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1.0 Object: To determine the hardness of the given specimen using Rockwell Hardness
Testing Machine.
2.0 Experimental set up/Equipment/Apparatus/Tools Rockwell hardness testing
machine, specimen of high speed steel or alloy steel.
3.0 Theory and application: The hardness of a material is its resistance to penetration
under a localized pressure or resistance to abrasion. Hardness tests provide an accurate,
rapid and economical way of determining the resistance of material to deformation. There
are three general types of hardness measurements depending open the manner in which the
test is conducted.
(i) Scratch hardness measurement (ii) Rebound hardness measurement and (ii)
Indentation hardness measurement.
In scratch hardness method the material are rated on their ability to scratch one another. In
rebound hardness measurement, a standard body is usually dropped on to the material
surface and the hardness is measured in terms of the height of its rebound. The general
means of judging the hardness is measuring the resistance of material to indentation. The
indenter is usually a ball, cone or pyramid of a material much harder that the being tested. In
indentation test a load is applied by pressing the indenter at right angles to the surface being
tested. The hardness of the material depends on the resistance which it exerts. During a
small amount of yielding or plastic straining.
The test consists of forcing an indenter of standard cone or ball in to the surface of a test
piece and measuring the permanent increase in depth of indentation of this indenter under
specified condition. From this Rockwell hardness is deduced. The ball (B) is used for soft
materials (e.g. mild steel, cast iron, aluminium, etc.)And the cone (C) for hard cones (e.g.
high carbon steel, high speed steel etc.)
4.0 Formula used:
5.0 Experimental Procedure: it is performed in the following sequential manner.
Insert indenter on to the machine.
Make the specimen surface clean by removing the dust, dirt, oil and grease etc.
Select 150kg load.
Make contact between the specimen surface and the ball by rotating the jack
adjusting wheel till needle touch red mark.
Pull the load release lever and wait for minimum 30seconds. The load will
automatically apply gradually.
Note the hardness reading
Repeat the entire operation, three times.
7.0 Calculation:
8.0 Result:
Rockwell Hardness of given specimen =-------------------HRC
9.0 Precautions and sources of error
Ensure proper indenter is fixed on the machine.
Use V-Block for round jobs
Select proper load
Move wheel gradually & slowly.
Do not cross the red mark on the smaller dial.
Ensure surface is smooth & polished.
10.0 Related short questions:
What is hardness?
How many types of method to check hardness of materials.
How many scales in Rockwell hardness.
B and C scale where use?
Can we check soft materials hardness in this method?
1. Object: To determine the hardness of the given specimen using Brinell Hardness Testing
Machine.
2𝑃
B.H.N =
𝜋𝐷[𝐷−√𝐷2 −𝑑2]
2𝑃
B.H.N =
𝜋𝐷[𝐷−√𝐷2 −𝑑2]
1. Object: To find the spring constant and Modulus of Rigidity of a given spring using
spring testing Machine.
2. Experimental set up/Equipment/Apparatus/Tools -Spring testing Machine/ spring/
Vernier caliper/out side caliper/ Micrometer
3. Theory and application: Spring index K (or spring stiffness) is defined as the load
W that causes unit deflection δ in the spring. This deflection is in the form of
contraction in a compression spring and in the form of extension form in tension
𝑊
spring. Thus spring index or stiffness K=
𝛿
Spring index is an important parameter in selection of spring for a particular use. It is
expressed in N/mm or Kg/mm. The nature of load vs. deflection curve decides
whether the behavior of spring is linear or non-linear. Mostly close coiled helical
springs have linear nature.
8𝑊(𝐷𝑚)3 𝑛
4. Formula used: Modulus of Rigidity, C= N/mm2
𝛿𝑑4
𝑊
Stiffness K=
𝛿
5. Experimental Procedure:
1- By using the vernier caliper/Micrometer measure the diameter of the wire
of the spring.
2- By using the vernier caliper measure the diameter of spring coil.
3- Count the number of turns of the spring.
4- Measure the original length of the spring
5- Insert the spring in the spring testing machine and load the spring by
suitable weight by opening the control valve slightly and slowly.
6- Note the corresponding axial deflection in tension or compression.
7- Increase the load and take the corresponding axial deflection reading.
8- Repeat the procedure for at least four times.
9- Open the release valve slowly after the experiment.
6. Observation: Diameter of the spring wire (mean of the three readings), d = --------mm
Diameter of the spring coil (mean of the readings), D =-----------mm
Mean coil diameter, Dm =D-d or D+d = -----------mm
Number of Turns n = --------
University of Petroleum & energy studies Dehradun 05
S.no Load W Load W Deflection Deflection Stiffness, K= W/δ
(in Kg) (in Newton) (cm) δ (mm) δ N/mm
1
2
5
6
7
8
7. Calculations: draw graph between load and deflection (δ) and find the value of K
𝑊
Stiffness K = N/mm
𝛿
8𝑊(𝐷𝑚)3 𝑛
Modulus of Rigidity, C= N/mm2
𝛿𝑑4
8. Result: Stiffness of given spring is = ----------- N/mm
Modulus of rigidity of given spring is = ------ N/mm2
9. Precautions and sources of error
Place the spring centrally and accordingly whether its tension or compression spring.
Take the mean diameter of the coil as the average of external and internal coil
diameter.
Do not load the spring beyond the elastic limit.
10- Related short questions:
What is Stiffness?
What is modulus of rigidity?
What is the significance of modulus of rigidity?
Which type of spring you have checked?
Tell the name of different types of spring?
Give the example where springs are useful in general life.
Loadonyieldpo int( N )
Yield strength = N/mm2
Originalcr oss sec tionalarea ( Ao)
Ao Af
Percentage reduction in Area= X 100
Ao
Load(P) in Newton
Stress (σ) =
𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠−𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛(𝐴𝑜)
𝛿𝑙
Strain (€) = δl- is change in length
𝐿𝑜
Lo- Original length
University of Petroleum & energy studies Dehradun 07
5. Experimental Procedure: The experiment is perormed in the following sequential
manner
1. First of all the gauge length is marked on the specimen. Its diameter and gauge length
is also measured. The length may either be gauge length or the total length of the
specimen.
2. The load range of machine’s operation is selected, say 40 tones. It should be
sufficiently higher then the expected value.
3. Bring the dummy pointer on the load indicator close to the live pointer.
4. Now the specimen is gripped between the upper and middle cross-head jaws of the
machine.
5. The machine is switched on by pressing the appropriate button on the control panel
and the load is applied gradually by turning the control valve slowly.
6. The elongation of the specimen is recorded for a certain specified load. The
elongation can be measured with the help of vernier calipers. More frequent readings
are taken as the yield point is approached.
7. Continue the test till fracture occurs.
8. Note down the maximum load at fracture indicated by the dummy pointer on the load
indicator.
9. Joined the cooled broken parts manually, and measure the extended gauge length and
reduced diameter of the specimen.
6. Observation:
Following data are recorded during the tensile test.
Original dimensions (Before fracture)
Gauge length (Lo) = --------- mm
Diameter (Do) = ------------ mm
Cross –sectional area (Ao) = ---------- mm2
Final dimensions (After fracture)
Length (Lf) = ------------ mm
Diameter (Df) = -----------mm
Cross-sectional area (Af) = ---- mm
S No Applied load (P) Elongation δl Stress σ Strain Є Yield
KN (mm) (N/mm ) P/Ao δl/Lo
2
Load
1
2
20
Loadonyieldpo int( N )
Yield strength = N/mm2
Originalcr oss sec tionalarea ( Ao)
Ao Af
Percentage reduction in Area= X 100
Ao
8. Result:
Ultimate tensile strength =----------N/mm2
Percentage elongation = -----------%
Yield strength = -------------
Percentage reduction in Area= ---------
Specimen description
1. OBJECT: To conduct Torsion test on Mild steel or cast iron specimen to find out
modulus of rigidity
2. Experimental set up/Equipment/Apparatus/Tools
Torsion testing machines
A steel rule and caliper or micrometer
Standard specimen of mild steel
3. Theory and application:
A Torsion test quite instrumental in determining the value of modulus of rigidity (ratio of
shear stress to shear strain) of a metallic specimen. The value of modulus of rigidity can be
found out through observations made during the experiment by using the torsion equation:
T C
4. Formula used: =
Ip l
Tl
Or C=
Ip
11- Also calculate the value of C from the slope of the T-θ curve
6. Observations:
Gauge length of the specimen (l) = m
Diameter of the specimen (d) = m
Polar moment of inertia Ip = d4 m4
32
8. Results:
Theoretical Modulus of rigidity C = N/m2
Practically Modulus of rigidity C = N/m2
9. Precautions and sources of error
Change the angle of twist to radians before plotting the graph
Do not untwist the specimen during operation.
Keep distance from the chain- pulley mechanism.
10.Related short Questions:
What is torsion?
What is modulus of rigidity?
What is torsion rigidity?
Which shaft is strong in torsion solid or hollow?
Why railway track made of I- section?
Why
University of Petroleum & energy studies Dehradun 13
EXPERIMENT NO-06
1. OBJECT: To Conduct the Izod Impact test on Impact testing machine and find the
impact strength and modulus of rupture of a given specimen.
2. Experimental set up/Equipment/Apparatus/Tools
i-Impact testing machine
ii-Izod test specimen of mild steel (75X10X10 mm) with 2mm notch
5. Experimental Procedure:
Following procedure should be adopted to conduct the test
First measure the length, width and thickness of the specimen.
Set the machine at 164Jules dial reading and lock the striking hammer in its top
position at 800 with the vertical
Now press down the “pendulum release lever” so that the hammer falls and sings
past the bottommost position. Note down the reading on dial. This is initial
reading(X). Remember that this reading is without any specimen and indicates
frictional and windage (air) loss of energy of the hammer. 01
Now put the test- specimen on the support as a cantilever with the help of
specimen setting fixture in proper manner such that notch is on the tension side.
Release the lever so that the hammer strikes the test-piece and break it. Note down
this reading. This is final reading(Y)
University of Petroleum & energy studies Dehradun 14
Make use of brake handle to stop the motion of hammer after its swing.
Repeat the experiment on the other specimen(reading of three specimen is desired)
6. Observation Table:
Specimen Size of Depth of Initial reading Final Reading
No specimen notch (mm) (X) Jules (Y)Jules
(lXbXh) mm
7. Calculations:
Impact Energy U = Y-X Jules
U
Notch impact strength I = N/m (1Jule=1 N-M)
Ae
U
Modulus of rupture = Jule/mm3
Ve
Where Ae is effective area of specimen (in meter)
Ve is effective volume of specimen (in mm)
8. Results:
9. Precautions and sources of error
Measure the dimensions of the specimen carefully
Place the specimen carefully so that the hammer strikes at the centre of the specimen
Note down reading carefully
Operate the machine from outside the boundary
11.Related short Questions:
What is toughness?
What is proof resilience?
What is resilience?
Which material is tough hard or ductile?
If temperature increases the toughness increase or decrease?
Why notch provide in specimen?
If notch not provide in specimen then which type of fracture accurse?
Give any examples where tough is importance?
University of Petroleum & energy studies Dehradun 15
Experiment No-07
1. Object: To conduct the charpy Impact test on Impact testing machine and find the
Impact strength of a given specimen.
2. Experimental set up/Equipment/Apparatus/Tools
i- Impact testing machine
ii- Charpy test specimen of mild steel( 55X10X10 mm) with 2mm notch
3. Theory and application: An Impact test signifies toughness of material that is ability
of material to absorb energy during plastic deformation. Toughness takes into account
both the strength and ductility of the material. Several engineering materials have to
withstand impact or suddenly applied loads while in service. Impact strengths are
generally lower as compared to strengths achieved under slowly applied loads. The test
measures the notch toughness of material under shock loading. Values obtained from
these tests are not of much utility to design problems directly and are highly arbitrary.
Still it is important to note that it provides a good way of comparing toughness of
various materials or toughness of same material under different conditions.
U
4. Formula used: Notch impact strength I= N/m (1Jule=1 N-M)
Ae
U
Modulus of rupture = Jule/mm3
Ve
Where Ae is effective area of specimen (in meter)
Ve is effective volume of specimen (in mm)
5. Experimental Procedure:
Following procedure should be adopted to conduct the test
First measure the length, width and thickness of the specimen.
Set the machine at 300 Jules dial reading and lock the striking hammer in its top
position 1600
Now press down the “pendulum release lever” so that the hammer falls and sings
past the bottommost position. Note down the reading on dial. This is initial
reading(X). Remember that this reading is without any specimen and indicates
frictional and windage (air) loss of energy of the hammer.
Now put the test- specimen on the support provided as simply supported beam
with the face with notch on the tension side. Release the lever so that the hammer
strikes the test-piece and break it. Note down this reading. This is final reading(Y)
7. Calculations:
Impact Energy U= Y-X Jules
U
Notch impact strength I= N/m (1Jule=1 N-M)
Ae
U
Modulus of rupture = Jule/mm3
Ve
Where Ae is effective area of specimen (in meter)
Ve is effective volume of specimen (in mm)
8. Results: Impact energy of given specimen is =
Notch Impact strength of given specimen is =
Modulus of rupture of given specimen is =
Theory and application: - A type of force which causes or tends to cause two contiguous
parts of the body to slide relative to each other in a direction parallel to their plane of
contact is called the shear force. The stress required to produce fracture in the plane of
cross-section, acted on by the shear force is called shear strength.
Formula used:
𝑊
τs = 𝜋 N/mm2
2x 4 d2
Experimental procedure:-
First measure diameter of specimen (pin) by using our side caliper or vernier caliper
Take the suitable test rig (shear die) and insert the pin in given hole in test rig
Put the test rig on the bottom carriage.
Select the suitable range of loads on machine.
Adjust the middle carriage over the test rig through electrically system.
Bring the dummy pointer on the load indicator close to the live pointer.
The machine is switched on by pressing the appropriate button on the control panel
and the load is applied gradually by turning the control valve slowly.
Continue the test till fracture occurs.
Note down the maximum load at fracture indicated by the dummy pointer on the load
indicator.
· Does the shear failure in wood occur along the 45° shear plane?
1.0 Object: To conduct the compression test on a UTM and determine the ultimate
compressive strength for a given specimen (C.I, Brick, wooden)
Equipment:
2.0 Experimental set up/Equipment/Apparatus/Tools
Universal testing Machine
Vernier caliper/out side caliper
Test specimen( Brick, wooden or C.I)
3.0 Theory and application: Various machine and structural components are subjected
to compressive load in numerous operations. For safe design of these components their
ultimate compressive strength are to be determined before actual use. For that the above test
is conducted.
Failure mode: The procedure of experimentation and observation of data are almost similar
to that of the tension test. Most compressive test are performed on brittle materials.
Generally they failed in shear. Shear develops along a diagonal plane. The maximum shear
stress develops on a plane inclined at 450 from the direction of compressive load. However
the spread of shear cracks may be deviated from this plane due the effects of end restraint. It
can be noticed cast iron and concrete. The directionality of grains in wood also effects the
shear failure along the 450 shear plan.
Ultimate load
4.0 Formula used: Ultimate compressive strength = N/mm2
Cross−sectional area
Load(P) in Newton
Stress (σ) =
𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠−𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛(𝐴𝑜)
𝛿𝑙
Strain (€) = δl- is change in length
𝐿
L- Original length
7.0 Calculation:
Ultimate load (P) = KN
=N
Ultimate load
Ultimate compressive strength = N/mm2
Cross−sectional area
Load(P) in Newton
Stress (σ) =
𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠−𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛(𝐴𝑜)
𝛿𝑙
Strain (€) = δl- is change in length
𝐿
L- Original length
Graph: draw graph between stress and strain
8.0 Results: Ultimate compressive strength of given specimen= ------
9.0 Precautions and sources of error:
Open the control valve slowly.
Loosen the locking nuts slightly as soon as load pointer starts moving.
Close the control valve immediately after fracture of specimen.
Open the release valve slowly after operation
Do not touch the specimen immediately after fracture.
11.0 Related short question:
Compression tests are generally performed on brittles materials-why?
How do ductile and brittle materials in their behavior in compression test?
What is column action? How does the h/d ratio of specimen affect the test
result?