proctor test), this bulk density sample contact. minimum of three
should be mimicked during lab readings allow you
testing. to compare data
to identify bad
readings and confirm
During lab testing, it is also the accuracy of a
critical to monitor conditions set of readings.
that may affect measurements,
such as moisture gradients
in the soil sample (eg., dry
outside, wet inside) and soil
cracking during drydown in
high-clay samples. Cracking
in high-clay soils presents
problems not just in the lab but
to the overall installation, where
cracks can create dangerous air
pockets around cables.
PHOTO
Measuring Rho
in the field

30
 M 2
Create a
Dryout
Curve
The thermal resistivity of a soil The main variable for a soil in
depends on its water content, place is therefore moisture
bulk density, temperature content. The purpose of the
and composition. For a soil in thermal dryout curve is to
place, the composition and represent the effect of soil
density are fixed, and the moisture content on thermal
temperature typically varies resistivity. This section details a
over a narrow enough range simple method for developing
to have only a small effect on a soil thermal dryout curve.
thermal resistivity. (Note: this
is not the case if the soil will
freeze during cold months).

SOME LABS TAKE

AN “AS-RECEIVED”
RHO VALUE TO
CHECK AGAINST THE
CALCULATED CURVE.

PHOTO
Soil sampling
being conducted
in Walker Branch
PHOTO
Watershed.
Soil sample gradually (DOE, c. 1973)
air dries

32 33

Getting
STARTED
CREATING A DRYOUT CURVE
01 Prepare a soil sample, at least 5
cm diameter and 10 cm deep,
either by coring undisturbed
soil or re-compacting a soil
sample to the desired density.
02 Saturate the sample with water
by placing it in a pan of water
around 9 cm deep and allowing
it to stand overnight.
03 Insert the thermal needle probe
into the sample and take a thermal
resistivity reading. Weigh the
sample and record the weight
and thermal resistivity.
04 Place the sample in a 105 °C
oven to fully dry it.
05 Cool the sample to room temperature
and take a thermal resistivity
measurement and weight.
34
From the weight measurement, compute the
density and water content when wet. This set of
measurements fixes two points on the drydown
curve with direct measurements. You can then
interpolate the curve between these two points
using an equation from Campbell (1985):
Equation 1
Rho (mK/W) =
1 A + B + (D–A)(1–g)
where is the volumetric water content (m3m-3).
The constants in the equation are determined
from the measurements.
Equation 1
D=
2 Rhodry
Equation
B = 2.8 = 2.8
b
3 s
s
where s(m3m-3) is the solids fraction of the soil,
b
is the measured bulk density (g/cm3) of the
sample and s is the particle density, generally
assumed to be 2.65 g/cm3.
The term g is discussed below, but has a value of
1 when the soil is wet so, from Equation 1 and the
measurements at saturation:
Equation 1
A= –B
4 Rhowet wet
where Rhowet is the thermal conductivity of the
wet soil.
35
 The function g goes from a value of 0 for dry soil
to 1 for wet soil. If g = 0 and θ = 0 are substituted
into Equation 1 we get Rho = Rhodry. If g = 1 and
= wet are substituted, Rho = Rhowet.

The function g is computed from:

Equation 1
g=
5 1+( θθ )
-5
o

where o is a cutoff water content for liquid return

flow in the soil (read more about the critical water
content). The function is shown in Figure 6. FIGURE 6
Liquid return flow for
The cutoff water content can be estimated from the three soil types.
the clay fraction of the sample using the equation
TABLE 2
Typical Clay Fraction, Critcal Water Content, and Air
Dry Water Content Values for Common Soil Textures

Equation
θo = 0.3073mc + 0.0334
6 Clay
Fraction
Critical Water
Content
Air Dry Water
Content (wad)

g/g m3/m3 g/g

If the clay content is not known it can be Sand 0.03 0.043 0.003
estimated from the soil texture using the
Loamy Sand 0.07 0.055 0.005
following Table 2. Clay content, of course, varies
Sandy Loam 0.10 0.064 0.015
within a textural class. The cutoff water content
given by Equation 6 is also shown in Table 2. Sandy Clay Loam 0.27 0.116 0.048

Loam 0.18 0.089 0.035

Sandy Clay 0.40 0.156 0.068

Silt Loam 0.15 0.079 0.033

Silt 0.07 0.055 0.025

Note the units used in Equation 1 are mK/W, Clay Loam 0.34 0.0138 0.058
multiply by 100 to get °C-cm/W. Silty Clay Loam 0.33 0.135 0.055

Silty Clay 0.45 0.172 0.068

Clay 0.60 0.218 0.078

36 37
 M 3
Things to
Keep in
Mind
OVEN DRY VS. AIR DRY

In the thermal dryout equations, trench is excavated and the fill

the Rhodry value is for oven
dry soil. This water content is
lower than is ever encountered
in nature. Its value therefore
should not be considered the
resistivity of naturally dry soil.
Table 2 gives approximate
values for air dry water content
of soil. Soil in place will almost
always have higher water
contents than air dry. One
exception might occur if a
allowed to dry for an extended
period of time on the soil
surface before it is replaced. It
would always be wise to wet
the fill around a buried cable,
both to increase its density
and to reduce its resistivity. A
little moisture goes a long way
in decreasing resistivity at the
dry end. Also note that the
high water content matching
point does not need to be at
saturation.
PHOTO
The sun sets on cold
ground scarred by
ice and tire tracks
FINDING RHO AT MAXIMUM DENSITY
One would often like to know the thermal resistivity of a sample
packed to maximum density. Once optimum water content for
maximum density is determined using standard methods, a sample
at the optimum water content can be packed and its thermal
resistivity determined. This becomes the wet matching point.

METHODS FOR CLAY SOILS

Swelling clay soils shrink and crack as they dry. Such soils present
special problems for the methods outlined here. The wet or
saturated measurement can be made as outlined here, but the
dry measurement needs to be done in a different way. It is hard
to give methods that will work in every situation, but the dry
resistivity of these soils can sometimes be measured by taking a
clod or ped of the dry soil, carefully drilling a hole for the probe,
inserting the probe with adequate thermal grease and making the
measurement.
TEMPERATURE CONSIDERATIONS
The dryout curves using these procedures are for the temperature
at which the measurements are made. Temperature has little effect
on saturated and dry soil resistivity, but significantly affects the
resistivity of soil at intermediate water contents. (See Figure 4) For
thermal resistivities at temperatures other than room temperature,
either detailed models or a full set of measurements must be used.
The interpolation method given here for creating thermal dryout
curves will not work.

38 39
 M 4
Reporting
Rho
Figure 7 contains portions of an actual
Thermal Dryout Curve Report. For more
information please visit:
THERMALRESISTIVITY.COM
M 5
Standards
ASTM 5334-14, IEEE 442 To understand the standards
(1981), and SSSA Book Series: and the specific elements
5 are three standards that of compliance, download a
guide soil thermal resistivity detailed application note at:
FIGURE 7 measurements.
Thermal Dryout THERMALRESISTIVITY.COM/STANDARDS
Curve Report

ASTM 5334-14

Standard Test Method for Determination of

Thermal Conductivity of Soil and Soft Rock
by Thermal Needle Probe Procedure.

IEEE 442 (1981)

Guide for Soil Thermal Resistivity

Measurements.

SSSA BOOK SERIES: 5

Methods of Soil Analysis, Part 4. Physical

Methods. Volume 5 (2002).

40 41
S Power engineers
Keith Lane and
Scott Coburn of
Lane Coburn and
Associates spoke
to us about how
ignoring Rho
can lead to
1

3
Wind Farms

Data Centers

Public Utilities

catastrophic
failure.
4
Underwater Cables
 S 1
Wind Farms
“A few years ago I participated
in a soils field trip. One of the
sites visited was in southeastern
Washington where hundreds
of wind power generators have
been installed. The group asked
why some of the generators
were not working and were told
that the underground cables

These cases connecting those generators

to the grid had burned out.
The operators said the wind
are in litigation blown soil (loess) that makes up
that area had especially high
because of thermal resistivity. They claimed
that this fact was not known

failure... until the problems with burned

out cables emerged.

“The thermal properties of this

soil are not unusual; in fact,
they’re well understood by soil
scientists. The real problem was
one that many of you likely have
encountered: soils information
usually isn’t sought as part
of the design. People only
start asking questions when PHOTO
problems arise. That approach, Wind farm sitting
of course, is an expensive one.” atop the rolling
hills of the Palouse
(Campbell, 2008).
 S 2
Data
Centers
“Data Centers are a new
challenge for power
engineers,” says Lane. “During
the early years of data center
design, there was not a true
understanding of the effects
of heating in underground
electrical systems. The NEC
[National Electrical Code]
offered some guidance, but
in general engineers didn’t
understand the effects of load
factor and Rho value. They
designed electrical systems for
critical environments like they
would for a normal building,
and used a standard Rho value
taken from the NEC that we
now know to be false.”
The results were sometimes
catastrophic. “When PVC
conductors overheat, they
outgas chlorine,” explains
Lane. “The chlorine gas can
mix with moisture often found
in underground systems and
create hydrochloric acid (HCL)
that can result in corrosion
46
on switchgear and failed
conductor insulation. It’s just a
matter of time until you have a
catastrophic failure.”
“I’ve seen pictures of two year
old switchgear that looks like
it’s 100 years old,” adds Lane’s
partner, Scott Coburn.
Lane and Coburn agree that
even now quite a few electrical
engineers are just not aware of
these issues. “We always start
by educating our clients,” Lane
says. “We tell them, ‘This is a
real thing. If you don’t account
for this condition, you will have
a failure.’ I’ve acted as an expert
witness in cases where [the
original designer] assumed a
thermal Rho of 90. These cases
are in litigation because of
failure.”
One solution to the problem is
to be extremely conservative
in the design, but this type
of design dramatically and
unnecessarily increases costs.
PHOTO
Cable Racks at
Grid Computing
Center, Fermilab
with Blue Lights
(DOE, 2007)
Most businesses can’t accept
the expense of gross over-
design. Lane and Coburn
have instead done the work
to understand the factors
involved in complex Neher-
McGrath heatings and 3-D
modeling, work they’ve shared
in a website at Neher-Mcgrath.
com. And they never assume a
Rho value of 90. They require
all sites to be tested and use the
actual Rho of the native soil in
their calculations.
47
 S 3
Public
Utilities
In February 1998, a series
of four power cable failures
blacked out New Zealand’s
most important commercial
district for nearly five weeks.
The official investigation into the
failure cited improper ampacity
rating of the buried cables.
“Soil and geographic
conditions can have a major
influence on the performance
of the cable and for this reason
these conditions need to
be monitored. In particular
accurate data is needed on
the soil temperature and soil
resistivity. Because these
conditions can change over
time it may be necessary to also
change the supply capacity
rating of the cables over time.
“Both the gas and oil cables
were installed in soil conditions
PHOTO which did not allow the cables
Transfer station to achieve their specified rating.
with high-line Mercury had a view that the
poles in the
background
two oil filled cables were fully
reliable –up to their full nominal
rating of 60MVA. In fact the
rating of these cables was
much lower due to the ground
conditions in which they were
buried. When they were loaded
to more than half their nominal
rating they would have started
to overheat.
“Once the cables were installed
most of these issues would not
be detected by conventional
routine cable maintenance
practices and there are grounds
to believe that Mercury
Energy may have been lulled
into a false sense of security.
Mercury’s false sense of security
is confirmed by an apparent
lack of precautions that other
operators may have taken
following the failure of the two
gas filled cables.” (Auckland
Power Supply Failure 1988).
49
 S 4
Underwater
Cables
Denmark

“In the situation described in Denmark, it was stated that ‘Cooling

conditions for a submarine cable are normally assumed to be very
good and the ampacity is based on a low value of thermal resistivity
of the seabed.’ Since the land section had a thermal resistivity of 43
to 54 °C-cm/Watt, it was assumed that the value in the seabed was
equally as low. After two joints failed in service, it was discovered in
laboratory investigations that the seabed material contained high
organic levels and that the thermal resistivity was 105 °C-cm/Watt.
Needle probes into the seabed discovered a Rho of 94 °C-cm/
Watt.

London

“In the London investigation, they found the [Rho of the] silt in the
bottom of canals to be as high as 118 °C-cm/Watt and that even
higher values could be reached in the presence of heated cables.

Lake Champlain

“The Lake Champlain 115 kV cables were installed in 1958 and

failed in 1969 at a depth of about 300 feet. A sample of the soil
near the failure was sent to a laboratory for analysis. They found the
silt to have an average value of Rho of 90 to 100 even though the
silt ‘was not tested in the condition that it was in the lake bottom.’ PHOTO
The new cable rating was based on the lake bed silt to have a Rho Offshore wind park
of 140 °C-cm/Watt.” (Thue, 2003). in the Baltic Sea
(Prinkle, 2007)

50
 R P
New Zealand Ministry of Commerce. (1998). Auckland Power Supply Failure 1998:
The Report of the Ministerial Inquiry into the Auckland Power Supply Failure. Welling-
ton: Ministry of Commerce.
Campbell, G.S. & Norman, J.M. (1998). An Introduction to Environmental Biophysics.
(2nd Edition). New York: Springer.
DeVries, D. A. (1963). Thermal Properties of Soils. In W. R. van Wijk (Ed.), Physics
of Plant Environment. New York: John Wiley.
Campbell, G.S. (2008). Measuring and Modeling Thermal Properties of Porous
Materials. Virtual Seminar. Retrieved from https://decagon.wistia.com/medias/
unwb13kdx5
International Electrotechnical Commision. (1982). Calculation of continuous current
rating of cables (100% load factory). Publications 287 Geneva: IEC Central Office.
Mumford, J. (2014) Where the Cloud Meets the Soil. Retrieved from
http://www.decagon.com/education/where-the-cloud-meets-the-soil/
National Fire Protection Association. (2014). NFPA 70: National Electric Code Quin-
cy, MA: National Fire Protection Association.
Neher, J. H. and M. H. McGrath. (1957). The Calculations of the Temperature Rise
and Load Capability of Cable Systems. AIEE Transactions, 76, 752-764.
Taylor, S. A. & Cavazza, L. (1954) Movement of Soil Moisture in Response to
Temperature Gradients, Soil Science Society of America, 18, 351-358.
Thue, William. (ed.). (2003) Electrical Power Cable Engineering. 2nd Ed. New York:
Marcel Dekker.
52
Unknown. (c1977). ENERGY.GOV: HD.16A.027[.jpg] Retrieved from
https://www.flickr.com/photos/departmentofenergy/12636935454/in/set-
72157640892037763
Unknown. (c1973). ENERGY.GOV: HD.16.109[.jpg] Retrieved from
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72157640892037763
Unknown. (2007). ENERGY.GOV: 270 003 003[.jpg] Retrieved from
https://www.flickr.com/photos/departmentofenergy/9563271303/in/photostream/
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https://www.flickr.com/photos/soilscience/5104704885/in/photolist-8M5WVc-
8M64St-8M999C-8M5RmV-8M96ME-8M8UUb-8M8Tm5-8M5Qhz-
8M5Rax-8M8UQS-8M8SPh-8M8SXw-8M8T5L-8M5T6z-8M8XCG-2HQ-
cLQ-8M8UDw-8M5YC6-8M5T18-8M99Vs-8M8VFJ-8M93tw-8M98eU-
8M5Q9v-8M65WV-8M5YPR-8M69te-8M5WZK-8M68KT-8M5SrK-8M91Jw-
8M5S7e-8M8TQE-8M5RDZ-8M97sU-8M665i-8M8V5q-8M8WsS-8M63vi-
8M8W31-8M5W5H-8M8TU5-8M955L-8M9bjs-8M973b-8M5ZJt-8M92WU-
8M8Vpf-8M65mR-8M5SQp
Kelley, John A.. (2010). Yeager Series - Profile[.jpg] Retrieved from
https://www.flickr.com/photos/soilscience/5105276900/in/photolist-8M8SXw-
8M8T5L-8M5T6z-8M8XCG-2HQcLQ-8M8UDw-8M5YC6-8M5T18-
8M99Vs-8M8VFJ-8M93tw-8M98eU-8M5Q9v-8M65WV-8M5YPR-8M69te-
8M5WZK-8M68KT-8M5SrK-8M91Jw-8M5S7e-8M8TQE-8M5RDZ-
8M97sU-8M665i-8M8V5q-8M8WsS-8M63vi-8M8W31-8M5W5H-8M8TU5-
8M955L-8M9bjs-8M973b-8M5ZJt-8M92WU-8M8Vpf-8M65mR-8M5SQp-
8M5S2H-8M94cq-8M94RE-8M5QD4-8M97g3-8M63j4-8M5U1n-8M5XLt-
8M9caW-8M5YFt-8M5WRg
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8M5Q9v-8M65WV-8M5YPR-8M69te-8M5WZK-8M68KT-8M5SrK-8M91Jw-
8M5S7e-8M8TQE-8M5RDZ-8M97sU-8M665i-8M8V5q-8M8WsS-8M63vi-
8M8W31-8M5W5H-8M8TU5-8M955L-8M9bjs-8M973b-8M5ZJt-8M92WU-
8M8Vpf-8M65mR-8M5SQp-8M5S2H-8M94cq-8M94RE-8M5QD4-
8M97g3-8M63j4-8M5U1n-8M5XLt-8M9caW-8M5YFt-8M5WRg-8M62Jp-
8M9bxY-8M5TcB-8M5Xoi-8M95nA-8M5R7g-8M8SG7-8M93Bd-8M8XW1-
8M5Wcp-8M5V9P
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PhWo2-dnNfp3-oQNYjS-hMGeYs-hMFRNC-7j6wnZ-8g3VTS-7j6vzZ-
7jaqwG-7j6vFV-6odsLP-6ohD7h-6ohCYw-6odsDF-6odst6-6odszv-6odsdK-
6ohDbW
53
Special thanks to everyone that
contributed to this guide and
helped make it possible.
24 - 07 - 15