INTRODUCTION OF POLLUTION

Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into an environment that causes

instability, disorder, harm or discomfort to the physical systems or living
organisms they are in. Pollution can take the form of chemical substances, or
energy, such as noise, heat, or light energy. Pollutants, the elements of pollution,
can be foreign substances or energies, or naturally occurring; when naturally
occurring, they are considered contaminants when they exceed natural levels.
Pollution is often classed as point source or nonpoint source pollution.

Sometimes the term pollution is extended to include any substance when it

occurs at such unnaturally high concentration within a system that it endangers
the stability of that system. For example, water is innocuous and essential for
life, and yet at very high concentration, it could be considered a pollutant: if a
person were to drink an excessive quantity of water, the physical system could
be so overburdened that breakdown and even death could result. Another
example is the potential of excessive noise to induce imbalance in a person's
mental state, resulting in malfunction and psychosis

Two Kinds of Cause of pollution

1. Natural cause
2. Anthropogenic Cause ( Man Made )

Pollution, contamination of Ea rth¶s environment with materials that interfere with

humanhealth, the quality of life, or the natural functioning of ecos ys tem s (living
organisms andtheir physical surroundings). Although some environmental pollution is
a result of naturalcauses such as volcanic eruptions, most is caused by human
activities.

There are two main categories of polluting materials, or pollutants.

Biodegradable pollutants are materials, such as sewage, that rapidly decompose by
natural processes. These pollutants become a problem when added to the
environment faster than they can decompose (see Sewage Disposal).
Nondegradable pollutants are materials that either do not decompose or decompose
slowly in the natural environment. Once contamination occurs, it is difficult or
impossible to remove these pollutants from the environment.

Nondegradable compounds such as dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT),

dioxins, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and radioactive materials can reach
dangerous levels of accumulation as they are passed up the food chain into the
bodies of progressively larger animals. For example, molecules of toxic compounds
may collect on the surface of aquatic plants without doing much damage to the
plants. A small fish that grazes on these plants accumulates a high concentration of
the toxin. Larger fish or other carnivores that eat the small fish will accumulate even
greater, and possibly life -threatening, concentrations of the compound. This process
is known as bioaccumulation.

Impact of pollution

Because humans are at the top of the food chain, they are particularly
vulnerable to the effects of nondegradable pollutants. This was clearly illustrated in
the 1950s and 1960s when residents living near Minamata Bay, Japan, developed
nervous disorders, tremors, and paralysis in a mysterious epidemic. More than 400
people died before authorities discovered that a local industry had released mercury
into Minamata Bay. This highly toxic element accumulated in the bodies of local fish
and eventually in the bo dies of people who consumed the fish. More recently
research has revealed that many chemical pollutants, such as DDT and PCBs,
mimic sex hormones and interfere with the human body¶s reproductive and
developmental functions. These substances are known as en docrine disrupters. See
Occupational and Environmental Diseases.

Pollution also has a dramatic effect on natural resources. Ecosystems such as

forests, wetlands, coral reefs, and rivers perform many important services for Earth¶s
environment. They enhance water and air quality, provide habitat for plants and
animals, and provide food and medicines. Any or all of these ecosystem functions
may be impaired or destroyed by pollution. Moreover, because of the complex
relationships among the many types of organisms and ecosystems, environmental
contamination may have far-reaching consequences that are not immediately
obvious or that are difficult to predict. For instance, scientists can only speculate on
some of the potential impacts of the depletion of the ozone layer, the protective layer
in the atmosphere that shields Earth from the Sun¶s harmful ultraviolet rays.

Another major effect of pollution is the tremendous cost of pollution cleanup

and prevention. The global effort to control emissions of carbon dioxide , a gas
produced from the combustion of fossil fuels such as coal or oil, or of other organic
materials like wood, is one such example. The cost of maintaining annual national
carbon dioxide emissions at 1990 levels is estimated to be 2 percent of the gros s
domestic product for developed countries. Expenditures to reduce pollution in the
United States in 1993 totaled $109 billion: $105.4 billion on reduction, $1.9 billion on
regulation, and $1.7 billion on research and development. Twenty -nine percent of the
total cost went toward air pollution, 36 percent to water pollution, and 36 percent to
solid waste management.

In addition to its effects on the economy, health, and natural resources,

pollution has social implications. Research has shown that low -income populations
and minorities do not receive the same protection from environmental contamination
as do higher-income communities. Toxic waste incinerators, chemical plants, and
solid waste dumps are often located in low -income communities because of a lack of
organized, informed community involvement in municipal decision -making
processes.

FORMS OF POLLUTION

Pollution exists in many forms and affects many different aspects of Earth¶s
environment. Point-source pollution comes from specific, localized, and identifiable
sources, such as sewage pipelines or industrial smokestacks. Nonpoint-source
pollution comes from dispersed or uncontained sources, such as contaminated water
runoff from urban areas or automobile emissions.

The effects of these pollutants may be immediate or delayed. Primary effects of

pollution occur immediately after contamination occurs, such as the death of marine
plants and wildlife after an oil spill at sea. Secondary effects may be delayed or may
persist in the environment into the future, perhaps going unnoticed for many years.
DDT, a nondegradable compound, seldom poisons birds immediately, but gradually
accumulates in their bodies. Birds with high concentrations of this pesticide lay thin -
shelled eggs that fail to hatch or produce deformed offspring. These secondary
effects, publicized by Rachel Carson in her 1962 book, Silent Spring, threatened the
survival of species such as the bald eagle and peregrine falcon, and aroused public
concern over the hidden effects of nondegradable chemical compounds.

Air pollution,

Light pollution,
Littering
Noise pollution,
Soil contamination
Radioactive contaminatio n
Thermal pollution
Visual pollution ,
Water pollution ,

A Air Pollution

Human contamination of Earth¶s atmosphere can take many forms and has existed
since humans first began to use fire for agriculture, heating, and cooking. During the
Industrial Revolution of the 18th and 19th centuries, however, air pollution became a
major problem. As early as 1661 British author and founding member of the British
Royal Society John Evelyn reported of London in his treatise Fumifugium, ³« the
weary Traveller, at many Miles distance, sooner smells, than sees the City to which
he repairs. This is that pernicious Smoake which fullyes all her Glory, superinducing
a sooty Crust or Furr upon all that it lights.«´
Urban air pollution is commonly known as smog. The dark London smog that Evelyn
wrote of is generally a smoky mixture of carbon monoxide and organic compounds
from incomplete combustion (burning) of fossil fuels such as coal, and sulfur dioxide
from impurities in the fuels. As the smog ages and reacts with oxygen, organic and
sulfuric acids condense as droplets, increasing the haze. Smog developed into a
major health hazard by the 20th century. In 1948, 19 people died and thousands
were sickened by smog in the small U.S. steel -mill town of Donora, Pennsylvania. In
1952, about 4,000 Londoners died of its effects.

A second type of smog, photochemical smog, began reducing air quality over large
cities like Los Angeles in the 1930s. This smog is caused by combustion in car,
truck, and airplane engines, which prod uce nitrogen oxides and release
hydrocarbons from unburned fuels. Sunlight causes the nitrogen oxides and
hydrocarbons to combine and turn oxygen into ozone, a chemical agent that attacks
rubber, injures plants, and irritates lungs. The hydrocarbons are ox idized into
materials that condense and form a visible, pungent haze.

Eventually most pollutants are washed out of the air by rain, snow, fog, or mist, but
only after traveling large distances, sometimes across continents. As pollutants build
up in the atmosphere, sulfur and nitrogen oxides are converted into acids that mix
with rain. This acid rain falls in lakes and on forests, where it can lead to the death of
fish and plants, and damage entire ecosystems. Eventually the contaminated lakes
and forests may become lifeless. Regions that are downwind of heavily industrialized
areas, such as Europe and the eastern United States and Canada, are the hardest
hit by acid rain. Acid rain can also affect human health and man -made objects; it is
slowly dissolving historic stone statues and building facades in London, Athens, and
Rome.

One of the greatest challenges caused by air pollution is global warming, an increase
in Earth¶s temperature due to the buildup of certain atmospheric gases such as
carbon dioxide. With the heavy use of fossil fuels in the 20th century, atmospheric
concentrations of carbon dioxide have risen dramatically. Carbon dioxide and other
gases, known as greenhouse gases, reduce the escape of heat from the planet
without blocking radiation comin g from the Sun. Because of this greenhouse effect,
average global temperatures are expected to rise 1.4 to 5.8 Celsius degrees (2.5 to
10.4 Fahrenheit degrees) by the year 2100. Although this trend appears to be a
small change, the increase would make the Earth warmer than it has been in the last
125,000 years, possibly changing climate patterns, affecting crop production,
disrupting wildlife distributions, and raising the sea level.

Air pollution can also damage the upper atmospheric region known as the
stratosphere. Excessive production of chlorine -containing compounds such as
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) (compounds formerly used in refrigerators, air
conditioners, and in the manufacture of polystyrene products) has depleted the
stratospheric ozone layer, creating a hole above Antarctica that lasts for several
weeks each year. As a result, exposure to the Sun¶s harmful rays has damaged
aquatic and terrestrial wildlife and threatens human health in high -latitude regions of
the northern and southern hemispheres .

B Water Pollution

The demand for fresh water rises continuously as the world¶s population grows.
From 1940 to 1990 withdrawals of fresh water from rivers, lakes, reservoirs, and
other sources increased fourfold. Of the water consumed in the United States in
1995, 39 percent was used for irrigation, 39 percent was used for electric power
generation, and 12 percent was used for other utilities; industry and mining used 7
percent, and the rest was used for agricultural livestock and commercial purposes.

Sewage, industrial wastes, and agricultural chemicals such as fertilizers and

pesticides are the main causes of water pollution. The U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) reports that about 37 percent of the country¶s lakes and estuaries, and
36 percent of its rivers, are too polluted for basic uses such as fishing or swimming
during all or part of the year. In developing nations, more than 95 percent of urban
sewage is discharged untreated into rivers and bays, creating a major human health
hazard.

Water runoff, a nonpoint source of pollution, carries fertilizing chemicals such as

phosphates and nitrates from agricultural fields and yards into lakes, streams, and
rivers. These combine with the phosphates and nitrates from sewage to speed the
growth of algae, a type of plantlike organism. The water body may then become
choked with decaying algae, which severely depletes the oxygen supply. This
process, called eutrophication, can cause the death of fish and other aquatic life.
Agricultural runoff may be to blame for the growth of a toxic form of algae called
Pfiesteria piscicida, which was responsible for killing large amounts of fish in bodies
of water from the Delaware Bay to the Gulf of Mexico in the late 1990s. Runoff also
carries toxic pesticides and urban and industrial wa stes into lakes and streams.

Erosion, the wearing away of topsoil by wind and rain, also contributes to water
pollution. Soil and silt (a fine sediment) washed from logged hillsides, plowed fields,
or construction sites, can clog waterways and kill aquati c vegetation. Even small
amounts of silt can eliminate desirable fish species. For example, when logging
removes the protective plant cover from hillsides, rain may wash soil and silt into
streams, covering the gravel beds that trout or salmon use for spaw ning.

The marine fisheries supported by ocean ecosystems are an essential source of

protein, particularly for people in developing countries. Yet pollution in coastal bays,
estuaries, and wetlands threatens fish stocks already depleted by overfishing. In
1989, 260,000 barrels of oil spilled from the oil tanker Exxon Valdez into Alaska¶s
Prince William Sound, a pristine and rich fishing ground. In 1999 there were 8,539
reported spills in and around U.S. waters, involving 4.4 billion liters (1.2 billion
gallons) of oil.

C Soil Pollution

Soil is a mixture of mineral, plant, and animal materials that forms during a long
process that may take thousands of years. It is necessary for most plant growth and
is essential for all agricultural production. Soil pollution is a buildup of toxic chemical
compounds, salts, pathogens (disease-causing organisms), or radioactive materials
that can affect plant and animal life.

Unhealthy soil management methods have seriously degraded soil quality, caused
soil pollution, and enhanced erosion. Treating the soil with chemical fertilizers,
pesticides, and fungicides interferes with the natural processes occurring within the
soil and destroys useful organisms such as bacteria, fungi, and other
microorganisms. For instance, strawberry farmers in California fumigate the soil with
methyl bromide to destroy organisms that may harm young strawberry plants. This
process indiscriminately kills even beneficial microorganisms and leaves the soil
sterile and dependent upon fertilizer to support plant growth. This results in heavy
fertilizer use and increases polluted runoff into lakes and s treams.

Improper irrigation practices in areas with poorly drained soil may result in salt
deposits that inhibit plant growth and may lead to crop failure. In 2000 BC, the
ancient Sumerian cities of the southern Tigris -Euphrates Valley in Mesopotamia
depended on thriving agriculture. By 1500 BC, these cities had collapsed largely
because of crop failure due to high soil salinity. The same soil pollution problem
exists today in the Indus Valley in Pakistan, the Nile Valley in Egypt, and the Imperial
Valley in California.

D Solid Waste

Solid wastes are unwanted solid materials such as garbage, paper, plastics and
other synthetic materials, metals, and wood. Billions of tons of solid waste are thrown
out annually. The United States alone produces about 200 million metric tons of
municipal solid waste each year ( see Solid Waste Disposal). A typical American
generates an average of 2 kg (4 lb) of solid waste each day. Cities in economically
developed countries produce far more solid waste per capita than those in
developing countries. Moreover, waste from developed countries typically contains a
high percentage of synthetic materials that take longer to decompose than the
primarily biodegradable waste materials of developing countries.

Areas where wastes are buried, called landfills, are the cheapest and most common
disposal method for solid wastes worldwide. But landfills quickly become overfilled
and may contaminate air, soil, and water. Incineration, or burning, of waste reduces
the volume of solid waste but produces dense ashen wastes (some of which become
airborne) that often contain dangerous concentrations of hazardous materials such
as heavy metals and toxic compounds. Composting, using natural biological
processes to speed the decomposition of organic wa stes, is an effective strategy for
dealing with organic garbage and produces a material that can be used as a natural
fertilizer. Recycling, extracting and reusing certain waste materials, has become an
important part of municipal solid waste strategies in developed countries. According
to the EPA, more than one -fourth of the municipal solid waste produced in the United
States is now recycled or composted. Recycling also plays a significant, informal role
in solid waste management for many Asian countries, such as India, where
organized waste-pickers comb streets and dumps for items such as plastics, which
they use or resell.

Expanding recycling programs worldwide can help reduce solid waste pollution, but
the key to solving severe solid waste problems lies in reducing the amount of waste
generated. Waste prevention, or source reduction, such as altering the way products
are designed or manufactured to make them easier to reuse, reduces the high costs
associated with environmental pollution.

E Hazardous Waste

Hazardous wastes are solid, liquid, or gas wastes that may be deadly or harmful to
people or the environment and tend to be persistent or nondegradable in nature.
Such wastes include toxic chemicals and flammable or radioactive substances,
including industrial wastes from chemical plants or nuclear reactors, agricultural
wastes such as pesticides and fertilizers, medical wastes, and household hazardous
wastes such as toxic paints and solvents.

About 400 million metric tons of hazardous wastes are generated each year. The
United States alone produces about 250 million metric tons ²70 percent from the
chemical industry. The use, storage, transportation, and disposal of these
substances pose serious environmental and health risks. Even brief exposure to
some of these materials can cause cancer, birth defects, nervous system disorders,
and death. Large-scale releases of hazardous materials may cause thousands of
deaths and contaminate air, water, and soil for many years. The world¶s worst
nuclear reactor accident took place near Chernobyl¶, Ukraine, in 1986 ( see
Chernobyl¶ Accident). The accident killed at least 31 people, forced the evacuation
and relocation of more than 200,000 more, and sent a plume of radioactive material
into the atmosphere that contaminated areas as far away as Norway and the United
Kingdom.

Until the Minamata Bay contamination was discovered in Japan in the 1960s and
1970s, most hazardous wastes were legally dumped in solid waste landfills, buried,
or dumped into lakes, rivers, and oceans. Legal regulations now restrict how such
materials may be used or disposed, but such laws are difficult to enforce and often
contested by industry. It is not uncommon for industrial firms in developed countries
to pay poorer countries to accept shipments of solid and hazardous wastes, a
practice that has become known as the waste trade. Moreover, cleaning up the
careless dumping of the mid-20th century is costing billions of dollars and
progressing very slowly, if at all. The United States has an estimated 217,000
hazardous waste dumps that need immediate action. Cleaning them up could take
more than 30 years and cost $187 billion.

Hazardous wastes of particular concern are the radioactive wastes from the nuclear
power and weapons industries. To date there is no safe method for permanent
disposal of old fuel elements from nuclear reactors. Most are kept in storage facilities
at the original reactor sites where they were generated. With the end of the Cold
War, nuclear warheads that are decommissioned, or no longer in use, also pose
storage and disposal problems.

F Noise Pollution

Unwanted sound, or noise, such as that produced by airplanes, traffic, or industrial

machinery, is considered a form of pollution. Noise pollution is at its worst in densely
populated areas. It can cause hearing loss, stress, high blood pressure, sleep loss,
distraction, and lost productivity.

Sounds are produced by objects that vibrate at a rate that the ear can detect. This
rate is called frequency and is measured in hertz, or vibrations per second. Most
humans can hear sounds between 20 and 20,000 hertz, while dogs can hear high -
pitched sounds up to 50,000 hertz. While high -frequency sounds tend to be more
hazardous and more annoying to hearing than low -frequency sounds, most noise
pollution damage is related to the intensity of the sound, or the amount of energy it
has. Measured in decibels, noise intensity can range from zero , the quietest sound
the human ear can detect, to over 160 decibels. Conversation takes place at around
40 decibels, a subway train is about 80 decibels, and a rock concert is from 80 to
100 decibels. The intensity of a nearby jet taking off is about 110 d ecibels. The
threshold for pain, tissue damage, and potential hearing loss in humans is 120
decibels. Long-lasting, high-intensity sounds are the most damaging to hearing and
produce the most stress in humans.

Solutions to noise pollution include adding in sulation and sound-proofing to doors,

walls, and ceilings; using ear protection, particularly in industrial working areas;
planting vegetation to absorb and screen out noise pollution; and zoning urban areas
to maintain a separation between residential are as and zones of excessive noise.
 INTRODUCTION OF WATER POLLUTION

Water pollution is a major problem in the global context. It has been

suggested that it is the leading worldwide cause of deaths and diseases and that it
accounts for the deaths of more than 14,000 people daily. An estimated 700 million
Indians have no access to a proper toilet, and 1,000 Indian children die of diarrheal
sickness every day. Some 90% of China's cities suffer from some degree of water
pollution, and nearly 500 million people lack access to safe drinking water. In
addition to the acute problems of water pollution in developing countries ,
industrialized countries continue to struggle with pollution problems as well. In the
most recent national report on water quality in the United States, 45 percent of
assessed stream miles, 47 percent of assessed lake acres, and 32 percent of
assessed bay and estuarine square miles were classified as polluted.

Water is typically referred to as polluted when it is impaired by anthropogenic

contaminants and either does not support a human use, like serving as drinking
water, and/or undergoes a marked shift in its ability to support its constituent biotic
communities, such as fish. Natural phenomena such as volcanoes, algae blooms,
storms, and earthquakes also cause major changes in water quality and the
ecological status of water.

Water pollution categories

Surface water and groundwater have often been studied and managed as
separate resources, although they are interrelated. [7] Sources of surface water
pollution are generall y grouped into two categories based on their origin.

1) Surface water pollution

 Point source pollution
 Non-point source pollution
2) Groundwater pollution
 S w P ll i

 P i ll i

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t f i l i f t t t l t, f t , it
t i. .S. l t At A fi it f lt
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f t ti it .

Non-point ource pollution

Non-point ource NPS pollution refers to

iffuse cont ination t at oes not
ori inate from a single iscrete source. NPS pollution is often t e cumulati e effect of
small amounts of contaminants gat ered from a large area. e leaching out of
nitrogen compounds from agricultural land hich has een fertili ed is a t pical
example. Nutrient runoff in stormwater from "sheet flow" over an agricultural field or
a forest are also cited as examples of NPS pollution.

ontaminated storm water washed off of parking lots, roads and highways, called
urban runoff, is sometimes included under the category of NPS pollution. owever,
this runoff is typically channeled into storm drain systems and discharged through
pipes to local surface waters, and is a point source. However where such water is
not channeled and drains directly to ground it is a non -point source.

Ground ater pollution

Interactions between groundwater and surface water are complex.

Consequently, groundwater pollution, sometimes referred to as ground ater
contamination, is not as easily classified as surface water pollution. By its very
nature, groundwater aquifers are susceptible to contamination from sourc es that may
not directly affect surface water bodies, and the distinction of point vs. non -point
source may be irrelevant. A spill of a chemical contaminant on soil, located away
from a surface water body, may not necessarily create point source or non -point
source pollution, but nonetheless may contaminate the aquifer below. Analysis of
groundwater contamination may focus on soil characteristics and hydrology, as well
as the nature of the contaminant itself.

Causes of ater pollution

The specific contaminants leading to pollution in water include a wide

spectrum of chemicals, pathogens, and physical or sensory changes such as
elevated temperature and discoloration. While many of the chemicals and
substances that are regulated may be naturally occurring (calcium, sodium, iron,
manganese, etc.) the concentration is often the key in determining what is a natural
component of water, and what is a contaminant.

Oxygen-depleting substances may be natural materials, such as plant matter

(e.g. leaves and grass) as well as man -made chemicals. Other natural and
anthropogenic substances may cause turbidity (cloudiness) which blocks light and
disrupts plant growth, and clogs the gills of some fish species.

Many of the chemical substances are toxic. Pathogens can produce

waterborne diseases in either human or animal hosts. Alteration of water's physical
chemistry includes acidity (change in pH), electrical conductivity, temperature, and
eutrophication. Eutrophication is an increase in the concentration of chemical
nutrients in an ecosystem to an extent that increases in the primary productivity of
the ecosystem. epending on the degree of eutrophication, subsequent negative
environmental effects such as anoxia oxygen depletion) and severe reductions in
water quality may occur, affecting fish and other animal populations.

P thogens

A manhole cover unable to contain a sanitary sewer overflow.

oliform bacteria are a commonly used bacterial indicator of water pollution,

although not an actual cause of disease. ther microorganisms sometimes found in
surface waters which have caused human health problems include:

 urkhol eri pseudomallei

 Cryptosporidium parvum

 Giardia lamblia

 Salmonella

 Novovirus and other viruses

 Parasitic worms helminths).

igh levels of pathogens may result from inadequately treated sewage

discharges. his can be caused by a sewage plant designed with less than
secondary treatment more typical in less-developed countries). In developed
countries, older cities with aging infrastructure may have leaky sewage collection
systems pipes, pumps, valves), which can cause sanitary sewer overflows. Some
cities also have combined sewers, which may discharge untreated sewage during
rain storms.
Pathogen discharges may also be caused by poorly managed livestock operations.

Chemical and other contaminants

uddy river polluted by sediment. Photo courtesy of nited States eological

Survey.

ontaminants may include organic and inorganic substances.

rganic water pollutants include:

 etergents
 isinfection by-products found in chemically disinfected drinking water, such
as chloroform

 ood processing waste, which can include oxygen-demanding substances,

fats and grease

 Insecticides and herbicides, a huge range of organohalides and other

chemical compounds

 Petroleum hydrocarbons, including fuels gasoline, diesel fuel, jet fuels, and
fuel oil) and lubricants motor oil), and fuel combustion byproducts, from
]
stormwater runoff[

 ree and bush debris from logging operations

 Volatile organic compounds V s), such as industrial solvents, from

improper storage. hlorinated solvents, which are dense non-aqueous phase
liquids NAP s), may fall to the bottom of reservoirs, since they don't mix
well with water and are denser.

 Various chemical compounds found in personal hygiene and cosmetic

products
Inorganic water pollutants include:

 Acidity caused by industrial discharges especially sulfur dioxide from power

plants)

 Ammonia from food processing waste

 hemical waste as industrial by-products

 ertili ers containing nutrients--nitrates and phosphates--which are found in

stormwater runoff from agriculture, as well as commercial and residential
]
use[
][ ]
 eavy metals from motor vehicles via urban stormwater runoff )[ and acid
mine drainage

 Silt sediment) in runoff from construction sites, logging, slash and burn
practices or land clearing sites

Macroscopic pollution²large visible items polluting the wat er²may be termed

"floatables" in an urban stormwater context, or marine debris when found on the
open seas, and can include such items as:

 rash e.g. paper, plastic, or food waste) discarded by people on the ground,
and that are washed by rainfall into storm drains and eventually discharged
into surface waters

 Nurdles, small ubiquitous waterborne plastic pellets

 Shipwrecks, large derelict ships

Potrero Generating Station discharges heated water into San Francisco Bay.[17]

Thermal pollution

Thermal pollution is the rise or fall in the temperature of a natural body of

water caused by human influence. A common cause of thermal pollution is the use of
water as a coolant by power plants and industrial manufacturers. Elevated water
temperatures decreases oxygen levels (which can kill fish) and affects ecosystem
composition, such as invasion by new thermophilic species. Urban runoff may also
elevate temperature in surface waters.

Thermal pollution can also be caused by the release of very cold water from the
base of reservoirs into warmer rivers.

Transport and chemical reactions of ater pollutants

Most water pollutants are eventually carried by rivers into the oceans. In some
areas of the world the influence can be traced hundred miles from the mouth by
studies using hydrology transport models. Advanced computer models such as
SWMM or the DSSAM Model have been used in many locations worldwide to
examine the fate of pollutants in aquatic systems. Indicator filter feeding species
such as copepods have also been used to study pollutant fates in the New York
Bight, for example. The highest toxin loads are not directly at the mouth of the
Hudson River, but 100 kilometers south, since several days are required for
incorporation into planktonic tissue. The Hudson discharge flows south along the
coast due to coriolis force. Further south then are areas of oxygen depletion, caused
by chemicals using up oxygen and by algae blooms, caused by excess nutrients
from algal cell death and decomposition. Fish and shellfish kills have been reported,
because toxins climb the food chain after small fish consume copepods, then large
fish eat smaller fish, etc. Each successive step up the food chain causes a stepwise
concentration of pollutants such as heavy metals (e.g. mercury) and persistent
organic pollutants such as DDT. This is known as biomagnification, which is
occasionally used interchangeably with bioaccumulation.
A polluted river draining an abandoned copper mine on Anglesey

arge gyres vortexes) in the oceans trap floating plastic debris. he North
Pacific yre for example has collected the so-called " reat Pacific arbage Patch "
that is now estimated at times the si e of exas. any of these long-lasting
pieces wind up in the stomachs of marine birds and anima ls. his results in
obstruction of digestive pathways which leads to reduced appetite or even starvation.

any chemicals undergo reactive decay or chemically change especially over

long periods of time in groundwater reservoirs. A noteworthy class of such chemicals
is the chlorinated hydrocarbons such as trichloroethylene used in industrial metal
degreasing and electronics manufacturing) and tetrachloroethylene used in the dry
cleaning industry note latest advances in liquid carbon dioxide in dry cleaning that
avoids all use of chemicals). Both of these chemicals, which are carcinogens
themselves, undergo partial decomposition reactions, leading to new hazardous
chemicals including dichloroethylene and vinyl chloride).

roundwater pollution is much more difficult to abate than surface polluti on

because groundwater can move great distances through unseen aquifers. Non-
porous aquifers such as clays partially purify water of bacteria by simple filtration
adsorption and absorption), dilution, and, in some cases, chemical reactions and
biological activity: however, in some cases, the pollutants merely transform to soil
contaminants. roundwater that moves through cracks and caverns is not filtered
and can be transported as easily as surface water. In fact, this can be aggravated by
the human tendency to use natural sinkholes as dumps in areas of Karst topography.
 There are a variety of secondary effects stemming n ot from the original
pollutant, but a derivative condition. An example is silt-bearing surface runoff, which
can inhibit the penetration of sunlight through the water column, hampering
photosynthesis in aquatic plants.

Measurement of water pollution

Environmental Scientists preparing water autosamplers.

ater pollution may be analyzed through several broad categories of methods:

physical, chemical and biological. ost involve collection of samples, followed by
specialized analytical tests. Some methods may be conducted in situ, without
sampling, such as temperature. overnment agencies and research organizations
have published standardized, validated analytical test methods to facilitate the
comparability of results from disparate testing events.

Sampling

Sampling of water for physical or chemical testing can be done by several

methods, depending on the accuracy needed and the characteristics of the
contaminant. any contamination events are sharply restricted in time, most
commonly in association with rain events. or this reason "grab" samples are often
inadequate for fully quantifying contaminant levels. Scientists gathering this type of
data often employ auto-sampler devices that pump increments of water at either time
or discharge intervals.
Sampling for biological testing involves collection of plants and/or animals from the
surface water body. epending on the type of assessment, the organisms may be
identified for biosurveys population counts) and returned to the water body, or they
may be dissected for bioassays to determine toxicity.

Physical testing

ommon physical tests of water include temperature, solids concentration like total
suspended solids TSS) and turbidity.

Chemical testing
water chemistry analysis and environmental chemistry

Water samples may be examined using the principles of analytical chemistry.

any published test methods are available for both organic and inorganic
compounds. requently used methods include pH, biochemical oxygen demand
B ), chemical oxygen demand ), nutrients nitrate and phosphorus
compounds), metals including copper, zinc, cadmium, lead and mercury), oil and
grease, total petroleum hydrocarbons TPH), and pesticides.

Biological testing

Biological testing involves the use of plant, an imal, and/or microbial indicators
to monitor the health of an aquatic ecosystem.

Control of water pollution

omestic sewage
Deer Island Waste Water Treatment Plant serving Boston, Massachusetts and
vicinity.

Domestic sewage is 99.9% pure water, the other 0.1% are pollutants. While found in
low concentrations, these pollutants pose risk on a large scale. [19] In urban areas,
domestic sewage is typically treated by centralized sewage treatment plants. In the
U.S., most of these plants are operated by local govern ment agencies, frequently
referred to as publicly owned treatment works (POTW). Municipal treatment plants
are designed to control conventional pollutants : BOD and suspended solids. Well-
designed and operated systems (i.e., secondary treatment or better) can remove 90
percent or more of these pollutants. Some plants have additional sub -systems to
treat nutrients and pathogens. Most municipal plants are not designed to treat toxic
pollutants found in industrial wastewater. [20]

Cities with sanitary sewer overflows or combined sewer overflows employ one or
more engineering approaches to reduce discharges of untreated sewage, including:

 utilizing a green infrastructure approach to improve stormwater management

capacity throughout the system, and reduce the hydraulic overloading of the
treatment plant

 repair and replacement of leaking and malfunctioning equipment

 increasing overall hydraulic capacity of the sewage collection system (often a

very expensive option).

A household or business not served by a municipal treatment plant may have an

individual septic tank, which treats the wastewater on site and discharges into the
soil. Alternatively, domestic wastewater may be sent to a nearby privately owned
treatment system (e.g. in a rural community).
Industrial wastewater

issolved air flotation system for treating industrial wastewater.

Some industrial facilities generate ordinary domestic sewage that can be

treated by municipal facilities. Industries that generate wastewater with high
concentrations of conventional pollut ants e.g. oil and grease), toxic pollutants e.g.
heavy metals, volatile organic compounds) or other nonconventional pollutants such
as ammonia, need specialized treatment systems. Some of these facilities can install
a pre-treatment system to remove the toxic components, and then send the partially
treated wastewater to the municipal system. Industries generating large volumes of
wastewater typically operate their own complete on -site treatment systems.

Some industries have been successful at redesigning their manufacturing

processes to reduce or eliminate pollutants, through a process called pollution
prevention.

Heated water generated by power plants or manufacturing plants may be controlled

with:

 cooling ponds, man-made bodies of water designed for cooling by

evaporation, convection, and radiation

 cooling towers, which transfer waste heat to the atmosphere through

evaporation and/or heat transfer

 cogeneration, a process where waste heat is recycled for domestic and/or

]
industrial heating purposes. [
Agricultural wastewater

iparian buffer lining a creek in Iowa

Nonpoint source controls

Sediment loose soil) washed off fields is the largest source of agricultural
pollution in the nited States armers may utilize erosion controls to reduce runoff
flows and retain soil on their fields. ommon techniques include contour plowing,
crop mulching, crop rotation, planting perennial crops and installing riparian buffers.

Nutrients nitrogen and phosphorus) are typically applied to farmland as

commercial fertilizer; animal manure; or spraying of municipal or industrial
wastewater effluent) or sludge. Nutrients may also enter runoff from crop residues,
]:p. -9
irrigation water, wildlife, and atmospheric deposition.[ armers can develop
and implement nutrient management plans to reduce excess application of nutrients

To minimize pesticide impacts, farmers may use Integrated Pest anagement

IP ) techniques which can include biological pest control) to maintain control over
]
pests, reduce reliance on chemical pesticides, and protect water quality. [
 onfined Animal eeding peration in the nited States

Point source wastewater treatment

arms with large livestock and poultry operations, such as factory farms, are
called concentrated animal feeding operations or confined animal feeding operations
in the .S. and are being subject to increasing government regulation. Animal
slurries are usually treated by containment in lagoons before disposal by spray or
trickle application to grassland. onstructed wetlands are sometimes used to
facilitate treatment of animal wastes, as are anaerobic lagoons . Some animal slurries
are treated by mixing with straw and composted at high temperature to produce a
bacteriologically sterile and friable manure for soil improvement.

Construction site stormwater

Silt fence installed on a construction site.

Sediment from construction sites is managed by installation of:

 erosion controls, such as mulching and hydroseeding, and

]
 sediment controls, such as sediment basins and silt fences.[
Discharge of toxic chemicals such as motor fuels and concrete washout is prevented
by use of:

 spill prevention and control plans, and

 specially designed containers e.g. for co ncrete washout) and structures such
9]
as overflow controls and diversion berms. [

Urban runoff (stormwater)

etention basin for controlling urban runoff

Effective control of urban runoff involves reducing the velocity and flow of
stormwater, as well as reducing pollutant disch arges. ocal governments use a
variety of stormwater management techniques to reduce the effects of urban runoff.
These techniques, called best management practices B Ps) in the .S., may focus
on water quantity control, while others focus on improving water quality, and some
perform both functions.

Pollution prevention practices include low impact development techniques,

installation of green roofs and improved chemical handling e.g. management of
]
motor fuels & oil, fertilizers and pesticides).[ unoff mitigation systems include
infiltration basins, bioretention systems, constructed wetlands, retention basins and
similar devices.

Thermal pollution from runoff can be controlled by stormwater management

facilities that absorb the runoff or direct it into groundwater, such as bioretention
systems and infiltration basins. etention basins tend to be less effective at reducing
temperature, as the water may be heated by the sun before being discharged to a
receiving stream.[30]:p. 5-58