Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1Background

If you are using an electronic device perhaps a mobile phone and you need to recharge the
battery then you will probably have to get a charger and connect the phone to the wire. But what
if you could charge it without having to connect it to wire? Meaning power will be transferred
wirelessly. This is possible through a concept called Wireless Power Transmission. Research and

studies have been done ever since the 19th century but it is only recently that this concept has

begun to be implemented.
Currently engineers are trying to discover how to increase the efficiency of power transmitted
wirelessly and also methods that that are safe to human beings and the environment and
notwithstanding, methods that are cheaper and hence can be commercially viable. Though still in
the early stages, several electronic companies are beginning to roll out devices that can
wirelessly transmit power.
Wireless power transmission (WPT) is based on the principle of electromagnetic induction.
Electromagnetic induction works on the concept of a primary coil generating a predominantly
magnetic field and a secondary coil being within that field so a current is induced within its coils.
This causes the relatively short range due to the amount of power required to produce an
electromagnetic field.

1.2 Problem statement

The presentation seeks to eliminate the use of wires in the transmission of power from the source
to the device to be powered. Although WPT is based on electromagnetic induction, there are
various methods that are used. Some are less efficient than others and costly while others don’t
allow for a longer range of transmission. In this presentation, it is required to design and
construct an electronic device that shall transmit power within a small range. The device can then
be used to charge batteries for devices like pace makers.

In the presentation a suitable method will be used to ensure that enough power is transmitted
wirelessly so that it can then charge batteries. The major challenge will be in the coupling circuit
which comprises of the coils where electromagnetic induction occurs.

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1.3 Specific objectives
The project will be divided into the following specific objectives that will aid in achieving the
main objective

 Design and assemble a power supply unit.


 Step up the dc supply.

 Design and assemble an appropriate oscillator.

 Develop transmitter and receiver coils.

 Design the receiver module and rectify the ac voltage received on the receiver
coil.

 Designing a battery charging circuit.

1.4 Justification for the study

The need for devices that can wirelessly transmit power has over the years increased. Currently a
lot of research is being conducted in order to obtain suitable methods that can be used in the
development of such devices. The following are reasons why it is important

 Flexibility: WPT will eliminate the use of conductors and wires. Rather than have many
wires running from a power source to power devices, the power can be transmitted
wirelessly hence the mess caused by cables can be avoided and also more devices can be
powered without having them all placed next to the power source
 Safety: With the increase in electrification in areas, cases of electrical shocks have been
rampant as people and even animals end up touching the conductors. WPT will eliminate
these conductors hence preventing the electrical shocks.
 Convenience: The application of WPT will enable the convenient use of devices. For
example, in the medical field pacemakers which use batteries can be recharged rather
than having a surgery every time the battery life is over. This will save on costs for
surgery and also is a more convenient option.
 Reliability: Many times people are using a device and it runs out of power yet one
doesn’t have a cord to charge the device or perhaps there is no source of power around.
However with WPT the devices can be charged wirelessly hence the risk of low battery
power will be eliminated.

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1.5 Scope of work
This project covers the hardware and software design and implementation of a device that will be
able to transfer power wirelessly. The study will look into the methods that are currently in use
and seek to improve on the areas where the performance is low. The hardware system will
involve the design and construction of a transmitter and receiver modules. Once there is proof
that power has been transmitted, a battery charging circuit will be designed and developed to
charge a 9V battery so as to show the application of a wireless power transfer device. The
software system will include code that will control ensure the system is intelligent enough to
determine the battery capacity and also to display the various parameters that are important.

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 Chapter 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction
This chapter contains an evaluation of the current work with respect to the existing works. It is
devoted to a critical review of the technical and academic literature on previous works done on
wireless power transfer

Approach adopted: the following approach is adopted for this chapter;

 History of wireless power transfer


 Main concepts of wireless transmission of electric energy

 Health and safety considerations

 WPT standards and alliances

2.2 History of wireless power transfer

This is the transmission of electrical energy from a power source to an electrical load, such as an
electrical power grid or a consuming device, without the use of discrete man-made conductors.
The word wireless from a basic description means without wires.
Wireless power transmission (WPT) is one of the fields of engineering that has in the past few
years received a lot of attention. A lot of companies are spending millions of dollars trying to
research and develop ways of transferring power wirelessly. However the concept of WPT has
been in existence for over a century.

This concept was first discussed in the late 19th century. Nikola Tesla was the brains behind this
concept. He together with Heinrich Hertz theorized the possibility of power being transmitted
wirelessly. Tesla’s main idea was to use the planet as the conductor to transmit power to any
point on the earth. In 1899 Tesla successfully managed to illustrate the concept by powering
fluorescent lamps 25 miles away from the source of power. In 1901 Tesla built the Wardenclyffe
Tower shown in fig. 2.1.

4
 Fig 2.1: Wardenclyffe Tower

2.3 Main concepts of wireless transmission of electric energy

00As a result of the extensive research in WPT, various categories have arisen. WPT can be
categorized in terms of efficiency, distance of transmission, power level and size. Classification
based on distance of transmission however is more relevant.

Fig 2.2: Classification of WPT

For any electromagnetic source both electric (E-fields) and magnetic (H-fields) fields are
generated around it. These fields are characterized by their radioactive and non-radioactive
components. Depending on the distance from the source they can either be near field, transition
zone or far field. The transition zone possesses characteristics of both the near and far field
transfers.

The near field region can be said to be the found within the radius of a wavelength while far field
region is the area outside a radius of two wavelengths. This however is for transmitters and
receivers that have diameters shorter than the wavelength being used.

5
This far in research the near field transfer has been found to have a higher efficiency during
transfer of power. This can be attributed to the decrease in both electric and magnetic fields
proportionally to the distance from the source. In addition, the near-field region allows higher
diffraction of the wave, resulting in stronger penetrability and weak directivity on a short range.
In light of all these, more research is being focused on development of the near field transfers as
compared to far field transfer. Both near field transfer and far field are further categorized based
on the method of operation of the transfer. Some of the methods are as follows:

2.3.1 Far Field Transfer

In this method, dc is fed to the microwave generator which converts it to microwaves. This
radiation is passed through the coaxial-waveguide adaptor, and then through the waveguide
circulator, which reduces the radiation to exposure from outside power. Finally the radiation
passes through the tuner and directional coupler device, which separates the signal according to
signal propagation direction.

Fig: 2.3 Microwave power transfer

2.4 Health and safety considerations

Wireless power transmission is largely based on the radiation of electromagnetic fields.
However, there are safety limits that determine the levels of human exposure to electromagnetic
fields. Currently two world bodies give directives on the human exposure guidelines. These are
the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) and the International Commission on
Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP).

6
The main standards are: “IEEE Standard for Safety Levels with Respect to Human Exposure to
Radio Frequency Electromagnetic Fields, 3 kHz to 300 GHz” (IEEE C95.1-2005) and “ICNIRP
Guidelines For Limiting Exposure To Time-Varying Electric, Magnetic and Electromagnetic
Fields (up to 300 GHz) The purposes of the IEEE and ICNIRP guidelines are similar:

“The main objective of this publication, ICNIRP, is to establish guidelines for limiting EMF
(electromagnetic field) exposure that will provide protection against known adverse health
effects. An adverse health effect causes a detectable impairment of the health of the exposed
Individual or of his or her offspring; a biological effect on the other hand, may or may not result
in an adverse health effect”.

Both the IEEE and ICNIRP groups in their recent publications claim that there is no justified
evidence to show that human exposure to radio frequency (RF) electromagnetic fields causes
cancer, however evidence shows that RF electromagnetic fields could actually raise the
temperature of a human, cause heating up of body tissues and may stimulate nerve and muscle
tissues. It is in that respect that both bodies recommend limiting human exposure to
electromagnetic field strengths to levels safely below those that cause harm to human beings. In
the case of tissue heating, the IEEE and ICNIRP recommend limiting the specific absorption rate
or SAR, a measure of the amount of electromagnetic energy absorbed by the human body and
turned into heat.

2.5 WPT standards and alliances

 Qi by the wireless power consortium (WPC)

The Qi standard is an inductive coupling power transfer interface standard developed by the
Wireless power consortium (WPC). The consortium was founded in 2008 as cooperation
between European, American and Asian companies in different industries in order to develop a
global standard for the inductive charging technology. The most prominent members include, for
example, Motorola Mobility Inc., Microsoft Corporation etc.

 Rezence by the alliance for wireless power (A4WP)

Rezence is a magnetic resonance power transfer standard developed by the alliance for Wireless
Power (A4WP). A single transmitter can power up to eight receiver devices on mid-range
distances. Communication between transmitter and receiver is “out-of-band” and implemented
via Bluetooth.

7
The A4WP was founded in early 2012 in order to develop a ubiquitous WPT ecosystem. The
most prominent members include Broad-com, Panasonic, Microsoft Corporation, LG
Electronics, Samsung, Logitech, WiTricity, Qualcomm, Incorporated, Gill Electronics, Hewlett
Packard, Integrated Device Technology, Inc., Intel and others.

 Power matters alliance (PMA)

Power matters alliance (PMA) is a non-profit organization, which develops inductive and
resonant power transfer standards. PMA was founded in 2012 in order to technically harmonize
and advance multiple inductive WPT standards, promote WPT within the automobiles industry
and popular public infrastructure venues. The most prominent members include Duracell
Powermat, LG Innotek, Panasonic Corporation, Samsung Electronics, Toshiba Corporation,
Sony Corporation, Energous Corporation, Freescale Semiconductor Inc., Integrated Device
Technology (IDT) and Microsoft Corporation. A summary of the main WPT Interface Standards
and Alliances as of January 2015.

Table 2.1: Summary of main WPT Interface

Organization WPC PMA A4WP
Established 2008 2012 2012
Number of members 203+ 80+ 140+
Transfer type Inductive coupling Inductive coupling Magnetic resonance
(10-15W5W (10-
Max. transfer power 5W 15W soon) up to 50W
Range Short range Short range Mid-range
Transfer frequency 100 to 205 kHz 277 to 357 kHz 6.78 MHz
Latest version 1.1.2 PMA1.1 A4WP-S-0001 v1.2
Certified Products 684 24 -
Authorized test labs 10 3 2

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 Chapter 3

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
3.1 Wireless transfer by Inductive Coupling

This chapter elaborates on the method of wireless power transfer that was selected which is
inductive coupling.

The concept of transmitting power wirelessly is based on electromagnetic fields, precisely due to
electromagnetic induction. Biot-Savart's law, which is similar to Coulomb's law, states that the
magnetic field intensity dH at r due to current element / d\ at r' is dR. It gives the relation
between the magnetic field and magnitude, direction, proximity and length of the electric current
by which it has been generated.

Fig: 3.1 Mutual induction between two coils

Where R is the full displacement vector from the current source to the field point, Idl is the
infinitesimal current source point in the wire. A magnetic field of B(r) is produced by the copper
coil. The magnitude of the magnetic field is affected by r which is the distance from the center of
the coil to the field point. The strength of magnetic field B is proportional to the current I in the
coil. Supposing two copper laminated coils are placed within the near the field region while
aligned together side by side a magnetic field is generated. This however only occurs provided
the transmitter coil is powered and the current flowing through it alternating current. This
magnetic field that has been generated by the TX coil at the point x which is on the RX coil is
thus going to be given by

9
Where N is the number of turns of the coil, I is the transmitter inductor current, a is the radius of
the TX coil while d is the distance of separation between the TX and RX coil. The magnetic flux
Φ that will pass through the Rx coil will be given by:
Φ=∬sBdS
B is the magnetic flux density generated by the transmitter and S is the area of the receiver coil
surface. In the transmitter coil the current flowing is time dependent thus produces magnetic flux
variation in the receiver coil. An electromotive force (emf) will then be induced in the RX coil,
which is obtained by applying Faraday’s law of induction which states that “The induced emf ε
in a coil is proportional to the negative of the rate of change of magnetic flux”. The equation for
emf is as below.

For= a−coil that consists of N loops, the total induced emf would be N times as large

Where Φ is the magnetic flux. The EMF is driving the current in the secondary coil whose
magnetic field is opposing the time variation in the magnetic flux according to Lenz’s law.
Hence, the power is transferred from TX coil to RX coil. An emf may be induced in the
following ways:

(i) by varying the magnitude of B with time as in the figure below

Fig 3.2: Magnitude of magnetic flux intensity

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(ii) by varying the magnitude of A, i.e., the area enclosed by the loop with time

Fig 3.3: Magnitude of area

Self-inductance is the property of the circuit when its own magnetic field is opposing the current
change= in the circuit. Self-inductance of the coil can be defined as:

Where N is the number of turns Φis magnetic flux and I is the current of the coil. By combining
and we obtain:

Where L is self-inductance of the coil, M is mutual inductance of two coils, I is the current of the
coil. Thus the EMF induced on the coil is directly proportional to the mutual inductance of the
coils and rate at which the current is oscillating. Mutual inductance can also be given by

Where k is the coupling factor, L1andL2 are TX and RX inductances. The coupling factor
determines the grade of the coupling, i.e. how much flux of the total flux actually penetrated the
receiver coil. It can have a value from 0 to According to the current is alternating, get:

11
This clearly shows that the voltage induced to the secondary coil depends on the current and
voltage in the primary coil, the frequency of the current and voltage in the primary coil, the
separation distance between the coils and the surface area of the coils. The resulting two coil
coupling system is depicted below.

Fig: 3.4 the two coil coupling system

Here C1 and C2 are tuning capacitors, L1 and L2 are coupled inductors with mutual inductance
M, R1 and R2 represent parasitic resistances (loss resistances in the inductors), d is the distance
between the coils and V1 and V2 are input and output voltages. The output power of the second
coil can be defined as:

Where the operating frequency of the system, RL is load resistance. Thus the overall efficiency of
the system depends only on the transmission frequency, mutual inductance, coils’ parasitic
resistances and load resistance.

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 Chapter 4
METHODS AND MATERIALS

4.1 General principle of design

From the theory in chapter the general principle of operation was designed using inductive
coupling and ensuring that the power transfer was as efficient as possible and the transfer within
the near field. The design also ensured for purposes of versatility and optimization the battery
charging circuit was energy efficient and prevented losses. The circuit was divided into two
sections:
1. Transmitter circuit
2. Receiver circuit
The transmitter circuit comprised of the power supply, boost converter, royer oscillator and the
copper laminated coils. The receiver side had the receiver coil, rectifier, LCD, Atmega 328
microcontroller and the switching circuit that used the CD4066. The figure below shows the
block diagram of the design.

Fig: 4.1 Block diagram of WPT

AC power is supplied from the mains and fed to the power supply. It is stepped down and then
rectified to give dc power. The dc voltage is then passed through the voltage regulator LM7805
so as to give a constant 5V dc. This DC signal is however not enough to cause a significant to
create a large emf that will cause the induction. The 5V is then fed to the dc boost converter to
raise the voltage to 30V. The 30V now becomes the input to the royer oscillator circuit. The
oscillator then converts the received DC voltage to AC power with a high frequency.

13
The MOSFETS cause a large current which is then supplied to the transmitting copper coil. The
diagram below shows the circuit of the transmitter section.

Fig: 4.2 Transmitter section circuit

The transmitter circuit section has two power MOSFETs (IRF540) which are biased using the
resistors R1, R2, R3, R4.There is also a choke made up of inductors L1 & L2.The 8 capacitors C
operate as resonating capacitors to ensure the coils are at resonant frequencies. Oscillators have
feedback, in the case of the royer oscillator negative feedback. The two diodes D1 & D2 thus
provide the cross coupled feedback required. The transmitter coil L which is basically an
inductor is where the electromagnetic induction occurs. The coil used in this case is gauge 26.
When power is given to the oscillator circuit, the DC current starts flowing through the two
sides of the coil (L1&L2) and also to the drain terminals of the MOSFET. During the same
instant, voltage appears on gate terminal of both the transistors and tries to turn ON the
transistors. Any one of the transistor will be faster than the other and it will turn ON first.
When Q1 turns on first, its drain voltage will be clamped to near ground. Meanwhile Q2 will be
in the off state. Once Q2 is in the conduction state its drain voltage begins rising steadily to
peak and then immediately begins to drops due to the tank circuit formed by the capacitor C and
the primary coil of oscillator through one half cycle. The operating frequency of the oscillator is
determined by the resonance formula given below

14
 F = ½ × π × √ (LC)
In the receiver side the circuit was as below

Fig: 4.3 Receiver circuit

When the receiver coil is placed within the near field range from the transmitter coil, the magnetic
field in the transmitter coil extends and it induces an AC voltage which generates a current flow in
the receiver coil of the wireless charger. The transmitted AC voltage is then fed to the rectifier
which converts it to DC. A capacitive filter is used to eliminate any ripples.

Table 4.1: Cost Analysis of Components

ITEMS UNIT COST

Microcontroller At mega 328 1 350
16 X 2 LCD 1 400
Power MOSFETS IR540 2 60
Coil 26 gauge 3 meters 60
Diodes 7 21
Resistors 10 55
Capacitors 20 84
LM7805 Voltage Regulator 1 30
16 MHz Crystal 1 30
LM 2621 1 200
IC Socket 1 20
Inductors 4 24
Veroboard 1 100

Total 1444

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4.2 Hardware and software components

Fig 4.4: Power supply arrangement

The oscillator needed 30V DC supplied. The power supply unit used however gave an output of
5V dc. The power supply contained a transformer that stepped down the 230V ac supplied from
the mains to 9V AC. A full-wave bridge rectifier then rectified the 9V ac. Full wave bridge
rectifier is preferred over the half wave bridge rectifier since, for the half wave rectifier, a large
capacitor will be required to hold up the voltage during the gap whereby an AC cycle is skipped.

The bridge rectifier has an efficiency of 80% hence the rectified output was less than the input.
The output received was 7.2V DC. This voltage however is still erratic and pulsating thus a
smoothening capacitor is required. The smoothening capacitor supplies charge when as the
rectifier voltage falls thus evening out any fluctuations by the signal. The smoothened dc voltage
is then fed to the voltage stabilizer LM7805 which ensures a stable output voltage of 5v.

4.2.1 DC - DC boost converter

This is required since the voltage required to be fed into the oscillator is 30V yet from the power
supply unit only 5V is being achieved. To step up to 30V we used the switching regulator below.
This switching regulator, as shown in figure 4.5, can operate in the continuous or the
discontinuous mode so that the output voltage is higher. It consists of the following components:
an inductor, capacitor, switching device, diode, and the input voltage source.

16
 Fig 4.5: switching regulator
The switch is usually controlled by a pulse width modulator. A potentiometer is also available
that regulates the output voltage. In the continuous mode, the switch conducts and thus the
current through the inductor is ramped up. When the switch is turned off, the voltage at point 4 in
the above circuit rises rapidly. This is because the inductor is attempting to maintain the current
at a constant. The diode in turn goes on and thus the inductor dumps the current into capacitor
C3 resulting in more energy being generated and thus a higher output voltage than the input
voltage.

4.2.2 Royer oscillator

Oscillators are systems that consist of both passive and active components of a circuit which then
generate sinusoidal waveforms or repetitive waveforms. Oscillator circuits generate waveforms
without the aid external inputs. They convert the dc supply power source to ac power which is
supplied to a load. For this design I used a royer oscillator. This oscillator belongs to the
relaxation oscillators’ classification since its output is non- sinusoidal.

The capacitors turn the oscillator into a harmonic oscillator that outputs sine waves. This
oscillator has two parts. The first part is a relaxation oscillator. It is connected as an astable multi
vibrator which converts the dc power fed into it. It then converts the received dc power to a high
frequency ac power. This part generates square waves which are the input of the second part
which is the power amplifier. These waves are the input at the gate terminal of the power
MOSFET.

17
 Fig 4.6: Royer Oscillator

The second part is the power amplifier. The gate of the first MOSFET is driven by the signal
generated at the oscillator part. This MOSFET provides the voltage and the current needed to
drive the gate of the second MOSFET. When the second MOSFET turns on it allows a large
current from the dc signal to flow to the transmitting coil. The large current generates a large flux
which then induces a high voltage to the receiving coil.

4.2.3 Full wave bridge rectifier

The transmitted current received on the receiver side is ac. However for purposes of charging the
battery, dc is needed hence the need for rectification. In the design, a full wave bridge rectifier
instead of a half wave rectifier. It’s basically a full wave rectifier but uses four diodes instead of
two which then form arms that are the bridge rectifier. It was used because of the following
reasons:
i. It doesn’t require a center tap on the secondary winding thus ac voltage can be fed
directly to the bridge circuit.
ii. For its construction, crystal diodes can be used. The diodes are easily available in the
market and cheap. The circuit is also more compact.
iii. The transformer utilization power is higher

18
There are four diagonal arms. When ac voltage is applied to one arm, the rectified dc voltage is
obtained from the opposite arm. The bridge rectifier operates in positive and negative half cycles.
During the positive cycle point A is positive and point B becomes negative. In this case diodes
D1 and D2 will be conducting while D3 and D4 will be off. D1 and D2 at this point are forward
biased and conducting in series with the load. The current flows in the direction as in the figure
below

Fig 4.7: Flow of current during positive cycle

During the negative half cycle, the polarity of the ac voltage being fed is reversed such that point
B now is the positive while point A becomes negative. Diodes D3 and D4 in this case will be on
meaning they are forward biased hence can conduct while D1 and D2 which are off will be
reverse biased. Similarly to the positive ac cycle, D3 and D4 will conduct in series with the load
and current will flow as in the figure below

Fig 4.8: Flow of current during negative cycle

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It is worth noting that current in the load flows in the same direction for both ac cycles. This
therefore means that the current in the full wave cycle is unidirectional. However the rectified dc
voltage had ripples. A capacitive filter was added instead of the inductive filter since the
reactance of the capacitor is much smaller than the resistor value.

4.2.4 The microcontroller unit

A simple definition of the microcontroller is a computer on a chip. The microcontroller enables
the project to be a standalone system which is able to produce varied reactions to various
situations according to preset controls. The microcontroller in this project is the AT mega 328
microcontroller.
The system is required to alert the user if a load is in place, calculate and display the level of
charge, start the charging if needed and finally cut the charging when the load is fully charged.
To do these actions on its own, the microcontroller needs to be loaded with a program to enable
it execute all these actions.
Types of Microcontrollers
There are several ways in which microcontrollers can be classified. The several aspects of
classification lead to several types of microcontrollers. Classification based on internal bus width

This classification results into three sub groups. Considering the length of the internal bus, a
microcontroller can either be 8-bit, 16-bit or 32-bit.
8-bit microcontrollers
8-bit microcontrollers, as the name suggests have a bus width of 8 bits. Examples of such
microcontrollers are Intel 8031/8051, PIC 1X and Motorola MC68HC11 families.
16-bit microcontroller

Have greater precision than the 8-bit microcontroller. Has a range of 0X0000 – 0XFFFF (0-
65535) for every cycle. Examples of these microcontrollers are the extended 8051XA, PIC2X,
Intel 8096 and the Motorola MC68HC12 families.
32-bit microcontroller
Used in automated devices, engine control systems, office machines and other embedded
systems. From the name, the bus width is 32 bits and have even greater accuracy than the 16 bit
types. Examples are Intel/Atmel 251 family and PIC3X families

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Application of microcontrollers
Microcontrollers have many applications across the technological fields’ nowadays. Some of the
most common applications are;
In day to day activities use of microcontrollers;
 Light sensing & controlling devices

 Temperature sensing and controlling devices

 Fire detection & safety devices

 Industrial instrumentation devices

 Process control devices
In Industries use of microcontrollers;
 Industrial instrumentation devices

 Process control devices
In Metering and measurement devices use of microcontrollers
 Volt Meter

 Measuring revolving objects

 Current meter

 Hand-held metering systems
These are some of the situations and appliances which use microcontrollers to operate.
AT mega 328
This is a single chip microcontroller created by the Atmel cooperation and it belongs to the mega
AVR series. Typical features of this microcontroller are;
 28 pins (23 are I/O)

 32 Kbytes flash memory

 1kbyte EEPROM Data memory

 Two timers (one 8-bit and one 16-bit )

 Supports USART functionalities

 Works with an external oscillator of up to 20MHz

The I/O pins are responsible for connections of peripherals of the main system such as the LEDs
and the LCD screen. The crystal is also connected to the microcontroller because the IC will not
work properly without the crystal.

21
The microcontroller was used to control the charging of the battery. One of the challenges with
this microcontroller was that it has a voltage limit of 5V yet the battery being charged is a 9V
battery. This means it can’t measure the voltage of 9V. To solve this, a voltage divider circuit
was introduced. The range over which the microcontroller can measure voltage can be increased
by using two resistors to create a voltage divider. The voltage divider decreases the voltage being
measured to within the range of the microcontroller analog inputs. Code in the Arduino sketch is
then used to calculate the actual voltage being measured. The microcontroller also sends a signal
to the CD4066 switch to turn of the charging. The measured voltage is then displayed on the
LCD.

Fig 4.9: Port diagram of the AT mega 328P

4.2.5 The LCD screen

In this project, a display screen was used to show various aspects of the project. Internally, the
LCD is made up of a thin layer of liquid crystals sandwiched between two layers of transparent
electrode glass sheets. The nature of the glass sheets determines the type of the LCD screen. If
both glass sheets are transparent then the LCD is transmissive and if one sheet has a reflective
coat then the cell will be reflective. The liquid crystal molecules are able to twist, therefore
changing slightly the amount of light penetration resulting in different characters being displayed
on the screen. The display unit for this project is a 16X2 LCD as shown below .
22
 Fig 4.10: 16X2 LCD representation
This means that the screen can display a maximum of 16 characters on one line and there are two
lines where the characters can be displayed. The LCD used was HITACHI 44780. It was
connected to the AT mega 328 microcontroller as below. A potentiometer was connected to
control the brightness of the LCD. The LCD model used has additional pins 15 and 16 that were
used to turn the backlight on.

Fig 4.11: LCD &AT mega 328 connection

23
4.2.6 Switching Circuit
When the charging is complete, it is important to cut supply to the load so that power is
conserved. The switching off of the circuit is achieved by the IC Cd 4066. Conventional
switching circuit components such as the relay are not possible in this situation because of the
lower power produced after transmission. Had a relay been used in the circuit, there would not
have been enough power for the relay to work and therefore the switch will not work.
The CD 4066 is a low power multiplexing switch circuit which is an ideal replacement for
mechanical switches. The IC has a bandwidth of around 8MHz, current consumption of 1 mA
but it requires a high level power supply voltage since the input impedance of the circuit drops
with higher voltage levels. The circuit cuts supply to the load once the batteries are full so that
power is not lost unnecessarily. The multiplexer switch diagram is shown below

Fig 4.12: Multiplexer switch

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4.3 Software

4.3.1 USBasp
This is a USB based programmer for the microcontroller used for burning hex files into AVR
microcontroller. In order to program any microcontroller you need the .HEX file or the sketch
which is the machine code for the microcontroller. This file is generated by the corresponding
assembler software, which converts programming code into machine code. Programming code
can be produced by third party cross compiler software, we used Arduino.
To transfer program using it, one end is connected to the computer that has assembler software
and code. The other end is then connected to a6-pin or a 10-pin cable. From this cable, female to
female pins can be used which can then easily be hooked to a breadboard. Regardless of whether
the 6-pin cable or 10-pin cable is used, only 6 pins will be in use, these are the MISO, SCK,
RST, VTG, MOSI, and GND connections.

Fig 4.13: USBasp Connection

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The pins function as follows:
a) MOSI- (Master Out Slave In) - it allows the master device to send data to slave or
target device.
b) MISO- (Master in Slave Out) - it allows slave device/target to send information to
master device.
c) SCK – (serial clock) - this mutual clock shared between master and slave device for
synchronized communication.
d) Reset- (target AVR MCU Reset) - The reset pin for the AVR chip being programmed
must be put in active low in order for programming to occur.
e) VCC- (Power) - The master and slave device both need power in order to operate.
f) GND- (Common Ground) - The master and slave device must share a common power
ground data to the target AVR which is being programmed.
The SCK pin is the clock. It is essential because in order for the master and slave device to
communicate, they need to have a time signal to communicate data in synchrony. The common
clock signal shared between the master and slave device allow for efficient communication.
The RST pin is an essential connection because it must be put to an active low connection in
order for programming to occur between the master and slave device. It is normally held high,
but for programming to occur, it must be put low. It is an active low pin. When the RST pin is
put low, the master slave can communicate on the SCK, MISO, and MOSI lines.

4.3.2 Programming language

A programming language is a constructed language designed to communicate instructions to a
machine. They are used to create programs that control how a machine functions in different
circumstances. This project is done in assembler language. This is a low level programming
language for a microcontroller or other programmable device. The assembler language has a very
strong association with the architecture of the microcontroller hence a good understanding of the
microprocessor architecture is required when programming using assembler. Programming in
assembler language has the following advantages:
 Requires less memory and execution time.

 Allows hardware specific complex jobs easier

 Suits time sensitive jobs

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During the programming process the flowchart below was used to so that the code could be
developed in segments and then combined to function as one.

Fig 4.14: Code flowchart

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 Chapter 5

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

5.1 Results
The main objective of the project was to develop a device for wireless power transfer. The
device had to be an electronic circuit. The achievement of this objective was further broken
down into specific objectives which all together aided the development of the device. The other
objectives were as follows:

Design and assemble a power supply unit. The power supply was to step down 230V ac
supplied by the mains to 12V ac high frequency. The 12V ac was then to be rectified to give
5V dc.

II. Step up the dc supply. Using a boost converter, the dc voltage was raised to 30V dc

III. Design and assemble an appropriate oscillator. For the project, a royer oscillator
was found to be most suitable.

After assembling and fabricating the components on the veroboard. The above three objectives
formed the transmitter module. When assembled and fabricated it was as depicted in the figure
below.

Fig 5.1: Components on the Veroboard

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IV. Develop transmitter and receiver coils. Electromagnetic induction occurs between
these two coils and an emf generated on the TX coil that induces a current on the RX
coil. The coils were embedded on the fabricated casing of the modules. However they are
as in the figure below.

Fig 5.2: Imbedded Coils

V. Design the receiver module and rectify the ac voltage received on the receiver coil.
For A rectifier was needed to output dc power which would be used to power other
components.
VI. Designing a battery charging circuit. The transmitted power was to be used to charge a
battery so as to further demonstrate the application of wireless power transmission in the
modern world. The figure below illustrates the fabrication of the device.

Fig 5.3: Fabrication of the device

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5.2 Analysis and Discussion
5.2.1 Coils

To test if power was transmitted we first soldered an LED to the receiver coil. The test was
successful with only 5V dc powering the oscillator. However the power was too to energize the
battery charging circuit that comprised of an LCD and microprocessor. The voltage was stepped
up using a boost converter to 30V dc. Two receiving coils were used and each had an LED lamp.
They both lit brightly. We then added a set of LEDs and the results were as in the figures below.

Fig 5.4: LED 1 for coil 1 Fig 5.5: LED 2 for coil 2

In the above figure 5.4 and figure 5.5, the receiving coils were not separated from the transmitter
coil. However as the distance of separation increased the brightness reduced. This proved that
indeed the distance of separation determines the current induced in the receiver coil. As distance
increases, less current is induced from the change of flux. The test LED bulbs lit brightest up to a
separation distance of 5cm between the two coils after which their brightness reduced
significantly.

Also, different gauges of the coil were used to determine which was more effective. Currently in
the market the most common are gauge 26 and gauge 16. It was noted that for the coils of gauge

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16, the distance of separation between the coils had to be shorter and also the brightness of the
bulb was less than for the gauge 26.

Various objects were placed between the receiver and the transmitter coil to test if the shielding
would have an effect on the power being transmitted. It was observed that this didn’t have any
significant effect on the power that was transmitted. However when a magnetic material was
placed in between the coils it had an effect.

5.2.2 Oscillator

The royer oscillator was chosen because of its simplicity yet powerful design. It is capable of
generating very high oscillating current which is necessary to increase the strength of the
magnetic field. This is achieved by the semi-conductor used. In this case, the IR 540 power
MOSFETs is used. However due to the large current, heating occurred in the MOSFETs thus
heat sinks were attached to them.

When the voltage was stepped up to 30V dc, upon doing the initial test the transmitter circuit
didn’t oscillate yet the first MOSFET was rapidly heating up. It was discovered that due to
voltage being fed rising too slowly on power up a short circuit occurred. To solve this issue, are
set switch was introduced between the power supply and the oscillator circuit. The switch also
enabled the circuit to be reset once the MOSFETs heated up.

It was also observed that as much as the voltage to the oscillator had been stepped up, the power
being received on the load coil wasn’t enough to power the battery charging circuit. This was
attributed to the receiver coil being slightly out of resonance thus it wasn’t able to receive the
power well. To solve this we ensured that the coils had the same number of turns and the
capacitors used were identical so that both the transmitter and receiver circuits had the same
resonant frequency.

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5.2.3 Battery charging circuit

The battery charging circuit consisted of the rectifier which converted the ac power to dc, an
Atmega 328 microcontroller, a 16X2 LCD and a CD4066 switch. This part was largely
controlled by the microcontroller. Initially a relay was used as the switch once the battery is full.
However it was drawing more current and thus acted as load. The CD4066 became a better
alternative as it consumed less current and also was less bulky as compared to the single channel
relay.

One of the challenges with modern chargers is that once charging is complete; there is no
notification to the user to stop the charging. To solve this; a buzzer was used so that once the
charging is complete it sounds. However this meant the input signal had to be driven at the same
frequency as that of the buzzer and also it consumes more power. An RGB LED was instead
used. Its operation was coded and loaded to the microcontroller.

It was observed that, once the battery started charging it heavily loaded the rectifier voltage and
caused it to drop significantly. The battery internal resistance is suspected to be the major cause
of this.

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 Chapter 6
CONCLUSIONS
The objectives of the project were met. An electronic device that wirelessly transmits power and
then charges batteries was developed. We were able to design discrete components such as the
royer oscillator, coils and a full bridge voltage rectifier for the system design process.
Conclusions that were drawn from the project study are as follows:

1. Based on the theory of wireless charging via inductive coupling, which was the method
used in the project, it was seen that various aspects i.e. distance, resonant frequency,
quality factor; coil turns ratio determine the efficiency of WPT. In addition there is an
exponential decay for power versus the distance of separation.
2. From the analysis it was seen that at 0cm separation distance, the power transfer was
most efficient as seen by the brightness of the test lamps.
3. From the project WPT for short range or near field occurred up to a distance of 5cm after
which the power transferred began to significantly drop.
4. It can also be concluded that WPT can be used in other applications. In the project we
were able to charge a 9V battery from power that was transmitted wirelessly.
5. The WPT is least affected by non-magnetic materials shielding the two coils. This
therefore means that it can be effectively used in the medical field to charge pacemakers
and other devices

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REFERENCES
[1] D. Chattopadhyay, Electronics (fundamentals And Applications) 7th Ed. New Dehli, India:
New Age Pub., 2006.
[2] Paul Horowitz and Winfield Hill, The Art of Electronics, 2nd Ed. Cambridge, England:
Cambridge Univ. Press, 1989.
[3] U.A. Bakshi and A.P.Godse, Electronic Devices And Circuits I, 3rd Ed. Pune, India:
Technical Pub., 2008.
[4] A. F. J. Levi, Applied Quantum Mechanics, 2nd Ed. Cambridge, England: Cambridge Univ.
Press, 2006.
[5] Luciano Mescia et al, Innovative Materials and Systems for Energy Harvesting Applications,
Hershey PA: IGI Global, 2015.
[6] W. C. Brown (1996, January). The History of Wireless Power Transmission: Solar energy
[Online] Available: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0038092X9500080B

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