Contents

Contents

Preface ...................................................................................................................................... 7
Key Takeaways .......................................................................................................................... 8

Microalgae & Macroalgae........................................................................................................ 11

1.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 13
1.2Microalgae........................................................................................................................................................... 13
1.2.1 Composition of Microalgae ............................................................................................................................. 14
1.2.2 Microalgae and Cyanobacteria Products ........................................................................................................ 14
1.3 Macroalgae ......................................................................................................................................................... 15
1.3.1 Composition of Macroalgae ............................................................................................................................ 16
1.3.2 Products from Macroalgae .............................................................................................................................. 18
1.4 Comparison between Macroalgae and Microalgae ........................................................................................... 19

Algae Cultivation ..................................................................................................................... 21

2.1 Introduction & Concepts .................................................................................................................................... 23
2.2Macroalgae Cultivation ....................................................................................................................................... 23
2.2.1 Macroalgae Cultivation Systems ..................................................................................................................... 25
2.2.2 Feasibility of Cultivating Macroalgae on a Large Scale.................................................................................... 33
2.3 Microalgae Cultivation ....................................................................................................................................... 33
2.3.1 Algae Cultivation in Various Scales .................................................................................................................. 40
2.3.1.1 Algae Cultivation in Lab Scale .................................................................................................................. 40
2.3.1.2 Algae Cultivation on a Commercial Scale ................................................................................................. 51
2.3.2 Algae Cultivation – Factoids ............................................................................................................................ 56
2.3.3 Algae Cultivation Challenges & Efforts ............................................................................................................ 58

Algae Harvesting ..................................................................................................................... 67

3.1 Microalgae Harvesting ....................................................................................................................................... 68
3.1.1Prominent Harvesting Practices for Microalgae .............................................................................................. 68
3.1.2 Trends & Latest in Harvesting Microalgae ...................................................................................................... 73
 3.2 Macroalgae Harvesting ...................................................................................................................................... 80
3.2.1Prominent Harvesting Practices for Macroalgae ............................................................................................. 81
3.2.2Methods Employed for Harvesting Specific Macroalgal Strains ...................................................................... 82

Algae Drying ............................................................................................................................ 84

4.1 Methods of Drying Algae .................................................................................................................................... 85
4.2 Other Methods of Drying ................................................................................................................................... 86

Algae Products and Market – An Overview.............................................................................. 88

5.1 Energy Products from Algae ............................................................................................................................... 89
5.2 Non- Energy Products from Algae ...................................................................................................................... 89
5.3 Microalgae Market ............................................................................................................................................. 91
5.3.1 High Value Products from Microalgae ............................................................................................................ 93
5.4 Macro algae Market ........................................................................................................................................... 94

Algae Nutraceuticals................................................................................................................ 96
Summary of Algae Nutraceutical Products .............................................................................................................. 97
6.1 Single Cell Protein (SCP) ..................................................................................................................................... 98
6.1.1 Spirulina......................................................................................................................................................... 100
6.1.2 Chlorella ........................................................................................................................................................ 108
6.2 Omega-3 Fatty Acids ........................................................................................................................................ 115
6.3 Carotenoids ...................................................................................................................................................... 121
6.3.1 Astaxanthin ................................................................................................................................................... 121
6.3.2 Beta-Carotene ............................................................................................................................................... 125
6.3.3 Lutein............................................................................................................................................................. 129
6.3.4 Zeaxanthin ..................................................................................................................................................... 133
6.3.5 Lycopene ....................................................................................................................................................... 136
6.3.6 Canthaxanthin ............................................................................................................................................... 137
6.3.7Fucoxanthin .................................................................................................................................................... 139

Algae in Pharmaceuticals ....................................................................................................... 141

7.1 Algae - Anti-microbial Agents ........................................................................................................................... 143
 7.2 Algae as an Antibacterial Agent ....................................................................................................................... 145
7.3 Algae as Anti-fungal Agents.............................................................................................................................. 146
7.4 Antimicroalgal Action ....................................................................................................................................... 147
7.5 Algae as Antiviral Agents .................................................................................................................................. 148
7.6 Anti-obesity and anti-diabetic agents .............................................................................................................. 149
7.7 Anti-inflammatory agents ................................................................................................................................ 150
7.8 Anti-adhesive therapies ................................................................................................................................... 152
7.9 Radioactive protection ..................................................................................................................................... 152
7.10 Neuroprotective Products .............................................................................................................................. 153
7.11 Human Therapeutic Proteins ......................................................................................................................... 153
7.12 Other applications of algae in pharmaceuticals ............................................................................................. 154

7.2 Methods of extraction of bioactive compounds from algae ............................................................... 156

Algae as/in Food and Feed .................................................................................................... 159

8.1 Microalgae as/in Food ...................................................................................................................................... 161
8.2 Seaweeds for Food ........................................................................................................................................... 162
8.3 Hydrocolloids.................................................................................................................................................... 163
8.3.1 Sea Weed Hydrocolloids................................................................................................................................ 163
8.3.2 Agar ............................................................................................................................................................... 165
8.3.3 Alginates ........................................................................................................................................................ 169
8.3.4 Carrageenan .................................................................................................................................................. 171
8.4 Food Colourants ............................................................................................................................................... 175
8.5 Other Applications............................................................................................................................................ 175
8.6 Algae as Feed.................................................................................................................................................... 175
8.6.1 Animal Feed................................................................................................................................................... 176
8.6.2Fish Feed ........................................................................................................................................................ 176
9.1 Important Cosmetics from Algae ..................................................................................................................... 181
9.2 Fucoidans ......................................................................................................................................................... 184
9.3 Anticellulite ...................................................................................................................................................... 186
9.4 Skin care, sun protection .................................................................................................................................. 188

Environmental Applications of Algae ..................................................................................... 191

10.1 Algae-Based Wastewater Treatment ............................................................................................................. 192
 10.2 Biofilters for fish pond effluents..................................................................................................................... 194
10.3 CO2 Capture Using Algae ............................................................................................................................... 195

Novel Applications in Other Industries .................................................................................. 208

11.1 Algae Chemicals.............................................................................................................................................. 211
11.2 Dyes and Colourants ...................................................................................................................................... 212
11.3 Solvents .......................................................................................................................................................... 215
11.4 Biopolymers and Bioplastics........................................................................................................................... 216
11.5 Algae Textiles.................................................................................................................................................. 218
11.6 Pigments ......................................................................................................................................................... 219
11.6.1 Phycocyanin ................................................................................................................................................ 219
11.6.2 Chlorophyll .................................................................................................................................................. 221
11.7 Lubricants ....................................................................................................................................................... 224
11.8 Other Applications of Algae ........................................................................................................................... 225

Companies and UniversitiesAsssociated with Algae Products ................................................ 228

12.1 Summary of Companies Associated with Algae Products ............................................................... 228
12.2 Prominent Companies Working on Non Fuel Products .................................................................................. 230
12.3 Companies Associated in the Algae Nutraceuticals Sector ............................................................................ 230
Parrys Nutraceuticals, India ............................................................................................................................... 230
Hydrolina Biotech, India..................................................................................................................................... 230
Sun Chlorella ...................................................................................................................................................... 231
Cyanotech .......................................................................................................................................................... 231
Qualitas Health .................................................................................................................................................. 232
Astareal AB (former Bioreal AB) -..................................................................................................................... 234
BM Energy Group and AstaNovo AS ................................................................................................................. 234
CO2BIO ............................................................................................................................................................... 234
Cellana ............................................................................................................................................................... 235
Aurora Algae ...................................................................................................................................................... 236
Martek Biosciences ............................................................................................................................................ 236
Australian Spirulina, Australia (TAAU Australia Pty Ltd) .................................................................................... 237
12.4 Companies Associated in the Health/Pharmaceutical Sector ........................................................................ 239
Rincon Pharmaceuticals ..................................................................................................................................... 239
 Triton Health and Nutrition ............................................................................................................................... 240
Companies in Algae Health Products Ingredient Manufacturing ...................................................................... 242
12.5 Companies in the Algae Textiles and Chemicals Sector: ................................................................................ 243
Algix LLC ............................................................................................................................................................. 243
Cereplast ............................................................................................................................................................ 244
12.6 Companies Associated with the Algae Food or Feed Industry ..................................................................... 246
Alltech ................................................................................................................................................................ 246
Heliae ................................................................................................................................................................. 247
Monsanto ........................................................................................................................................................... 249
12.7 Other Companies ........................................................................................................................................... 250
Algaeon Inc. ....................................................................................................................................................... 250
Simris Alg ........................................................................................................................................................... 251
MicroAlgae ......................................................................................................................................................... 251
Sahara Forest Project ......................................................................................................................................... 252
12.8 Universities Working on Algae Non fuel Products........................................................................................ 252

13.Industries with Synergistic Benefits from Algae Energy Opportunities .............................. 256
Preface

Algae are possibly one of the most useful organisms. In addition to the fact that algae are
responsible for consuming most of the CO2 and releasing the most amount of oxygen that keeps
us alive, the vast diversity of algae also lends itself to being the feedstock or staring point for a
whole of products and applications.

In the recent past, the possibility of making biofuels from algae has been in the limelight.
However, it is becoming fairly clear that it will take at least a decade before algae-based fuels
are a commercial success.

Of greater interest to many businesses and entrepreneurs should be the fact that there are a
number of other algae-based value added product opportunities that exist outside of fuels.

In fact, according to some, fuel has the lowest value of any product that is derived from algae
while it might have an excellent long term potential in terms of market size. Hence, as a starting
point, many of these companies are exploring venturing into high value, non fuel products from
algae. This group comprises both companies that ventured into algae fuels (as this diversification
allows them to generate profits fairly early) and companies that are venturing mainly to develop
non-fuel value added products.

At Oilgae, we felt this is a good time to bring out a detailed guide on the range of business and
product opportunities available from algae. While brief inputs are provided about the
opportunities in algae fuels, the main focus of the report is to provide comprehensive insights on
the current and emerging non-fuel products.

Key insights on the range of product possibilities, their market sizes, and profitability of algae
products have been covered in this report. The report provides details on the production
processes, success stories and factoids of companies that have been involved in the algae
products venture. Product possibilities from both microalgae and macroalgae have also been
discussed in detail in other chapters of the report.

We hope this report serves as a useful guide for entrepreneurs and businesses keen on
venturing into this exciting domain.
Key Takeaways

Algae are possibly one of the most useful organisms. In addition to the fact that algae are responsible
for consuming most of the CO2 and releasing the most amount of oxygen that keeps us alive, algae are
also being used in diverse industries and applications.
It has been estimated that between 200,000 and 800,000 species of microalgae exist, of which
approximately 50,000 species have been described.
Over 15,000 individual compounds have been identified in microalgae masses are believed to be
responsible for producing numerous useful products
A plethora of products can be derived from algae starting from biofuels to cosmetics.
Several high-value microalgae products are already well established in the market place and there are
clear opportunities for additional new products.
Around 35,000 tons of microalgal dry mass are processed in the three market segments, “diet”, “food”,
“cosmetics”. More than 85 percent of biomass is used in the application areas “functionalised foods”
and “food supplements”.
A large market for aquaculture feeds could be developed for micro-algae biomass containing long chain
omega-3 fatty acids, replacing fish meal and oil, but for this production costs must be reduced from the
current $50-$100 to $1-2/kg of algal biomass.
Pharmaceuticals are the fastest growing section of the market, but as yet there are only two approved
omega 3 based pharmaceuticals in the world, which together account for 1.6% of consumption with
nearly US $ 1.5 billion in sales. Other EPA and DHA based triglyceride reduction products are under
development, but it will take some time before these achieve regulatory approval and eventual
commercialization
The current wholesale market price for algae omega-3 oil is about US$ 140/kg which is higher than the
pricing for fish oil derived products. The Global Organisation for EPA and DHA and Frost and Sullivan
(2010) estimated that the global market for EPA and DHA omega-3 oils exceeded 85,000 t in 2009 and
was estimated to grow to 135,000-190,000 t by 2015
Although >95% of the astaxanthin market consumes synthetically derived astaxanthin, consumer
demand for natural products makes the synthetic pigments much less desirable and provides an
opportunity for the production of natural astaxanthin by Haematococcus.
Some of the top players such as Asta Real and Fuji Health have doubled its production capacity recently
owing to the increasing demand of astaxanthin
Lutein is a carotenoid extracted from algae, which is receiving increased interest because of its potential
role in preventing the onset of age-related macular degeneration (AMD) in the growing aging
population. The market value of lutein was around $233 million in 2010 and is expected to reach $309
million by 2018.
Many chemically unique compounds of marine algae with antimicrobial activity have been isolated and
a number of them are under investigation and/or are being developed as new pharmaceuticals
Algae are also used for highly specialised markets including pharmaceutical applications and the
production of enzymes and toxin products. These generally have product values in the range US$ 4000-
8000/kg.
In cosmetics, algae act as thickening agents, water-binding agents, and antioxidants. Carrageenans are
extracted from red algae, and alginates from the brown algae. Other forms of algae, such as Irish moss,
contain proteins, vitamin A, sugar, starch, vitamin B1, iron, sodium, phosphorus, magnesium, copper
and calcium. These are all beneficial for skin, either as emollients or antioxidants.
Algae based carbon capture is still in its infancy, as investors and engineers continue to develop the
financing and technological wherewithal to plan the long-term feasibility of this technology.
Using algae for waste water treatment has been shown to be a more cost effective way to reduce
biochemical oxygen demand, pathogens, phosphorus and nitrogen than activated sludge
The production of industrial chemicals from microalgae is still in its infancy, with many more
breakthroughs still to come.
Algae based added value commodities such as lactic acid, polyhydroxyalkanoates (both used e.g. for
production of bioplastics) and butanol price ranges from US $1300 to US $7000 per tonne.
The table below provides prominent high-value, medium value and low to medium value products from
algae:

High-value Medium-High value Low to Medium value

Nutraceuticals Nutraceuticals Fertilizer and Animal Feed
a) Astaxanthin Spirulina and Chlorella a) Aquaculture feed ( Shrimp
b) Betacarotene feed, Shellfish Feed, Marine
c) Omega-3 fatty acid ( Fish Larve cultivation )
DHA and EPA) b) Animal Feed
d) CoenzymeQ10 c) Fertilizer

Pharmaceuticals Hydrocolloids Substitutes for Synethetics

a) Antimicrobials, - Agar, Alginate, Carrageenan - Biopolymers and Bioplastics
Antivirals and - Lubricants
Antifungals
b) Neuroprotective
Products
Cosmetics Chemicals Bioremediation
a) Anti-cellulite - Paints, Dyes and Colourants Wastewater treatment and
b) Skin Anti-ageing and nutrient credits
sensitive skin treatment CO2 capture and carbon
– Alguronic acid credits
Microalgae & Macroalgae
1
◊ Introduction
◊ Microalgae
◊ Composition of Microalgae
◊ Products from Microalgae
◊ Macroalgae
◊ Composition of Macroalgae
◊ Products from Macroalgae
◊ Comparison between Macroalgae
and Microalgae

Chapter Highlights

Algae are one of the most useful organisms. In addition to the fact that algae are responsible
for consuming most of the CO2 and releasing most oxygen that keeps us alive, algae are also
being used in diverse industries and applications.
It has been estimated that between 200,000 and 800,000 species of microalgae exist, of
which approximately 50,000 species have been described.
Over 15,000 individual compounds been identified in microalgae masses are believed to be
responsible for producing numerous useful products.
One of the major product possibilities from algae is biofuels, and an extensive research is
underway by many companies worldwide.
Apart from biofuels, a number of different commercial products have been derived from
microalgae and cyanobacteria. These include products for human and animal nutrition, poly
unsaturated fatty acids, anti-oxidants, coloring substances, fertilizers and soil conditioners,
and a variety of speciality products such as bioflocculants, biodegradable polymers,
cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, polysaccharides etc.
Macroalgae, more commonly known as seaweeds are also used in various industries as food,
fertilizer, drugs etc.
Some of the main uses of seaweeds are used as food (Nori, Anori,Kombu, Wakame etc),
fertilizers, hydrocolloids (Agar, Carrageenan and Alginates), cosmetics and so forth.
1.1 Introduction

Algae, ranging from single-celled microalgae to large seaweeds, are the simplest and most
abundant form of plant life, responsible for more than half of the world's primary production of
oxygen. They form the base of the food chain with many living things depending upon them.

Algae are possibly one of the most usefulorganisms. In addition to the fact that algae are
responsible for consuming most of the CO2 and releasing the most amount of oxygen that keeps
us alive, algae are also being used in diverse industries and applications.With the recent research
and interest into using algae for oil/biofuels, they have the potential to become even more
important.

One of the important products from algae is biofuels, however, biofuels has the lowest value of
any product that is derived from algae! Considering the wide range of applications algae are
used for, one of the aspects to be considered while investing in algae energy business could be
to assess how to profit from commercializing the cake and the left-overs after extracting the oil,
by using them for other applications / products. Also of interest here are products such as
glycerine - which is a by-product of transesterification of algal oil into biodiesel – which have
their own diverse applications.

Indeed, some of the research and commercial programs around the world are exploring avenues
to develop high-value co products from algae, from animal feeds to antibiotics to speciality
chemicals. There are some efforts at some rather interesting applications as well - such as algae-
based paper and concrete additives.

This section of the report provides an overview of microalgae and macroalgae and the various
products that could be derived from them.

1.2Microalgae
Microalgae or microphytes are typically found in bodies of freshwater and saltwater. Microalgae
consist of microscopic single cells or groups (colonies) of connected single cells to form a single
mass.It has been estimated that between 200,000 and 800,000 species of microalgae exist, of
which approximately 50,000 species have been described. Over 15,000 individual compounds
have been identified in microalgae masses.

Microalgae are unicellular photosynthetic microorganisms that convert sunlight, water and
carbon dioxide to algal biomass. The three most important classes of microalgae in terms of
abundance are the diatoms (Bacillariophyceae), the green algae (Chlorophyceae), and the
golden algae (Chrysophyceae) (Demirbas & Demirbas, 2010).
Among the eukaryotes, green microalgae of the class Chlorophyceae, those most widely utilized
belong to the genera Chlamydomonas, Chlorella, Haematococcus, and Dunaliella. As aquatic
relatives of plants, microalgae flourish in aerated, liquid cultures where the cells have sufficient
access to light, carbon dioxide, and other nutrients. Algae are primarily grown
photoautotrophically; still, some species are able to survive heterotrophically by degrading
organic substances like sugar.

1.2.1 Composition of Microalgae

Microalgae contain lipids and fatty acids as membrane components, storage products,
metabolites and sources of energy. The chemical compositions of various microalgae are shown
in the below table.

Chemical Composition of Algae Expressed on a Dry Matter Basis (%)

Strain Protein Carbohydrates Lipids Nucleic

acid
Scenedesmus obliqus 50-56 10-17 12-14 3-6
Scenedesmus quadricauda 47 - 1.9 -
Scenedesmus dimorphus 8-18 21-52 16-40 -
Chlamydomonas 48 17 21 -
rheinhardii
Chlorella vulgaris 51-58 12-17 14-22 4-5
Chlorella pyrenoidosa 57 26 2 -
Spirogyra sp 6-20 33-64 11-21 -
Dunaliella bioculata 49 4 8 -
Dunaliella salina 57 32 6 -
Euglena gracilis 39-61 14-18 14-20 -
Prymnesium parvum 28-45 25-33 22-38 1-2
Tetraselmis maculate 52 15 3 -
Porphyridium cruentum 28-39 40-57 9-14 -
Spirulina platensis 46-63 8-14 4—9 2-5
Spirulina maxima 60-71 13-16 6-7 3-4.5
Synechoccus sp. 63 15 11 5
Anabaena cylindrica 43-56 25-30 4-7 -

1.2.2 Microalgae and Cyanobacteria Products

A large number of different commercial products have been derived from microalgae and
cyanobacteria. These include products for human and animal nutrition, poly unsaturated fatty
acids, anti-oxidants, coloring substances, fertilizers and soil conditioners and a variety of
speciality products such as bioflocculants, biodegradable polymers, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals,
polysaccharides, and stable isotopes for research purposes.
The sketch below illustrates the energy and the non-energy products that can be derived from
microalgae. One of the major energy products that could be derived from algae includes biofuels.
Research on algae as a biofuel has been happening as early as 1978 during the Aquatic Species Program
(ASP). This apart, algae is also exploited for producing products such as Hydrogen, biobutanol, gasoline
etc. Besides using algae biomass as a protein feed, the algae biomass is directly used for combustion.

Microalgae Energy and Non-Energy Products

Energy Products Non- Energy Products
• Biodiesel
• Ethanol Biomass Poly –Unsaturated Fatty
• Hydrogen Health Food Acids (PUFA)
• Methane Aquaculture ARA
• Biomass – where algae Animal Feed Additive DHA
biomass is directly used for PUFA Extracts
combustion GLA
• Other hydrocarbon fuel EPA
variants, such as JP-8 fuel, gasoline, Anti –oxidants Colouring Substances
biobutanol etc. Beta –Carotene Astaxanthin
Tocopherol CO2 Phycocyanin
extract Phycoerythrin
Fertilizers/Soil Conditioners
Fertilizers, Growth promoters, Soil conditioners

1.3 Macroalgae
Macroscopic marine algae, popularly known as seaweeds, form one of the important living
resources of the ocean. Seaweeds are classified into three broad groups based on pigmentation
and other characteristics:

• Green (Chlorophyceae)
• Brown (Phaeophyceae)
• Red (Rhodophyceae)

Green Seaweeds

Green seaweeds or Chlorophyta are usually found in the intertidal zone (between the high and
low water marks) and in shallow water where there is plenty of sunlight.

One of the common green seaweeds is sea lettuce (Ulva lactuca), which forms bright green
sheets up to 30 cm in diameter. As its common name suggests, it is edible, although prolific
growth often indicates sewage pollution. Gut weed (Enteromorpha intestinalis), a tubular green
seaweed, also favours high-nutrient sites. Common green seaweed, sea rimu (Caulerpa brownii),
is also edible and looks very much like the foliage of the large tree rimu.
Brown Seaweeds

The Phaeophyta, or brown seaweeds (Class Phaeophyceae, Division Heterokontophyta or

Phaeophyta, Kingdom Protista or Plantae or Chromalveolata), are a large group of multicellular,
mostly marine algae, and include many seaweeds of colder Northern Hemisphere waters.

One example of brown algae seaweed is Sargassum, which creates unique habitats in the
tropical waters of the Sargasso Sea.

Kelps are large seaweeds belonging to the brown algae and are classified in the order
Laminariales. There are about 30 different genera. Kelp grows in underwater forests (kelp
forests) in clear, shallow oceans. They require nutrient rich water below about 20 °C. Kelp is
known for its high growth rate and is the largest seaweed. Macrocystis, a member of the
Laminariales, may reach 60 meters in length and grows up to 30 centimeters per day.

Red Seaweeds

There are 550 species of red seaweeds, otherwise called Rhodophyceae, making them the
largest group. One of the best-known red seaweeds is the edible karengo (Porphyra species),
which grows on rocks near high-tide level and resembles sheets of light purple cellophane. It is a
close relative of the Japanese nori, used for sushi. Another familiar red is the fern-like agar weed
(Pterocladia lucida) which has been harvested for agar production in New Zealand since 1943.
The coralline seaweeds are a group of reds that deposit calcium carbonate in their cell walls,
forming pink skeletons or paint-like crusts on coastal rocks. Scientists have discovered that some
crust-forming seaweeds release chemicals that encourage pāua (abalone) larvae to settle and
mature.

1.3.1 Composition of Macroalgae

Macroalgae produce only small amounts of lipid, which function mainly as structural
components of the cell membranes, and produce carbohydrates for use as their primary energy
storage compound. In contrast, many microalgae produce lipids as the primary storage
molecule.

Composition of Macroalgae Collected from Wild Stocks at Chwaka Bay and Matemwe, Zanzibar,
Tanzania 1

Species Protein Carbohydrate Ash Phosphorus Fiber

Ingredient (% in dw) on stocking

Ulva retticulata 18.9 ± 4.0 23.1 ± 5.4 22.2 ± 0.1 ± 0.0 37.7± 3.6
Gracilaria crassa 11.4 ± 2.3 28.2 ± 3.1 37.7 ± 0.1 ± 0.0 22.7± 2.2
Chaetomorpha 10.1 ± 13.4 ± 4.3 39.7 ± 0.1 ± 0.0 35.7± 4.2

1
http://iodeweb1.vliz.be/odin/bitstream/1834/33/1/WIOJ12117.pdf
 crassa 1.0
Eucheuma 2.0 15.2 56.9 0.1 25.9
denticulatum
Ingredient (% in dw) at the end of the experiments

Ulva retticulata 25.7 ± 1.7 21.1 ± 2.0 18.3 ± 0.6 0.1 ± 0.0 38.5 ± 2.9
Gracilaria crassa 13.2 ± 0.7 33.1 ± 4.4 15.0 ± 0.9 0.04 ± 0.0 38.7 ± 2.9
Chaetomorpha 13.1 ± 1.1 15.6 ± 6.7 35.3 ± 9.3 0.1 ± 0.1 36.0 ± 2.8
crassa
+
Eucheuma 7.6 ± 0.3 23.5 ± 4.4 46.6 ± 6.9 0.04 ± 0.0 22.3 ± 3.8
denticulatum
+
material from control units

Representative Composition

• Protein – 15-20%
• Carbohydrate – 20 – 30%
• Ash – 20 – 35%
• Fiber – 20 – 40%

The table below gives the chemical composition of selected, representative macroalgae, some of
which are currently used for food or have been used as food in the past. All figures, except for
water (as percentage), are given as grams per 100 grams of dry matter. Where no data are
available, it is denoted by "nd".

Chemical Composition of Macroalgae 2

Parameters Ascophyllu Laminaria Alaria Palmaria Porphyra Ulva

m digitata esculenta palmata yezoensis species
nodosum
Type Brown Brown Brown Red Red Green
Water (%) 70-85 73-90 73-86 79-88 nd 78
Ash 15-25 73-90 73-86 15-30 7.8 13-22
Total - - - - 44.4 42-46
carbohydrates
Alginic acid 15-30 20-45 21-42 0 0 0
Xylans 0 0 0 29-45 0 0
Laminaran 0-10 0-18 0-34 0 0 0
Mannitol 5-10 4-16 4-13 0 0 0
Fucoidan 4-10 2-4 Nd 0 0 0

2http://www.oceandocs.org/bitstream/1834/33/1/WIOJ12117.pdf
Floridoside 0 0 0 2-20 nd 0
Protein 5-10 8-15 9-18 8-25 43.6 15-25
Fat 2-7 1-2 1-2 0.3-0.8 2.1 0.6-0.7
Tannins 2-10 1 0.5-6.0 nd nd nd
Potassium 2-3 1.3-3.8 Nd 7-9 2.4 0.7
Sodium 3-4 0.9-2.2 Nd 2.0-2.5 0.6 3.3
Magnesium 0.5-0.9 0.5-0.8 Nd 0.4-0.5 nd nd
Iodine 0.01-0.1 0.3-1.1 0.05 0.01-0.1 nd nd
References Baardseth Haug & Haug & Morgan et Nisizawa Arasaki &
(1970) Jensen Jensen al., (1980) et al., Arasaki
(1954); (1954); (1987); (1983);
Gayral & Baardseth Nisizawa
Cosson & Haug et al.,
(1973); (1953); (1987);
Jensen Jensen Levring et
(1956a, (1956a, al. (1969)
1956b) 1956b)

1.3.2 Products from Macroalgae

Macroalgae could produce a combination of end products. These end products can be broadly
categorized as energy products and non-energy products from macroalgae. The schematic
below illustrates some of the potential products that could be derived from macroalgae.

Macroalgae

Energy products Non-energy products

Methane Food (Nori, Anori,Kombu,

Ethanol Wakame etc)
Biodiesel Fertilizer
Hydrocarbons & Hydrocolloids (Agar, carrageenan
derivatives and alginate)

Agar, carrageenan and alginate are popular examples of seaweeds—these have been used as
food for human beings, feed for animals, fertilizers for plants and source of various chemicals. In
the recent past, seaweeds have also been gaining momentum as new experimental systems for
biological research and integrated aquaculture systems.

1.4Comparison between Macroalgae and Microalgae

Often, the terms “microalgae” and “macroalgae” are used in an attempt to distinguish between
microscopic organisms such as phytoplankton and larger organisms such as seaweed or kelp.
The biomass can be derived from both macroalgaeand microalgae sources, which may represent
an economically and environmentally sustainable renewable fuel source.

However, microalgae are being widely researched as a fuel (mainly biodiesel) since they have
much more oil than macroalgae, and grow faster.In the case of macroalgae, they are being
considered for the natural sugars and other carbohydrates they contain, which can be
fermented to produce either biogas or alcohol-based fuels.

The following table lists the major differences between microalgae and macroalgae.

Parameters Macroalgae Microalgae

Size Macroalgae can reach sizes of Microalgae are very small
up to 60 m in length (Mc Hugh plant-like organisms (+/- 1 to
2003) 50 μm), which can be seen
through a microscope

Physical structure Macroalgae are composed of a Microalgae do not have roots,

thallus and sometimes a stem stems and leaves
and a foot

Energy density Medium High

Biomass yield Medium High

Ease of cultivation Macroalgae are cultured in Microalgae are cultured in

natural environments such as photobioreactors or open
ocean ponds

Ease of harvesting Easy Difficult

Oil yield Macroalgae produce only Microalgae produce

small amounts of lipids comparatively high amounts
of lipids
High-Value Products Microalgae is used in the Usage of macroalgae as
production of varied pigments and in nutraceuticals
nutraceuticals and pigments is limited.
Medicinal Uses Macroalgae is also widely Microalgae is used as a drug,
employed in the antimicrobial agent etc.
pharmaceutical industry.
Algae as Food Macroalgae is used as a food Except a few algae that are
in many parts of the world used as single cell protein and
especially China and Japan. as carotenoids, most of the
microalgae are consumed in
powdered form and in limited
quanity as a drug or medicine.
 Algae Cultivation
2
◊ Introduction & Concepts
◊ Macroalgae Cultivation& Cultivation Systems
◊ Microalgae Cultivation
◊ Factors that Determine Algal Growth Rate
◊ Algae Cultivation in Various Scales
◊ Comparison of Open Pond and
Photobioreactor
◊ Which is the Best Way to Grow Algae - Ponds
or Photobioreactors?
◊ Comparison of Large Scale Systems for
Growing Alga
◊ Algae Cultivation – Factoids
◊ Algae Cultivation Challenges & Efforts

Chapter Highlights

Macroalgae have many commercial and industrial uses, but due to their size and the specific
requirements of the environment in which they need to grow, they do not lend themselves
as readily to cultivation on a large scale as microalgae, and are most often harvested wild
from the ocean.
Based on the source, seaweed can be classified as wild seaweed, drift seaweeds and
aquacultured seaweed.
Countries such as Japan, Korea, Taiwan and China have cultivated macroalgae (nori or
porphyra) on areas of about 80,000 hectares in total. These possibly represent the largest
scales on which macroalgae have been cultivated in an organized manner by the industry –
most other countries have cultivated macroalgae on much smaller scales (Vietnam, for
instance, is reported to have about 5,000 hectares under cultivation for macroalgae).
Commercially, microalgae are cultivated either in ponds or in photobioreactors. Feasibility of
cultivating algae in open ponds or in photobioreactors isstill being researched.
Algae can be cultivated either by photosynthesis or by fermentation. It is not fully clear
which of the two – photosynthesis or fermentation – is the most optimal. While most
companies are going the photosynthesis route, some companies – Solazyme for instance –
are experimenting with the fermentation route.
2.1 Introduction & Concepts

Algaculture is a form of aquaculture involving the farming of algae. A majority of algae that are
intentionally cultivated fall into the category of microalgae. Macroalgae, commonly known as
seaweeds, also have many commercial and industrial uses, but due to their size and the specific
requirements of the environment in which they need to grow, they do not lend themselves as
readily to cultivation on a large scale as microalgae, and are most often harvested wild from the
ocean.

Similar to plants, algae require primarily three components to grow: sunlight, carbon-di-oxide
and water (and nutrients for better growth). Like plants again, they use the sunlight for the
process of photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is an important biochemical process in which plants,
algae, and some bacteria convert the energy of sunlight to chemical energy. This chemical
energy is used to drive chemical reactions such as the formation of sugars or the fixation of
nitrogen into amino acids, the building blocks for protein synthesis.

Algae capture light energy through photosynthesis and convert inorganic substances into simple
sugars using the captured energy. Plant leaves take in carbon from the carbon dioxide (CO2) in
the atmosphere, but algae need carbon in the water. As algae grow so quickly that atmospheric
CO2 cannot penetrate the water fast enough to sustain growth, carbon must be added for quick
growth.

Thus, algae cultivation is an environmentallyfriendly process for the production of organic

material by photosynthesis from carbon dioxide, light energy and water. The water used by
algae can be of low quality, including industrial process water, effluent of biological water
treatment or other waste water streams.

Culturing algae requires the input of light as an energy source for photosynthesis and a sufficient
supply of nutrients in dissolved form in the culture medium. In particular, these are: carbon in
the form of CO2, water, nitrogen, phosphate and other nutrients including sulphur, potassium,
magnesium and trace elements.

2.2Macroalgae Cultivation
Early attempts to cultivate seaweeds for biofuels date back to the 1970s, particularly in the USA
through what came to be known as the Giant Kelp Project, with a counterpart in Japan, and
sought to produce methane from biomass. Such efforts faced several seaweed and energy
production problems and were regarded as unfeasible.

Annual global seaweed (marine macro-algae) production was reported to be on the order of 1.4
million dry tons per annum. According to the analysis, seaweed-based value chains generated a
range of products with annual production value estimated at US$5.5 -7 billion/annum. Of this,
human food products accounted for about 90%, hydrocolloids for about 6-8% and other
products such as agricultural nutrients accounted for the rest (FAO, 2013).

Seaweeds are mainly produced for these end uses in Asian countries such as China, the
Philippines, North and South Korea, Japan and Indonesia. The USA, Canada and European
countries such as France, Germany and the Netherlands are attempting to establish large-scale
seaweed cultivation (Pérez 1997; Buck and Buchholz 2004; Reith et al. 2005).

Based on the source, seaweed can be classified as wild seaweed and aquacultured seaweed.

Seaweeds

Wild Seaweed Drift Seaweed Aquaculture Seaweed

Wild Seaweed: The natural population of seaweed is a significant resource. Depending on the
temperature of water, some groups will dominate, like brown seaweeds in cold waters and reds
in warmer waters.

Research from FAO estimate that about 1 milliontonnesare harvested annually from natural
stocks, making up only 6% of the global resource, with over 15 million tons produced by
aquaculture.

Drift Seaweed Cultivation: Another primary natural source is drift seaweeds which are common
worldwide, and over 230 species are known. Almost all drift seaweeds are initially attached, but
then detach and continue to grow unattached. The drift seaweeds accumulate in lines left
behind by the receeding tide.

Occasionally, drift species produce large biomass as in the case of Massachusetts, Bermuda, and
the Venice lagoon. The location and seasonal availability of these resources are unpredictable.

It has traditionally been collected by coastal communities on a small scale to use as fertilizer or
soil-conditioner. Annually green tides in France generate about 60,000 tonnes of wet Ulva sp.
which is about 8,000 tonnes dry weight 3.

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Aquaculture Seaweed

Seaweeds can be cultured either in sea or in ponds or tanks. A wide range of techniques is used
to cultivate seaweed, depending on the species being farmed, the life cycle and biogeographic
factors. The cultivations systems are discussed in detail in the forthcoming sections.

2.2.1 Macroalgae Cultivation Systems

Land-based Cultivation Systems

Tanks

These systems generally use seaweeds growing in tanks receiving a steady stream of aeration
and seawater. The aeration provides vigorous water movement in the tanks, sending the algal
thalli up and down in the water column in a circular pattern. This vigorous aeration permits rapid
uptake of dissolved carbon dioxide, and bringing the biomass to the surface into the light. The
use of tanks may provide the greatest productivity per unit area per day and is more efficient
than any other type of farming. Efficiency of these systems is very much dependent on the input
of various types of energy (compressed air for bubbling, CO2, and pumping water) and nutrients.
Carbon supply can be improved by either pumping more seawater or by adding CO2. The
temperature and salinity also can be manipulated by pumping more seawater. The pH of the
tanks should be managed in the range of 7.9 to 8.3, and the nutrient status of the medium must
be monitored. Tanks should be cleaned regularly and epiphytes must be controlled. Tank
systems also may hold promise for the processing of polluted water for specific products, the
removal of extra nutrients from wastewater, or for energy production.

Ponds

Macroalgae can also be grown in ponds. An advantage of this approach is the low-operating
costs. Generally, water exchange in the ponds is accomplished by use of tide gates. Seaweed
yields are low because of the lack of water movement in the ponds. Tank systems are usually in
smaller modules that allow a predictable maintenance schedule, several steps however, can be
precisely controlled and managed to reduce the labor input, although this type of system has
high operational costs. Unlike tank systems, ponds are larger, and a significant outbreak of
epiphytes or other weedy species may be much harder to bring under control.
Some macroalgae species grown using land-based cultivation systems include:

• Ulva rotundata
• Gracilaria
• Porphyra
• Laminaria digitata
• Gracilariopsis longissima
Seaweed Cultivation in the Sea

Aquaculturists grow most macroalgae in the sea as opposed to land. Cultivation occurs along
coastal areas. To hold the seaweeds in place, a variety of farm structures are used. These include
long lines to which ropes with seaweeds are attached, nets stretched out on frames, and ropes
supported by poles. The capital costs associated with these systems vary depending on locality,
water depth, and local economies. The operating costs for these kinds of macroalgal culture
systems vary as a function of harvest frequency and lifetime of materials in a site-specific
environment.

Some macroalgae species grown using sea-based cultivation systems include:

• Undaria
• Porphyra
• Eucheuma
• Kappaphycus
• Macrocystis pyrifera

The seaweed cultivation in sea can be accomplished using any of the following methods:

a. Long-Line Cultivation Systems

In the 1950s, China developed a highly successful method for cultivating Laminaria. In this
method, sporelings (“seedlings”) are produced in cold water in greenhouses and later planted
out in the ocean.

The following picture depicts a Chinese long-line farm for cultivation of Laminaria wherein the
long line is anchored by a rope at each end and held afloat by buoys. Culture lines with attached
Laminaria include a spacing segment at the top and bottom of the 2- to 5-m-long rope and
weighed. The anchor ropes are held by stakes or concrete weights.

Long-Line Cultivation Systems 4

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For cultivation, Laminaria plants are driedfor a few hours and placed in the seeding container
which is filled with cool seawater.The seed string (a synthetic twine of 2 to 6 mm in diameter or
palm line 6 mm indiameter) is placed on the bottom of the same container.

The strings are then cut into small pieces that are transferred to the sea and inserted into the
warp of large diameter, 60 m long culture rope. The ropes with the young sporophytes (the
sporophyte is what is harvested as seaweed) are kept floating by buoys fixed every 2–3 m.

Each end of the rope is anchored to a wooden peg driven into the sea bottom. The ropes with
the young sporophytes attached hang down from this rope at 50 cm intervals. These slowly
develop into the large sporophytes that we harvest.

The principal difficulties in this kind of cultivation lie in the careful control of water temperature,
nutrients and light. The Japanese use a forced cultivationtechnique to produce plants with 2-
year-old characteristics in a single growing season by controlling the water temperature and
light. By the same method, the Japanese also farm similar kelp, Undaria, which is sold as the
food wakame.

b. Net-Style Farm Systems

Porphyra, or nori, is the world's most valuable marine crop. The crop is valued at more than 1
billion dollars worldwide and is used mainly for human food. These plants grow mainly in cooler
waters.

The algal spores are seeded onto nets that are then put in place on fixed support systems. The
fixed support system exposes the nets to the atmosphere at low tides. This periodic exposure
and drying improve the growth of nori and inhibit fouling organisms (e.g., other seaweed species
or diatoms). Nori grows as a flat sheet and has a high surface area/volume ratio, a feature that
aids nutrient uptake.

Porphyra are allowed to grow to 15–30 cm in about 40–50 days before they are harvested. The
remaining thalli are allowed to grow and may be ready for a second harvest after another 15 to
20 days. Several harvests may be made from the same nets in one growing season.

The harvested crop is washed and transferred to an automatic nori-processing machine, which
cuts the blades into small pieces. The nori is then processed by the cultivator into dried
rectangular sheets or processed by the manufacturer per market requirements.

The following figure shows a Japanese Porphyra culture net system where the poles hold the net
in place so that it is exposed at low tides. The Porphyra grows attached to the nets.

Net-Style Farm Systems

c. Line and Rope Farm Systems

Fishermen in the Philippines use rope and lines to grow tropical seaweeds. These seaweeds
comprise species of genera Eucheuma and Kappaphycus which are important carrageenophytes
(80% of world’s carrageenan production). The seaweeds are tied to the lines, and the lines are
then staked over the bottom. The water level should be 0.5-1.0 meter during low tide and not
more than 2.0-3.0 m during high tide. The lines are constructed to form plots or units of a
standard size. Seedlings weighing between 50 and 100 g are tied to the monolines at 25- to 30-
cm intervals using soft plastic tying material called tie-tie. Usually the plants are harvested after
45 days when each seedling weighs up to 1 kg. The best looking healthy plants are selected to
serve as seedlings for the next crop. The remaining plants are sun dried or sold fresh in the
market.

d. Offshore or Deep-Water Seaweed Cultivation

Various attempts were made to cultivate the brown alga Macrocystis pyrifera on farm structures
designed for use in deep water. The nutrients for these seaweeds were to come from cold, deep
waters that would be pumped up into the growing kelps. The benefit of this approach is that
growth of macroalgae would not be constrained by available shallow nearshore regions. Despite
several trials using different farm designs, operational problems prevented the production of
actual kelp crops. However, the experiments did establish that M.pyrifera could grow in an open
ocean environment, and that deep waters supplied ample nutrients for sustained growth
without toxic side effects. It is probable that these research results could be extended to other
brown kelps, such as Laminaria spp.or Undaria spp.

Maintenance for Seaweed Cultivation in the Sea 5

Assurance for good farm production largely depends upon farm management, procedures and
practices (Juanich, G. 1980). A few significant procedures to maintain a seaweed farm:

• Sea urchins, starfishes, rocks, dead corals and other obstacles found inside the farm has
to be removed everyday.

• Since the seaweeds are cultivated in the shallow part of the sea, the fluctuation in the
salinity of water needs to be closely monitored because it affects the quality of the
seaweeds.

• A boat (with or without engine) would be required depending upon the distance of the
residence to the farm site.

• Slow-growing plants are replaced immediately with fast-growing ones.

• The plant should not be allowed to grow more than 5 kg for it will be destroyed by the
water current.

• All unhealthy and loose plants have to be completely harvested. Eel grasses and other
seaweeds may tend to overcrowd and so they are to be consistently cut.

• Any loose nets have to be tightened and broken lines and destroyed stakes need to be
repaired.

Species-specific Cultivation Methods Employed

The techniques used to cultivate seaweed mainly depend on the species being farmed, the life
cycle, and biogeographical factors. In general, fragments of adult plants, juvenile plants, or
sporelings are seeded onto ropes in nurseries and then the plants are grown to maturity at sea.

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The complex life cycles of many types of seaweed convey that detailed knowledge of the species
being cultivated is critical.

The following section provides inputs on the methods that are used for cultivating a few
prominent species of seaweed.

Cultivation of Laminaria

Laminaria japonica is one of the several species successfully cultivated in commercial scale.

1. The floating raft method of artificial cultivation

This method is characterized by three important processes.

• The first is the spore collection and sporeling cultivation process.

• The second is the setting-up of the floating raft for cultivation. The superiority of the raft
method lies in maintaining the plants at the desired water level. This is one of the keys to
successful cultivation.
• The third is the sporeling transplantation. This is a crucial process ensuring appropriate
density for the growth of the plants.

2. Method of low temperature culture of summer sporelings

Spore collection takes place in early summer instead of autumn. Gametophytes and young
sporelings are cultured under controlled low temperature conditions. In late autumn, the
sporelings are taken off to the open sea. This method enhances the production by 50%, as
the summer sporelings have an advantage of two to three months' growth (Tseng, 1955).

3. Southward transplantation

Southward transplantation of L. japonica is native to the cold temperate coastal regions

along northern Japan and Siberia. Experimental results showed that, although the optimal
temperature for Laminaria growth was 5–10 °C, growth was still good enough at 13 °C; even
at 20 °C, a frond of 1–2 m was still able to attain some growth. Based on the above
experiments, Chinese phycologists conducted an experiment in 1956 on the cultivation of
the Laminaria at Gouqi Island, Zhejiang Province. The results of the experiment strongly
confirmed their postulation that Laminaria of commercial standard can be cultivated along
the Eastern China sea coast. Production in the area accounts for one third of China's entire
production (Tseng, 1957).

4. Genetical studies and breeding of new strains

Genetic studies showed that natural populations of the Laminaria under cultivation in China
are genetically mixed in nature and are considered to possess a high level of hybridity. In the
 sixties, three varieties were bred, one with broad frond, one with long frond and one with
thick frond. In the seventies, two new varieties with high iodine content and high yield were
bred, which answered better the demands of the iodine industry of China (IOAS and QIMF,
1976).

5. Frond tip-cutting method

By this method the distal part of the frond, sometimes as much as one third of the entire
frond, are cut off at certain time to improve the lighting condition of the frond. Such
measure improves the conditions for the growth of the frond and enhances the quality of
the product. The cutoff distal part of the frond will be cast off anyway under the natural
condition; this part is not good for food but is good raw material for the algin industry. By
taking such measures, the increase of production generally amounts to about 15% (Wu et al.,
1981).

Since the mid-fifties, the above achievements for enhancing the production and improving the
quality of Laminaria have been successfully devised one after the other. Now, commercial
cultivation of Laminaria is being practiced on the China coast from Dalian of the north to
FujianProvince of the south. In the 1978–1979, more than 18,000 hectares of farms were
engaged in the commercial cultivation of Laminaria, and about 275,500 tons in dry weight of this
alga were produced.

Cultivation of Porphyra

Both Japan and China have a long history of the cultivation and utilization of Porphyra.
Commercial cultivation of Porphyra in Japan was initiated more than 300 years ago by the
primitive method of inserting bundles of bamboo twigs, called hibi, for collecting spores. In
China, more than 200 years ago, the simple 'rock clearing' method of cultivation was devised by
mechanically clearing seaweeds from the rocks in early autumn. This was done just before the
mass liberation of the spores. The surface of the rock would then provide the substratum for the
spores to attach and grow. The whole process is simple, but people have to depend upon
nature's mercy to give them spores. This condition is similar to the Japanese 'bamboo-hibi
planting' method. Up to the early fifties the source of the spores had been a mystery to the
phycologists. In the early fifties, Drew discovered the conchocelis as a stage in the life history of
Porphyra.

Later on, both the Japanese and the Chinese phycologists (Tseng & Chang, 1954) independently
discovered the missing link, the conchospore. The shell of Meretrix sp., was found to be an
excellent substrate for conchospore. It was not until the '60's that, with the introduction of the
artificial collection of conchospores, the commercial cultivation methods became truly
modernized.

In China, the intertidal semifloating raft method for growing the leafy Porphyra from
conchospores is preferred over the fixed pillar method. Conchospore-seeded nets are first
allowed to stay in the intertidal zone until the leafy Porphyra appear and then are transferred to
deeper areas. In Japan, with the innovation of the cold-storage net and the use of floating nets,
Porphyra production increased steadily. P. tenera and P. yezoensis are the two principal species
cultivated, although six species are grown commercially. In 1981, the Japanese farmers
produced 34,000 t (dry weight) of Porphyra. In China 9,987 t of Porphyra was produced in 1981,
while the Republic of Korea has been produced 8,000 t annually these past few years.

Cultivation of Undaria

The other seaweed now under commercial cultivation and qualified to be called a marine crop is
Undaria. Undaria pinnatifida is the main species under cultivation while Undaria undariodoides
and Undaria peterseniana are cultivated to a minor extent. In Japan, the cultivation of Undaria
has been developed only in the sixties when the natural resources were not sufficient to cover
the ever-increasing demand for this alga. At present, production of Undaria through culture is
estimated to be 91,000 t (wet weight) in Japan (1981), 100,000 t (wet weight) in the Republic of
Korea these few years, and several thousand tons in China in the eighties each year.

The cultivation of Undaria consists of the following three stages:

1. Collection of zoospores and growing of sporelings

Collection of zoospores begins at about April to June when the plants become fertile. The
matured sporophylls are kept in a dark moist container for several hours to induce the mass
discharge of the spores. These spores attach themselves to substrates and develop into male
and female gametophytes. The fusion of the gametes results in the formation of zygotes which
give rise to young sporophytes. The favourable temperature for the growth of gametophytes
and the formation of oogonia and antheridia is at 15–25 °C (Li et al., 1982). In China and
northern Japan the seeded ropes were directly cultured in the open sea under a raft where the
young sporelings are allowed to grow to about 2–3 cm long.

2. Outgrowing of the plant

The outgrowing of sporelings starts in the autumn when the water temperature is about 20 °C.
The sporeling ropes are cut into 5–6 cm long pieces, which are inserted and are tied in the twists
of the cultivation ropes. The cultivation ropes with the attached sporelings are set into the sea.
The depth of the water where outgrowing is done ranges from 0.5–5 m depending on the
transparency of the water. The range of optimum temperature is at 5–10 °C (Zhang, 1984). The
plants are harvested when they reach a length of 0.5–1 meter. In areas where the growing
season is long, several harvests can be made from the same ropes. Since Undaria has an early
short-growing season, maturing much earlier than Laminaria, it is often mixed-planted with
Laminaria in China. In that case, Undaria does not interfere with the growth and maturation of
Laminaria, which is harvested in June (Tseng, 1981).
2.2.2 Feasibility of Cultivating Macroalgae on a Large Scale

The world uses about 85 million barrels of oiI per day, which is about 3.5 billion gallons per day
of oil consumption, or about 1300 billion gallons per year. Of this, gasoline accounts for about
500 billion gallons per year. In order for macroalgae to be in a position to supply even a small
portion of this fuel need, it is apparent that it needs to be cultivated on very large scales.

Assuming a 30% ethanol yield by dry weight and a productivity of 50 T (dry weight) per hectare
per year, we get a yield of about 5000 gallons of ethanol per hectare per year. Ethanol has an
energy density that is only 62% that of gasoline, so that’d be 3100 gallons gasoline equivalent
per hectare per year.

In order to replace even 1% of total gasoline usage through ethanol produced from macroalgae,
an area of more than 1.5 million hectares need to be used for macroalgae cultivation.

While there has been no experimentation of algae cultivation on such large scales for biofuel
production, countries such as Japan, Korea, Taiwan and China have cultivated macroalgae (nori
or porphyra) on areas of about 80,000 hectares in total. These possibly represent the largest
scales on which macroalgae have been cultivated in an organized manner by the industry – most
other countries have cultivated macroalgae on much smaller scales (Vietnam, for instance, is
reported to have about 5,000 hectares under cultivation for macroalgae).

Thus, even though cultivation of macroalgae on millions of hectares does not appear infeasible,
we currently do not have adequate understanding of all the factors that could affect such
feasibility. It is however likely that many of the processes and methods that are being used to
cultivate algae by countries such as Japan and Korea could be employed by the macroalgae-
based biofuel industry in future.

2.3 Microalgae Cultivation

Several factors must be considered while cultivating algae. Different algae have different
requirements. The water must have micro and macro nutrients that are essential for algal
growth. Apart from this light, temperature range, and optimum pH that will support the specific
algal species should be checked. Nutrients must be controlled so that the algae will not be
"starved" and the nutrients will not be wasted. Light must not be too strong nor too weak.

Algae mass culture techniques can be categorized on the following lines:

• Mono or Mixed Culture

• Continuous or Batch Cultivation
• Phototrophic or Heterotrophic Cultivation
• Open or Closed Systems
Mono or Mixed Culture

Often, it is desired to grow just one species of algae in each growing vessel. In many cases, it is
necessary to obtain pure cultures in order to cultivate a species. Individual species cultures5 are
also needed for research purposes. In these cases, it becomes essential to follow monoculture.

Mixed culture, in which multiple strains are grown in the same medium, usually results in higher
biomass levels than for monocultures. Mixotrophic cultures using bioreactor technology may
provide a cost-effective alternative cultivation method for microalgae that can utilize organic
carbon sources (Chen, 1996).

Batch or Continuous Cultivation

Batch culture systems are widely applied because of their simplicity and flexibility, enabling
change of species and rapid remediation of defects in the system.

Although often considered as the most reliable method, batch culture is not necessarily the
most efficient method. Batch cultures are harvested just prior to the initiation of the stationary
phase and must thus always be maintained for a substantial period of time past the maximum
specific growth rate. In addition, the quality of the harvested cells may be less predictable than
that in continuous systems and for example vary with the timing of the harvest (time of the day,
exact growth phase).

Another disadvantage in batch cultures is the need to prevent contamination during the initial
inoculation and early growth period. Because the density of the desired phytoplankton is low
and the concentration of nutrients is high, any contaminant with a faster growth rate is capable
of outgrowing the culture. Batch cultures also require a lot of labour to harvest, clean, sterilize,
refill, and inoculate the containers.

The continuous culture method, a culture in which a supply of water and nutrients is
continuously pumped into a growth chamber and the excess culture is simultaneously washed
out, permits the maintenance of cultures very close to the maximum growth rate.

Phototrophic or Heterotrophic Cultivation

Phototrophic cultures manufacture organic foodstuffs from inorganic materials in the presence
of light, as green plants and certain bacteria. In addition to light, an enhanced partial pressure
of CO2 is necessary for photoautotrophic growth of dedifferentiated cell lines.

Heterotrophic algae, which cannot synthesize its own food, depend on complex organic
substances for nutrition. These algae use an organic molecule as carbon. They take up organic
molecules as a primary source of nutrition.
Open or Closed Systems

Since algae need sunlight, carbon-di-oxide and water for their growth, they can be cultivated in
open ponds & lakes. Alternatively, algae could be grown in closed structures, where the
environment is better controlled than in open ponds. These closed systems use transparent
coverings that allow the algae to be exposed to optimal amounts of sunlight.

Factors that Determine Algal Growth Rate

While different strains and species of algae exhibit different growth rates, the following are the
important factors that determine the growth rate of algae, in general:

• Light - Light is needed for the photosynthesis process

• Temperature - There is an ideal temperature range that is required for algae to grow
• Medium/Nutrients - Composition of the water is an important consideration
• Salinity – While algae may adapt to a wide range of salinity, many species do not tolerate
a large sudden change in salinity.
• pH - Algae typically need a pH between 7 and 9 to have an optimum growth rate
• Aeration - The algae need to have contact with air, for its CO2 requirements
• Alkalinity - High alkalinity promotes calcification and this encourages the rapid growth of
calcifying algae such as red coralline algae and green Halimeda spp. High alkalinity
combined with calcium dosing promotes the precipitation of phosphate and this limits
algae growth.
• Mixing - Mixing prevents sedimentation of algae and makes sure all cells are equally
exposed to light
• Photoperiod - Light & dark cycles

Temperature

• The optimal temperature for microalgae cultures is generally between 20 and 30°C
• Optimal temperatures vary with the species and strain cultured
• Temperatures lower than 16°C slow down growth; Temperatures higher than 35°C are
lethal for a number of species
• Outdoor algal cultures can be cooled by a flow of cold water over the surface of culture
system
• Controlling the air temperature indoors can be done with air-conditioning units.

Light

Light intensity plays an important role, but the requirements vary greatly with the culture depth
and the density of the algal culture: at higher depths and cell concentrations the light intensity
must be increased to penetrate through the culture. Light may be natural or supplied by
fluorescent tubes. Too high light intensity (e.g. direct sun light, small container close to artificial
light) may result in photo-inhibition. Also, overheating due to both natural and artificial
illumination should be avoided. Fluorescent tubes emitting either in the blue or the red light
spectrum should be preferred as these are the most active portions of the light spectrum for
photosynthesis 6.

Some Inputs from the NREL’s ASP Light Program Regarding Effect of Light in Algaculture

• The photosynthetic efficiency of algal cells grown in ponds may be increased in high light by
using mixing strategies that optimize this photomodulation effect
• A biophotolysis project tested an optical fiber system for diffusing solar light into algal
cultures, thereby overcoming the light saturation limitation to photosynthetic efficiencies
• Cells shifted to a higher light intensity start growing at the rate of the higher light level
cultures. However, lipid productivity shoots up to a much higher rate than with either of the
steadily illuminated cultures.

Nutrients

Algal cultures need to be enriched with nutrients to make up for the deficiencies in the medium.

In 1996, Molisch had observed that mineral nutrient requirements of algae were not different
from those of higher plants. The major absolute requirements include carbon, phosphorus,
nitrogen, sulphur, potassium and magnesium. Elements like iron and manganese are required in
small amounts. Various other elements like calcium, sodium, cobalt, zinc, boron, copper and
molybdenum are essential trace elements. 7

Carbon Requirements

Carbon can be supplied in the form of CO2 or in the form of sugars such as glucose, fructose,
sucrose etc. A cheap source of sugar is molasses which on average contains 25% glucose, 25%
fructose and 30% sucrose. Algae have the ability to utilize both inorganic carbon (in the form of
CO2 and HCO3-) and organic carbon.

The modes of organic carbon nutrition vary greatly in algae, even within a single species (Kaplan
et al., 1986). Algae which are able to grow mixotrophically grow faster in the light when both
inorganic and organic carbon sources are available (Marquez et al., 1995; Neilson & Lewin,
1974).

6
Patrick L and Patrick S. (1996).FAO Fisheries Technical Paper - T361.Manual on the Production and Use of Live Food
for Aquaculture. Retrieved from: http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/w3732e/w3732e06.htm
7
E.W. Becker
Except for algae such as the Spirulina sp which are capable of using bicarbonate at alkaline pH
values (Ciferri, 1983), most photoautotrophically growing algae prefer to utilize free CO2
(Heussler et al., 1978; Kaplan et al., 1986; Richmond et al., 1982).

Yields may, however, be increased two- or threefold by using organic sources of carbon like
glucose or acetate (mixotrophic growth) which though adds substantially to the production costs
(Soong, 1980).

Air also contains the carbon source for photosynthesis in the form of carbon dioxide. For very
dense cultures, the CO2 originating from the air (containing about 0.03% CO2 by volume)
bubbled through the culture limits the algal growth and pure carbon dioxide may be
supplemented to the air supply.

Nitrogen Requirements

In general, algae are able to utilize nitrate, ammonia or other organic sources of nitrogen such as
urea. In practice, the preferred nitrogen supply is the form of ammonia or urea, either of which
is economically more favorable than nitrate or nitrite, which is more expensive and requires
energy for assimilation.

Phosphorus Requirements

It is essential for almost all cellular processes including biosynthesis of nucleic acids, energy
transfer etc. The major form in which algae acquire phosphorus is as inorganic phosphate, either
as H2PO4- and HPO42-

Sulphur Requirements

Sulphur is a constituent of essential amino acids like methionine, cysteine and cystine. It is
generally provided as inorganic sulphate in the culture medium. Some algae (Chlorella, Euglena)
have been reported to be able to utilize organic sulphur sources, such as sulphur containing
amino acids.

Calcium Requirements

Calcium ions may play a role in the maintenance of cytoplasmic membranes, salt formation with
colloids and the precipitation of CaCO3. Calcium is involved in the formation of skeletons of
certain algae and can be deposited in or on the cell walls of several algae as calcite.

Sodium & Potassium Requirements

Potassium is a requirement for all algae. Under potassium deficient conditions, growth and
photosynthesis are reduced and respiration is high. This nutrient is a co-factor for several
enzymes and is involved in protein synthesis and osmotic regulation.
Sodium is necessary for all marine and halophilic algae. It has also been proposed that sodium is
required in nitrogen fixing algae for the transformation of molecular nitrogen to ammonia.
Because sodium and potassium have similar chemical characteristics, it has been assumed that
sodium could replace potassium.

Magnesium Requirements

Because of the strategic position, magnesium occupies in the photosynthetic apparatus as a

central atom of the chlorophyll molecule. All algal species have an absolute requirement for this
element. In several green algae, magnesium deficiency interrupts cell division, resulting in
abnormally large etiolated cells.

Iron Requirements

Iron is a key element in metabolism. It plays an important role in nitrogen assimilation and
affects the synthesis of phycocynanin and chlorophyll. It is mostly supplied in the form of
chelated complexes, preferably bound to ethylene diamine tetra aceticacid (FeEDTA).

Requirements of Trace Elements

Trace elements are required in very small amounts of micro-, nano-, or picograms per liter. Trace
elements influence the growth in a number of species and have a positive effect on protein
growth. The major trace elements in algal media are cobalt, zinc, nickel, manganese, copper,
boron, vanadium and molybdenum.

Suggested Non-carbon Enrichment (mL/L)

Nitrogen source* (0.6 M. N) 1 mL

KH2PO4 (0.6M) 1 mL
PII Trace Metals 5 mL
B12 (1 mg/L) 1 mL
Thiamine-HCL (1 mg/L) 1 mL
Biotin (2 mg/L) 1 mL
* Nitrogen source indicated for individual species, ammonium as NH4Cl2, nitrate as KNO3.
250-500 mg/L Na2SiO3.9H2O should be added when cultivating diatoms in this medium
Source: Becker, (1994)

Approximate nutrients required to produce 1 ton dry algae mass

• CO2 (mass) - 1.8 T

• Nitrogen requirements (0.8% dw) – 0.008 T
• Phosphorus requirements (0.6% dw) – 0.006 T
Sample nutrients for freshwater algae

• Ca(NO3)2; KH2PO4; MgSO4; NaHCO3& trace elements / metals

• NaNO3; MgSO4; NaCl; K2HPO4; KH2PO4; CaCl2& trace elements / metals
• Sample nutrients for blue green algae:
NaNO3; Na2HPO4; K2HPO4& trace elements / metals

pH - The pH range for most cultured algal species is between 7 and 9, with the optimum range
being 8.2-8.7. Complete culture collapse due to the disruption of many cellular processes can
result from a failure to maintain an acceptable pH. The latter is accomplished by aerating the
culture. In the case of high-density algal culture, the addition of carbon dioxide allows to correct
for increased pH, which may reach limiting values of up to pH 9 during algal growth.

Salinity - Marine phytoplankton are extremely tolerant to changes in salinity. Most species grow
best at a salinity that is slightly lower than that of their native habitat, which is obtained by
diluting sea water with tap water. Salinities of 20-24 g/l have been found to be optimal.

Aeration - Aeration of cultures serves to keep algae in suspension, to supply the carbon needed
for plant growth and pH control, and to strip O2 from the culture media, preventing
supersaturation. The aeration supplied to algae should be gentle during the first day or two after
inoculation and then increased in rate as the culture grows.

World Map Indicating the Direct Normal Solar Irradiation

The following map provides a representation of the regions worldwide that are best suited for
algae cultivation. The yellow and red regions are the most suitable locations for algal
production. The area highlighted in red receives direct radiation of 2500 – 3000 KWH/m2 per
year and the area highlighted in yellow receives direct radiation of 2000 – 2500 KWH/m2 per
year; these two regions are best suited for algae cultivation.
 Source: Parliamentary Monitoring Group, South Africa - www.pmg.org.za/, 2007

2.3.1 Algae Cultivation in Various Scales

Algae cultivation can be performed using a wide variety of methods, ranging from closely-
controlled laboratory methods to less predictable methods in outdoor tanks. This chapter deals
in detail about the various concepts and technologies of these methods.

2.3.1.1 Algae Cultivation in Lab Scale

The lab-scale algal culture facility is a vital part of all mass cultivation facilities. It ensures the
production of healthy monocultures of selected algal species. It is crucial to maintain mass
cultivation systems such as open ponds and photobioreactors free of contaminants and
excessive bacteria. Hence, it is essential to setup a smaller incubation unit to maintain the stock
cultures. Initial testing also requires lab-scale cultivation of algae. Lab-scale cultivation thus
mimics the environment of the industrial mass cultivation of algae for a primary understanding.

Algal strains can be collected from native environments, rather than just from culture collection
centers. A screening tool will need to be developed to identify algae with desired characteristics
like high oil content, high productivity in mass cultivation, reducing susceptibility to competing
algae, grazers, and diseases, ability to be harvested by low-cost methods (e.g. simple
flocculation-settling, bioflocculation), etc.

The research involves growing algae strains under conditions that mimic the open pond
environment and identifying and selecting algae that grow well under those conditions. The
optimum temperature for the algal growth should be between 20 and 30°C, whereas the
environmental temperatures required for algal growth ranged from 12°C - 24°C. Algae generally
require a concentration of about 0.1% of yeast extract and 0.5% of glucose apart from their
natural environmental conditions. In addition, enrichment culture techniques could potentially
be used to understand the media required for a favored algal type to dominate in a culture.
 Isolation of algae

Cultivation of algae in lab scale

Biochemical Analysis of Algal Samples

Isolation of Algae

Depending on the culture system used there are several ways to select for productive strains
that are well adapted to the prevailing conditions. The general characteristics selected for are
growth rate, biochemical composition, temperature tolerance and resistance to mechanical and
physiological stress. Selection of these characteristics may be done in the laboratory, with
subsequent testing in outdoor ponds or in the actual production system. This involves isolating
the desired organism from other organism.

Isolation of algae from a mixed culture necessitates the use of specific medium for the desired
algae. The algae are isolated from soil using Benecke’s medium. The plate cultures are incubated
at 30-35oC and lighted from above by 25 watt lamps. In about 15 days of incubation, algae
growth can be seen. The algae are subcultured by transferring a few of the cells to Benecke’s
agar in petridishes. They may be streaked repeatedly on the agar medium so as to obtain single
colonies. Fogg’s medium is generally used for cultivation of blue green algae.

There are four major techniques for obtaining unialgal isolates:

• Streaking
• Spraying
• Serial dilution
• Single-cell isolation

Streaking: In this technique, a loop of algae is streaked on a specific solid medium. Various
styles of streaking may be followed to isolate the desired strain.

Spraying - In this technique, a stream of compressed air is used to disperse algal cells from a
mixture onto the surface of a petri plate containing growth medium solidified with agar.

Streaking and spraying are useful for single-celled, colonial, or filamentous algae that will grow
on an agar surface; cultures of some flagellates, such as Chlamydomonas and Cryptomonas may
also be obtained by these procedures. Many flagellates, however, as well as other types of algae
must be isolated by single-organism isolations or serial-dilution techniques. We will practice
spraying and single-organism isolations.

Serial dilution - A serial dilution is the stepwise dilution of a substance in solution. The procedure
followed is as follows. 1ml of the original inoculum is pipetted out into 9ml of the broth. Again
1ml from this broth is pipetted out into another 9ml broth and the procedure is repeated till the
desired dilution is met. The first test tube will result in 1: 10 dilution when plated and the
successive plates will have a dilution of 1:100, 1: 1000 and so on.

The following picture illustrates the steps involved in serial dilution of a sample

Serial
1m 1ml 1ml 1ml 1ml

Dilutions 1:10 1:100 1:1000 1:10000 1:100000

1ml 1ml 1ml 1ml

Plating

1:1000 1:10000 1:100000

1:10 1:100
dilution 8

Single-cell/colony/filament isolation

• The first step in this procedure is to prepare a number of "micropipettes" (very fine-
tipped pipettes) from glass Pasteur pipettes.
• The diameter of the pipette tip and the size of the algal cells to be isolated are to be
matched before picking up the filaments.
• Filaments can be grabbed with a slightly curved pipette tip and dragged through soft agar
(less than 1%) to remove contaminants.
(a) The alga is sucked with a sterilized pipette.
(b) The micropipette is used to transfer the isolated alga from the first drop into a series of
fresh drops. This is a washing procedure that helps remove contaminants.

8
http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/analytical-chromatography/microbiology/learning-center/theory/introduction.html
 (c) After transfer through 5-10 drops, the alga is transferred into a well of the multiwell
plate holding liquid growth medium suitable for that particular species.
(d) Usually several attempts are made because not all isolated algae will continue to grow,
or some may be contaminated with other algal cells.

It is best to begin with young branches or filament tips which have not yet been extensively
epiphytized. A particularly effective means of obtaining unialgal cultures is isolation of zoospores
immediately after they have been released from parental cell walls, but before they stop
swimming and get attached to a surface. Recently-released zoospores are devoid of
contaminants, unlike the surfaces of most algal cells. But catching zoospores requires a steady
hand and experience. Antibiotics can be added to the growth medium to discourage growth of
contaminating cyanobacteria and other bacteria. E.g. Addition of germanium dioxide will inhibit
growth of diatoms. 9

Cultivation in Lab Scale

The isolated algae are cultivated in lab for further studies. Algae can be cultivated either in shake
flask or in a lab scale photobioreactor. The growth medium used normally depends on the type
of algae cultured.

Algae Cultivation in Shake Flask - Shake flask cultures are usually batch-cultivations since the
media components are added into the cultivation flask already at the beginning. In aerobic
cultures, due to non-limited growth anaerobic conditions emerge easily because shaking cannot
provide enough oxygen for fast-growing microbes in dense cultures. In contrast growth can be
controlled by substrate limitation in bioreactor cultivations. The availability of high
concentration of glucose in shake flask enhances synthesis of overflow metabolites, since the
capacities of the respiratory system and citric acid cycle cannot process all the glucose taken into
the cell. Generally, cell and product yields may vary very much between shake flask cultivations.
The reasons for poor reproducibility cannot be recognized without monitoring 10.

Lab-scale Photobioreactor Cultivation – Photobioreactors with 5 – 10 L capacitiesaregenerally

used for lab level experiment purpose. Photobioreactors offer controlled environment. This
facilitates analysis of algae cultivation in various environments.

Media for Algae

In general medium can be of three types

9
http://www.botany.wisc.edu/courses/botany_330/Isolation&Culture.html

10
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1409794/
 • Synthetic media
• Enriched media
• Soil water media

Algae are capable of growing in all these types of media. Few examples of the algal culture
medium are Bold’s Basal Medium (BBM), BG-11 medium, Chu 10 medium, PES medium, NORO
medium, etc. The compositions of these media are given at the end of this chapter.

Soil water media are prepared by placing 1-2 cm of dried and sifted garden soil in the bottom of
the test tube. Algae grown in soil water media usually have normal morphology and the algae
can be reliably maintained.

Culturing Methods

There are three main types of algae culturing methods:

• Batch culture
• Continuous culture
• Semi-continuous culture

Batch Culture

Batch culture is a large-scale closed system culture in which cells are grown in a fixed volume of
nutrient culture medium under specific environmental conditions. The batch culture consists of
a single inoculation of cells into a container of fertilized seawater followed by a growing period
of several days and finally harvesting when the algal population reaches its maximum or near-
maximum density. In practice, algae are transferred to larger culture volumes prior to reaching
the stationary phase and the larger culture volumes are then brought to a maximum density and
harvested.

Production scheme for batch culture of algae (Lee and Tamaru, 1993)
 2 L flask

10 – 14days

3-6 Secondary
flask

5 – 7 days

Carboys or
Plastic bags

5–7

500L
7 days Tank

Fiberglass 3 – 5 days
Cylinder
4–7
4–6 days
5000 L
25000 L

According to the algal concentration, the volume of the inoculum which generally corresponds
with the volume of the preceding stage in the up scaling process amounts to 2-10% of the final
culture volume. Where small amounts of algae are required, one of the simplest types of indoor
culture employs 10 to 20 L glass or plastic carboys, which may be kept on shelves backlit with
fluorescent tubes.

Advantages - Batch culture systems are widely applied because of their simplicity and flexibility,
allowing to change species and to remedy defects in the system rapidly.

Disadvantages - Although often considered as the most reliable method, batch culture is not
necessarily the most efficient method. Batch cultures are harvested just prior to the initiation of
the stationary phase and must thus always be maintained for a substantial period of time past
the maximum specific growth rate. Also, the quality of the harvested cells may be less
predictable than that in continuous systems and for example vary with the timing of the harvest
(time of the day, exact growth phase).
Another disadvantage is the need to prevent contamination during the initial inoculation and
early growth period. Because the density of the desired phytoplankton is low and the
concentration of nutrients is high, any contaminant with a faster growth rate is capable of
outgrowing the culture. Batch cultures also require a lot of labour to harvest, clean, sterilize,
refill, and inoculate the containers.

Continuous Culture

The continuous culture method, (i.e. a culture in which a supply of fertilized seawater is
continuously pumped into a growth chamber and the excess culture is simultaneously washed
out) permits the maintenance of cultures very close to the maximum growth rate. Continuous
cultures can be distinguished as:

 Turbidostat culture: in which the algal concentration is kept at a preset level by diluting
the culture with fresh medium by means of an automatic system.
 Chemostat culture: in which a flow of fresh medium is introduced into the culture at a
steady, predetermined rate. The latter adds a limiting vital nutrient (e.g. nitrate) at a
fixed rate and in this way the growth rate and not the cell density is kept constant.

Laing (1991) described the construction and operation of a 40L continuous system suitable for
the culture of flagellates, e.g.Tetraselmis suecica and Isochrysis galbana. The culture vessels
consist of internally-illuminated polyethylene tubing supported by a metal framework. This
turbidostat system produces 30-40L per day at varying cell densities giving optimal yield for each
flagellate species. A chemostat system that is relatively easy and cheap to construct. The latter
employs vertical 400L capacity polyethylene bags supported by a frame to grow Pavlova lutheri,
Isochrysis galbana, Tetraselmis suecica, Phaeodactylum tricornutum, Dunaliella tertiolecta and
Skeletonema costatum. One drawback of the system is the large diameter of the bags (60 cm)
which results in self-shading (Cells near the surface absorb some of the light, thus shading those
deeper in the water column) and hence relatively low algal densities.

The disadvantages of the continuous system are its relatively high cost and complexity. The
requirements for constant illumination and temperature mostly restrict continuous systems to
indoors and this is only feasible for relatively small production scales. However, continuous
cultures have the advantage of producing algae of more predictable quality. Furthermore, they
are amenable to technological control and automation, which in turn increases the reliability of
the system and reduces the need for labor.
 Diagram of a continuous culture apparatus

(1) Enriched seawater medium reservoir (200 l)

(2) Peristaltic pump;
(3) Resistance sensing relay (50 - 5000 ohm);
(4) light-dependent resistor (ORP 12);
(5) Cartridge filter (0.45 mm);
(6) Culture vessel (40 l);
(7) Six 80 W fluorescent tubes (Laing, 1991).

Continuous culture methods for various types of algae in 40L internally-illuminated vessels
(suitable for flagellates only) (modified from Laing, 1991)

Algae Culture density for highest yield Usual life of culture

(cells per µl) (weeks)
Tetraselmis suecica 2000 3-6
Chroomonas salina 3000 2-3
Dunaliella tertiolecta 4000 3-4
Pseudoisochrysis paradoxa 20000 2-3

Semi-continuous Culture

The semi-continuous technique prolongs the use of large tank cultures by partial periodic
harvesting followed immediately by topping up to the original volume and supplementing with
nutrients to achieve the original level of enrichment. The culture is grown up again and partially
harvested. Semi-continuous cultures may be indoors or outdoors, but usually their duration is
unpredictable. Competitors, predators and/or contaminants and metabolites eventually build
up, rendering the culture unsuitable for further use. Since the culture is not harvested
completely, the semi-continuous method yields more algae than the batch method for a given
tank size. 11

Culture Methods Followed for Different Algal Species

The following are the culture methods followed for the cultivation of different species of algae
for fuel production:

Botryococcus braunii 12

Medium: Chu 13 medium (for hydrocarbon production BG11 medium)

Procedure:

• Modified Chu 13 medium is cultured.

• Purification is done by serial dilution followed by plating.
• The individual colonies are isolated and inoculated into liquid medium (modified Chu 13
medium)
• It can be incubated at 25 ± 1oC under 1.2 ± 0.2 Klux light intensity with 8 hrs light
photoperiod.
• The purity of the culture is ensured by repeated plating and by regular observation under
microscope.

Culture environment:B. braunii grows best at a temperature of 23°C, a light intensity of 60

W/M², with a light period of 12 hours per day, and a salinity of 0.15 Molar NaCl.

Challenges and efforts: B. braunii is found to be able to co-exist with a wild green alga, Chlorella
sp.; the presence of either alga did not negatively affect growth of the other. They form
colonies/flocs which are difficult to break down. It grows very slowly: its doubling time is 72
hours (Sheehan et al., 1998), and two days under laboratory conditions (Qin, 2005).

Dunaliella sp.

Isolation and screening: Purification by single cell isolation technique in ESM enrichment
medium (NaNO3 -120 mgL-1, KH2PO4 - 5 mgL-1, EDTA-Fe 0.26 mgL-1, EDTA-Mn 0.33 mgL-1, Vitamin
B1-HCl 0.1 mgL-1, Vitamin B12 - 10 μgL-1, biotin - 1 μgL-1, tris-buffer 1 g.L-1) .

11
http://www.advancedaquarist.com/issues/aug2002/breeder.htm

12
ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/011/ak333e/ak333e00.pdf
 Macro elements Amount per 100ml
KNO3 1.0 g
K2HPO4 0.1 g
MgSO4 x 7H2O 0.1 g
Artificial sea water
NaCl 60 g
MgSO4 x 7H2O 10 g
KCl 1.5 g
CaSO4 2.0 g

Screening is done with Herbicide phosphinothricin

Medium 13: General medium: 20 ml of the stock macro elements solution is mixed with 910 ml of
artificial seawater and 30 ml of seawater soil extract.

Some other common mediums used for culturing this species are: Provasoli-enrichedSea water
medium (PES), Artificial J/1 medium, Johnson’s medium, NORO medium.

Procedure:All strains are cultivated in the medium containing 1M NaCl. Cultures are bubbled
with 3% CO2 in air (v/v), at continuous light (200 µmol photon m-2s-1) and grown in 500 mL
borosilicate flasks containing 500 mL of media at 25 ± 2oC.

Culture environment: Optimal growth temperature for D. salina was 22°C (3.06 × 106 cells mL−1)
and 26 °C for D. viridis (4.04 × 106 cells mL−1).

Nannochloris sp 14

Medium: The algae are cultured in modified NORO medium (nitrogen limited medium)

Challenges and efforts: They grow 1.5 times as high as when grown in a modified NORO medium
containing 9.9 mM KNO3. Amount of NaCl affects the growth of Nannochloris.

Scenedesmus dimorphus

S. dimorphus is axenically cultured in C medium at 20°C and 14 h light/10 h dark photoperiod

(irradiance = 120 μmol m/s). The chemicals in cultured media (C media) for S. dimorphus (Türpin)
Kützing 15mg Ca(NO3)2∙4H2O, 10mg KNO3, 5mg β-Na2 glycerophosphate∙5H2O, 4mg

13
http://www.dunaliella.org/dunabase/media/ccala_dunaliella.php

http://www.scielo.cl/pdf/bres/v36n2/art08.pdf
14
http://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jbb/101/3/223/_pdf
MgSO4∙7H2O, 0.01μg Vitamin B12, 0.01μg Biotin, 1μg Thiamine HCl, 0.3 ml PIV metals, 40mg Tris
(hydroxymethyl) amino methane and 99.7 ml distilled water.

Isochrysis galbana 15

Artificial sea water medium (ASW) is used. All growth experiments must be performed in batch
cultures at 27°C, with constant illumination of 150/rE m at the surface of the flasks, which can be
provided by fluorescent lamps (cool white) on a rotary shaker (180 rev min- 1). Growth rate was
doubled by increasing light intensity by three times.

Tetraselmis chuii 16

The cultures are grown in batch cultures containing f/2 medium (containing NaNO3, NaH2PO4
H2O, Na2SiO3 9H2O, trace metal solution, vitamin solution) in seawater at 30 % salinity, and
maintained in a controlled environment room at 22 ± 1°C, under a continuous light regime by
day-light fluorescent tubes (light intensity of 100 μmolm-2s-1).

Phaeodactylum tricornutum

The algae can be grown in Provasoli culture medium (PES) and f/2 media. Three aeration
systems are used, fast flow (2 dm3 min-1), slow flow (0.1 dm3 min-1) and no aeration but agitated
twice a day. Cultures are grown in a photon flux density incident on the flasks of 100 μmolm-2s-1
(400 to 700 nm) in continuous light with cool fluorescent tubes and at 20°C (Geider et al. 1985).

Prymnesium parvum

Prymnesium parvumcan be cultured in artificial sea water with salinity adjusted to 14 - 15 (psu)
and pH ranging from 7.8 - 8.5. The culture temperature is 25.7°C under florescent light with a
16:8 (L/D) cycle. Total fatty acids ranged from 7.13 to 16.26% of dry biomass.

Tetraselmis suecica 17

These cultures are grown in f/2 medium under a Light:Dark ratio of 12:12 at 140 μmol m2s-1 at
15°C in environmental chambers. Cultures in exponential phase of growth are used for all assays.

Nannochloropsis salina

15
http://www.bashanfoundation.org/drora/droraoptimalgrowth.pdf

16
http://www.scielo.br/pdf/babt/v47n3/20944.pdf
17
http://www.marbef.org/training/FlowCytometry/Posters/RIBALET.pdf
Medium: This species can grow in salt water. They can withstand disinfectants like chlorine.

Dunaliella tertiolecta 18

Dunaliella tertiolecta is usually grown in the artificial seawater medium.

Euglena gracilis 19

Euglena gracilis is cultured in a mineral medium consisting of CH3COONa.3H2O, (NH4)2HPO4,

KH2PO4, MgSO4.7H2O, CaCl2.2H2O, EDTA-II, FeCl3, vitamins B1, B12 and trace elements. Cells are
grown in static cultures at 20oC. The pH of this solution should be around pH 7.0

Culture Maintenance

The maintenance of algal cultures has been a bottleneck and many scientists limit their isolation
efforts because they are unable to maintain the growing number of cultures. Algal
cryopreservation protocols are currently being used for this purpose with great success.

Cryopreservation has been successfully employed to maintain algae. Using an appropriate

protocol, high levels of viability may be observed and viability levels are apparently by storage
times up to 13 years. No single protocol has been found to be successful for a wide range of
organism. Direct immersion in liquid nitrogen, either with or without the addition of
cryoprotectants, has been successfully employed to preserve a small number of unicellular
algae.

2.3.1.2 Algae Cultivation on a Commercial Scale

There are two main methods of cultivation

• Ponds
• Photobioreactors

Ponds

Since algae need sunlight, carbon-di-oxide and water for their growth, they can be cultivated in
open ponds & lakes. Due to the fact that these systems are "open", they are much more
vulnerable to being contaminated by other algal species and bacteria. The real challenge with
open systems (like a pond) is that the species of algae that have the highest oil content are not
necessarily the quickest to reproduce. This creates a problem where other species take over the

18
ftp://ftp.dep.state.fl.us/pub/labs/lds/sops/4581.pdf

19
http://www.ccac.uni-koeln.de/textfiles/euglena-medium.htm
pond. Undesirable algal species taking over specific strains is one of the more significant
problems in algaculture, with the possible exception of spirulina which in of itself is extremely
aggressive and also grows at a pH that is extremely high, thereby eliminating the possibility of
contamination to some extent. For this reason, the number of species that have been
successfully cultivated for a given purpose in an open system is relatively small. In addition, in
open systems there is relatively less control over water temperature, carbon-di-oxide
concentration & lighting conditions. These imply that the growing season is largely dependent
on location and, aside from tropical areas, is limited to the warmer months. While the above are
the disadvantages with “open systems”, some of the benefits of this type of system are that it is
one of the cheaper ones to produce - at the most basic you only need to dig a trench or pond.

A variation on the basic "open-pond" system is to close it off, to cover a pond or pool with a
greenhouse. While this usually results in a smaller system, it does take care of many of the
problems associated with an open system. It allows more species to be able to be grown. It
allows the species that are being grown to stay dominant, and it extends the growing season,
only slightly, if unheated, and if heated it can produce year round. It is also possible to increase
the amount of carbon-di-oxide in these quasi-closed systems, thus again increasing the rate of
growth of algae.

Open-ponds are basically divided into

o Rectangular ponds or Raceway ponds

o Circular ponds
o Large shallow ponds.
o Deep-ponds

In some cases, the ponds in which the algae are cultivated are called the “raceway ponds”. In
these ponds, the algae, water & nutrients circulate around a racetrack. With paddlewheels
providing the flow, algae are kept suspended in the water, and are circulated back to the surface
on a regular frequency. The ponds are usually kept shallow because the algae need to be
exposed to sunlight, and sunlight can only penetrate the pond water to a limited depth. The
ponds are operated in a continuous manner, with CO2 and nutrients being constantly fed to the
ponds, while algae-containing water is removed at the other end.

Circular ponds with centrally pivoted rotating agitators are also used for growing algae. These
circular ponds are the oldest large-scale algae cultivation open-ponds based on the similar
system of waste water treatment. The depth of these ponds is similar to the raceway ponds
which is about 25-30 cm deep. The designs of these systems are however limited to 10000 m2 as
effective mixing by the rotating agitators is not possible if the ponds are larger.

Very large, extensive shallow ponds are also used for algae cultivation. The shallow pond area
typically ranges from 1 hectare to 2 hectares, with an average depth of 20-30 cms. These have
been extensively tried out in regions such as Australia.
For small scale production of algae cultivation, deep ponds or tanks are used. The ponds are
usually less than 10 m2 with a depth of 50 cm or more. These systems – while not very efficient -
are easy to operate and are comparatively lower in cost. Algae such as the Nannochlropsis sp.
are cultivated using this type of deep ponds.

Photobioreactors

The need to achieve higher productivity and to maintain monoculture of algae led to the
development of photobioreactors. In the photobioreactors, the environment is better controlled
than in open ponds.

A photobioreactor is a controlled system that incorporates some type of light source. The term
photobioreactor is more commonly used to define a closed system, as opposed to an open
pond. A pond covered with a greenhouse could also be considered an unsophisticated form of
photobioreactor. Because these systems are closed, everything that the algae need to grow,
(carbon dioxide, water and light) need to be introduced into the system.

Comparison of Open Pond and Photobioreactor

Open Ponds Vs Closed Bioreactors

Parameter Relative Notes

Contamination risk Ponds > PBRs Much reduced for PBRs
Space required Ponds ~ PBRs A matter of productivity
Productivity Ponds < PBRs PBRs 3-5 times more productive
Water losses Ponds ~ PBRs Depends upon cooling design
CO2 losses Ponds ~ PBRs Depends on pH, alkalinity, etc...
O2 Inhibition Ponds < PBRs O2 greater problem in PBRs
Process Control Ponds < PBRs Very important in PBRs
Biomass concentration Ponds < PBRs 3-5 times in PBRs
Capital/Operating costs ponds Ponds << PBRs Ponds 3-10 × lower cost!

Source: NREL 20
Notes:
• Contamination risk – Algae cultivation is susceptible to contamination. Algae cultures are often
contaminated with other algal strains or bacterial strains. Sometimes they are even contaminated with
insect larvae and zooplanktons
• Space required – Area required for constructing an algae farm. For constructing algae farms, large areas
are required - an area of about 3000 m2 is required for a typical single raceway pond (10 x 2 x 150 m).
• Productivity – Biomass yield per hectare
• Water losses – Amount of water lost due to evaporation

20
John R. Benemann. (2008). Overview: Algae Oil to Biofuels (annotated presentation). NREL – AFOSR Workshop
Retrieved from: http://www.nrel.gov/biomass/pdfs/benemann.pdf
 • CO2 losses – Amount of CO2 that escapes from the algae cultivation system without being trapped in algae
• O2 – Oxygen produced by the algae will inhibit the further growth of algae, so it is essential to remove the
oxygen from the growth systems
• Process control – Flexibility to alter the process and control them based on our need. For e.g., increase or
decrease the amount of CO2 for algae cultivation
• Biomass concentration – Density of algae per unit area
Source: NREL (http://www.nrel.gov/biomass/pdfs/benemann.pdf)

Which is the Best Way to Grow Algae - Ponds or Photobioreactors?

This is one of the most frequently asked questions in the algae fuels industry.

As of 2012, it cannot be conclusively determined that one is better than the other. While there is
a certain section in the industry that strongly feels that the use of photobioreactors is the only
way to produce algae on very large scale, there are a number of eminent professionals who feel
that the cost of photobioreactors will remain uneconomically high for a very long time, thus
making open ponds the only feasible option.

We provide relevant data and insights in this section that will enable to understand this debate
better.

The NREL (National Renewable Energy Laboratory, USA) favoured unlined “raceway” ponds
which were stirred using a paddle wheel, and had carbon dioxide bubbled through it. The water
used for these ponds is wastewater (treated sewerage) freshwater, brackish water, or salt water,
depending on the strain of algae grown. The algae should be a native to the region. Other
countries, notably Japan, are interested in closed systems. However these systems are very
expensive as mentioned earlier.

Companies Using Ponds & PBRs

Company Type of Culture Infrastructure

A2BE Carbon Capture Photobioreactor
Algenol Biofuels Open Pond
Algae.Tec Photobioreactor
Aquaflow Bionomic Open Pond
Aquatic Energy Open Pond
Aurora Algae Open Pond
Bionavitas Photobioreactor
Cellana Open Pond and Photobioreactor
Circle Biodiesel Photobioreactor

Dynamic Biogenics Photobioreactor

Greenshift Photobioreactor
 GreenStar Photobioreactor
Infinifuels Open Pond
Inventure Chemicals Open Pond
LiveFuels Open Pond
OriginOil Photobioreactor
Parabel Photobioreactor
PetroSun Open Pond
Seambitoc Open Pond
Solena Group Photobioreactor
Solix Biosystems Photobioreactor
Texas Clean Fuels Photobioreactor

The table below provides a detailed comparison – on various parameters – between open
systems (mainly different types of ponds) and closed systems (bag cultures and bioreactors)

Comparison of Large Scale Systems for Growing Algae

Reactor Mixing Light Temp. Gas Hydro Species Sterility Scale Up

Type Utilization Control Transfer Dynamic Control
Efficiency Stress On
Algae
Unstirred V.Poor Poor None Poor V.Low Difficult None Very
Shallow Difficult
Ponds
Tanks Poor V.Poor None Poor V.Poor Difficult None Very
Difficult
Circular Fair Fair - Good None Poor Low Difficult None Very
Stirred Difficult
Pond
Paddle Fair-Good Fair – Good None Poor Low Difficult None Very
Wheel Difficult
Raceway
Stirred Largely Fair - Good Excellent Low-High High Easy Easily Difficult
Tank Uniform Achieva
Reactor ble
Airlift Generally Good Excellent High Low Easy Easily Difficult
Reactor Uniform Achieva
ble
Bag Culture Variable Fair-Good Good(Ind Low-High Low Easy Easily Difficult
oors) Achieva
ble
Flat Plate Uniform Excellent Excellent High Low-High Easy Achieva Difficult
Reactor ble
Tubular Uniform Excellent Excellent Low – Low-High Easy Achieva Reasona
Reactor(Ser High ble ble
pentine)
Tubular Uniform Excellent Excellent Low-High Low-High Easy Achieva Easy
Reactor ble
(Biocoil)
Source: Department of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati, India (2007)

Unstirred Shallow Ponds - Unstirred shallow ponds are simple open air algae cultivation systems. The sizes range
from a few m2 to 250 ha.

Circular Stirred Pond - Circular stirred ponds are open ponds with a mechanical arm stirring in a circular motion. It is
similar to raceway ponds in which a paddle wheel forces a circulating water flow through a long narrow pond.
Blowing gas bubbles through the medium provides both agitation and (part of the required) CO2.

Stirred Tank Reactor- A stirred tank reactor is the simplest type of reactor. It is composed of a reactor and a mixer
such as a stirrer, a turbine wing or a propeller.

Different Methods of Cultivation

Algae cultivation can be done in a variety of environments. Some of the prominent ones are:

• Desert-based algae cultivation

• Cultivation in waste water
• Cultivation next to power plants
• Cultivation in photobioreactors
• Marine algae cultivation
• Cultivation in freshwater
• Cultivation in open ponds
• Cultivation in closed ponds

Detailed inputs for each of the above methods are provided in later chapters.

2.3.2 Algae Cultivation – Factoids

• Mixing –Mixing is necessary to prevent sedimentation of the algae, to ensure that all cells of
the population are equally exposed to the light and nutrients, to avoid thermal stratification
(e.g. in outdoor cultures) and to improve gas exchange between the culture medium and the
air. The latter is of primary importance as the air contains the carbon source for
photosynthesis in the form of carbon dioxide. For very dense cultures, the CO2 originating
from the air (containing 0.03% CO2 21) bubbled through the culture is limiting the algal growth
and pure carbon dioxide may be supplemented to the air supply (e.g. at a rate of 1% of the
volume of air). CO2 addition furthermore buffers the water against pH changes as a result of

21
Barsanti L., Paolo G. (2006) Algae: anatomy, biochemistry, and biotechnology.
 the CO2/HCO3- balance. Depending on the scale of the culture system, mixing is achieved by
stirring daily by hand (test tubes, erlenmeyers), aerating (bags, tanks), or using paddle
wheels and jetpumps (ponds). However, it should be noted that not all algal species can
tolerate vigorous mixing.
• The main conclusions of the extensive experimental cultivation program during the ASP
Program of NREL (1978-96) were:
1. Productivities of 15 to 25 g/m2/d were routinely obtained during the 8-month growing
season at a specific location. However, higher numbers were rarely seen
2. Continuous operations are about 20% more productive than semi-continuous cultures,
but the latter densities are much higher, an important factor in harvesting.
3. Culture collection strains fare poorly in competition with wild types.
4. Temperature effects are important in species selection and culture collapses, including
grazer development.
5. Night-time productivity losses increased to 10% to 20 % in July, when grazers were
present; nighttime respiratory losses were high only at high temperatures.
6. There is a significant decrease in productivity in the afternoons, compared to the
mornings, in the algal ponds.
7. Oxygen levels can increase as much as 40 mg/L, over 450% of saturation, and high
oxygen levels limit productivity in some strains but not others. Oxygen inhibition was
synergistic with other limiting factors (e.g., temperature).
8. Mixing power inputs were small at low mixing velocities (e.g., 15 cm/s) but increased
exponentially. Productivity was independent of mixing speed.
9. The strains investigated in this study did not exhibit high lipid contents even upon
nitrogen limitation.
10. The transfer of CO2 into the ponds was more than 60% efficient, even though the CO2
was transferred through only the 20-cm depth of the pond.
11. Harvesting by sedimentation has promise, but success was strain specific.
12. Initial experiments demonstrated that media recycling is feasible.
13. Project end input operating costs for large-scale production (@ $50/MT CO2, 70% use
efficiency, etc.) was $130/MT of algae, of which half was for CO2 and one-third for other
nutrients, with pumping and mixing power only about $10/MT.
14. According to the team that conducted the ASP Program @ NREL, large scale cultivation
requires analysis of:
a. 13 resources (such as power costs and evaporation),
b. 15 facility design parameters (e.g., culture depth and mixing),
c. 3 biological parameters (such as growing season) and
d. 8 financial parameters (cost escalations, etc.).
2.3.3 Algae Cultivation Challenges & Efforts

• Cultivation for Single or Multi-purpose

Should the algae cultivation be a single-purpose activity (grow algae for fuel), or should it
combine multiple activities (eg: grow algae for fuel and sequester CO2 from a power plant)?

• Single purpose – grow algae primarily for fuel

• Multi-purpose
o Combined with power plants
o Combined with wastewater treatments and sewage

There are a number of emerging examples of algae cultivated for multiple purposes: Examples
are:

• Greenfuel & Inventure – CO2 sequestration at power plants & fuel

• Aquaflow – Sewage treatment & fuel
• Blue Marble Energy - Fuel and biochemicals.
• Inventure chemicals - Both ethanol and biodiesel from the same biomass.
• Cequesta Algae - Fuel as well as a substitute for fish meal.

• Challenge: Growth Rate of Algae

The difficulties in efficient biofuel production from algae lie not only in finding algal strains with
fast growth rates as well as high lipid content. The challenge also is in identifying conditions that
stimulate the growth of algae, thus increasing the total algal biomass.

Some efforts in this direction:

• CO2 concentration – Efforts are on to determine the optimal CO2 concentration for algae
growth
• Nutrients – Different types of nutrients are being tried out to determine an ideal
combination of nutrients that results in the highest growth rate.

Examples of some research & efforts to increasethe rate of growth of algae:

• A high density algae culture can be obtained in a sewage water treatment process by
placing algae in pure water separated by a dialysis membrane from sewage water
wherein osmotic interaction occurs across the membrane. In a preferred embodiment,
algae is placed in pure water in dialysis tubing and the tubing is suspended in the
presence of light in sewage water for osmotic interaction therewith - Inventors:Dor, Inka
(119 Ein Kerem D, Jerusalem, IL, 1977)
 • C. vulgaris c-27 demonstrated an increase incell numbers by approximately 11% in the 9
and 12 day cultures on the addition of Aerosil. Aerosil in its colloidal form stimulates
proliferation of algae mainly via an acceleration of their life cycles and a significant
increase of cell numbers was found in the stationary phase cultures.
Authors:Gerashchenko B.I.; Gerashchenko I.I.; Kosaka T.; Hosoya H., Source:Canadian
Journal of Microbiology, Volume 48, Number 2, February 2002 , pp. 170-175
• OriginOil adopts cascading production process to attain dramatic increase in algae
growth. OriginOil's Helix BioReactor(TM) growth vessel adds the efficiency needed to
combine incubation and larger tanks in one. Once the algae mature, 90% of it is
transferred for harvesting, and the 'green' water purified and returned to the growth
tank. The remaining 10% is then allowed to expand into the Helix BioReactor, and the
process is repeated- June 2008.
• Researchers had demonstrated that the growth rate of the harmful algae, Alexandrium
tamarense, increases in the presence of humic acid (M.Heidenreich et.al, 2005).
• Green Star Products, Inc., claimed in 2008 that a major breakthrough called “Montana
Micronutrient Booster (MMB)” formula has been achieved which substantially increases
the algae growth rate of certain strains of microalgae. MMB is a micronutrient formula to
increase the growth rate of algae biomass. This growth rate booster can increase the
total biomass quantity in a harvest algae growth cycle by well over 100%. Biotech
Research, Inc., a consortium partner of Green Star, has confirmed a daily growth rate
increase of 34% using the “Montana Micronutrient Booster” formula.
• With the aim of increasing the growth of algae, Photon8 has developed a parallel film
reactor with Travelling Wave Technology. According to the company this system will
make full use of the injected CO2and enhance the production efficiency. 22

• Challenge: Formulation of Medium

Algae require an optimum medium that can encourage growth. The primary nutrients needed
for algal growth are carbon dioxide, nitrogen and phosphorus. Other than these, the
recommended nutrients vary from species to species – in most cases some trace nutrients in the
form of minerals and metals will be required. Some of the minerals and metals are: K, Ca, Fe, S,
Mg, Na, and Mn.

Some of the problems that could crop up in the medium, owing to the nutrient composition, are:

Calcium and magnesium can cause precipitation problems - Calcium and magnesium present in
the algal medium lead to the decomposition of bicarbonate ions and formation of carbonate
ions which crystallise out of the saturated solution of calcium or magnesium carbonate. Thus,
precipitation occurs, leading to residues that hinder algal growth

22
http://www.freepatentsonline.com/y2011/0281339.html
 • The solution being attempted is to provide regular conditioning of the water to avoid
such precipitation.

• Challenge: Provision of CO2

Algae require high concentrations of CO2 for their growth. While on the one hand sequestration
of CO2 by algae is good news, the provision of CO2 to algae increases the cost of operation. CO2
could cover a significant part of operating costs. Typically, the carbon dioxide is pumped in from
a smokestack at a nearby power plant. Injecting that CO2 and circulating it around the tank,
however, requires quite a bit of energy, which in turn adds to cost. While the precise cost of CO2
depends on a number of factors, it can be significant.

A related challenge in CO2 provision is that in shallow open ponds, there is a high loss of CO2 to
the atmosphere. In some cases, it was found that it was difficult to achieve CO2 utilization of
more than 10% 23. This challenge can be addressed by designing optimal CO2 injection systems
which give extended contact time between algae and CO2.

Efforts Made to Overcome the Challenge of High Cost of CO2

• Solix Says It Can Cut the Cost of CO2 Provision Significantly - The company says it has come
up with a way to let CO2 essentially enters and swirl inside the tank in a relatively passive
manner. As a result, Solix claims that it has cut the costs of growing algae by around 90
percent to 95 percent. (Nov 2008)
• Covered area carbonators - bubble covers that make circulation and absorption of CO2 easier
• In-pond carbonation sumps – It is argued that placing carbonation sumps inside the ponds
can increase the efficiency of CO2 circulation and absorption
• Recycling of non-lipid carbon from extraction residues – Efforts are underway that explore
the use of carbon left in the de-oiled algae extract as a source of nutrient for cultivation.

• Challenge: Achieving Optimal Mixing

Uniform mixing is critical to optimal growth of algae. Water circulation in ponds plays a major
role in determining uniform mixing of nutrients in the algal culture. Lack of efficient water
circulation and resulting suboptimal mixing leads to:

• Micro-algal cells sinking to the bottom of the pond that causes deterioration and anaerobic
decomposition
• Lack ofCO2, nutrients and light for algal cells, which hinders growth.
3. Accumulation of oxygen released by the algal cells.

23
E. W. Becker (1994), Microalgae: Biotechnology and Microbiology
Pond size affects water circulation, which in turn affects the design and operating cost of the
circulation/mixing system. Thus, the major challenge lies in the selection of the type of pond and
aeration system for algal cultivation that ensures effective water circulation characteristics.

Efforts

Some of the methods that have been used to effect better mixing using water circulation:

• Paddle wheels
• Airlift pump
• Archimedes screw pump
• Gas lift mixing

High growth rates can be achieved by constant mixing using a paddle wheel. The paddle wheel
rotates providing a constant current around the pond. Mixing is required to ensure that all of the
algae receive the necessary amounts of solar radiation, CO2, and fertilizer required for optimal
growth. The CO2 is injected into the algae pond from a commercial CO2 source or in the form of
flume gas from a nearby coal fired electric plant.

Experiments are underway that use the other forms of mixing as well.

• Challenge: Photosynthesis or Fermentation?

Should we cultivate algae using photosynthesis, or should the algae derive their nutrients for
growth through a fermentation process?

Fermentation is a biochemical process wherein sugar acts as a carbon-source, instead of sunlight

and carbon- dioxide. The fermentation technology is about a century old and is well–established.

Research studies and some empirical data based on experiments by some algae fuel companies
reveal that algae grown in the dark can reach densities that are an order of magnitude higher
than strains of photo-autotrophic algae that are grown in the light.

Fermentation offers the following advantages when compared to photosynthesis:

• Higher controls over algal growth as the algae are fed a feedstock that is under our
control, unlike in the case of photosynthesis when the main fuel (sunlight) is not under
our control.
• Access to a wide variety of low-cost biomass feedstock such as sugarcane waste
(bagasse), energy grass, woodchips or other cellulosic material which can be produced
at scale.
 • Fermentation technology is a century old and is well-established. Hence, existing
infrastructure (large fermentation vats, biorefineries) will help a great deal in making
this process viable.

On the other hand, photosynthesis has its own advantages. The most important of these is that
sunlight is free while the sugar source needed for fermentation is not. In addition, the
photosynthesis route utilizes the high photosynthetic ability of algae.

Given this background, which of the two - photosynthesis or fermentation - is better for algal
cultivation?

According to some, it might not be "either-or" but it could be that both photosynthesis and
fermentation might be the best option - but for different end-products.

Fermentation offers the most control. Temperature, pressure, and other environmental
conditions can be minutely controlled. Additionally, fermentation offers flexibility: For instance,
a row of vats used to ferment algae can be used to make auto fuel, and then scrubbed for
cooking up algae for cooking fuel. And as mentioned earlier, the sugar needed as a substrate for
fermentation doesn't necessarily need to be expensive.

Still, fermentation overall does cost more. As a result, it might make the most sense for higher-
value oils. Martek Biosciences, for instance, ferments algae and sells it as a baby food additive. It
remains to be seen if the model will work for biofuels that gets burned in cars.

While the sun is free, temperatures vary daily. Temperature regulation adds cost, and the
amount of sunlight is variable and seasonal. Controlling the rate of growth was a problem
GreenFuel Technologies had in 2008 at its Arizona facility.

Conclusion: It is not fully clear which of the two – photosynthesis or fermentation – is the most
optimal. While most companies are going the photosynthesis route, some companies –
Solazyme for instance – are experimenting with the fermentation route.

Examples & Case Studies

• Bayer(2008) proposed the alternative ways of taking advantage of some of the

algae's abilities by growing them in Deep-Dark-Tanks (DDT) and feeding them
with organic matter, in particular sugar, which ultimately should best come from
cellulosic biomass. Neither light nor CO2 would be needed. The advantage is that
lower-valued carbohydrates, including those not directly suitable as food or feed,
can be converted to higher-valued protein and oil by using established agriculture
and industrial facilities of moderate investment costs. The disadvantage is that
one cannot benefit from algae's high photosynthetic efficiency.
• W. Kowallik* & H. Gaffron (1967), FloridaStateUniversity stated that in the dark,
algae live on their reserve substances and respire very slowly. In this state a little
 blue light can stimulate their dark metabolism considerably. This regulatory effect
may be the basis for several responses of plants to blue light 24

• Challenge: Land Requirements

Land use requirements are less for algae as a biofuel feedstock when compared to other
commodity crop feedstocks such as corn, soy and canola. However, it is necessary to ensure that
even lesser land areas are required to enable algae cultivation in open ponds next to specific CO2
emitting industries such as power plants, where land area availability could be scarce.

Efforts
• Use of photobioreactors – Use of photobioreactors for algae cultivation is one of the
most obvious ways to increase productivity per unit area and consequently reduce the
amount of land required. Details on photobioreactors are provided in a subsequent
chapter.
• Growing algae on solid carriers in ocean - Kansas State Univ. - Jun 2008
o Kansas State University’s Zhijian "Z.J." Pei, associate professor of industrial and
manufacturing systems engineering, and Wenqiao "Wayne" Yuan, Assistant
Professor of Biological and Agricultural engineering, have received a $98,560
Small Grant for Exploratory Research from the National Science Foundation to
study solid carriers for manufacturing algae biofuels in the ocean. Solid carriers
float on the water surface for algae to attach to and grow on.
• Valcent’s Vertigro uses area above a plot of land – Apr 2008
o With its proprietary technique, called Vertigro, Valcent uses the area above a plot
of land to increase its yield. The Vertigro process starts off with a volume of algae-
infused water in an underground tank, where its temperature will stay quite
constant. A pump pushes the fluid up to a holding chamber located 3 meters
above the surface in a greenhouse. The pump then squirts the algae water into a
series of clear plastic sheets, each containing several interconnected bladders
arranged in a raster pattern. As gravity pulls the fluid through the bladders, the
algae-laden liquid soaks up sunlight. The fluid is collected in a second
containment chamber at the bottom of the sheets and then returned to the
underground tank. Inside the tank, the algae receive carbon dioxide, and the
oxygen from the photosynthesis process is extracted. Then the whole cycle begins
again. (Vertigro has been dissolved in July 2010)

• Algae grown in sewage ponds - Aquaflow Bionomic (May 2006)

o Aquaflowderives algae from excess pond discharge from the Marlborough District
Council's sewage treatment works.

24
www.nature.com
 • Solix Biofuels
o Solix Biofuels plans to commercialize its algae fuel technology by growing algae
on unused land adjacent to power plants and ethanol plants.
• EniTecnologie, Italy
o EniTecnologie have completed an R&D project on microalgae biofixation of CO2 to
evaluate on pilot scale the feasibility of using fossil CO2 emitted from a NGCC
power plant to produce algal biomass. The R&D focuses on how to increase the
productivities of algal mass cultures under outdoor operating conditions. The
target is to double biomass productivities from the currently projected 30 g (dry
weight)/m2/day to 60 g (dry weight)/m2/day for peak monthly productivities,
corresponding to a solar energy conversion efficiency of about 5%. This would
reduce land area requirements (footprint of the process) and costs of algal
biomass production.

• Scaling Up Challenges

Algal biofuel production is still in its infancy. While there have been numerous reports of
successes and breakthroughs at the laboratory scale, it is not entirely clear what percentage of
these lab successes have succeeded at a pilot level – in real-life, out-of-the-lab circumstances.

For instance, NREL had reported, based on some of the experiments it had done during the ASP
program that “when transferred to outdoor test facility, growth rate, % oil yield decreased
dramatically from those from laboratory results”. That is, biodiesel produced per acre in Open
Test Facility was much lower compared to that produced in lab.

A number of efforts are ongoing in order to increase algae fuel operations to a much larger
scale, but these are expected to take significant time to produce results; it is hoped that one will
see medium-scale algae biorefineries by 2015, and large-scale biorefineries in a couple of years
from then.

The inherent difficulties of scaling up from laboratory to commercial operations present both
technical and economic barriers to success. There is an immediate need to standardize
productivity models and establish protocols for measurement of yields, rates, densities,
metabolites, and normalization. Along with standards, coordinated research amongst analytical
chemists, physiologists, biochemists, and genetic, chemical, civil and mechanical engineers is
needed for rapid progress.

Some of the processes where scaling–up challenges are faced are as follows:

• Nutrient sources and water treatment/recycling are technically trivial and inexpensive at
small scales and yet represent major technical and economic problems at commercial scales.

• With large cultivation systems, water demands will be enormous. For example, a
hypothetical 1 hectare (ha), 20 cm deep open pond will require 530,000 gallons to fill. In
 desert areas, evaporative losses can exceed 0.5 cm per day (Weissman and Tillet, 1989),
which is a loss of 13,000 gallons per day from the 1 ha pond.

• Additionally, where open pond systems are used, not enough information is available about
artificial pond ecology or pathology, and investigation into these areas will be important for
the development of large-scale cultivation risk mitigation and remediation strategies.
Developing an understanding of pond speciation, predator-prey relationships, and ecology
dynamics will also be important.

• High-energy harvesting method is yet another issue faced in scaling-up algae for commercial
biofuel production. These energy-intensive processes are only now being recognized as
critically important. Addressing harvesting issues requires careful analysis of engineering
designs, combined with R&D to develop specific processing technologies to support those
designs and a fundamental understanding of how algal biology can impact harvesting and
dewatering strategies.

• Most challenges in extraction are associated with the industrial scale up of integrated
extraction systems. While many analytical techniques exist, optimizing extraction systems
that consume much less energy than contained in the algal products is a challenge due to the
high energy needs associated with handling and drying algal biomass as well as separating
out desirable products. Some algal biomass production processes are investigating options to
bypass extraction, though these are also subject to a number of unique scale-up challenges.

Ongoing Research for Other Challenges in Algae Cultivation

i) The process of nutrient and CO2 provision introduces disturbances that could hinder algal
growth. One of the challenges of algae cultivation is to find out how to keep these
disturbances to a minimum, as well as to ensure that the environment is not over-
aerated.
ii) Algae cultivation systems need to cost-effectively and evenly distribute light within the
algae culture. One of the key parameters which influence the microalgal growth is light.
This is because, like many plants, algae are quite sensitive to the amount and type of
light. However, open ponds are quite inefficient in terms of providing adequate and
uniform amounts of light to the algal cells, particularly when sunlight is the sole source of
light. The critical challenge involves providing a means of cost-effective cultivation
system for uniformly exposing the cells in the algal culture to an optimum amount of
visible light.

Algae in any kind of pond are only in the top 1/4" or so of the water do the algae receive
enough solar radiation. So the ability of a pond to grow algae is limited by its surface area,
not by its volume. Algae thrive on the surface of water and other moist surfaces, but the
growth rate slows considerably at more than a centimeter beneath the surface, because of
poor light distribution.
The problems and efforts in light distribution during algal cultivation are:

a. Excessive light intensity can damage and kill the algal cells
b. Similarly, poor design of cultivation systems can restrict light access to algae and
reduce productivity due to low levels of photosynthesis.
c. Light sources, including natural sunlight, often emit substantial amounts of heat.
Algal cultures are sensitive to heat as many of them grow most efficiently at
temperatures of 20°-35° C. Thus, means must often be provided for cooling the algal
culture and dissipating heat generated by the light source which might be expensive.
d. Efforts - An interesting effort in this context of light distribution has been undertaken.
In the Seattle area, startup Bionavitas is testing a process to bring light deeper below
the surface, solving the problem of algae shading out growth below the initial top
layer - Nov 2008
 Algae Harvesting
3
◊ Microalgae Harvesting
◊ Prominent Harvesting Practices for
Microalgae
◊ Macroalgae Harvesting
◊ Prominent Harvesting Practices for
Macroalgae
◊ Methods Employed for Harvesting Specific
Macroalgal Strains
◊ Trends & Latest in Harvesting Methods
◊ Challenges & Efforts
◊ Harvesting Algae – Efforts to Find More
Efficient Solutions

Chapter Highlights

Unlike for many other energy crops, the cost of harvesting microalgae could present a
significant challenge to economic energy production from algae.
Harvesting microalgae is difficult as well as energy intensive. This is mainly because the most
rapidly growing algal species are frequently very small and often motile unicells which are
the most difficult to harvest.
While many options are being tried out, the prominent among them are filtration,
centrifugation, flotation and flocculation.
While centrifugation and flocculation/flotation are expensive harvesting methods, both
these are expected to have potential in future for harvesting microalgae.
Macroalgae are harvested either manually or using some equipments. With free-floating
algae, harvesting can be made by simply raising a net installed in the pond. In case of
attached algae, they have to be cut with cutting equipments after which they are collected
and transported with haulers and winchers.
Though macroalgae take longer times than microalgae for regeneration, and require labor
intensive practices for harvesting, the major advantage is that they are economical to
harvest when compared to microalgae.
3.1 Microalgae Harvesting

Harvesting generally means separating algae from the medium and obtaining a slurry or paste
containing 5-25% Total Suspended Solids (TSS). Such concentrated slurry is attainable by one
step harvesting process or by two step processes consisting of harvesting step which brings the
algal slurry to 2-7% TSS and dewatering step whose end product is an algal paste of 15-25% TSS.

The ease in harvesting algae depends primarily on the organism's size, which determines how
easily the species can be settled and filtered. The most rapidly growing algal species are
frequently very small, and often motile unicells, and these are the most difficult to harvest. Thus,
it is necessary to maintain an effective interaction between the development of harvesting
technologies and the selection of algal species for mass culture.

Unlike for many other energy crops, the cost of harvesting microalgae could present a significant
challenge to economic energy production from algae.

The reasons lie in the differences present between harvesting microalgae and other “traditional”
energy crops:

• The medium in which algae grow is different – the other oilseeds are land crops while
algae grow in water.
• Microalgae’s physical characteristics are significantly different from those of the primary
oilseeds, the main difference being the size.
• Algae are harvested almost everyday, for most part or all through the year, whereas
harvesting for most oilseeds is quite seasonal in nature

Owing to these reasons, harvesting algae, especially microalgae, could be a fairly expensive
process. A number of methods could be potentially used for harvesting. These are discussed in
detail in this chapter.

It should be noted that macroalgae harvesting does not present many of the challenges that
microalgae harvesting presents. Even though the harvesting methods used for macroalgae are
different from those employed for traditional energy crops – owing to the fact that most
macroalgae are currently cultivated in marine environments – macroalgae do not present size-
specific challenges that microalgae present.

3.1.1Prominent Harvesting Practices for Microalgae

The main types of harvesting methods are:

• Filtration - Mechanical harvesting using filtration, by means of strong membranes, such

as microscreens.
• Chemical Methods - Chemical and/or biological harvesting by means of flocculants
 • Centrifugation – It uses the action of centrifugal force to promote accelerated settling of
particles in a solid-liquid mixture.
• Flotation - Another method is froth flotation, whereby the water and algae are aerated
into froth, with the algae then removed from the water.

Details of specific harvesting methods are described below.

Filtration

Filtration using mesh screens is a common method for harvesting macroalgae.

Harvesing of microalgae is more difficult. There are thousands of different microalgal species,
ranging in size from one thousandth of a millimetre (one micron) to over 2 mm. Typical size
range are 5-10 microns for small green algae as Chlorella sp. and up to several hundreds microns
for thread like algae as some blue-green species. Filtration methods specially designed for
separating specific microalgae can be used to filter algae from the solution.

Common Types of Filters:

Drum filter - The liquid is filtered through the periphery of the slowly rotating drum. Assisted by
the filter elements’ special cell structure, the algae are carefully separated from the liquid.
Separated algae are rinsed off the filter cloth into the collection tray and discharged.

Disc filter - In this type of filter, the water flows by gravity into the filter segments from the
centre drum. Algae are separated from the water by the microscreen cloth mounted on the two
sides of the segments. When the screen is clogged, the back-wash cycle is started and algae are
back-washed into the collecting trough.

Some unique filtration methods are given below:

Continuous filtration system – Such a system provides for a continuous filtering process. This
process can be specifically used when filtration is required for large or very large volumes from
high-rate ponds.

Multi-stage filtration – A process in which filtering is done in multiple phases/stages. One

example is the triple-filtering of algae from KlamathLake in the US.

Using Fiber Coatings on Movable Belt Screens – An example of such an effort is provided here 25.
From a water medium, a harvester recovers algae useful as animal feed. The harvester has a

25
Dodd., Joseph C. (1976) Algae harvester United States Patent 3951805. Retrieved from:
http://www.freepatentsonline.com/3951805.html
preferably endless, movable belt screen. A coating device puts a first coating of long fibers (such
as glass fiber or asbestos mixed with paper fiber) onto one side of the belt screen. A container of
algae in water discharges onto the first coating permitting much of the water to pass through it
and the belt screen but holding back the algae largely as a second coating on the fibers. A
second screen having finer openings than the first screen is disposed against the second coating.
This second screen has openings large enough to pass the algae but small enough to hold back
the fibers. Suction is applied to the second screen causing the algae and entrained water to
move therethrough.

Using Surface Coatings Containing Other Algae - An example of such an effort is provided here 26.
To separate small algae, such as Dunaliella, from a containing liquid, a filter drum is provided
with a surface coat including a layer of large algae such as Spirulina. The Dunaliella are deposited
on the surface coat and are largely separated from the containing liquid, with some Spirulina as
an accompaniment. The method involves using relatively large algae, such as Spirulina, in a layer
as a filter for relatively small algae, such as Dunaliella.

Sedimentation

Sedimentation is the process of allowing algae to settle to the bottom. Sedimentation of algae in
water column mainly depends on density of algae and motility of algae. Sedimentation is of
particular significance to diatoms due to their high density (silica cell wall) and lack of planktonic
motility.

Sedimentation of microalgae is usually done in combination with flocculation. Some Waste

Stabilization Ponds that use algae for water treatment currently employ sedimentation as the
main harvesting process.
One of the hindrances to efficient sedimentation in continuous production systems could be the
mixing provided for better nutrient circulation, which prevents effective sedimentation. This
however might not be a problem in batch cultivation, where the mixing process could be halted
during the sedimentation process.

Centrifugation

A centrifuge is an apparatus that uses centrifugal force to separate particles from a suspension.

Centrifugation is a method of separating algae from the medium by using a centrifuge to cause
the algae to settle to the bottom of a flask or tank. Coupled with a homogenizer, one may be
able to separate biolipids and other useful materials from algae.

26
Dodd; Joseph C. (1984) Means and method for recovering algae; Retrieved from: http://www.patents.com/Means-
recovering-algae/US4465600/en-US/
The operational cost of centrifugation for algae harvesting could however be significant –
estimates of centrifugation costs (including amortization of capital costs) vary from $100 to $500
per tonne of algae biomass.

In addition to harvesting, there are other steps in the biodiesel production process where
centrifugation is useful.

 Separation of transesterification products - Biodiesel and glycerine must be separated,

and any leftover reactants removed.
 Water wash - Biodiesel can be washed of soap and glycerine using a centrifuge.

Flocculation

Flocculation is a method of separating algae from the medium by using chemicals to force the
algae to form lumps. The technique works by introducing a chemical agent in the algae culture,
after which the micro-organisms gather in a high concentration. Flocculation causes the cells to
become aggregated into larger clumps which are more easily filtered and/or settle more rapidly.

Alum and ferric chloride are the usual chemical flocculants used to harvest algae. Alum is a
common name for several trivalent sulfates of metals such as aluminum, chromium, or iron and
univalent metals such as potassium or sodium, for example Al2(SO4)2. A commercial product
called "Chitosan", commonly used for water purification, can also be used as a flocculant. It has
also been found that 0.03-0.05% alum 27 or 6% lime water is found be an efficient flocculant.
The main disadvantage of this separation method is the additional chemicals are difficult to
remove from the separated algae. Harvesting by chemical flocculation is also expensive.

A novel way of using flocculation is autoflocculation. Certain conditions can cause algae to
flocculate on its own, which is called "autoflocculation".

Flotation

Froth Flotation is a method of separating algae from the medium by adjusting pH and bubbling
air through a column to create a froth of algae that accumulates above liquid level. Froth
flotation separates algae from its medium by adjusting pH and bubbling air through a column of
medium. The algae collect in froth above the liquid level, and may be removed by suction. The
pH required depends on algal species.

Dissolved Air Flotation (DAF) separates algae from its culture using features of both froth
flotation and flocculation. It uses alum to flocculate an algae/air mixture, with fine bubbles
supplied by an air compressor. This enables the algae to rise to the surface after which it is

27
E. Wolfgang Becker (1994), Microalgae: Biotechnology and Microbiology
removed. It has been determined that DAF can remove between 70% and 90% of algae in a
culture.

Other Methods

Polymer Harvesting

Microalgae can also be harvested using methods such as polymer harvesting that uses
flocculation, wherein organic polymers, usually those of quite high molecular weight are
considered as good flocculants.

These polymers can be cationic (Eg: polyethylene amine), anionic (Eg: polyacrylate) or non-ionic
(Eg: poly acrylamide). Some examples of polymers used for algae harvesting are polyamine,
polyethylene amine, and diacetylated polymer of chitin.

With current techniques and instrumentation, microalgae can be harvested with polymers,
although this is not yet economical. Polymer harvesting is technically feasible but different algae
need different polymers. The amount of polymer increases as the clarification requirement
becomes more stringent, making it more cost effective not to require greater removal. With the
most suitable polymers and appropriate replication techniques, harvesting can be accomplished
with removal efficiencies of 85%-95%.

Polymers with higher rigid backbones are less affected by the salt concentration and are
recommended as flocculants of microalgae in saline water.

Ultrasound-based Methods

Ultrasound based methods of algae harvesting/oil extraction are currently under

development.Ultrasonic extraction, a branch of sonochemistry, is expected to play a significant
role in the algae oil extraction processes. Using ultrasonic reactors, ultrasonic waves are used to
create cavitation bubbles in the medium. When these bubbles collapse near the algal cell walls,
they create shock waves and liquid jets that cause those cell walls to break and release oil into
the medium. By thismethod, the traditional harvesting step is by-passed and extraction of oil is
done directly from algae present in the medium.

Specific Method for Harvesting Dunaliella

A method for harvesting algae of the genus Dunaliella from suspensions thereof in brines
containing sodium chloride at a concentration of about 3M (molar) or above was experimented,
wherein the algal suspension is contacted with an adsorbent having a hydrophobic surface so as
to adsorb the algae thereon, and the adsorbent with the algae adsorbed thereon is separated
from the brine. 28

Vibrating Separation

Vibrating separation uses innovative membrane filtration concepts and is considered a useful
separation technique for many difficult separation problems, to increase the efficiency of
processes.

3.1.2 Trends & Latest in Harvesting Microalgae

Filtration- Trends&Advances

Harvesting algal biomass for biofuels using ultrafiltration membranes

Xuezhi Zhang, Qiang Hu, Milton Sommerfeld, Emil Puruhit and Yongsheng Chen

Bioresource Technology
Volume 101, Issue 14, July 2010, Pages 5297-5304.

Efficient technologies are being developed for harvesting of algal biomass using membrane
filtration. But the buildup of the algal cake layer and adsorption of algogenic organic matter
(AOM) (mainly protein, polysaccharides or polysaccharide-like substances) on the membrane
caused membrane fouling.Foulants were characterized using scanning electron microscopy
(SEM) and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. Anti-fouling strategies were
established, such as using air-assisted backwash with air scouring, and optimizing
operational conditions.

1.0 XL Renewables – Sigmae - XL Renewables, Inc. is a renewable energy innovation company

focused on the large-scale production of algae biomass and the development of integrated
biorefinery projects. They harvest the algae through a unique single belt step that dewaters
and dries the algae solids right in the field. They use the waste heat from their in-field CO2
generators for the drying step. The solids are then ready for oil extraction.

2.0 Kent SeaTech, USA experiments optimal growing conditions (e.g., temperature, light, water
depth and velocity, etc.), of microalgae and evaluates belt systems to harvest algal biomass,
and explores techniques to convert biomass to biofuels and co products.

Centrifugation - Trends & Advances

28
1985, Curtain, Cyril C. (Williamstown, AU), Snook, Harvey (Aspendale, AU),
 • High Speed Disc Bowl Centrifuge - High speed disc bowl vertical centrifuges are usually
used for metalworking fluid purification, power plants, biodiesel, waste oil, oily waste,
fish oil, fruit juice, industrial and biological wastewater. Stacked disc high speed
centrifuges are suitable for fine particle filtration in the process feed material.

• Decanter Centrifuge for high solids content, abrasive and soft particle separation.
Decanter centrifuges are used to extract (dewater) solid materials from liquids when they
are mixed together in slurry. Decanter centrifuge design consists of a solid container,
called a bowl, which rotates at high speed. Inside the bowl tube, a screen conveyor
rotates in the same direction, but at a slightly different speed. A differential gear is
typically used to adjust speed.

• Among the process innovations explored is the use of a three-phase centrifuge to

separate the algal lipids from the water and other biomass fractions. This provides a
relatively straightforward method for lipid recovery (a major issue in prior studies) at
only marginally higher costs than the centrifuge earlier specified for final concentration.

• A company by name Innova Tech has brought about a new method to efficiently separate
algae particles from the liquid medium. This filter termed as the Nova Filter, essentially is
a centrifugal device which employs layers of air and controlled vortex flows to separate
the wet-laden algae from the medium. This requires very less maintenance as it doesn’t
make use of a barrier filter which usually causes a block. The company received a grant
worth $50,000 grant in 2009 to develop the laboratory technology into a large-scale
system. InnovaTech has since been awarded a $150,000 grant as the company continues
to develop the technology into a marketable system.

• Evodos BV, an algae technology developer based in Netherlands, developed a spiral plate
centrifuge for the harvesting of algae, which, according to the company, will give algae
harvesting a positive energy balance. The company claims that their technology leaves
the algae paste which is 98% free of extracellular water.

MBD Energy based in Australia is using the Evodos centrifugal harvesting system for its own
algae-CO2 sequestration project. The technology can be used for wastewater treatment,
manure treatment, flour and starch clarification and a number of other purposes. (July 2011)

Flotation & Flocculation - Trends & Advances

• Developments in rapid flotation – One way to solve the problem is the use of “rapid”,
high throughput flotation units, based on a wide bubble size distribution and formation
of “aerated” (entrapped or entrained bubbles) flocs (Rubio et al., 2002, Rubio, 2003,
Parehk and Miller, 1999). This paper describes the advances in the design, development
and applications of innovative in-line mixing for flocculation and flotation for solid-liquid
separation processes. Successful examples are the recently developed FF (Flocculation-
Flotation) and the FGR (Flocs Generator Reactor,) both being applied in a number of
 applications (Carissimi and Rubio, 2005; Rosa and Rubio, 2005). Another rapid flotation
technique (device) is the BAF (Bubble Accelerated Flotation) reported by Owen et al.
(1999).

• Dispersed ozone flotation of Chlorella vulgaris

Ling Cheng, Yu-Chuan Juang, Guan-Yu Liao, Shih-Hsin Ho, Kuei-Ling Yeh, Chun-Yen Chen, Jo-
Shu Chang, Jhy-Chern Liu and Duu-Jong Lee
Bioresource Technology

Volume 101, Issue 23, December 2010, Pages 9092-9096

Flotation separation of Chlorella vulgaris, a species with excellent potential for CO2 capture
and lipid production, was studied using dispersed ozone gas. Pure oxygen aeration did not
yield flotation. Conversely, applying ozone effectively separation algae from broth through
flotation. The ozone dose applied for sufficient algal flotation is <0.05 mg/g biomass, much
lower than those used in practical drinking waterworks (0.1–0.3 mg/g suspended solids).
Main products, lipid C16:0, was effectively collected in the flotage phase. The algae removal
rate, surface charge, and hydrophobicity of algal cells and proteins and polysaccharides
contents of algogenic organic matter (AOM) were determined. Certain quantities of proteins
were present in the cultivated algal suspension, hence, minimal quantity of ozone was
required to release intracellular proteins as surfactants to lead to effective flotation.

• The FF (Flocculation-Flotation) Method - generation of very light flocs (with entrained

and entrapped air). These flocs are generated in the presence of high molecular weight
polymers, air bubbles (from the injected air), high shearing forces (caused by the zigzag
kind of flow and flow rate) and a high head loss (or velocity gradient). FF has been
reported in applications to remove oil, grease, BOD, etc., forming low density flocs which
are readily floated in the flotation tank separator (within seconds), as large units (some
millimeters in diameter). The excess air leaves the flotation device by the top through a
special water seal (avoiding flow turbulence).

• Using ammonia for algae harvesting and as nutrient in subsequent cultures 29

A novel harvesting method using ammonia as a flocculant to make the algal biomass settable
was studied. The major advantage of this approach is that the ammonia added is reused as
fertilizer in the subsequent cultures. The results indicated that ammonia-induced
flocculation led to more than 99% removal of algae at 12 h. The OD600 of algae growing in
the ammonia-enriched flocculation medium treated with heating and CO2 was 2 times than
that of initial after 6 days. The results suggested that this flocculation method provides an
option for economic harvesting and cultivation of microalgae.

29
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S096085241200990X
Challenges & Efforts

Lack of Low-cost, Efficient Harvesting Methods

Harvesting microalgae is difficult as well as energy intensive. This is mainly because the most
rapidly growing algal species are frequently very small and often motile unicells which are the
most difficult to harvest. Moreover, the conventional harvesting methods used for harvesting
microalgae – such as centrifuges, filtration and flotation equipments - are energy-intensive. A
study claimed that a centrifuge uses 48.8% of the total energy consumption during algal biofuel
production (Reith et al, 2004). Thus, the major challenge lies in maintaining an effective
interaction between the development of cost-efficient harvesting technologies and the selection
of algal species for mass culture.

Besides simple sedimentation, all other methods are expensive, though innovative forms of
filtration could become economical in future. Some of the more expensive methods include
flotation, flocculation & centrifugation.

Efforts

Some of the new methods being tried to facilitate lower cost harvesting are

1. Induced bio-flocculation followed by sedimentation or flotation

2. AlgoDyne Ethanol Energy has claimed it has a new process to harvest biomass from
marine algal blooms
3. Aquaflow – the company has developed a scalable method for harvesting algae in the
wild
• Researchers at California (Patrick E. W. et.al. 2009) attempted to identify a more efficient
algal harvesting system for an oxidation pond. Analysis of oxidation pond wastewater
revealed that algae, consisting primarily of Chlorella and Scenedesmus, composed
approximately 80% of the solids inventory during the study period. Results demonstrated
that suspended air flotation (SAF) could harvest algae with a lower air: solids (A/S) ratio,
lower energy requirements, and higher loading rates compared to Dissolved Air Flotation
(DAF). Furthermore, use of SAF to harvest commercially grown Chlorella and Scenedesmus
may reduce manufacturing costs of algal-based products such as fuel, fertilizer, and fish
food.
• AlgaeVenture Systems of Marysville, Ohio, had patented a new method to harvest, dewater
and dry mature algae production at a fraction of one percent of other processes in common
use. They claim that they can reduce the cost of removing, harvesting and dewatering algae
by more than 99 percent – from $875 per ton to $1.92 per ton. The system contains a
centrifuge which moves the entire mass of water and its contents in order to separate into
fractions. When differential pressure (even excessive gravitational pressure in the form of a
water column) is moved to force algal mass and water through a screen, this energy
compacts the algal mass into a form that blocks water and impacts algal mass into screen.
 This continuous approach allows for a thin layer of algae to be continuously processed from
in solution to dry flake in a distance of four feet at a scalable rate with scalable equipment. In
their prototype equipment, the rate exceeds 500 liters per hour on less than 40 watts per
hour of run time.
• An algae fuel company Phycal,Hawaii, USA, is trying to harvest oil from algae without killing
the algae. Instead, Phycal bathes the algae in solvents which can suck out the oil. Some
strains of algae can go through the process four times or more.
• Researchers at Columbia University had attempted a cost - effective membrane system for
cross-flow filtration harvesting of microalgae in 1978. However, the availability of the
membranes, the pressure drops required, and the fouling problems encountered made this
approach impractical.
• Researchers at the University of Sheffield have developed an inexpensive way of producing
microbubbles that can float algae particles to the surface of the water, making harvesting
easier. The system developed by them uses up to 1000 times less energy to produce the
microbubbles and, in addition, the cost of installing the microbubble system is predicted to
be much less than existing flotation systems.

Challenge: Long Harvesting Period

While algae have much shorter harvesting periods compared to other competing energy crops,
among the algae species, it has been found that some strains that have high oil yield have longer
time to harvest than others with lower yields. Ideally, researchers look to obtain algae strains
that perform well in both – high oil yield as well as short time to harvest.

Some research that is being conducted in this regard:

• According to some research reports, harvesting at increased frequencies could have a

beneficial effect on the growth of algae and shorten the average period to harvest on an
average. This might result from increased sunlight and nutrient availability to the algae
present in the culture medium.

Challenge: Determining Precise Time of Harvesting

Challenges

• Difficult to determine the right time to extract oil from feedstock is critical
• Current methods to determine these are expensive, time consuming and unreliable

Efforts

1. Estimating cell density/ algal density for harvesting- A spectrophotometer or fluorometer

measures various contents in an algal culture and this can be used to obtain a quick
 approximation of cell density. More accurate estimates of cell density can be made using
a haemocytometer or a Coulter Counter.
2. Method used by the NREL researchers in the ASP Program - The ASP team developed a
system that screened algae for their oil content and greatly reduced the sample size
needed for their research. It developed a stain for algae, called Nile Red. When treated
with the stain, the algae became fluorescent under certain conditions, making it easier to
measure their oil content.
3. The BioGauge “bio-profiling” technology from International Energy Inc. is intended to
help determine exactly how much of the lipids are present in the algae feedstock at all
times during its growth, so that one can harvest at the peak moment in the algae’s
natural oil production cycle - Sep 2008 news

Challenge: Cost of Centrifuges or Flocculants Used for Harvesting

• Centrifugation
1. The use of centrifuge to harvest the algae is inhibited by the costs owing to
construction cost, high power consumption and maintenance requirements.
2. In the technical and economical analysis on microalgae for biofuels it was shown
that the investment costs for the centrifuges contributed up to 34% of the total
investment on equipment (Reith et al, 2004). The study also showed that the
centrifuge used 48.8% of the total energy consumption.

• Flocculation
3. Flocculation uses chemicals to cause algae to form clumps. The requirement for
large doses of these chemicals makes flocculation expensive.
4. In addition, the cost of removing the chemicals used for flocculation from the
algae after separation is high to be commercially viable for biofuel production.
Efforts

1. In a feasibility study done by researchers at Wageningen university, it was found

that the total costs for concentrating the microalgae from 0.3 g/l to 100 g/l (10%
dry matter) can be reduced from 2.72 Euro/kg (for centrifugation) to about 0.7
Euro/kg when the algae are pre-concentrated to 5% dry matter by flocculation
combined with flotation or sedimentation prior to further concentration by
centrifugation or filtration. In addition the energy demand decreased from 4.76
kWh/kg to 0.4-0.6 kWh/kg. (Apr 2009)
2. Harvesting by chemical flocculation is a method that is often too expensive for
large operations. Interrupting the carbon dioxide supply to an algal system can
cause algae to flocculate on its own, which is called "autoflocculation".
3. Polymer flocculation of microalgae can form stable suspensions. The advantages
of this method are: capability to treat large quantities of culture, applicability to a
wide range of algae strains, and requirement of less energy than for mechanical
separation.
 4. The Israeli company Seambiotic is utilizing flue gas from coal burning power
stations for algae cultivation. According to the company (Ben-Amotz, 2008), trials
on several species have been successful, with some species productivity of 20
g/m2/day. The algae are harvested via a low-cost self-flocculation technique.
Samples have been converted to biodiesel and showed 12% w/w dry ash free
(daf) yield of biodiesel from microalgal biomass. Seambiotic are of the opinion
that production costs could be as low as $0.34/kg of algae biomass, based on a
comparison with the NBT (since 1988, NBT cultivates Dunaliella, a salt-loving
algae species, at 10 ha of open-pond facilities.)operating cost and scale of
operation.
5. Bioflocculation as a harvesting technology has been demonstrated experimentally
at the 0.1 ha scale with waste treatment ponds (Benemann et al., 1980).
6. Centrifugation is used as a final concentration step for the biomass. It may be
possible to substitute a lower cost secondary gravity settling process, depending
on the biomass to fuel conversion step.

Harvesting Algae – Efforts to Find More Efficient Solutions

• Microstrainers
o Filamentous microalgae species might be grown that would be easier and
cheaper to harvest using microstrainers. Microstrainers, which are rotating
screens (typically 25 to 50 μm openings) with a backwash, are already widely used
for removing filamentous algae, mainly filamentous cyanobacteria (blue-green
algae) from potable water supplies.
o Both at short and long retention times the algal cultures invariably became
unharvestable with microstrainers. However, long retention times also resulted in
low productivities 30

• An interesting phenomenon is the “Phase isolation” process, in which the algal cells were
allowed to spontaneously settle when sewage inflow was stopped (Koopman et al. 1978, 1980).
Although generally long times were required for this settling process (2-3 weeks), it was decided
to investigate this general phenomenon of “bioflocculation” in high rate ponds. The process
involved removing the algae from the paddle wheel-mixed ponds and placing them in a
quiescent container, where they would spontaneously flocculate and rapidly settle. There are
several apparently distinct mechanisms by which algae flocculate and then settle, including
“autoflocculation”, which is induced by high pH in the presence of phosphate and divalent
cations (Mg2+ and Ca2+), and flocculation induced by N limitation. 31

• Professor Harry Gregor at ColumbiaUniversity was funded for two years to develop
membrane systems for cross-flow filtration harvesting of microalgae. However, the membranes
30
NREL ASP Program
31
NREL ASP Program
available at the time, the pressure drops required, and the fouling problems encountered made
this approach impractical 32(1978)

• In a paper titled, “Use of Anion Exchange Resins for One-Step Processing of Algae from
Harvest to Biofuel,” University of Texas at Austin scientists say that to circumvent the cost-
prohibitive obtainment of algae oil due to the pumping and processing of large volumes of dilute
algal suspensions, Amberlite anion exchange resins can be used to greatly reduce processing
costs.

Harvesting Microalgae – Other Efforts & Solutions

 McCarry, MG, Tongkasame, C, - The most economic algal recovery was obtained by chemical
coagulation using alum with pH control or alum aided by cationic polyelectrolytes. Algae
were recovered by downflow solids contact flotation
 Koopman, B, Lincoln, EP, - Autoflotation of algae by photosynthetically produced dissolved
oxygen was shown to be a rapid and effective harvesting technique. When used in
conjunction with chemical flocculation by alum or C-31 polymer, removal of 80-90% of algal
cells was achieved at overflow rates in the flotation basin of up to 2m per hour with algal
float concentrations averaging more than 6% solids.
 Algae size is an important factor since low-cost filtration procedures are presently applicable
only for harvesting fairly large microalgae (e.g. Coelastrum, Spirulina). Small size microalgae
should be flocculated into larger bodies which can be harvested by either sedimentation or
floatation 33
 Faraday Technology, Inc. is developing a novel process to concentrate microalgae prior to
the extraction of lipids through the use of electric fields, termed the FARADAYIC
ElectroConcentration Process.Faraday’s initial results are focused on the algae species
Scendesmus dimorphus (Figure 1). Initial results show that the FARADAYIC
ElectroConcentration Process is capable of concentrating algae from ~7 g/L to ~82 g/L while
depleting the treated area to ~2 g/L and is significantly more effective than gravity induced
settling.

3.2 Macroalgae Harvesting

Macroalgae are harvested either manually or using some equipments. With free-floating algae,
harvesting can be made by simply raising a net installed in the pond. In case of attached algae,

32
NREL ASP Program
33
G. Shelef.,A. Sukenik., M. Green. (1984) Microalgae Harvesting and Processing: A Literature Review.Retrieved from:
http://www.nrel.gov/docs/legosti/old/2396.pdf
they have to be cut with cutting equipments after which they are collected and transported with
haulers and winchers.

Strains like Ascophyllum nodosum and Chondrus crispus, Mastocarpus stellatus are difficult to
harvest owing to their morphology. Such strains are either harvested using a sickle / knife or
through mechanical means like using raking from boats or with a cutter rake. The state and type
of harvesting usually differ from species to species. Some strains which necessitate the use of
mechanization for harvesting use equipments like the drag rakes, winchers, cutting blades and
suction pipes.

Though macroalgae take longer times than microalgae for regeneration, and require labor
intensive practices for harvesting, the major advantage is that they are economical to harvest
when compared to microalgae.

Macroalgae grow either attached to a solid substrate or free-floating in water. Macroalgae are
harvested either manually or using some special equipments. In addition to the traditional hand
cutting methods using a sickle or scythe, various methods of mechanical harvesting are
employed.

In case of attached macroalgae, it is necessary to cut the algae. This raises the energy
consumption for harvesting slightly. With free-floating algae, harvesting can be made by simply
raising a net installed in the pond.At present, attached seaweeds are gathered using hand
harvesting practices. The equipment employed is limited. Some companies use diving apparatus,
hand picking, knives and sacks for harvesting macroalgae, while some companies use boats for
shore access and knives or hands for cropping plants.

The amount of the targeted plant removed is dependent on two main factors, the species
selected and the company’s or harvester’s cutting practice.

3.2.1 Prominent Harvesting Practices for Macroalgae

The common procedure for the majority of targeted species is to harvest the total biomass of
each plant; the thallus is removed either by hand grabbing or cut using a cutting implement.

Exceptions to this practice are the harvesting practices used with species like Alaria, Laminaria
and Himanthalia, in which the plant is cut above the holdfast to enable regeneration.

Aseaweed harvesting company professes to use a species-specific harvesting practice for the
following species.

• Alaria is cut above the receptacles taking only the frond of the plant
• Laminaria is cut 5 cm above the stipe
 • Himanthalia is cut above the button holdfast.

Following the collection, the processing of harvested seaweeds vary according to the desired
end product, but commonly involves washing, usually with freshwater, sorting, drying (using in-
house drying apparatus, or outside drying in suitable weather) and final packaging 34.

In case of other species, the seaweed grows in belts between the boundaries of the lowest tides
and the half tides. It is harvested floating when the tides are not too high. The fully grown
seaweed is harvested with spade wheels and rafts made of steel floats (or even spade wheels,
adjustable cutters). After the conveyor belts have collected the right volume of weed, it is
dumped into large sacks and left afloat until a boat collects a whole load to take it to the
factory 35.

3.2.2 Methods Employed for Harvesting Specific Macroalgal Strains

Some macroalgae are attached to rocks by holdfast. Holdfasts are just like tree's roots which
hold down the kelp. Such macroalgae are harvested by tearing off top portions and leaving the
holdfast to allow re growth.

Harvesting Methods Followed in Different Countries for Various Strains

Country Strain Harvest method

UK Ascophyllum nodosum Cutting done by hand using a
sickle
Chondrus crispus, Mastocarpus stellatus Hand cutting and hand raking
Ireland Ascophyllum nodosum Done by hand using a sickle
Chondrus crispus, Mastocarpus stellatus Hand cutting and hand raking
France Ascophyllum nodosum Done by hand using a sickle
Chondrus crispus, Mastocarpus stellatus Hand cutting and hand raking
Norway Ascophyllum nodosum Various methods of mechanical
harvesting
Canada Ascophyllum nodosum Raking from boats using a cutter
rake, or by cutting at low tide
using a sickle or knife
Chondrus crispus, Mastocarpus stellatus Hand-operated rakes or drag
rakes towed behind inshore
fishing vessels.
Iceland Ascophyllum nodosum Mechanical harvesting.
USA Chondrus crispus, Mastocarpus stellatus Hand-operated rakes or drag
rakes towed behind inshore
fishing vessels.

34
http://www.ni-environment.gov.uk/seaweed_harvesting_amended1.pdf
35
http://www.nat.is/travelguideeng/plofin_seaweed_harvesting.htm
 Name of Species and the State in Which They Are Harvested 36

Phylum Species harvested in Species Harvested State Harvested

Northern Ireland (Common Name)
Green algae Ulva spp. Sea lettuce Attached
Brown algae Alaria Tangle, Wakame Attached
Fucus vesiculosus Bladder wrack (serrated Attached
(Possibly F. serratus) wrack)
Himanthalia elongate Thongweed, Attached
buttonweed, sea
spaghetti
Laminaria digitata Oarweed, kombu Drift
Laminaria hyperborea Oarweed Drift
Laminaria saccharina Seabelt, sweet kombu Drift and attached
Alaria esculenta Dabberlocks Attached
Red algae Mastocarpus stellatus Carrageen moss, Irish Attached
moss
Chondrus crispus Carrageen moss, Irish Attached
moss
Palmaria palmate Dulse Attached
Porphyra spp. Laver, sloke, nori Attached
Corallina officinalis Attached

Solids requirements up to 30% can be attained by established dewatering process. For more
concentrated solids, drying methods are required. The next chapter in this report briefly
explains the various methods employed to dry algae.

36
http://www.ni-environment.gov.uk/seaweed_harvesting_amended1.pdf
 SShort
Algae Drying
4
◊ Algae Drying
◊ Methods of Drying Algae

Chapter Highlights

High intensity methods to dry the algae could damage the algae cell integrity. Hence,
methods are required that can perform the drying operation more subtly.

Sun drying is one of the oldest methods for food preservation and is still used today
especially in the developing countries. Other methods of drying algae include spray drying,
drum drying, freeze-drying and sun drying.

Freeze-drying, or lyophilization, has been widely used for drying microalgae in research
laboratories; however, freeze-drying is too expensive for use in large-scale commercial
recovery of microalgal products

The optimal drying method is dependent on the specific algal species, the scale of operation
and the final use of the dried product.
Algae Drying

The final step in processing algae is usually drying the dewatered slurry to a moisture content of
12-15%. By drying or dehydration, the algae biomass is converted to a stable storable product.
Dehydration poses a problem of major economic importance in that it may constitute 70-75% of
the processing costs. The various systems for drying differ both in the extent of capital
investment and the energy requirements.

High intensity methods to dry the algae could damage the algae cell integrity. Hence, methods
are required that can perform the drying operation more subtly. Selection of the particular
drying method will depend on the specific algal species, the scale of operation and the final use
of the dried product.

4.1 Methods of Drying Algae

Drying methods that have been used for microalgae include spray drying, drum drying, freeze-
drying and sun drying.

Drum Drying:

Drum drying is the most common method of algae drying. Drying the algae on the drum dryer
has the dual advantage of sterilizing the samples and breaking the cell wall. The principle of this
drying method is the application of a wet slurry or paste onto a rotating, preferable chromium
plated, heated drum. The material to be dried is heated for a few seconds and the ensuing
dehydration causes the cell wall to open. The major disadvantage of drum drying is that the
process requires large amounts of energy at a relatively low thermal efficiency.

Spray Drying:

Spray drying involves liquid atomization, gas/droplet mixing and drying from liquid droplets. The
atomized droplets are usually sprayed downward into a vertical tower through which hot gases
pass downward. Drying is completed within a few seconds. The product is removed from the
bottom, and the gas stream is exhausted through a cyclonic dust separator. Spray drying was
found to be a very suitable method for dehydrating algae mass for use as human food. It is the
method of choice for high-value products (>$1000 ton -1)

Efficiency of this method is comparable with drum-drying but requires a less concentrated paste
(it must be pumpable) than drum-drying and gives a very fine and uniform powder. It has been
reported that the product obtained can be less digestible than drum-dried algae. Furthermore,
spray drying may cause significant deteriorations of some algal components such as pigments or
vitamins, which may be protected by the addition of antioxidants prior to drying.
Freeze Drying

Freeze drying algae involves, as the name suggests, freezing the algae completely first. Once
frozen the algae is transferred to a vacuum chamber where the pressure is reduced to 4.6 Torr.
At this pressure the ice cannot melt. The ice is then evaporated bypassing the liquid stage of
evaporation. The vapor is collected on a extremely cold condenser and removed out of the
vacuum chamber. The algae is left completely dry with all nutritious value completely preserved
because only the water content is removed.

Freeze-drying, or lyophilization, has been widely used for drying microalgae in research
laboratories; however, freeze-drying is too expensive for use in large-scale commercial recovery
of microalgal products

Sun drying

Sun drying is one of the oldest methods for food preservation and is still used today especially in
the developing countries. The sun drying process can be accomplished either by direct solar
radiation or by hot circulated air which was sun heated previously, usually by collectors. In the
first case the algae mass, either covered or uncovered, is exposed to direct solar radiation. The
direct solar radiation causes chlorophyll degradation in the algae mass, hence a preferred color
for the final product is achieved. On the other hand, direct solar radiation can cause overheating
of the materials, and in addition the method is strongly weather dependent. In the second case
of indirect solar radiation, overheating of the algae mass is prevented and the drying rate is
higher but the final product is less attractive and the cost is higher. This method is the more
commonly used today. Sun drying is not recommended for preparing algae product intended for
human consumption. For the production of animal feed, however, sun drying may be an
acceptable solution (Richmond - 1983).

4.2 Other Methods of Drying

Refractance Window Drying

The refractance window drying method uses a heat transfer process that exploits specific
properties of water to slowly remove moisture out of algae without compromising its integrity
and quality. A thin sheet of plastic membrane is placed on top of the water to keep it separate
from the algae. The algae is placed on top of the membrane and the water is heated. The plastic
refracts the heat from the evaporating water, but when a moist raw material such as algae is
placed on top of it the water content of the material is heated and evaporates. Refractance
window drying is a successful algae drying technique because it only heats the water content of
the algae.
BioActive Dehydration

BioActive dehydration is the process of exposing algae to a low heat in an environment filled
with an inert gas that repels oxygen. The algae is heated for less than two minutes at a
temperature of 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit. The drying chamber is filled with an inert gas to
prevent algae degradation due to oxidation. The low heat method of bioactive dehydration
preserves nutrients, color, flavor and aroma.

Pulse Combustion Spray Drying

The pulse combustion spray drying technique uses a blast of controlled heat to flash dry the
algae. Air is pumped into the drying unit where it enters a combustion chamber. Fuel is added to
the air, the mixture is ignited and explodes, creating a pressurized hot air to about 3 psi. The
dryer automatically blasts the heated gas with quench air to control the temperature of the heat
before it comes into contact with the algae. The combustion process is repeated multiple times,
like a pulse, to dry the algae at a low heat to preserve it's integrity and nutritional value.

There are still other possibilities for drying the concentrated algal slurry. Such methods include
cross flow air drying and vacuum shelf drying. However, these methods are limited to
laboratory trials or to the drying of small quantities and are not suitable for large scale algal
production units.
Algae Products and Market – An Overview
5
◊ Energy Products from Algae
◊ Non- Energy Products from Algae – Overview
of product possibilities.
◊ Microalgae Market
◊ Summary of Potential High Value Products
from Microalgae
◊ Macroalgae Market

Chapter Highlights

Unlike fuels, the market for non-fuel algae-derived products such as nutraceuticals,
pigments, fertilizers, feed and food industries, cosmetic industry and chemical industry have
markets which are more readily accessible and provide greater margins.
Several high-value microalgae products are already well established in the market place and
there are clear opportunities for additional new products.
Some of the important aspects one should consider before developing an algae product
include: the size of the potential market, possible competing non algae sources, the time
and cost of achieving approval for new products, and their acceptance by the customer.
The world market of products from macro-algae is estimated to have a size of about US$ 6
billion per year. Most of the consumption is for foodstuff, by far the major part of the non-
food products derived from seaweed is based around hydrocolloids. (Pulz and Gross 2004)
The market size of products from micro-algae was estimated to have a retail value of US$ 5-
6.5 billion, of which US$ 1.25 -2.5 billion were generated by the health food sector. (Pulz and
Gross 2004)
5.1 Energy Products from Algae
As far as the energy products are concerned, biodiesel is the most commonly discussed energy
output from algae, but it is not the only one. A serious study of the energy domain and of algae
points to a wide basket of energy outputs that can be theoretically derived from algae – all the
way from gasoline to hydrogen to LPG. The following is the list of fuels that can be obtained
from algae.

* Biodiesel
* Ethanol
* Hydrogen
* Methane
* Biomass – where algae biomass is directly used for combustion
* Other hydrocarbon fuel variants, such as JP-8 fuel, gasoline, biobutanol etc.

In order to derive the various energy products from algae, the algal biomass needs to be put
through different processes.

Product Processes
Biodiesel Oil extraction and Transesterification
Ethanol Fermentation
Methane Anaerobic digestion of biomass; Methanation of syngas
produced from biomass
Hydrogen Triggering biochemical processes in algae; Gasification /
pyrolysis of biomass and processing of resulting syngas.
Heat & Direct combustion of algal biomass; Gasification of
Electricity biomass
Other Gasification/pyrolysis of biomass and processing of
Hydrocarbon resulting syngas
Fuels

Owing to the scope of the report, energy products from algae is not discussed in detail.

5.2 Non- Energy Products from Algae

The number of products that can be made from algae is virtually unlimited, due to the large
variety of species (possibly in the millions) whose composition can be influenced by changing the
cultivation conditions. With only a few commercial algae-based products available, this resource
is largely untapped. This is due to a range of reasons: poor marketing (Edwards 2008), the
economic and bureaucratic barrier of getting new products approved by regulating authorities
(especially for food) (Reith 2004), insufficient experience with algae production, and the
commercial barrier due to lack of investments in large-scale production facilities.
 The bulk of commercial products from algae are derived from seaweed, produced for food and
alginates and partially harvested from natural populations, rather than cultivated. Commercial
products from microalgae are largely limited to a few easily cultured species with proven market
demand and market value, often as health food or feed in aquaculture.

Unlike fuels, the market for non-fuel algae-derived products such as nutraceuticals, pigments,
fertilizers, feed and food industries, cosmetic industry and chemical industry have the markets
which are more readily accessible providing greater margins.

The table below provides an overview of the non-energy products that can be derived from
algae.

Algae in Nutraceuticals Pharmaceuticals Algae as/in food

Single Cell Protein  Osmoregulators
Poly unsaturated fatty acids –  Drugs • Puddings, Sauces and Creams
Pigments/Carotenoids  Antioxidants • Beverage/Juice
Bioactive compounds  Anti-microbial agents • Sweet biscuits
Vitamin Supplements (antibacterial, antifungal, • Chocolates
antiprotozoal, Anti viral agents • Dark colored baked products
 Anti-tumor agents • Edible coatings
 Anti-obesity and anti-diabetic • Food colouring agents
agents • Cheeses and butter or margarines
 Anti-inflammatory agents • Food gels
 Anti-adhesive therapies
• Stabilizer/emulsifier
 Aiding the immune,
• Food Packaging
cardiovascular and nervous
• Seaweed Food such as Nori
systems. Used in fibromyalgia,
• Agar, alginates and
diabetes, and hypertension
carrageenans (as gelling and/or
patients and in degenerative
thickening agents)
diseases treatment, skin disease
treatment
 Therapeutic delivering agents
 Other useful substances used for
medicinal purposes include
sterols, toxins, proteins, amino
acids, MAA etc
Feed Cosmetics Pollution Control
• Aquaculture Feed • Anti-cellulite • Wastewater treatment and nutrient
(Shrimp feed, Shellfish Feed, • Skin care, sun protection and hair credits
Marine Fish Larve cultivation ) care • Biofilters for fish pond effluents
• Cattle and hog feed • Tooth paste, Shaving cream • Heavy metal biosorption
• Pet food ingredient (aquarium • Lotions and creams • CO2 capture and Carbon Credits
food and speciality pet foods) • Antibacterial cream • Soil additives, conditioners and
fertilizers
Textile
• Algae derived oleic oil for textile
lubrication (Solazyme)
• Alginate Fibre for fabrics
Chemicals
• Defoamers
• Inks
• Algae based resins
• Speciality chemicals likePropyl
butyrate, Butanol etc
• Stable isotopically labeled
compounds
• Dyes and colourants
• Polyhydroxy alkonates
• Phycobiliproteins
Novel applications in other industries
Paints -Paints seeded with the diatoms.
Construction -Algae / sand composites as
substitutes for mortar,brick,concrete,
asphalt and other civil engineering
applications
Lubricants -Dielectric fluids and
lubricants
Electronics –Algae based Batteries

5.3 Microalgae Market

Algal cultures consist of a single or several specific strains optimized for producing the desired product.

Out of an estimated number of 50,000 microalgae species, only 10 are commercially produced at the
moment, which include:

• Spirulina
• Crypthecodinium cohnii
• Chlorella
• Dunaliella salina
• Ulkenia sp.,
• Haematococcus pluvialis
• Schizochytrium
• Aphanizomenon flos-aquae
• Euglena and
• Odontella aurita

The total production of microalgal biomass is rated between 8,000 and 10,000 tonnes/year
( Pulz and Gross 2004;Enderle 2011)
The table below provides an overview of commercially produced algae and their market statistics.

Microalga Annual Producer country Application and Price*

production Product
Spirulina 3000 tons dry China, India, USA, Human nutrition 36 €/kg
Weight Myianmar, Japan Animal nutrition 11 €/mg
Cosmetics
Phycobiliproteins
Chlorella 2000 tons dry Taiwan, Germany, Human nutrition 36 €/kg
Weight Japan Cosmetics 50 €/L
Aquaculture
Dunaliella salina 1200 tons dry Australia, Israel, Human nutrition 215-2150 €/kg
Weight USA, Japan Cosmetics
β-carotene
Aphanizomenon 500 tons dry USA Human nutrition
flos-aquae weight
Haematococcus 300 tons dry USA, India, Israel Aquaculture 50 €/L
Pluvialis weight Astaxanthin 7150 €/kg
Crypthecodinium 240 tons DHA oil USA DHA oil 43 €/g
Cohnii
Shizochytrium 10 tons DHA oil USA DHA oil 43 €/g
Source: Brennan and Owende 2010; *1 Euro (€) =1.34 USD ($) in 2010

As one can see from the table, the three species Chlorella, Spirulina and Dunaliella are contributing to the
larger volumes. They are used as a whole without transformation or are used to produce extracts of
interest. About half of microalgae productions are dedicated to products with whole microalgae and the
other half to production of extracts.

Microalgae Market Size

The market size of products from micro-algae was estimated by Pulz and Gross (2004) to have
a retail value of US$ 5-6.5 billion.

• US$ 1.25 -2.5 billion were generated by the health food sector
• US$ 1.5 billion from the production of docosahexanoic acid (DHA) and
• US$ 700 million from aquaculture.

Several high-value microalgae products are already well established in the market place and there are
clear opportunities for additional new products.

Important considerations for the development of such products are the size of the potential market,
possible competing non algae sources and the time and cost of achieving approval for new products and
their acceptance by the customer. With the presently greatly increased efforts to commercialize
microalgae, new products are likely to be developed and marketed in the next decade.
Updates in the Microalgae Market in 2015:

As of 2014, EU has the potential to become the market leader in micro-algae based food and feed
products in the coming decade. However, to achieve an increased production share facing current
constraints, new microalgae-based products obtained in the EU may be intended mainly for foreign
markets, and the increased global production share by European companies (currently estimated at
around 5% of the global market) may be the result of strategic acquisitions of foreign companies.

As of 2014, the worldwide production of microalgae is currently around 7,000 tons per year of dry algal
biomass. The global algae biomass market is worth between 3.5-5 billion EUR, with a high level of SME
(small and medium enterprises) participation. From this total, the health food sector accounts for €1.5
billion and the aquaculture applications account for €0.5 billion.

5.3.1 High Value Products from Microalgae

The table below provides a summary of potential high value products from microalgae, alternative
sources and applications.

Product Potential or Existing Some Alternate Applications

Algae Source Source (S)
Carotenoids
Beta carotene Dunaliella salina Blakeleya trispora,synthetic Pigmenter (food), pro-vitamin
A, antioxidant
Astaxanthin Haematococcus pluvialis, Xanthophyllomyces Pigmenter(aquaculture), anti-
Chlorella zofingiensis dendrorhous, synthetic oxidant
Canthaxanthin Chlorella spp, other green Dietzia natronolimnaea, Pigmenter (aquaculture,
algae synthetic poultry and food)
Zeaxanthin Chlorella ellipsoidea; Dunalielle Paprika (Capsicum Anti-oxidant, food pigmenter
salina (mutant) annuum); Tagetes erecta,
synthetic
Lutein Scenedesmus spp., Muriellopsis Tagetes sp., Blakesleya Anti-oxidant
sp., other green algae trispora
Phytoene,phytofluene Dunaliella Tomato Anti-oxidant, cosmetics
Echinenone Botyrococcus braunii, - Anti-oxidant
cyanobacteria
Fucoxanthin Phaeodactylum tricornutum Brown algae Anti-oxidant
Phycobilins (Phycocyanin, Cyanobacteria, Rhodophyta, - Natural pigment (e.g.
Phycoerythrin, Cryptophyta,Glaucophyta cosmetics and food
allophycocyanin) products), fluorescent
conjugates, anti-oxidant etc
Fatty acids
Arachidonic acid Parietochloris incisa Mortiriella spp Nutritional supplement
Eicosapentaenoic acid Nannochloropsis spp., Fish oil Nutritional supplement
Phaeodactylum tricornutum,
Monodus subterraneus etc
Docosahexaenoic acid Crypthecodinium cohnii, Fish oil Nutritional supplement
Schizochytrium spp, Ulkenia
spp
Sterols Many species Various plants Nutraceutical
Squalene Aurantiochytrium sp Shark liver Cosmetics
Polyhydroxyalkalanotes Nostoc spp, Synechocystis and
other cyanobacteria
Polysaccharides Porphyridium spp, Rhodella
spp., various cyanobacteria
Mycosporine like amino Cyanobacteria, Dinophyta and
acids other algal phyla
Ralstonia sp; GM, Biodegradable plastics
Escherichia coli
Guar gum, Xanthan Thickeners, gelling agents etc,
cosmaceuticals
Sunscreens

5.4 Macro algae Market

Seaweeds are harvested throughout the world (either collected from the wild or cultivated in farms) and
used in a large number of applications, including food for human consumption and as a source of
hydrocolloids of commercial importance: agar, alginate and carrageenan. Sea weeds are also used in
cosmetics.

This section provides an overview of the seaweeds and its applications.

Global Production

The seaweed available for use in the world consists of natural and cultivated stocks. The harvesting of
natural crops is primarily carried out in China, Chile and Norway, which together make up roughly 66% of
the exploited wild stock total of the roughly 1million tonnes per year. However these numbers are
dwarfed by the amount of cultivated seaweed types, where China alone produces 72% of the 15 million
tonnes per year. A brief overview of production tonnages and geographical sources is given below:

Global seaweed production (millions of wet tonnes, Roesijadi, 2013)

Area Tonnage Percentage
Global 16.0 100
Cultivated China 10.8 68
Phillipines 1.5 12
Indonesia 0.9 6
Korea 0.8 5
China 0.3 2
Wild Harvest Chile 0.3 2
Norway 0.15 1

The industry has been estimated to be worth roughly US $6 billion per year. This is broken down as listed
below, but is dominated by the use as either food directly, or as hydrocolloids with extensive uses as food
additives.

Macroalgae Market Size

The world market of products from macro-algae has been estimated to have a size of some US$ 6
billion per year Most of this is used for foodstuffs, by far the major part of the non-food products
derived from seaweed is based around hydrocolloids. (McHugh 2003; Pulz and Gross 2004)
 • US$ 5 billion is generated by the food industry, of which US$ 1 billion is from “nori”, a
high-value product worth US$ 16,000 / T
• US$ 600 million was generated by hydrocolloids (55,000 T) extracted from cell walls of
macroalgae
• US$ 10 – 20 million was generated by fertilizer/animal feeds industry

The species of marine macro-algae (seaweeds) that are predominantly used in industry currently belong
to the divisions Rhodophyta and Phaeophyta, and about 7.5 – 8 Mio t of wet seaweed is harvested
annually.

The non energy products derived from macroalgae include food, fertilizers, hydrocolloids and
cosmetics.

China is the largest producer of edible seaweeds. Seaweed fertilizers contain growth-promoting
hormones and are fortified with nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P) and potassium (K) needed by plants.
Various red and brown seaweeds are used to produce three hydrocolloids: agar, alginate and
carrageenan. Ground or powdered seaweed, as well as phycocolloids, are used in the manufacture of
cosmetic products including soaps, shampoos, powders, creams and sprays.

The subsequent chapters in the report explainin detail about each of these algae products
and their applications. Market data are provided wherever possible.
 Algae Nutraceuticals
6
◊ Summary of Algae Nutraceutical
Products
◊ Single Cell Protein (SCP)
◊ Omega-3 Fatty Acids
◊ Carotenoids

Chapter Highlights

• Spirulina is a wonder food for under- nourished infants, children and pregnant women. 1 kg
of Spirulina has the same nutrients found in about 1,000 kgs of assorted vegetables.
• The current annual production of Spirulina is in excess of 5000 tonnes.
• At present, companies that produce high-quality spirulina try to keep their market share by
stressing the quality aspect, and at the same time, by developing products with higher added
value for the following industries: food colouring, fluorescent markers, enzymes, etc.
• Chlorella is considered a complete food, because of its important role in detoxification and
its high content of protein, vitamins, and minerals including carotenoids.
• Chlorella is now widely available as a food supplement in tablet, granule or liquid form and
as colourants.
• The production of Chlorella as a human health supplement accounted for about 2000 tons
per year in 2009.
• The current wholesale market price for algae omega-3 oil is about US$ 140/kg. The total
costs of producing omega-3 fatty acids from microalgae are higher compared to fish, simply
due to the cultivation costs and the harvest costs of the low density microalgae biomass
from the cultivation medium.
• Europe is expected to show a greater acceptance of algal oils in the near future and grows
faster than North America.
• Although >95% of the astaxanthin market consumes synthetically derived astaxanthin,
consumer demand for natural products makes the synthetic pigments much less desirable
and provides an opportunity for the production of natural astaxanthin by Haematococcus.
• Owing to the increasing demand of astaxanthin, some of the top players such as Asta Real
and Fuji Health have doubled its production capacity recently.
• Beta-carotene is the best-selling carotenoid globally, accounting for $261 million in 2010,
with natural β-carotene estimated at about 20– 30 % of the market
Summary of Algae Nutraceutical Products
This chapter provides details on the products that have been highlighted in the schematic below:

Algae Nutraceuticals

Single Cell Polyunsaturated Fatty Carotenoids Bioactive

Protein Acids and Pigments Compounds

Spirulina DHA Beta carotene Antioxidants

Chlorella ARA Astaxanthin Lipids

GAL Lutein Carbohydrates

EPA Lycopene Peptides

Zeaxanthin Proteins

Chlorophyll Pigments

Phycocyanin Vitamins

Fucoxanthin

Canthaxanthin
 Product Single Cell Protein
Other Current Fungi - Aspergillus fumigatus• Aspergillus niger• Rhizopus
Sources cyclopium
Yeast - Saccharomyces cerevisae• Candida tropicalis• Candida
utilis
Bacteria - Pseudomonas fluroescens• Lactobacillus• Bacillus
megaterium
Algae Strains Used Arthrospira platensis and Arthrospira maxima
Chlorella pyrenoidosa, Chlorella sori
Status of Commercialised
Commercialisation

6.1 Single Cell Protein (SCP)

Single –cell protein is extracted from pure or mixed culture of algae, yeasts, fungi. They are
essentially dried cells of microorganisms which can be used as a dietary protein supplement.
They are used as animal feed and can be used for human feed as protein supplement. They are
also called Novel Food and Minifood. 37

Why Algae for SCP?

Algae, most commonly blue-green algae, are commonly used sources for single –cell protein,
because their cell wall lacks cellulose and are easily digestible. Large-scale processes of SCP
production show interesting benefits including:

- The wide variety of methodologies, raw materials Algae are the most frequently used
and microorganisms that can be used for this organisms for single-cell protein
purpose. extraction. Arthospira.sp and
- High efficiency in substrate conversion. Chlorella.sp are commonly used as
- High productivity, derived from the fast growing SCP’s
rate of algae.
- Independence of seasonal factors 38

In order to bridge the protein gap the use of algae as a source of protein has drawn the
attention of numerous research universities and companies across the globe. The use of algae

37
http://www.slideshare.net/FIRDOUS88/single-cell-protein
38
http://docsdrive.com/pdfs/academicjournals/ajft/2011/103-116.pdf
as food and feed is known since centuries as they form part of the diets in East Asian countries
as well as the natives in Central Africa. 39

Factors Affecting Biomass Production

Following are the factors affecting the yield of algae biomass for single cell protein:

Illumination Light Nitrogen sources Supply of CO2 Agitation of growing

time intensity (ammonium salts or cells to maintain cells
nitrates are the suitable in suspension. 40
nitrogen sources which
increase biomass yield)

Algae Strains Commonly Used for SCP:

There are many algae that are cultivated for their nutritional value, either for supplemental use,
or as a food source. Most commonly used algae as Single-cell protein are highlighted in the
table below: 41,42

Algae Strain Features

Chlorella The species name pyrenoidosa refers to the presence of a
pyrenoidosa prominent pyrenoid within the Chlorella chloroplast. This species has been
used medicinally as a chelatory agent, for example to extract dioxins and
dioxin-like compounds from the body.
Chlorella Oval shaped species of chlorella that has numerous health benefits. Some
sorokiana of the benefits offered include converting acidic body condition to alkaline
condition, it repairs cell, increase metabolism and prevent diseases. It
promotes immunity by activating T-lymphocytes, such as phagocytes, which
eliminate bacteria and viruses.
Chondrus crispus A relatively small red algae reaching up to a little over than 20 cm in length.
Apart from its use as a SCP, it is also an industrial source of carrageenan (
commonly used as a thickener and stabilizer)
Scenedesmus sp Green algae, colonial, planktonic (floater) and/or periphytonic (attached) .
Many species of Scedesmus are used as SCP.
Spirulina.sp Commonly used as a human and animal food or nutritional
supplement made primarily from two species of cyanobacteria: Arthrospira

39
http://biomaster2011.blogspot.sg/2011/03/single-cell-protein-from-spirulina.html
40
http://www.eplantscience.com/index/biotechnology/microbial_biotechnology/single_cell_protein_scp_and_myc
oprotein/biotech_scp_production_of_algal_biomass.php
41
http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF01982726
42
http://docsdrive.com/pdfs/academicjournals/ajft/2011/103-116.pdf
 platensis and Arthrospira maxima.

Porphyriym sp Red algae that is commonly used as a single cell protein and is believed to
exhibit antioxidant activity.

This section of the report provides details of the two most important and commonly used algae
as SCP – Spirulina and Chlorella

6.1.1 Spirulina

Spirulina is a human and animal food or nutritional supplement made primarily from two species
of cyanobacteria: Arthrospira platensis and Arthrospira maxima.

Spirulina is a cyanobacterium has been used as

food for centuries by different populations and
only rediscovered in recent years. It grows
naturally in the alkaline waters of lakes in warm
regions. It exists in the form of tiny green filaments
coiled in spirals of varying tightness and number,
depending on the strain.
Spirulina is a human and animal food
or nutritional supplement made primarily from
two species of cyanobacteria: Arthrospira
platensis and Arthrospira maxima.

A number of features from the nutritional standpoint have been demonstrated: a balanced
protein composition, and the presence of rare essential lipids, numerous minerals and even
vitamin B12.

The cell walls of Spirulina are similar to that of Gram-positive bacteria, since they consist of
glucosamines and muramic acid associated with peptides. Although not digestible, these walls
are fragile and make the cell content readily
accessible to digestive enzymes. This is a major 1kg of Spirulina has the same nutrients found
advantage in comparison to organisms with in about 1000 kgs of assorted vegetables
cellulosic cell walls like yeast and chlorella.

Composition of Spirulina:

The basic biochemical composition of spirulina can be summarized as follows:

Protein: Spirulina contains unusually high amounts of protein, between 55 and 70 percent by
dry weight, depending upon the source (Phang et al., 2000). It is a complete protein, containing
all essential amino acids, though with reduced amounts of methionine, cystine, and lysine, as
compared to standard proteins such as that from meat, eggs, or milk; it is, however, superior to
all standard plant protein, such as that from legumes.

Essential fatty acids: Spirulina has a high amount of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), 1.5–2.0
percent of 5–6 percent total lipid. In particular spirulina is rich in γ-linolenic acid (36 percent of
total PUFAs), and also provides γ-linolenic acid (ALA), linoleic acid (LA, 36 percent of total ),
stearidonic acid (SDA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and
arachidonic acid (AA). Vitamins: Spirulina contains vitamin B1 (thiamine), B2 (riboflavin), B3
(nicotinamide), B6 (pyridoxine), B9 (folic acid), B12
(cyanocobalamin), vitamin C, vitamin D and vitamin E. • Spirulina contains about 60% (51–71%)
protein of its dry weight. The protein
Minerals: Spirulina is a rich source of potassium, and also
content varies by 10-15% according to
contains calcium, chromium, copper, iron, magnesium,
the time of harvesting in relation to
manganese, phosphorus, selenium, sodium and zinc.
daylight.
Photosynthetic pigments: Spirulina contains many • Spirulina contain about 15-25%
pigments including chlorophyll a, xanthophyll, beta- carbohydrates (dry weight).
• In strains of spirulina used, the nucleic
carotene, echinenone, myxoxanthophyll, zeaxanthin,
acid levels vary from 4.2-6% of dry
canthaxanthin, diatoxanthin, 3-hydroxyechinenone, beta-
matter.
cryptoxanthin, oscillaxanthin, plus the phycobiliproteins
• Spirulina's lipid content is about 7% by
c-phycocyanin and allophycocyanin. weight, and is rich in gamma-linolenic
acid (GLA), and also provides alpha-
Detailed biochemical composition analyses have been
linolenic acid (ALA), linoleic
conducted of spirulina grown either under laboratory
acid (LA), stearidonic
conditions, collected in natural condition or in mass
acid (SDA),eicosapentaenoic
culture system using different agro- industrial waste acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)
effluent. This was found to vary in response to the and arachidonic acid (AA).
salinity of the growing medium – Vonshak et al. (1996) • Spirulina contains vitamins B1, B2 , B3 ,
reported that salt-adapted cells had a modified B6 , B9 , vitamin C, vitamin D, vitamin
biochemical composition with a reduced protein and A and vitamin E. It is also a source of
chlorophyll content, and increased carbohydrate potassium, calcium, chromium, copper,
content. iron, magnesium, manganese,
phosphorus, selenium, sodium and zinc.
However the following provides a review of the • Spirulina contains many pigments which
literature on the broad composition of spirulina. may be beneficial and bioavailable,
including beta
Spirulina has high quality protein content (59–65 carotene, zeaxanthin, chlorophyll-a,
percent), which is more than other commonly used plant xanthophylls, echinenone,
sources such as dry soybeans (35 percent), peanuts (25 myxoxanthophyll, canthaxanthin,
percent) or grains (8–10 percent). A special value of diatocanthin, 3’-hydroxyechinenone,
spirulina is that it is readily digested due to the absence beta-cryptoxanthin and oscillaxanthin,
plus the phycobiliproteins c-phycocyanin
and allophycocyanin.
of cellulose in its cell walls (as it is the case for eukaryotic green microalgae such as Chlorella,
Ankistrodesmus, Selenastrum, Scenedesmus): after 18 hours more than 85 percent of its
protein is digested and assimilated (Sasson, 1997). The composition of commercial spirulina
powder is 60 percent protein, 20 percent carbohydrate, 5 percent fats, 7 percent minerals, and
3–6 percent moisture, making it a low-fat, low calorie, cholesterol-free source of protein.

Various Proximate Analysis Results of Spirulina (% dry matter)

Component FOI, France SAC Thailand IPGSR, BAU,

Malaysia Bangladesh
Crude Protein 65 55-70 61 60
Soluble 19 - 14 -
carbohydrate
Crude Lipid 4 5-7 6 7
Crude FIber 3 5-7
Ash 3 3-6 9 11
`Moisture - 4-6 6 9
Nitrogen free - 15-20 4 17
extract (NFE)

FOI = French Oil Institute; SAC = Siam Algae Co. Ltd; IPGSR = Institute of Post-graduate Studies
and Research laboratory, University of Malaya; BAU = Bangladesh Agricultural University

The schematic below shows the main composition of Spirulina. The data has been adapted from
the Hawaiian Spirulina extracted by Cyanotech Corporation.

General Composition of Minerals

Spirulina Calcium 10mg Sodium 30 mg Iodine 15mcg
Protein 52-62% Magnesium 15 mg Manganese 400 Iron 6.5
Carbohydrates 17-25% mcg mg
Lipids 4-6% Phosphorus 33 mg Boron 22 mcg Zinc 90mcg
Minerals 8-13% Copper 20 mcg Selenium 0.9
Moisture 3-6% mcg
 Vitamin A 11.250 Folic Acid 6.2 mcg Phytonutrients
(100% as Beta- IU
Carotene)
Vitamin B1 3.5 mcg Pantothenic 4.5 mcg Beta-carotene 6.8 mg
Thiamine Acid
Vitamin B2 140 mcg Vitamin K1 60 mcg Zeaxanthin 9 mg
Riboflavin
Vitamin B3 400 mcg Vitamin K2 15 mcg Chlorophyll 30 mg
Niacin
Vitamin B6 30 mcg Inositol 1.7 mcg Total 15 mg
Pyridoxine carotenoids
Vitamin B12 9.0 mcg Biotin 0.5 mcg C-Phycocyanin 240 mg
Cobalamin
Vitamin E d-a- 285 mcg Total 519 mg
tocopherol Phycocyanin
Vitamins Superoxide
Dismutase
1080 units

Source: Cyanotech Corporation

Algae Strains that produce Spirulina

Arthrospira platensis and Arthrospira maxima

Growth Requirements

The optimum temperature for growth is 35°C, but above 38°C spirulina is in danger. Growth only
takes place in light (photosynthesis), but illumination 24 hours a day is not recommended.
During dark periods, chemical reactions take place within spirulina, like synthesis of proteins and
respiration. Respiration decreases the mass of spirulina biomass ; its rate is much greater at high
temperature so cool nights are better on that account, but in the morning beware that spirulina
cannot stand a strong light when cold (below 15°C).

Production Process
Temperature 35-40°C
Spirulina ( Arthospira sp) used for the production
pH 8.5-10.5
of single –cell protein. The commercial producers
Habitat Alkaline, brackish
of Spirulina are located in the United States, water
Thailand, India, Taiwan, China, Pakistan, Burma Growth Conditions of Arthrospira
and Chile. platensis and Arthrospira maxima

Cultivation - Spirulina ismostly cultivated in open-channel raceway ponds with paddle wheels
used to agitate the water.
Harvesting - Since, Spirulina is a filamentous algae (meaning that it grows in strands), it’s shape
allows for harvesting by stainless steel screens. This method uses far less energy that
centrifugation (which is used for chlorella, another microalgae) and is gentle on the cells.

While the spirulina is being sieved out on screens it is given several fresh water washes, ensuring
a clean product with a fresh taste. Ponds are harvested to half of their depth, with what remains
being the seed for the next generation. It is like mowing the lawn – part left behind grows again.

The best time for harvesting is early morning for various reasons:

• the cool temperature makes the work easier

• more sunshine hours will be available to dry the product
• % of proteins in spirulina is highest in the morning.

There are basically two steps in harvesting:

- filtration to obtain a "biomass" containing about 10 % dry matter (1 liter = 100 g dry) and
50 % residual culture medium. Filtration is simply accomplished by passing the culture
through a fine weave cloth, using gravity as the driving force.
- removal of the residual culture medium to obtain the "fresh spirulina biomass", ready to
be consumed or dried, containing about 20 % dry matter and practically no residual
culture medium.

Applications of Spirulina

Spirulina spp. and its processing products are employed in agriculture, food industry,
pharmaceutics, perfumery and medicine. Spirulina has several pharmacological activities such as
antimicrobial (including antiviral and antibacterial), anticancer, metalloprotective (prevention of
heavy-metal poisoning against Cd, Pb, Fe, Hg), as well as immunostimulant and antioxidant
effects due to its rich content of protein, polysaccharide, lipid, essential amino and fatty acids,
dietary minerals and vitamins. 43

The nutritional profile of Spirulina is very effective when combined with a healthy and balanced
diet as part of a preventive strategy for self-care. 1 kg of Spirulina has the same nutrients found
in about 1,000 kgs of assorted vegetables. Some of the key health benefits of using Spirulina are:

Boosts the immune system Controls appetite

Improve digestion Keeps a tab on cardiovascular function
Reduce fatigue Helps proper liver and kidney functioning
Build endurance Reduces inflammation and allergies
Detoxifier – cleanses the body Boosts energy levels

43
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23544470
 Spirulina is also believed to control ailments such as AIDS/HIV, arthritis, athletic
nutrition, enhancing natural cleansing and detoxification, supporting cardiovascular
function and healthy cholesterol, strengthening the immune system, improving
gastrointestinal and digestive health, reducing cancer risks with antioxidant
protection, general and long term health.
Source: Cyanotech Corporation

Spirulina –Factoids

• Spirulina is not considered to be a reliable source of Vitamin B12. The standard B12 assay,
using Lactobacillus leichmannii, shows spirulina to be a minimal source of bioavailable
vitamin B12

• An excellent summary study of Spirulina was done in 2002. The authors summarized the
many potential benefits of Spirulina: “Spirulina has been exper- imentally proven, in vivo and
in vitro that it is effective to treat certain allergies, anemia, cancer, hepatotoxicity [toxicity of
the liver], viral and cardiovascu- lar diseases, hyperglycemia [high blood sugar],
hyperlipidemia [high choles- terol and triglycerides], immunodeficiency, and inflammatory
processes, among others. Several of these activities are attributed to Spirulina itself or to
some of its components including fatty acids omega-3 or omega-6, beta-carotene, alpha-
tocopherol, phycocyanin, phenol compounds and a recently isolated com- plex, Calcium
Spirulan.” (Chamorro et al, 2002)

• Another summary study in 2001 analyzed some of the benefits men- tioned above as well as
some additional potential benefits. The authors pointed out that Spirulina was proven to
stimulate the immune system and augment resistance in humans as well as animals
(including mammals, poultry and fish) by stimulating the production of antibodies and
cytokines. It went on to point out that “Spirulina sulfolipids have proved to be effective
against HIV.

• Preparations obtained from Spirulina biomass have also been found active against herpes
virus, cytomegalovirus, influenza virus, etc. Spirulina extracts are capable in inhibiting
carcinogenesis [production of cancer].” The study went on to point out that Spirulina is also
effective in preserving intestinal flora and in decreas- ing Candida albicans (yeast infections)

• A very important clinical trial was done on tobacco chewers that had pre-cancerous lesions
in their mouths. The group taking Spirulina (at a remark- ably low dose of only one gram per
day) had complete regression of the lesions in 20 of 44 cases (45%). In the placebo group,
only 3 of 43 (7%) showed regres- sion. Within one year of discontinuing Spirulina
 consumption 9 out of 20 (45%) of the subjects that had complete regression developed new
lesions! (Mathew et al, 1995)

• In a study done in Europe that examined the effect that Spirulina has on patients with
multiple sclerosis, the researchers said “It has been established that intake of Spirulina
makes for lengthening of remission in those patients with dis- seminated sclerosis (Buletsa et
al, 1996).

• Spirulina has been shown to help the liver and to help people already suffering from liver
disease. A study was done on 60 patients with chronic dif- fuse disorders of the liver as well
as 70 animals with toxic affection of the liver. They found that Spirulina was effective for
both the people and the animals. They attributed the hepatoprotective (liver-protecting)
properties of Spirulina to its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, membrane-stabilizing and
immunocorrecting actions.
• They found that Spirulina stabilized the liver disease and prevented the disease from
progressing to cirrhosis (Gorban et al, 2000).
• A recent study done at the University of California Davis’s School of Medicine had allergy
researchers examine Spirulina’s effect on allergic rhinitis (allergies that cause inflammation
of the mucous membrane of the nose). The study proved that by using Spirulina patients
reduced the cytokine Interleukin-4 and the researchers concluded that Spirulina
demonstrates protec- tive effects on sufferers of allergic rhinitis (Mao et al,2005).
• Countless animal studies have shown positive benefits from Spirulina consumption. A study
done on rats showed excellent prospects for Spirulina as a neuroprotective supplement. The
study proved that Spirulina reduced ischemic brain damage in rats,and that these rats had
improved post-stroke locomotor activity (Wang et al, 2005). The same researchers had
previously demonstrated that Spirulina reduces degeneration of the brain of aged animals.
• Another group which measured oxidative damage found similar results in aged rats’ brains.
Spirulina decreased the oxidation in the brain and also decreased pro- inflammatory
cytokines (Gemma et al, 2002). A study of cats found that Spirulina may improve disease
resistance (Qureshi and Ali, 1996). Spirulina was also found to increase several different
immunological functions in chickens (Qureshi et al, 1996).
• A study in mice in Japan found similar results: Spirulina enhanced immune response through
mul- tiple pathways (Hayashi et al, 1994). Another mouse study showed that Spirulina
reduced both skin and stomach tumors significantly. Spirulina was shown to reduce both the
size of the tumors and to reduce the incidence of tumors (Dasgupta et al, 2001). Diabetic
mice showed very positive results when given Spirulina in one study which led the
researchers to conclude that “It is worth future work of Spirulina on humans looking for
better quality of life and longer survival of dia- betic patients (Rodriguez et al, 2001).
• Rats with high blood lipid levels showed improvement when fed Spirulina (Iwata et al,1990).
• Spirulina also was shown to dose-dependently reduce allergic reactions in rats (Kim et
al,1998). Other animal studies have shown very diverse results. Spirulina was shown to
prevent fatty liver development in rats (Torres et al,1998).
• Spirulina was also shown to significantly increase iron storage and hemoglobin blood counts
in pregnant and lactating rats (Kapoor and Mehta, 1998). The same researchers found
earlier that Spirulina-fed rats showed faster growth rates than rats fed a standard diet
without Spirulina. They also showed that Spirulina increased the litter size of pregnant rats
and concluded that “Spirulina appears to be a good dietary supplement during pregnancy”
(Kapoor and Mehta, 1993).
• In earlier human research, Spirulina has been observed to assist in the treatment of wounds
(Clement et al 1967) and to lower cholesterol (Nayaka et al 1988). Groups of
undernourished children and adults have responded well to being fed Spirulina (Sautier and
Tremolieres 1976).

Spirulina Market

Spirulina is now commercially available in tablet or powder form.

During 1970-1980, at the time when spirulina was launched on the market, the market for food
supplements was not organised and regulated as is the case today. It was in 1981 that the
marketing of spirulina and especially its mediatization really started. The boom in consumption
was due to a front-page article in a US daily newspaper vaunting the properties of spirulina as a
hunger reducer for people on a diet. Other media took up the subject and very quickly, demand
exploded in the USA. Hundreds of companies entered the market to offer their spirulina, when
production in 1981 only amounted to 500 tons/year, the majority of which was already bought
by Japan. The result was that the products sold in the USA contained very little spirulina.

At present, companies that produce high-quality spirulina try to keep their market share by
stressing the quality aspect, and at the same time, they are developing products with higher
added value, extracting from spirulina components that they sell to other industries: food
colouring, fluorescent markers, enzymes, etc. Genetically modified spirulina is also being
developed, like spirulina with high iron, beta-carotene, zinc, etc. content.

The main producers of Spirulina are located in Asia and the USA. More than 10% of the world
production is from China, operated by Hainan Simai Enterprising (Hanian, China). The company
produces around 350 t of Spirulina per year. The world's largest Arthospira production plant
located in South California owned by Earthrise nutritionals produces 450 t/year.
Market Value

The current annual production of spirulina is in excess of 5000 tonnes. Exact production figures
are difficult to determine because of the many relatively small producers in Asia, but the
capacity exists to expand production of Spirulina to meet any growing market demand.

The market price of Spirulina is US$25/kg in 2013.

The future for spirulina could however be much more attractive. In 2013, the Japanese company
DIC, which is a leader in spirulina-based food colorants, said global market for spirulina derived
natural- blue food colourings could expand to 7 – 10 times its current size as demand for natural
colours continues to increase.

The Asia-Pacific region is anticipated to witness fastest growth in the global nutraceuticals
market until 2015.

6.1.2 Chlorella

Product Category Single Cell Protein

Other Current Sources • Fungi - Aspergillus fumigatus
• Aspergillus niger
• Rhizopus cyclopium
• Yeast - Saccharomyces cerevisae
• Candida tropicalis
• Candida utilis
• Bacteria - Pseudomonas fluroescens
• Lactobacillus
• Bacillus megaterium
Algae Strains Used Chlorella pyrenoidosa, Chlorella sori
Status of Commercialised
Commercialisation

Chlorella is a single celled green algae and belongs to the phylum Chlorophyta, possessing a
grass like odour. It is roughly equal to the size of human red blood cell and is spherical in shape.
Within a very short period of time it multipies and by photosynthesis it produces oxygen and
glucose from carbon dioxide, water and sunlight. It is the richest source of chlorophyll available
for human consumption.It has a high photosynthetic efficiency and rich nutrition hence it can
serve as a potential source of food and energy. Algae powder can be used as a raw material for
food products.
Chlorellahas been on earth for more than 3 billion years but was rediscovered only after World
War II as an ideal food.The whole unbroken cell of chlorella is 47% digestible so procedures like
“Dyno-mill”(method used by Sun Chlorella) and “Jet-spray” are developed which improved it’s
digestibility to 80% while preserving the nutritional value of the cells. Chlorella is the second top
selling food supplement in Japan with over 30% of the Japanese population taking it as one of
their principle health supplement.
 Composition of
Chlorella (Per 100g)
Applications– Chlorella is one of the most
widely studied food supplements in the Nutrients Amt per 100g of dried
world. Aside from being the subject of Chlorella
medical research in the USA, USSR, Germany, Protein 53-66g
Japan, France, England and Israel, Chlorella Fat 6-15 g
Carbohydrate 10-20g
has been extensively studied as a food source
Fiber 1-4g
since it is made up of a whopping 50 percent Moisture 3-6g
protein and is considered a complete amino Chlorophyll 1500-3000mg
acid-based food. Even NASA has studied Calcium 60-160mg
using chlorella as the one of first whole foods Magnesium 150-500mg
in space on the international space station! Iron 80-200mg
Carotene 10-80mg
Studies in Japan have shown chlorella may Vit A 5000-45000 I.U.
help reduce body fat percentage and may be Vit E 11-22 I.U.
useful in fighting obesity and weight related Vit B1 1-3 mg
diabetes. It may also help reduce both Vit B2 2.5-7 mg
cholesterol and hypertension. Chlorella's Vit B3 15-30mg
cleansing action on your bowel and other Vit B6 0.6-2mg
elimination channels, as well as its protection Vit B12 0.02-0.05mg
of your liver, also helps promote clean blood. Vit C 15-70mg
And clean blood helps assure metabolic CGF(Chlorella 12000-26000mg
waste get efficiently carried away from your Growth factor)*
tissues Detailed Nutitional facts
at http://nutritiondata.self.com/facts/custom/569
Algal Strains Used 428/2,
http://www.chlorella.co.in/search/label/What%20i
• Chlorella pyrenoidosa s%20Chlorella%3F
• Chlorella vulgaris
• Chlorella regularis CGF(Chlorella Growth Factor)- Growth factor refers
to a substance that builds the immune system.CGF
Growth Requirements is a special compound obtained from dissolving in
hot water known as “chlorella soup” .It is mostly
Chlorella strains are found to be from the cell nucleus of chlorella which has a high
psychrophilic(cold water adapted) and concentration of DNA and RNA.
Mesophilic (both cold and warm water
adapted) like Chlorella sorikiniana. The optimum pH condition for Chlorella vulgaris is between
7.5 and 8.0. Their habitat is warm stagnant waters.

Growth Factors

• SUNLIGHT- the growth rate of chlorella is very fast. It becomes overcrowded and blocks
the rays from reaching the bottom.Hence the top most layer gets over exposed.In order
 to provide sufficient sunlight to the whole volume, the tank in which algae is grown is
agitated with the help of rotating arms.
• NUTRIENTS- Basic nutrients like nitrogen,phosphorus and potassium has to be supplied
for proper growth and development. Important minerals like iron and silica should be
supplemented.
• WATER-Initially fresh water is filled in the ponds.Open ponds are prone to contamination
by various microorganisms and bacteria.To avoid this the pond can be surrounded with
transparent plastic.
• CARBON DIOXIDE- Rotating arms can be used in the pond for dissolution of carbon
dioxide.Basic photosynthetic reaction is water+sunlight+carbon dioxide= glucose
+oxygen
• TEMPERATURE- It requires hot weathers and subsequent warm water.Tropical regions
are ideal for its growth.Ideal temperature is 82 degrees.
• MAGNETIC FIELDS- Studies have shown that weak magnetic induction intensity
stimulates growth of chlorella.But different magnetic induction intensity has different
impacts,intensities more than 0.05T restricts the growth.

Production Process

Chlorella Cultivation:

Each chlorella cell can divide into four new daughter cells every 20-24 hours. Approximately 40
tons of chlorella per acre can be harvested annually as compared to less than half a ton of
soyabeans or two tons of rice per acre annually.

It is produced commercially in Japan,Taiwan, Korea,India,Hawaii,Canada etc.,

The following schematic representation illustrates the production process of chlorella starting
from the cultivation until making them into powder or pills.
 CULTURING IN FLASK- Specific strains of Chlorella are placed in slant cultures they are
exposed to sunlight and left to multiply under optimum temperature conditions

CULTURE IN SMALL JAR FERMENTER- When a certain concentration level is reached in the
flasks the culture is moved to this fermenter

BIG JAR FERMENTER -Now the strain is in its highest quality suitsble for open air culture
while the temperature and pH are still controlled

OPEN AIR CULTURE-Now the culture is moved outside where it is allowed to grow in the
natural environment in circular concrete pools with agitators which look like hands of a
clock.These cultures are successively moved to larger pools

CENTRIFUGAL MACHINE- after the culture attains a certain concentration the liquid is
centrifuged ,after that the cells are repeatedly rinsed and dehydrated and made into a
concentrated suspension.

PULVERIZATION-the rigid wall of chlorella is pulverized by applying a partial

pessure difference.The cell walls rapidly expand break when the cells move
through a pressure gradient .

To remove photohypersentivity an enzyme called chlorophyllase is deactivated

and chlorella is sterilized by applying a quick high-temperature treatment
(plate heater is used in few processes) with steam

SPRAY DRYING -this method is used to dry chlorella .The concentrated

chlorella solution is sprayed into a hot air stream forming small droplets that
dry instantly into a green powder.

Now this is either used as a powder or pressed into pills

Applications

Regular consumption of chlorella provides many health benefits as follows:

• Reduced blood pressure and cholesterol levels

• Helps prevent cardiovascular disease
• Diminishes asthma and allergy symptoms
• Helps protect the liver from toxins ,including drugs
• Binds to toxic heavy metals like mercury,lead,cadmium,uranium,arsenic and helps eliminate
them from your body
• Helps control symptoms of ulcerative colitis
• Anti-inflammatory properties of chlorella improve arthritis symptoms
• Helps in enhancing digestion and bowel function
• Promotes growth of colon floura
• Improves immune system
• Improves skin disorders
• Helps in preventing cancers and growth of tumors
• Stabilizes blood sugar
• It has anti-aging properties
• Helps in healing skin wounds
• Used in treatment of AIDS/HIV to improve the immune system
• Can be used to cure anemia
• Helps in aiding weight loss

Other benefits include pollution control, where chlorella acts as biofilter. Organic chlorella,
reduces mercury contamination efficiently by binding to those toxic ions.

Factoids

Chlorella strains are being used for a variety of applications in biotechnology. Due to their
very high protein contents, they serve to improve protein deficiency and can be used as feed
for production of animal protein. In many countries strains ofChlorella are utilized for
sewage oxidation and waste water treatment (Kessler, 1989). 44
Chlorella contains a significant amount of vitamin K and may interfere with anticoagulants
such as warfarin.

44
http://www.eplantscience.com/index/biotechnology/microbial_biotechnology/single_cell_protein_scp_and_mycoprotein/biotech_scp_produc
tion_of_algal_biomass.php
 One of the algae strain used as a SCP - Chlorella vulgaris is a rich source of good quality
protein, antioxidants, vitamins, DNA, RNA, growth factor essential minerals, omega-3, and
omega-6 (Czerpak et al. 2003).

One of the reasons the Japanese value chlorella so highly is its natural detoxification abilities.
Chlorella ‘s unique properties make it such a useful detoxification tool. Its molecular
structure, allows it to bond to metals, chemicals and some pesticides. When chlorella is
taken into your body, its natural action will bind it to lingering heavy metals, chemicals and
pesticides found in your digestive tract, which is your body's pathway to your bloodstream
where these harmful toxins are delivered and deposited into your body's cells.45

The Russian trial using Broken Cell Wall chlorella combined with cilantro eliminated ALL
heavy metals, including mercury! With no reported side-effects! In fact, the heavy metal
binding power of chlorella was first discovered in the mining industry. Mixed with water,
they pumped chlorella into mine shafts to collect the residual metals after bulk mining was
completed.

One other thing to be aware of when using chlorella is that this green algae does contain
large concentrations of iron. Iron levels in women should not be a problem due to the loss of
iron related to the menstrual cycle, but for men, or postmenopausal women, excessive iron
can become a problem.

Chlorella is also a great source of complete amino acid protein, and is made up of 50 percent
protein. So vegans and vegetarians can benefit not only from the detoxification properties of
chlorella, but can also enhance their B vitamin and protein intake as well through chlorella
supplementation.

During a three-month cruise, 458 sailors of the Japanese marine defense fleet were given
tow grams of chlorella tablets daily, while 513 sailors on sister ships served as controls
receiving no chlorella. The cruise was made in hot, tropical weather and the men worked
hard. Over the three-month voyage, 903 colds were reported among the 513 controls, 41
percent more than the chlorella-supplemented group, with 571 colds. Average weight loss
among controls was 3.31 lb, while in the chlorella group it was 1.5 lb. The chlorella-
supplemented sailors showed a significantly higher resistance to cold viruses and weight
loss.

45
http://articles.mercola.com/sites/articles/archive/2012/02/01/is-this-one-of-natures-most-powerful-
detoxification-tools.aspx
 At Kyushu University Medical College in Japan, chlorella was given to five patients with
wounds that had refused to heal under conventional medical treatment including
antibiotics. In three cases, the wounds healed satisfactorily in less than a month, while two
of the more stubborn cases required about two months to heal.

One disadvantage of chlorella in the past has been its limited digestibility due to a tough
outer wall, which has reduced the availability of nutrients for assimilation to around 40
percent. In recent years, a patented process for breaking down the cell wall has increased
digestibility to 80 percent, effectively doubling the good we can get out of it.

Chlorella Market

The production of Chlorella as a human health supplement accounted for about 2000 tons per
year in 2009. The market value for Chlorella is US $44 per kilogram in 2010.

Chlorella is produced by more than 70 companies worldwide. The largest producer is Taiwan
Chlorella Manufacturing & Co. Ltd in Taipei (Taiwan) with an annual biomass output of 330 t in
Taiwan and a further 300t in another production site loacted in Hai-Nan (Hainan, China) using
open ponds (Taiwan Chlorella Manufacturing Co.Ltd.2012). In Germany, Chlorella biomass is
produced in closed PBRs by Roquette Klotze GmbH &Co.KG(Klotze, Germany.)

6.2 Omega-3 Fatty Acids

Product Fatty acids

Other Current Sources Fish such as salmon, tuna, and halibut, other
seafood including krill, some plants, and nut oils.
Algae Strains Used Phaedactylum tricornatum
Spirulina
Chlorella
Nannochloropsis
Monodus subterraneus
Crypthecodinium cohnii,
Schizochytrium
Thraustochytrium aggregatum
Ulkenia sp
Status of Commercialised
Commercialisation

Omega-3 Fatty Acids have gained considerable importance due to their association with the
prevention and treatment of several diseases like atherosclerosis, thrombosis, arthritis, cancers,
etc. The omega-3 fatty acids include Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and Eicosapentaeneoic acid
(EPA). The conventional source of EPA and DHA is marine fish oil, however, research studies
have proved that higher amount of EPA and some DHA can be produced by the use of algae.

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) produced from algae, is a vegetarian source of docosahexaenoic

acid, DHA. DHA is a long-chain polyunsaturated omega-3 fatty acid and is important for brain,
eye and heart health throughout the lifecycle. DHA has several applications including infant
formulas, products for pregnant and nursing women, food and beverage products and dietary
supplements.

EPA is a polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) that acts as a precursor for prostaglandin-3 (which
inhibits platelet aggregation), thromboxane-3, and leukotriene-5 groups.

Current Sources of Omega 3 Fatty Acids

Omega-3 fatty acids can be found in fish, such as salmon, tuna, and halibut, other seafood
including algae and krill, some plants, and nut oils.

DHA is the primary compound of the human brain and retina. Cold-water oceanic fish oils are
rich in DHA. Most of the DHA in fish and complex organisms originates in photosynthetic and
heterotrophic microalgae, and becomes increasingly concentrated in organisms, as they move
up the food chain. As of today DHA is commercially produced from microalgae.

EPA is obtained in the human diet by eating oily fish or fish oil— e.g., cod liver, herring,
mackerel, salmon, menhaden and sardine. It is also found in human breast milk. Fish do not
naturally produce EPA, but obtain it from the algae they consume. It is available to humans from
some non-animal sources. Microalgae are being developed as a commercial source. EPA is not
usually found in higher plants. Microalgae, and supplements derived from it, are excellent
alternative sources of EPA and other fatty acids, since fish often contain toxins due to pollution.

Algae Strains Used

Microalgae can supply omega-3 fatty acids at high concentrations. Species of Crypthecodinium,
Thraustochytrium, Ulkenia and Schizochytrium are rich the omega-3 fatty acid DHA, while
species of Phaeodactylum, Chlorella, Monodus, and Nannochloropsis are rich in EPA.

Crypthecodinium cohnii is a heterotrophic algal species that is currently used to produce the DHA
used in many infant formulas. Research efforts have revealed that approximately 50%
Thraustochytrium aureum’s total fatty acids are DHA.

Phaeodactylum tricornutum is a high EPA-producing algal species with EPA comprising 30-40% of
its total fatty acids when grown using optimum culture conditions. Monodus species are
photoautotrophic algae that can produce high levels of EPA, but the dependence on light results
in low cell densities making them unfavorable species to use in the industrial production of EPA.
The microalga Pavlova lutheri is a potential source of economically valuable docosahexaenoic
and eicosapentaenoic acids.

Product Algae
EPA Phaedactylum tricornatum
Spirulina
Chlorella
Nannochloropsis
Monodus subterraneus
DHA Crypthecodinium cohnii,
Schizochytrium
Thraustochytrium aggregatum
Ulkenia sp

Production Process

DHA algal oil is produced via an algal fermentation process using Schizochytrium. Up to 50% of
this species’ dry cell weight can comprise of fatty acids; approximately 30% of the total fatty
acids are DHA. Past studies have shown that S limacinum can produce approximately four grams
of DHA for every liter of media, which is higher than other species studied.
 Fermentation
Fermentation carried out under controlled conditions using
carbon and nitrogen sources, bulk nutrients, vitamins and trace
mineral sources.

Intermediate Product (Dried Algae Recovery)

Algae cells concentrated and dried algae transferred to oil
extraction process.

Oil Extraction
Oil extracted from dried algae by solvent (hexane) extraction.
De-oiled biomass separated by centrifugation or filtration.
Solvent phase crystallized (winterized) and oil is extracted.

Oil Purification
Winterized oil heated and pretreated with acids, neutralized and
centrifuged to get refined oil.

Production of DHA oil from Schizochytrium

Source: Martek Biosciences

The marine microalga Phaeodactylum tricornutum combines all the important criteria for an
industrially utilizable EPA producer: rapid growth, high EPA content, photo-autotrophic
production, with only sunlight as energy source and carbon dioxide as carbon source.

Researchers at the Fraunhofer Institute for Interfacial Engineering and Biotechnology

(Fraunhofer IGB), Germany, grow Phaeodactylum tricornutum in a photobioreactor, the flat-
panel airlift (FPA) reactor, specially developed at the Fraunhofer IGB.

Applications

 Omega-3 fatty acids are highly concentrated in the brain and appear to be important for
cognitive (brain memory and performance) and behavioral function. DHA specially is
essential for the proper functioning of the brain and for the development of nervous system
and visual abilities during the first 6 months of life.
 Omega-3 fatty acids as a part of diet help lower the risk of heart diseases.
 Omega-3 fatty acids may delay or prevent the progression of certain psychotic disorders in
high-risk children and adolescents.
  DHA has several applications including infant  EPA is thought to have the ability to
formulas, products for pregnant and nursing reduce inflammation.
women, food and beverage products and
dietary supplements.  Recent studies have suggested that EPA
may decrease depression and, importantly,
 DHA possesses a variety of immune suicidal behavior, also it improves the
modulating effects. response of patients to chemotherapy,
possibly by modulating the production of
 DHA was found to inhibit growth of human eicosanoid.
colon carcinoma cells, more than other
omega-3 PUFAs.  EPA in particular may possess some
beneficial potential in mental conditions,
such as schizophrenia.

Factoids

• In the early 1980s, NASA sponsored a scientific research in search of a plant-based food
source that could generate oxygen and nutrition on long-duration space flights. The
researchers discovered that certain species of marine algae produced rich nutrients. This
research led to the development of algae-based, vegetable-like oil that contains two
essential polyunsaturated fatty acids: DHA and ARA (Arachidonic acid).
• Martek Biosciences produce DHA using Cryptotheconidium cohnii for baby formula and
the production was 240 tons in 2003 and the company has revenue of $300 million
today.
• Martek currently owns the patents to the Schizochytrium production strain and the oil
extraction process for making DHA-rich oil. Martek acquired these patents by their
purchase of OmegaTech.
• The annual production of DHA in the form of oil is estimated to be 240 tons from
Cryptotheconidium cohnii and 10 tons from Scizochytrium. (Source: FAO)
• As of today, USA is producing commercial scale Omega-3 fatty acids.

Omega 3- Market

Traditionally, omega-3 oils have been extracted from wild caught fish, but algae are the
originating source of EPA and DHA in fish and krill, which obtain these fatty acids by eating algae.
The total costs of producing omega-3 fatty acids from microalgae are higher compared to fish,
simply due to the cultivation costs and the harvest costs of the low density microalgae biomass
from the cultivation medium. The availability of algal oil is still very restricted and, so far, the
retail market is more relevant than the bulk market. The retail market pays a higher price for
algal omega-3 since it is a vegetable source and has not been in contact with industrial pollution.
Market Size and Market Value

• The market revenue of omega-3 fatty acids was US$ 1.5 billion in 2010. This is expected
to grow at a compounded annual growth rate (CAGR) is expected of 13.8 per cent
between 2011 and 2016.
• The market for omega-3 ingredients have been growing between 10 and 18 per cent
across different regions in the globe, and marine source omega-3 ingredients contribute
to 90% of the estimated revenues of US $2 billion globally in 2013.
• Replacing fish oil (approx. 1 million tons a year) by algal products completely would
require an annual production of 2.5-3.5 million tons of algae.
• The current wholesale market price for algae omega-3 oil is about US$ 140/kg which is
higher than the pricing for fish oil derived products. The Global Organisation for EPA and
DHA and Frost and Sullivan (2010) estimated that the global market for EPA and DHA
omega-3 oils exceeded 85,000 t in 2009 and was estimated to grow to 135,000-190,000 t
by 2015.
• Present worldwide annual demand for eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) is claimed to be
about 300 metric tons production from Phaeodactylum cornutum, which contains about
2% eicosapentaenoic acid would require production from 15,000 t of algal biomass. The
DSM owned company Martek producing omega- 3 fatty acid DHA had a net sale of US
$450 million in 2010 and just $17.05 million were sales to food and beverage customers.
The main part was sold to the infant formula makers and dietary supplements trade.
• Market Distribution by Region-Europe is expected to show a greater acceptance of algal
oils in the near future and grows faster than North America, where algal oils are well
established.

According to Frost and Sullivan research done in 2014, prices are expected to drop between
1 to 8 percent CAGR during the forecast period 2012-2023, or an average of 4 percent during
the period. The infant formula application is only expected to grow at a compound annual
growth rate of 4.3 percent during the forecast period because it has already reached market
saturation in most major markets.

According to the Algae Industry Magazine (2014), worldwide, consumption of omega-3

PUFAs, estimated at 123.8 thousand metric tons worth US$2.3 billion in 2013, is forecast to
be 134.7 thousand metric tons valued at US$2.5 billion in 2014. By 2020, it is projected that
demand for omega-3 PUFAs globally will reach 241 thousand metric tons with a value of
US$4.96 billion, thereby posting a volume CAGR of almost 10% and a value CAGR of 11.6%
between 2013 and 2020.
6.3Carotenoids

6.3.1 Astaxanthin

Product Ketocarotenoid
Other Current Sources Highest concentration in Wild Pacific sockeye
salmon. It is also found in krill, algae, red trout,
shrimp, crab and lobster.
Algae Strains Used Hematococcus pluvalis, Chlorella vulgaris, Chlorella
zofingiensis, and Coelastrella striolata var.
multistriata

Status of Commercialised
Commercialisation

Astaxanthin is a naturally occurring high-value ketocarotenoid pigment with excellent

antioxidant effects belonging to the xanthophyll group of carotenoids, or the oxygenated
carotenoids. The hydroxyl and keto functional groups present in the ending ionone ring of
astaxanthin are responsible for its uniquely powerful antioxidant activity. They differ from other
antioxidants in its ability to penetrate the blood brain and retina barriers. Therefore, it is
believed to protect the brain and nervous system from neurodegenerative diseases (e.g.
cerebral thrombosis and stroke) and aging.

Natural astaxanthin production and commercialization is estimated to be a 1.2 billion dollar

annual market. Today, essentially all commercial astaxanthin for aquaculture is produced
synthetically from petrochemical sources, with an annual turnover of over $200 million, and a
selling price of around $2000 per kilogram of pure astaxanthin. Natural astaxanthin is sold for
over $7000 per kg.

Current Sources of Astaxanthin

Astaxanthin is present in many types of seafood, including salmon, trout, red sea bream, shrimp
and lobster, as well as in birds such as flamingo and quail. As of today, astaxanthin is
commercially produced from the microalga Hematococcus pluvialis.

Algae Strains for Astaxanthin Production

The most commonly used algae strain that is used for Astaxanthin production is Haemotococcus
pluvalis. H pluvialis is believed to accumulate the highest levels of astaxanthin in nature.
Commercially grown Hpluvialis can accumulate more than 40g of astaxanthin per kilogram of dry
biomass. Other strains that could be used for astaxanthin production include: Chlorella vulgaris,
Chlorella zofingiensis, and Coelastrella striolata var. multistriata
Commercial Production of Astaxanthin

Natural astaxanthin is produced in a two-stage culture process and its concentration can reach
1.5% to 4% of the dry weight.

Green Stage
•Indoor cultivation with a single colony of Haematococus
followed by outdoor cultivation in PBRs.
•For the maximal prodcution of biomass

Red Stage
•Cells subjected to stress conditions (heavy doses of irradiation
and changes in growth media)
•Cells form thick walled cysts
•Synthesize and accumulate astaxanthin in the esterified form.

Product Recovery
•Cell disruption and biomass extraction (Organic solvent
mediated extraction)
•Purification

Astaxanthin Production by Haematococcus pluvialis

Applications of Astaxanthin

 Astaxanthin finds application in the nutraceutical Industry, pharmaceutical Industry and

food coloration application
 Astaxanthin is used as an animal feed additive to impart coloration to salmonids (salmon and
trout), as well as to red sea bream and Tai.
 Recent studies revealed the wrinkling and moisturizing effect of astaxanthin which suggest
its potential cosmeceutical applications in protection against skin aging.

Benefits of Astaxanthin

 Astaxanthin acts as a chain-breaking anti-oxidant, and therefore protect lipid-rich cell

membranes from degradative oxidation.
 Natural astaxanthin is a dietary supplement with extremely powerful antioxidant benefits for
human applications.
 Astaxanthin traps more free radicals than any other antioxidant.
 Astaxanthin has been proven to cross the human blood-brain barrier, and therefore has the
ability to directly act as a superb antioxidant in the brain and the eyes.
 Astaxanthin enhances the action of other antioxidants like Vitamin E and C.
 Astaxanthin protects nucleic acid components of DNA, avoiding mutations to genetic
material due to oxidative stress and protects muscle cells from damaging effects of active
oxygen produced upon swimming upstream.
 Astaxanthin has been documented to prevent age-related macular degeneration (AMD) and
enhance immune functions

Challenges in Astaxanthin Production

 Although natural sources have long been exploited for astaxanthin production, it is still
uncertain if natural astaxanthin can be produced at lower cost than that of synthetic
astaxanthin or not.
 One of the major limitations with the H pluvialis production system is that the astaxanthin
gets trapped behind thick cells walls, thus complicating the extraction process and the
production yields.
 Production capacity of H pluvialis is constrained by its intrinsic slow growth, low cell yield,
ease of contamination by bacteria and protozoa, and susceptibility to adverse weather
conditions. These challenges are magnified as processes are scaled up, and therefore
require advanced technology to control

H pluvialis cannot be efficiently cultivated in dark heterotrophic mode, which requires high
levels of irradiance, making the process economically less reasonable.

Astaxanthin – Factoids

 One of the technical challenges to developing Haematococcus algae astaxanthin has been
the tough cell wall of the spores, which must be ruptured to allow the cell contents to be
effectively digested by animals. Cyanotech Corporation in Hawaii uses a combination of
closed photobioreactors and open culture ponds to successfully mass produce astaxanthin-
rich Haematococcus biomass, and proprietary milling technology to crack the cell walls.

 Commercial production of astaxanthin is being carried out in USA, India, Japan and Israel.

 Astaxanthin is a carotenoid. Astaxanthin has been shown in studies to have 100-500 times
the antioxidant capacity of Vitamin E as well as 10 times beta-carotene’s antioxidant
capacity. Astaxanthin is found in many places in nature, but it is usually in small quantities as
in salmon or shrimp.

 By far the most concentrated and natural source of astaxanthin is the Haematococcus
pluvialis algae. These green algae also provide other important carotenoids such as beta-
 carotene. It accumulate the highest levels of astaxanthin in nature; commercially more than
40g of astaxanthin per kilo of dry biomass.

 Research shows that due to astaxanthin's potent antioxidant activity, it may be beneficial in
cardiovascular, immune, inflammatory and neurodegenerative diseases. Some sources have
demonstrated its potential as an anti-cancer agent. Research supports the assumption that it
protects body tissues from oxidative damage. It also crosses the blood-brain barrier, which
makes it available to the eye, brain and central nervous system to alleviate oxidative stress
that contributes to ocular, and neurodegenerative diseases such as glaucoma and
Alzheimer's.

 Astaxanthin, as other carotenoids, can act as a quencher of singlet oxygen and other free
radicals by absorbing the excited energy of singlet oxygen onto the polyene electron-rich
chain, resulting first in the excitation of the carotenoid to a triplet state, and then in the
dissipation of the extra energy in the form of heat by relaxation back to the ground state. In
this way, it prevents cellular components or tissues from being damaged. The carotenoid
structure remains unchanged, and ready to act as a radical quencher.

 Astaxanthin has been shown to protect against free radicals and promote numerous health
functions. Astaxanthin offers protection against a broad range of human diseases like neuro-
degenerative disorders. The antioxidant of astaxanthin is stronger than β-carotene and
vitamin E by 40x and 1,000x respectively.

Astaxanthin Market:
The global astaxanthin market is estimated to be worth about $200 million by 2015, most of
which is used as a pigment to enhance the pink coloration of fish such as salmon. The human
uses market is growing and estimated at about $35-60 million, according to 2008 data from
Frost & Sullivan. The market value of natural astaxanthin can go up to US$7000/ Kg.

Astaxanthin - Market Segments

• Animal Feed Colouring Agents

• Antioxidant Nutraceuticals
• Pharmaceuticals
• Cosmetics

Although >95% of the astaxanthin market consumes synthetically derived astaxanthin, consumer
demand for natural products makes the synthetic pigments much less desirable and provides an
opportunity for the production of natural astaxanthin by Haematococcus. The cardiovascular
benefit of astaxanthin is also expected to pull the growth of the astaxanthin market worldwide.
Owing to the increasing demand of astaxanthin, some of the top players such as Asta Real and
Fuji Health have doubled its production capacity recently.
6.3.2 Beta-Carotene

Product Category Carotenoid

Current Sources Dark green and orange-yellow vegetables, such as
carrots, sweet potatoes, squash, spinach, broccoli,
romaine lettuce, apricots, and green peppers.
Algae Strains Used Dunaliella (D salina, D bardawil, D kona); Spirulina
platensis; Chlorella; Caulerpa taxifolia
Status of Commercialised
Commercialisation

Beta-carotene belongs to the group of pigments called carotenoids. Carotenoids are a class of
natural fat-soluble pigments found principally in plants, algae, and photosynthetic bacteria,
where they play a critical role in the photosynthetic process. In human beings, carotenoids can
serve several important functions. The most widely studied and well-understood nutritional role
for carotenoids is their provitamin-A activity. Beta-carotene is converted to Vitamin A in the
body.

Until 1980, production of beta-carotene was synthetic. Natural carotenoids, although more
expensive than synthetic have the advantage of supplying the natural isomers in their natural
ratio and the natural isomers of beta-carotene are considered superior to the trans-synthetic
form. In 1994 algal beta-carotene was sold in small quantities.

Current Sources

Good sources of beta-carotene include dark green and orange-yellow vegetables, such as
carrots, sweet potatoes, squash, spinach, broccoli, romaine lettuce, apricots, and green peppers.

Dunaliella salina, a marine microalga is a rich source of beta-carotene, alpha-carotene,

cryptoxanthin, zeaxanthin, lutein and lycopene.

The average concentration of carotenoids in most algae is only 0.1–2%, but Dunaliella when
grown under the right conditions of high salinity and light intensity will produce up to 14% beta-
carotene. Dunaliella is, therefore, well suited to the commercial production of beta-carotene
and several industrial production plants are in operation around the world including Australia,
Israel, USA, India and China.

Algae Strains Used

Dunaliella (D salina, D bardawil, D kona)
Spirulina platensis
Chlorella
Caulerpa taxifolia
Production Process

Dunaliella has the ability to grow at very high salt concentrations where few other organisms
can survive. Its high temperature tolerance (up to about 40°C), and the high cell content of beta-
carotene (up to 14% of dry wt.) made this alga an attractive candidate for commercial
production of beta-carotene. The extreme conditions under which this alga grows means that
relatively simple cultivation systems can be used. Dunaliellaproduction facilities are located in
areas where solar irradiance is maximal, cloudiness is minimal, climate is warm, and hypersaline
water available. Dunaliella for beta-carotene production has been cultivated in large shallow
ponds.

These ponds have a depth of between 30 and 60cm and are only mixed by wind and thermal
convection. The harvested biomass is extracted and pure beta-carotene or mixed carotenoids
are sold as a nutritional supplement and natural food coloring. Dried Dunaliella powder is also
sold as a feed additive for aquaculture to pigment crustaceans such as prawns.

Extensive cultivation approach (Followed by Intensive cultivation approach (Followed by

Australian Companies) other Dunaliella Producers)

Raceway ponds 3,000 sqm

Large ponds of up to 250 ha area and
suspension depth of 0.5 m
Mixed only by wind and convection
Operate without CO2 addition and
with minimal control.
β-carotene yields low (0.1 g per m3 of
cell suspension)
Cell harvesting by flocculation and
cell surface adsorption
of production surface
area and 0.2 m deep
Mixed by paddle-wheel to give a flow
of about 0.2 ms−1
Plants supplied with CO2
β-carotene yield in the range of 15 g
per m3 of cell suspension)
Cell harvesting by centrifugation

Dunaliella cultivation Processes for Beta-carotene Production

Source: http://moritz.botany.ut.ee/~olli/b/DelCampo07.pdf

In comparison to others, Dunaliella has the following advantages:

a) Disruption of cells is much easier than that in other algae because of its wall-less nature.
b) Continuous culture in laboratory is very easy and the growth rate is relatively high.
c) Resistance to various environmental conditions is higher than in other algae

Optimal Conditions of Beta-carotene Production by Dunaliella salina

Processing Reactor Configuration Productivity

Condition
T: 25°C; pH: 7.5 ± Semi-continuous outdoor, closed Biomass: 2 g m−2 d−1
0.5 tubular (55L) Total carotenoids: 102.5 ± 33.1 mg
m−2 d−1 (β-carotene: 10% of
biomass)
T: 30°C; pH: 7.5 Continuous turbidostat, flat-panel β-Carotene: 13.5 mg L−1 d−1 (15.0
(2.5L) pg cell−1)
T: 30°C; pH: 7.5 Continuous turbidostat, flat-panel β-Carotene: 0.7 mg L−1 d−1
(1.9L) with in situ extraction β-Carotene: 8.3 mg L−1 d−1
(8.9 pg cell−1)

The following schematics provides an outline of the beta carotene production process.

Stage 1
Optimization of biomass production
Cells to have a low β-carotene-to-chlorophyll ratio

Stage 2
Cell suspension diluted to about one third (to increase light
availability to cells)
Carotenogenesis enhanced by nitrogen deficiency

Cell Harvesting
1. Flocculation and cell surface adsorption
2. Centrifugation

β-carotene Extraction
Extraction of β-carotene done by using edible oil with or without
organic solvent, liquid or supercritic CO2 extraction,
crystallization, etc.

Beta-carotene Production and Extraction from Dunaliella salina

Applications

• Like all other carotenoids, beta-carotene is an antioxidant. It protects the body from
damaging molecules called free radicals.
• Beta-carotene is the precursor for Vitamin A biosynthesis in the body.
• Research has proven that consumption of the Dunaliella salina algae is effective in
prevention of some forms of cancer.
• Several clinical studies have revealed a correlation between the incidence of cancer and low
levels of beta-carotene in the blood.
• Natural beta-carotene prevents the decrease of white blood cells and platelets due to ionic
radiation, thus proving to be protective against nuclear radiation.
• Beta-carotene is also in used in malnourished (underfed) women to reduce the chance of
death and night blindness during pregnancy, as well as diarrhea and fever after giving birth.
• Beta-carotene is found to be useful in the following cases

 Prevention against cancer and heart disease

 To slow the progression of cataracts
 To prevent macular degeneration
 To boost immunity
 To protect the skin against sunburn
 Asthma
 Depression
 Infertility
 Parkinson’s disease
 Psoriasis
 Arthritis
 High blood pressure
 Cervical dysplasia
 Intermittent claudication

Factoids

• Australia is now the major producer of natural beta-carotene from Dunaliella.

• Beta-carotene was the first carotenoid from algae to be commercialized.
• Beta-carotene exists in several different configurations (isomers). Beta- carotene found
in fruits and vegetables contains about 10% of cis-isomers and beta-carotene derived
from algae contains about 50% of the 9-cis isomer.
• Recent experiments in Israel show that naturally derived beta-carotene (from Dunaliella
bardawil algae) is four times more effective in deactivating oxidation products
(conjugated dienes) than is synthetic beta-carotene.
• It was announced recently by the National Cancer Institute that Beta Carotene is
anticarcinogenic; other studies have found that Beta Carotene is effective in controlling
 cholesterol and in reducing risks of heart disease. These new findings make Beta
Carotene much more valuable and are likely to increase the demand for the product
• Beta Carotene is anti carcinogenic; and is also in controlling cholesterol and in reducing
risks of heart disease 46

Market

β-Carotene was the first high-value product commercially produced from a microalga (D.
salina—sometimes also called Dunaliella bardawil), with production starting in the 1980s.

Beta-carotene is the best-selling carotenoid globally, accounting for $261 million in 2010, with
natural β-carotene estimated at about 20– 30 % of the market . The market is expected to be
worth $334 million in 2018, a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 3.1 percent.

Beta-Carotene, used extensively in foods and supplements, constitutes the largest product
segment in the global carotenoids market. The growing popularity of beta-carotene is attributed
to health benefits offered by the pigment and its extensive use as a food-coloring agent.

The segment market faces tough times owing to the consumer shift towards natural products
such as carrot juice, particularly in the European market. Rise in the number of producers of
algae-derived and synthetic beta-carotene has led to a steep imbalance in the demand and
supply situation, contributing to a downward slide in the prices.

Updates in the Beta-carotene Market in 2015:

As of 2011, the current market value of commercially used carotenoids is estimated at nearly $1.2 billion
in 2010, with a chance to grow to $1.4 billion in 2018 with a compound annual growth rate of 2.3%.

6.3.3 Lutein

Product Category Carotenoid

Other Current Sources Marigold crops
Algae Strains Used Murielopsis sp. and Scenedesmus almeriensis
Status of Research Stage
Commercialisation

Lutein is a xanthophyll which is known to contain oxygen. It is the major pigment present in the
macula of the eyes. It is also known to have certain food applications like pigmentation agent in
animal tissue and products and also for the coloration of the food, drugs and cosmetics. 47

46
http://jalgalbiomass.com/paper14vol3no4.pdf
Lutein is used as a food dye and especially as a feed additive in aquaculture and poultry farming;
it is also used for the coloration of pharmaceutical products and cosmetics.

Recently, additional applications for lutein, especially in the field of human health, have been
found. Lutein is used as a nutraceutical against macular degeneration; lutein and zeaxanthin (a
carotenoid) are known to play a critical function in maintaining a normal visual function

Current Sources

Lutein is currently primarily produced from marigold oleoresin. Foods rich in lutein include
broccoli, spinach, kale, corn, orange pepper, kiwi fruit, grapes, orange juice, zucchini, and
squash. Lutein is absorbed best when it is taken with a high-fat meal. 48

Algae Strains used

Among the several microalgae that have been reported as lutein producers, only Murielopsis sp.
and Scenedesmus almeriensis have been tested in growth conditions that could be considered
for mass production. 49

Research studies indicate that strains belonging to Chlorella genus, specifically Chlorella
sorokiniana is known to produce lutein in a significantly higher amount. This strain is shown to
exhibit a number of additional advantages compared to other algae: quick growth times
(doubling time of 3 hrs.), no cell clumping; and are facile to handle, so that they are suitable for
cultivation, especially in tubular photo-bioreactors. The algae useful in the invention grow auto-
or mixotrophically in a very simple and cheap mineral medium, and are resistant with respect to
contamination.

An algae strain belonging to the Scendesmus genus (Scedesmus Almeriensis) isolated by the
researchers in the University of Almeria in Spain has been shown to yield productivities 37 times
higher than higher than marigold crops on a per square meter basis, 18 kg/m2 per year against
0.48 kg/m2 per year. Source: Patent from Unversity of Almeria, Spain.

Microalgae Lutein content Lutein productivity Growth Conditions References

(mg g-1 dry weight)
Muriellopsis sp 5.5 1.4-0.8 mg L -1 day -1 Laboratory, batch Del Campo et al.
4-7 days , (2000)
continuous
illumination, 0.2 L

47
http://www.ripublication.com/ijbbr_spl/ijbbrv4n4spl_01.pdf
48
http://www.webmd.com/vitamins-supplements/ingredientmono-754-
LUTEIN.aspx?activeIngredientId=754&activeIngredientName=LUTEIN
49
http://www.scribd.com/doc/35648985/Biotechnological-Production-of-Lutein-and-Its-Applications
 4.3 180 mg m -2 day -1 Outdoors, tubular Del Campo et al.
72 mg L -1 day -1 system, continuous (2001)
cultures 55 L
4-6 100 mg m -2 day -1 Outdoors, open Blanco ert
1 mg m -2 day -1 tank, al.(2007)
semicontinuous
culture, 100 L
Scenedesmus 5.5 4.9 mg L -1 day -1 Laboratory , Sanchez et al
almeriensis continuous culture, (2008 a)
solar cycle
illumination, 2 L
4.5 290 mg m -2 day -1 Outdoors, tubular Sanchez et al
system, continuous (2008 b)
culture, 4,000 L,
year average
Chlorella 4.6 10 mg L -1 day -1 Laboratory, batch, Wei et al (2008)
protothecoides heterotrophic, 16 L
Chlorella 3.4 3.4 mg L -1 day -1 Laboratory , batch, Del Campo et
zofingiensis continuous al.(2000)
cultivation, 0.2 L
Chlorococcum 7.2 1.05 mg L -1 h-1 Laboratory , batch, Del Campo et
citriforme continuous al.(2000)
cultivation, 0.2 L
Neospongiococcus 7.6 0.70 mg L -1 h-1 Laboratory , batch, Del Campo et
gelatinosum continuous al.(2000)
cultivation, 0.2 L
The lutein content and productivity are given for the best culture conditions are found in the references

Advantages of Using Algae as a Source for Lutein

Several microalgae have been considered as potential sources of lutein/astaxanthin for several
reasons:
A new strain belonging to the
• Its high lutein content (0.5- 1.2 % dry weight) Scedesmus genus has been shown to
compared to marigold petals yield productivities 37 times higher
• Petals (from marigold) do not have to be seperated than higher than marigold crops on a
and the whole microalgal biomass is processed. per square meter basis, 18 kg/m2 per
year against 0.48 kg/m2 per year .
• A homogeneous biomass is produced at a constant Source: Patent from Unversity of
rate regardless of time and weather, so it lends itself Almeria, Spain
better to a precisely designed extraction process
• Valuable by-products that can be used to produce protein hydrolysates, other pigments
and even valuable lipids depending on the strain
 • Another significant improvement of the microalga process (when compared to extraction
of lutein from marigold) is the decreased number of steps in obtaining obtaining lutein
extracts extracts compared to the marigold process. In the marigold process a petal
separation has to be done. However, in the microalgae method all biomass is processed.
In summary, obtaining a carotenoid-rich oleoresin from micro algae, driedor even in the
form of wet paste, is a more straightforward process.

Production Process

Ceron et al., 2008 has presented a method for the extraction of lutein from the microalga
Scenedesmus almeriensis. The method comprises three steps, cell disruption, alkaline treatment,
and solvent extraction, to produce a carotenoid extract rich in lutein. It has been demonstrated
that cell disruption is necessary and that the best option among the treatments tested with
regard to industrial applications is the use of a bead mill with alumina in a 1:1 w/w proportion as
disintegrating agent for 5 min. With regard to the alkaline treatment, the optimal conditions are
obtained using 4% w/v KOH with a biomass concentration of 100 g/L for 5 min. Longer alkaline
treatments or the use of higher KOH concentrations is said to reduce the yield of the process.
Finally, extraction with a 1:1 ratio hexane to sample volume is performed to recover 99% of
lutein contained in the processed biomass. The optimal number of extraction steps is six, by
which 95% of the lutein can be recovered.

Applications

• Lutein is largely consumed as food colorant

• There is increasing interest in lutein because of its potential role in preventing the onset
of age-related macular degeneration (AMD) and the growing aging population
• Used to treat developing eye cataracts and is believed to reduce the risk of developing
Type 2 diabetes as well as heart diseases.

Factoids

 Lutein is the major carotenoid among the other carotenoids from B. braunii as reported by
Ranga Rao et al. (2006).
 A species of the Scedesmus genus namely Scenedesmus almeriensis has a very unusual lutein
content, reaching a very high concentration of 500 mg of lutein per100 grams of dry
weight. 50

50
http://cms.ual.es/idc/groups/public/@serv/@otri/documents/documento/documento183dossiertecnolgico-
en.pdf
 Lutein and zeaxanthin in a much smaller proportion, are the only carotenoid that is absorbed
in the bloodstream after ingestion (John et al.2002) and accumulated in the human retina
and is assumed to have a protective effect due to its ability to filter out blue light and its
potential to inactivates inglet oxygen and to quench active radicals thus acting as an active
antioxidant.

Lutein Market

Lutein’ is a carotenoid extracted from algae, which is receiving increasing interest because of its
potential role in preventing the onset of age-related macular degeneration (AMD) in the growing
aging population. The market value of lutein was around $233 million in 2010 and is expected
to reach $309 million by 2018 with a compounded annual growth rate of 3.6%

6.3.4 Zeaxanthin

Product Category Pigment/Carotenoid

Other Current Sources Corn, egg yolk, yellow vegetables and various
fruits.
Algae Strains Used Neospongiococcum excentricum, Dunaliella salina
Status of Unknown (No reliable market information is
Commercialisation available for the sole use of Zeaxanthin. However,
use of Lutein and Zeaxanthin together have been
widely studied.

Zeaxanthin is a yellow carotenoid that has application in poultry pigmentation and in the
prevention of age-related macular degeneration in humans.

Zeaxanthin is a nutrient found in nature as colorants or pigment. It is also found in vegetables

such as kale, plus various fruits and corn. Marigolds are also sources of zeaxanthin.

Zeaxanthin is a powerful, natural antioxidant that protects the eye by absorbing damaging blue
light and reducing glare. Blue light can cause harmful oxidative stress in the eye. Zeaxanthin
protects cells and membranes by reducing harmful free radicals.

Current Sources of Zeaxanthin

Dietary sources of zeaxanthin include yellow corn, orange pepper, orange juice, honeydew,
mango, and chicken egg yolk.
Algae Strains used

• Synchocysistis sp.
• Scedesmus sp
• Dunaliella salina
• Scenedesmus obliquis
• Chlamydomonas reinhardtii

Zeaxanthin is mainly produced using algae such as Neospongiococcum excentricum (the content
of zeaxanthin of the wild type is 0.35 mg/g dry weight), mutants of Dunaliella salina (the content
of zeaxanthin has been found to be about 6 mg/g dry weight) and certain species of Chlorella

Applications

• Dietary supplementation of zeaxanthin can help reducing the impact of eye diseases,
age-related macular degeneration (AMD) and cataracts. Lutein and Zeaxanthin,in
combination, is also said to reduce colon cancer growths.
• Zeaxanthin is also widely used in the agriculture food industry as an agent for pigmenting
broiler chickens, the yolks of eggs.
• Zeaxanthin can also be used a colourant in the cosmetic industry.
• Zeaxanthin absorbs the potentially toxic blue-violet wave-lengths of visible light. This
helps protects the eye from light-induced ultraviolet phototoxicity, which can cause free
radical damage.

Factoids

Zeaxanthin is used as a feed additive and colorant in the food industry for birds, swine,
and fish (Hadden and others 1999). The pigment imparts a yellow coloration to the skin
and egg yolk of birds, whereas in pigs and fish it is used for skin pigmentation (Nelis and
DeLeenheer 1991).
With regard to the micro-alga Neospongiococcum excentricum, the content
of zeaxanthin of the wild type is 0.35 mg/g dry weight. In a constitutive mutant
of Dunaliella salina the content of zeaxanthin has been found to be about 6 mg/g dry
weight [see Jin et al. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 81:115-124 (2002)].

Market

Zeaxanthin alone with Lutein is used for eye health and to help prevent cataract and AMD. While
lutein has been around for about a decade, zeaxanthin has only been in use since 2001, and
hence the awareness of the ingredient of zeaxanthin still remains behind that of lutein.
The market for zeaxanthin is currently very limited and there is no reliable market information.
The market is set to expand indisputably in the near future. In an effort to increase global
awareness and promote the use of dietary zeaxanthin, a group of international companies,
including DSM, Chrysantis and Kalsec, have formed the Zeaxanthin Trade Association.
6.3.5 Lycopene

Product Category Carotenoid

Other Current Sources Red fruits ; Tomatoes, Water melon
Algae Strains Used Cyanidioschyzon merolae ; Chlorellamarina ,
Chlorella
Status of Research stage.
Commercialisation

Like all carotenoids, lycopene is a polyunsaturated hydrocarbon (an unsubstituted alkene)

Lycopene, a red coloured carotenoid is the most potent carotenoids at quenching singlet
oxygen, a particularly damaging oxidant. Apart from its use a nutraceutical product, it is used as
a colourant in food and beverages.

In plants, algae, and other photosynthetic organisms, lycopene is an important intermediate in

the biosynthesis of many carotenoids, including beta carotene, responsible for yellow, orange or
red pigmentation, photosynthesis, and photo-protection.

Current Sources

Lycopene is a bright red carotenoid The Anti-Cancer Property of Lycopene

pigment and phytochemical which is
From the body of available scientific studies done on the
found in tomatoes, watermelons and
anti-cancer effects of lycopene, the most promising
other red fruits
results were obtained for cancers of the lung, stomach
Algae Strains Used and prostate.

There are varied numbers of strains that
produce lycopene along with other
carotenoids in stress conditions. Some of
the important species that can yield
lycopene include:
• Cyanidioschyzon merolae 51
• Chlorella.marina 52
• Chlorella.sp
Because lycopene is the most common carotenoid in the
plasma as well as in many tissues in the body, its wide
distribution makes it an ideal drug candidate for treating
diseases, such as cancers, that affect multiple organs.
For example, in lung tissues, lycopene can neutralize
nitrous oxide (NO2) and prevent it from turning
lymphocytes into cancerous cells. In the stomach,
lycopene protects the cells there from oxidative damage
caused by bacteria such as Helicobacter pylori.

51
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1828917/
52
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23237458
Applications

Health Benefits

Research studies reveal that lycopene has the following health benefits:

- Protects the body from free radicals that can otherwise cause damage to body cells resulting
in more serious illnesses.
- Reduces the risks of certain cancers such as prostrate cancers.
- Prevents heart diseases. 53

In algae, lycopene is an important intermediate in the biosynthesis of many carotenoids,

including beta carotene, responsible for the yellow, organce or red pigmentation,
photosynthesie and photo-protection.

Due to its strong colour and non-toxicity, lycopene is a useful food coloring and is approved for
usage in the USA, Australia and New Zealand and the EU.

Different studies have confirmed the benefits of the antioxidant property of lycopene in the
treatment of various disorders including cancers, diabetes, osteoporosis, cardiovascular diseases
and male infertility. However, most of these studies focus on the anti-cancer benefits of
lycopene.

6.3.6 Canthaxanthin

Product Category Carotenoid

Other Current Sources Crustaceans, carp, pacific salmon, and golden
mullet.
Algae Strains Used • Micrococcus roseus
• Chlorococcum species
• Chlorella.pyrenoidosa
• Chlorella zofingiensis
Status of -
Commercialisation

Canthaxanthin is one of the most important xanthophylls from a commercial point of view
because it is extensively applied in medicine, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, poultry, fishery and
food industries (Perera and Yen, 2007).

53
http://www.zmc-usa.com/docs/ZMC_Lycopene_Brochure.pdf
Scientists first discovered canthaxanthin, a common yellow carotenoid pigment, in edible
chanterelle mushrooms. The chemical also occurs naturally in crustaceans, carp, green algae,
Pacific salmon, and golden mullet. Considered a coloring agent and an antioxidant,
canthaxanthin is approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as a food
additive, in which case only minute amounts are employed.

Some tanning pills incorporate this pigment, which, when ingested, accumulates in the fat layer
of the skin and produces a golden hue, simulating a tan. Although canthaxanthin theoretically
increases skin resistance to ultraviolet light due to its antioxidant effects, the FDA does not
approve the use of this product as a tanning agent or a medicine. The copious amount required
to induce a skin-coloring effect has been linked to several side effects, including liver damage,
aplastic anemia, and canthaxanthin retinopathy, an ocular condition in which yellow deposits
collect in the retina.

Researchers have studied canthaxanthin for use in treating conditions that produce abnormally
high levels of irritation and sensitivity to sunlight, including medication-induced photosensitivity,
eczema, and erythropoietic protoporphyria, which is a genetic disorder. During the warmer
months when patients most often receive more sun exposure, physicians prescribe between 60
to 90 milligrams of canthaxanthin each day. Patients typically use the pills three to five months
each year.

Due to its chemical similarity and possible conversion to Vitamin A, patients with allergies to
Vitamin A or carotenoids should not take this product. Canthaxanthin is soluble in fat and can be
stored in the body for long periods of time. For this reason, as well as its unknown effect on a
developing fetus, pregnant women and breast-feeding mothers should refrain from using these
pills.

Canthaxanthin can produce unpleasant adverse reactions, including diarrhea, nausea, stomach
cramps, and reddish-orange body secretions. It may also lead to the development of an itchy,
dry skin rash, known as urticaria, or hives in allergic individuals. Aplastic anemia, a dangerous
and potentially fatal condition in which the bone marrow fails to make new blood cells, can
occur with the use of these carotenoid pills. Reported in 1989, tanning pill intake induces the
reversible deposition of yellow crystals in the retina of the eye, associated with reduced ability
of the light-sensitive cells to detect light at lower levels. Considering the potential for liver
toxicity along with the other drawbacks of this additive, the FDA issued a health warning in 2003
to all companies that marketed products containing this chemical. 54

54
http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-canthaxanthin.htm
Algae Strains

• Micrococcus roseus
• Chlorococcum species
• Chlorella.pyrenoidosa
• Chlorella zofingiensis

6.3.7 Fucoxanthin

Product Category Carotenoid

Other Current Sources
Algae Strains Used Phaeodactylum tricornatum, Laminaria sp,
Isochrysis galbana, Odontella aurita
Status of Research stage
Commercialisation

Fucoxanthin is one of the most abundant carotenoids, and contributes more than 10% of the
estimated total production of carotenoids in nature, especially in the marine environment. It is
an orange-coloured pigment along with chlorophylls a and c and β-carotene. This carotenoid
was isolated as early as 1914 from the marine brown seaweeds Fucus, Dictyota and Laminaria. 55
Diatoms are unicellular planktonic microalgae and exhibit a characteristic golden-brown color
due to a high amount of fucoxanthin that plays a major role in the light-harvesting complex of
photosystems

Algae Strains for Fucoxanthin Production

Chromophyta ( Heterokontophyta or
Ochrophyta)
Phaeophyceae
Diatoms ( Bacillariophyta)
Fucus
Dictyota
Laminaria sp
Isochrysis galbana
Odontella aurita

55
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3210606/
Health Benefits of Fucoxanthin

Weight Loss - Fucoxanthin is being explored for weight loss. So far, only animal studies have
been done. Japanese researchers have found that fucoxanthin (isolated from wakame) promotes
the loss of abdominal fat in obese mice and rats. Animals lost five to 10% of their body weight.

Although it's not fully understood how fucoxanthin works, it appears to target a protein called
UCP1 that increases the rate at which abdominal fat is burned. Abdominal fat, also called white
adipose tissue, is the kind of fat that surrounds our organs and is linked to heart disease and
diabetes. Fucoxanthin also appears to stimulate the production of DHA, one of the omega-3
fatty acids found in fatty fish such as salmon.

Although it's promising and already a popular nutritional supplement, more research is needed
to determine if fucoxanthin will work in the same way in humans. If it does prove to be effective,
fucoxanthin could be developed into a diet pill for obesity.

Diabetes - Fucoxanthin has also been found in animal studies to decrease insulin and blood
glucose levels. Researchers hypothesize that fucoxanthin anti-diabetes effect may be because
fucoxanthin appears to promote the formation of DHA (the omega-3 fatty acid found in fish oil).
DHA is thought to increase insulin sensitivity, improve triglycerides and reduce LDL ("bad")
cholesterol.

Cancer - Preliminary research in test tubes suggests that fucoxanthin may have anti-tumor
effects. No studies have looked at whether this holds true in humans or if taken orally. It's far
too early for fucoxanthin to be used as a complementary treatment for cancer.

Antioxidant Activity– Fucoxanthin is only contained in brown seaweeds such as kelp, hijiki, and
wakame seaweed in small quantities. It is a type of non-provitamin A carotenoid and it belongs
to xanthophyll.
Algae in Pharmaceuticals
7
◊ Bioactive Compounds from Algae
◊ Algae as antimicrobial agent
◊ Anti-obesity and anti-diabetic agents
◊ Anti-inflammatory agents
◊ Anti-adhesive therapies
◊ Radioactive protection
◊ Human Therapeutic Proteins
◊ Other applications of algae in pharmaceuticals
Key Takeaways

Many chemically unique compounds of marine algae with antimicrobial activity have been
isolated. A number of them are under investigation and/or are being developed as new
pharmaceuticals such as brominated phenols, sterols, terpenoids, polysaccharides, peptides,
proteins, acrylic acid, terpenes, chlorophyllides, phenols and heterocyclic carbons etc
Algae polysaccharides also demonstrate anti-atherosclerotic functions, reducing blood LDL
cholesterol concentrations and cardiovascular disease risk. These soluble polysaccharides
may act as prebiotics, stimulating growth of beneficial bacteria in the colon.
Pharmaceutical companies could substantially reduce the expense of costly treatments for
cancer and other diseases produced from mammalian or bacterial cells by growing human
therapeutic proteins in algae. Microalgae usually find extensive use as therapeutic and
diagnostic proteins.
Algae are also used for highly specialised markets including pharmaceutical applications and
for the production of enzymes and toxin products. These generally have product values
around US$ 4000-8000/kg.
Introduction

Algae are also proving to be a source of many potential new drugs and bioactive molecules.
Algae produce a wide variety of chemically active metabolites in their surroundings as an aid to
protect themselves against othersettling organisms.

Microalgae can biosynthesize, metabolize, accumulate and secrete a great diversity of primary
and secondary metabolites, many of which are valuable substances with potential applications
in the food, pharmaceutical and cosmetics industries (Yamaguchi, 1997).

Bioactive compounds from algae include:

• Anti-oxidants
• Lipids
• Carbohydrates
• Peptides
• Proteins
• Vitamins
• Pigments
• Enzymes
• Toxic Compounds

The metabolites show a wide range of biological activities, including anticancer, antiviral,
antioxidant and immunomodulatory effects. There is potential of discovering new drug leads
from such metabolites. Of the various groups of microalgae, the cyanobacteria seem to feature
most prominently as sources of bioactive compounds.

This section discusses the various bioactive compounds and their applications in the
pharmaceutical industry. The methods used in the extraction of bioactive compounds from algae
are also provided briefly.
Phycotoxins
Toxic metabolites from microalgae (phycotoxins) are a promising group of bioactive molecules
for biotechnological exploitation. Such compounds are produced mainly by dinoflagellates and
cyanobacteria, especially those that cause harmful algae blooms in either marine or freshwater
environments.

Applications:

Phycotoxins show a wide range of biological activities including cytotoxic, antitumor, antibiotic,
antifungal, immunosuppressant and neurotoxic activities.

Living organisms have been a major source of new biologically active molecules for the
pharmaceutical, animal health and agrochemical industries for much of this century. For
example of the approximately 14,000 naturally occurring antibiotics, known some 5500 are
produced by actinomycetes and about 3,300 by higher plants, with about 90 of these in current
medical use.

Detailed screening of algae for bioactive molecules with antibiotic or other potential
pharmaceutical applications began as early as the 1950’s. A lot of investigation for potential
pharmaceuticals and nutraceuticals from algae has been done and more is yet to come. There
exists a vast possibility for the discovery of
Health Benefits of Algae - Source: Oilgae
new metabolites from both micro and
macro algae.
Increase
skin
thickness
and
7.1 Algae - Anti-microbial Agents elasticity
Growth Hypocholes
Factor trolemic
Modulation
Microalgae and macroalgae, both, exhibit
antimicrobial activity which finds use in
various pharmaceutical industries. Health
Benefits of
Anti Algae Anti-
The antimicrobial activity of microalgae has inflammato microbaial
been attributed to compounds belonging ry agent
to several chemical classes – including
indoles, terpenes, acetogenins, phenols,
fatty acids and volatile halogenated Anti-
Anticancer coagulating
hydrocarbons, for instance, the
antimicrobial activity of supercritical
extracts obtained from the microalga
Chaetoceros muelleri were related to its lipid composition. However, the antimicrobial activity
detected in several pressurized extracts from Dunaliella salina may be explained not only by
several fatty acids, but also by such compounds as α- and β-ionone, ß-cyclocitral, neophytadiene
and phytol. Efforts to identify the compounds directly responsible for those antimicrobial
features – e.g. chlorellin, have been on the run, but
are still relatively incipient owing the some new
 Antimicrobial activity of alga was first
classes of compounds found.
56
reported in 1940 (antibacterial activity
of Chorella vulgaris).
Many chemically unique compounds of marine algae  The antimicrobial properties of
with antimicrobial activity have been isolated and a seaweed reported in 1951.
number of them are under investigation and/or are  Antiviral effects of polysaccarides
being developed as new pharmaceuticals such as from marine alga are reported to
brominated phenols, sterols, terpenoids, inhibit mumps, and influenza B virus.
polysaccharides, peptides, proteins, acrylic acid,  Studies done as early as 1969 reveal
terpenes, chlorophyllides, phenols and heterocyclic that extracts from red algae inhibited
carbons etc. (Bhacuni et al. 2005; Li et al., 2007; HSV and other viruses.
Bouhlal et al., 2011; Priyadharshini et al., 2011). 57

The table below provides some examples of various

microalgae and macroalgae exhibiting anti-microbial
activity.

Role of Microalgae Role of Macroalgae

* Microalgae such as Ochromonas sp. * The highest percentage of antimicrobial
Prymnesium and a number of blue green algae activity was found in Phaeophyceae (84%),
produce toxins that may have potential followed by Rhodophyceae (67%) and
pharmaceutical applications (Katircioglu et Chlorophyceae (44%). (Noemi et al, 2007)
al2006)
* Various strains of cyanobacteria are known to * Red and brown macroalgae extracts show
produce intracellular and extracellular significant potential as anti-pathogenic agents
metabolites with diverse biological activities for use in fish aquaculture. (Wefky et al, 2008)
such as antibacterial
antifungal and antiviral activity (Naoman et al
2004)
Source: http://bit.ly/9ePcFb

56
http://www.formatex.info/microbiology3/book/1272-1284.pdf
57
http://www.jmbfs.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/Zbakh_jmbfs_0122.pdf
Antimicrobial activity can be divided into 3 categories with respect to their activity in a particular
period:

• Uniform activity throughout the year (eg. Polysiphonia lanosa)

• Conspicuous period of activity (eg. Laminaria saccharina)
• Conspicuous peak of activity at one period of the year (eg.Laminaria digitata)

7.2 Algae as an Antibacterial Agent

The past decade has witnessed a significant increase in the resistance of pathogenic bacteria to
antibacterial agents – with direct implications in human morbidity and mortality. Hence,
attention has been paid to a more detailed understanding of the mechanisms underlying
antimicrobial resistance – as well as to improved methods to detect resistance, new
antimicrobial options for treatment of infections caused by resistant microorganisms, and
methods to prevent emergence and spreading of resistance in the first place.

Most efforts were devoted to the study of antibiotic resistance in bacteria for several reasons:
(i) bacterial infections are responsible for most community-acquired and nosocomial infections;
(ii) the large and expanding number of antibacterial classes offers a more diverse range of
resistance mechanisms; and (iii) the ability to move bacterial resistance determinants into
standard, well-characterized bacterial strains facilitates more detailed studies of the underlying
molecular mechanisms.

Pratt et al. isolated the first antibacterial compound from a microalga, Chlorella; a mixture of
fatty acids, viz. chlorellin, was found to be responsible for that inhibitory activity against both
Gram+ and Gram- bacteria. Research aimed at identifying antibacterial active principles
produced by microalgae has meanwhile boomed. This realisation arose e.g. from the risk
associated with several multidrug-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) strains, which have
been causing an increased concern in healthcare institutions worldwide – since they are not
susceptible to most conventional antibiotics. Hence, discovery of novel antibacterial compounds
following distinct biochemical mechanisms of action is urged. Although microalgae can
synthesize a few useful products, search for novel antibiotics is still incipient.

Antibacterial features of selected compounds from microalgae

Microalga Active Compound Target microorganism

Phaeodactylum tricornutum Eicosapentaenoic acid MRSA, Listonella anguillarum,
Lactococcus garvieae, Vibrio
Spp.
Haematococcus pluvialis Short Chain Fatty Acids -
Short-chain fatty acids Escherichia coli,
(butanoic acid and methyl Staphylococcus aureus
lactate)
Skeletonema costatum Unsaturated, saturated long Vibrio Spp.
chain fatty acids
Euglena virdis Organic extracts Pseudomonas, Aeromonas,
Edwardsiella, Vibrio, E.coli
S. costatum Extra-metabolites Listeria monocytogenes
Staurastrum gracile
Pleurastrum terrestre Methanolic extracts -
Dictyosphaerium pulchellum
Klebsormidium crenulatum
Chlorococcum sp. Aqueous extract -
Chlorococcum HS-101 α Linolenic Acid
Chlorokybus atmophyticus Acetone extract -
Chlamydomonas reinhardtii Methanolic and hexanolic S.aereus, Staphylococcus
Chlorella Vulgaris extract epidermidis, Bacillus subtilis,
E.coli, Salmonella typhi

Antibacterial halogenated compounds, such as bromophenols, have been isolated from many
types of seaweed. Colpomenia sinuosa synthesize fatty acids and sterols, and the main sterol of
this alga is found as fucosterol. The Dictyotadichotoma-isolated dolabellane (dolabellane, and
perhydroazulene diterpenes, diterpenoids) derivatives possess antimicrobial activity against
bacteria.9 C.sinuosa exhibited significant antitumoral, antileukemic, antiprotozoan and
hypolipidemic activity. 58

Antibacterial activity is widespread throughout the Chlorophyceae, Phaecophyceae,

Rhodophyceae. Species which have good antibacterial properties include Asparagopsis armata,
Bonnemaisonia asparagoides,Bonnemaisonia hamifera , Chondrus crispus, Dilsea carnosa,
Gloiosiphonia digitata, Dictyopteris membranacea , Dictyoto dichitoma , Halidrys siliquosa.

7.3 Algae as Anti-fungal Agents

Antifungal features of selected compounds from microalgae are given below:

Antifungal features of selected compounds from microalgae

Microalga source
Chlamydomonas reinhardtii
Chlorella Vulgaris
Oocystis sp.
Active Compound Target microorganism
Methanolic extracts Candida kefir, Aspergillus
niger, Aspergillus fumigatus

58
http://www.doiserbia.nb.rs/img/doi/0352-5139/2009/0352-51390906619D.pdf
Scenedesmus obliquus
Amphinidium sp. Karatungiols A. Niger, Trichomonas foetus
Gonidoma pseudogoniaulax Goniodomin A
-
Gambierdiscus toxicus Polyether compounds
(gambieric acids A and B)
Prorocentrum lima -
Dinophysis fortii Polyether compounds -
Haematococcus pluvialis Butanoic acid and methyl Candida albicans
lactate
Chlorella pyrenoidosa, - A.niger, Aspergilus flavus,
Scenedesmus quadricauda Pencillium herquei, Fusarium
moniliforme,
Helminthosporium sp.,
Alternaria brassicae,
Sacchromyces cerevisiae, C.
albicans

7.4 Antimicroalgal Action

Inhibitory phenomena between microalgal cells have been reported in the past; Bagchi et al.
originally proposed that natural algaecides could effectively be applied in control of toxic algal
blooms. However, Pratt was the first to report that growth of C. vulgaris was depressed by a
compound (chlorellin) that was produced and excreted into the medium – and several other
extracellular metabolites able to inhibit their own growth and the growth of other species have
meanwhile been reported.

Autoinhibition was also observed in H. pluvialis and S. costatum. The antimicroalgal ability
appears to derive either from interference with chlorophyll and protein synthesis – as in the
case of I. galbana, or because of changes in membrane permeability coupled with dissociation of
phycobilin assemblages in the thylakoid membranes – thus leading to leakage across the cell
wall.

Antimicroalgal Features of Selected Compounds from Microalgae

Microalgae Source Active compound Target Microorganism

Peridinium bipes
Isochrysis galbana
Water-soluble extract Microcystis aeruginosa
C22H3807 from cell-free Dunaliella salina
filtrates Platymonas elliptica
Chlorella vulgaris
Chaetoceros muelleri
Chlorella gracilis
 Nitzschia closterium
P.tricornutum
Nitzschia frustulum
Scrippesiella trochoidea
Prorocentrum donghaiense

7.5 Algae as Antiviral Agents

A number of infectious diseases caused by viruses have emerged (and re-emerged) in recent
years. Although several antiviral drugs have been specifically developed, drug-resistant
mutations are constantly occuring – so new antiviral active principles are necessary, especially
those from sources that do not constitute (or are exposed to) viral pools. This is why microalgae
have received a strong attention as potential suppliers of antiviral agents.

Antiviral activity is found in extracts of the cyanobacteria. These antiviral compounds include
anti-HSV-2 indolocarbazoles from Nostoc spaericum and a range of sulphated polysaccharides
from red algae. Macrolides with antitumor activity have been isolated from
dinoflagellate Amphidinium sp and many cytotoxic compounds have been isolated from
cyanobacteria. Preliminary screening of potential anticancer activity using protein kinase
inhibition has also shown that the Cryptophyta, Chrysophyceae and Euglenophyta are promising
taxa.

The Rhodophyta, cyanobacteria and dinoflagellates have proven to show the widest range of
active compounds, however many other unicellular algae, especially in the Heterokontophyta
and Cryptophyta, have yet to be screened and are likely to provide other novel compounds.
Although a very large number of novel bioactive compounds from algae have been described to
date, none have as yet reached clinical use. It is only recently that the option of large-scale
culture of microalgae to produce a bioactive compound has become a serious consideration.

Antiviral Mechanisms

Sulfated polysaccharides Interfere with attachment of virus to target

cell
Cyanovirin Interferes with membrane fusion and host cell
entry
Sulfoglycolipids Inhibit reverse transcriptase
Carrageenans Increase T and B cell mitogens
Spirulina Increase phagocytic activity, antibody
production, NK cell accumulation.

Factoids of Algae Exhibiting Antimicrobial Activity

 Seaweeds of Indian Coasts - The extracts of seaweeds from species like Enteromorpha
compressa, Cladophoropsis zollinger, Padina gymnospora, Sargassum wightii and Gracilaria
corticata are to be found active against Gram-negativemicrobes from Mandapam, Tamil
Nadu, the Gulf of Manner and Back Bay, in India.
In Iberian Peninsula -The highest percentage of active taxa was found in Phaeophyceae
(84%), followed by Rhodophyceae (67%) and Chlorophyceae (44%). Red algae had both the
highest values and the broadest spectrum of bioactivity. In particular, Bonnemaisonia
asparagoides, Bonnemaisonia hamifera, Asparagopsis armata and Falkenbergia rufolanosa
(Bonnemaisoniales) were the most active taxa. The highest percentages of active taxa from
Phaeophyceae and Rhodophyceae were found in autumn, whereas they were found in
summer for Chlorophyceae. (http://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=2261307)
Macroalgae from Chilka Lake(Orissa,India) - The chloroform extract of E. compressa was
effective against E. coli and B. subtilis. Chloroform extract of C. linum was effective against
most of the microbes whereas the P. subtilissima extract was effective against only S. flexneri
and B. subtilis.
The chloroform and ethyl acetate extracts were more effective than the methanol and
ethanol extracts. (http://www.doaj.org/doaj?func=abstract&id=736087)
From the coast of Mandapam (Tamil Nadu,India) - Petroleum ether extracts of Turibnaria
conoides showed the best result against Escherichia coli,Salmonella typhi, Staphylococcus
aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Proteus mirabilis- (http://jocpr.com/vol4-iss4-
2012/JCPR-2012-4-4-2292-2294.pdf)

7.6 Anti-obesity and anti-diabetic agents

Anti – Obesity Agents

Several studies have shown algae’s ability to decrease lipids, lower blood sugar and improve
diabetic symptoms. Research confirms that algae reduce triglycerides and low-density proteins
in blood cholesterol, which helps regulate lipids, and offers other health benefits.

• Most algae offer low-fat proteins that often have nutrient profiles superior to land-based
plants, dairy or meat.
• Algae offer a source of bioactive agents that facilitate efficient and healthful metabolic
processes.
• The fibrous components of algae add bulk to the digestive tract reducing hunger, transit
time, and intestinal pathologies. Studies have revealed that the fibrous bulk reduces hunger
pains by creating a feeling of satiety, which aids in avoiding weight gain and obesity.
• The total fiber content of several algae species, (~6 g/100g), is greater than that of fruits and
vegetables promoted for their fiber content: prunes (2.4 g), cabbage (2.9 g), apples (2.0 g),
and brown rice (3.8 g).
• Algae polysaccharides also demonstrate anti-atherosclerotic functions, reducing blood LDL
cholesterol concentrations and cardiovascular disease risk. These soluble polysaccharides
may act as prebiotics, stimulating growth of beneficial bacteria in the colon.

Anti – Diabetic Agents

Research shows that the fibers attenuate the blood glucose response after a meal. In long-term
studies, algae fibers improved control of diabetes. Sodium alginate induces significantly lower
postprandial rises in blood glucose, serum insulin and plasma C-peptides. The diminished
glucose response, after the addition of sodium alginate in the diet, may lead to the delayed
gastric emptying rate, induced by the fiber.

The effect of soluble fiber on the blood glucose response seems related to its ability to increase
the viscosity of a meal. Viscous fibers slow the gastric emptying rate of a meal in subjects with
and without diabetes. Alginate fiber offers a source of viscous dietary fiber in algae-based foods.
The main constituents of alginates are uronic acids (mannuronic and guluronic acids), which give
the alginate characteristics similar to pectin (galacturonic acid).

Other research has investigated algae’s ability to moderate hypoglycemic effects through
enhancement of glucose uptake in the liver and in soleus muscles. Improved insulin sensitivity
after algae treatment could be also due to lower serum non-esterified fatty acid levels. Insulin
sensitivity tends to blunt elevated non-esterified fatty acids in diabetes. Phenolic-rich extracts
from four edible marine macroalgae—Ulva, Ascophyllum, Alaria, and Palmaria—were found to
offer biological components that inhibit replication of cultured colon cancer cells. These studies
confirmed that phenolic extracts inhibit digestive enzymes and achieve anti-diabetic effects.

7.7 Anti-inflammatory agents

Oxidative stress plays important roles in endothelial dysfunction, lung disease, gastrointestinal
dysfunction, and atherosclerosis, all of which involve inflammatory reactions. Many marine
natural products that contain antioxidants are known to have anti-inflammatory effects.
Examples of the anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive properties identified in extracts and
bioactive components of different marine algae are discussed here.

Red algae

Anti-inflammatory properties have been reported for twoGracilaria species, G. verrucosa and G.
textorii. Evidence of anti-inflammatory properties in other species of red algae is also increasing.
For example, an aqueous extract of G. tenuistipitata suppressed virus-induced inflammation, a
polysaccharide from Porphyridium sp. inhibited the replication of retroviruses , and an ethanol
extract of Polyopes affinis suppressed asthmatic reactions [55]. The anti-inflammatory effects of
a methanol extract of Neorhodomela aculeata in neurological diseases included inhibiting
cellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, H2O2-induced lipid peroxidation, and
inducible nitric oxide synthase.

The anti-inflammatory effects of Laurencia glandulifera-derived neorogioltriol, a tricyclic

brominated diterpenoid, have been demonstrated for cells that were stimulated by
lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Two Laurencia obtuse-derived C15 acetogenins, (12Z)-cis-maneonene-
D and (12E)-cis-maneonene-E, mediated the apoptosis of neutrophils during the progression of
inflammatory responses. A Porphyra yezoensis glycoprotein exhibited anti-inflammatory effects
in LPS -stimulated macrophages. Two enone fatty acids of Gracilaria verrucosa, (E)-10-
Oxooctadec-8-enoic acid and (E)-9-Oxooctadec-10-enoic acid, inhibited the production of the
inflammatory markers nitric oxide, TNF-α, and IL-6. Multi-mineral aquamin derived from
Lithothamnion corallioides had anti-inflammatory effects on glial-enriched primary cultures of
rat cortex. Sulfated polysaccharides from Delesseria sanguinea (Hudson) Lamouroux also
exhibited anti-inflammatory effects.

Some red algae species exhibit both antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects. For example,
a methanol extract of Bryothamnion triquetrumhad both antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory
properties in experiments that used Swiss mice. Antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activities
have also been reported for a sulfated polysaccharide fraction from Gracilaria caudate, a
galactan from Gelidium crinale, a mucin-binding agglutinin from Hypnea cervicornis, and a lectin
from Pterocladiella capillacea.

Green algae

Crude extracts and purified components of some green algae species are also known to have
anti-inflammatory properties.

For example, Dunaliella bardawil is rich in antioxidant beta-carotene. Methanol extracts of Ulva
conglobata and U. lactuca have shown anti-inflammatory effects in experiments that used a
murine hippocampal HT22 cell line and rats.

Brown algae

Alginic acid, an anionic polysaccharide in Sargassum wightii, exhibited anti-inflammatory effects

in a rat study of adjuvant-induced arthritis. Fucoidan is known to enhance the probiotic effects
of Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) by immunomodulation of an anti-allergic response. Fucans from
Lobophora variegata, Sargassum vulgare, and Spatoglossum schroederialso have both anti-
inflammatory and antinociceptive effects.
Blue-green algae

Blue-green algae have well-documented protective effects against viral and bacterial infections,
cancer, allergies, diabetes, inflammation, and hyperlipidemia . For example, the spirulina alga
had anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory effects when assessed using a non-alcoholic
steatohepatitis model. C-phycocyanin, a biliprotein isolated from Spirulina platensis, suppressed
inflammation by inhibiting the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and by inhibiting the
expressions of inducible nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygeanase-2 . To date, the
antinociceptive properties of blue-green algae have been less thoroughly investigated.

Macroalgae anti-inflammatory agents

Macro algae haveboth pro- and anti-inflammatory compounds, the later include sulphated
polysaccharides (fucoidans)from brown seaweeds, alkaloids (Caulerpin I, II and III) from red and
green seaweeds, polyunsaturatedfatty acids (Docosahexaenoic acid: EDA, Eicosapentaenoic acid:
EPA, Stearidonic acid: SA andEicosatrienoic acid: ETA), carotenoids (fucoxanthin and
astaxanthin), Pheophytin A and Vidalols A andB. Anti-inflammatory assays include edema,
erythema, tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α), interleukin (IL 1β,6, 8), Nitric oxide (NO), inducible
Nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), Prostaglandin E (PGE 2 and 3),Cyclooxygenase (COX-2),
transcription factor (NF-κB) and leukotrienes (LB 3 and 4).

7.8 Anti-adhesive therapies

Some of the algae used in anti-adhesive therapies include:

Porphyridium creuentum Chaetoceros.sp Chlorella autotrophica

Chlorella capsulate Dunaliella teriolecta Isochrysis galbana
Chlorella sp Isochrysis.sp Nannochlorpsis oculata
Phaeodactylum tricornutum Rodhosorus marinus Tetraselmis sp

7.9 Radioactive protection

One of the commonly used algae showing radioprotective benefits is Chlorella. Apart from its
use being used as a detoxifying superfood, the algae is also believed to have amazing
radioprotective benefits. As far as harmful radiation is concerned, Chlorella is a powerful
weapon to both prevent radioactive damage and heal it once it has occurred.

Research Efforts

• A 1989 study put forth by the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences demonstrated that
Chlorella effectively increases production of bone marrow and spleen stem cells. And in
 tests, Chlorella greatly helped improve survival rates among mice irradiated with a lethal
dose of radioactive gamma rays
• In 1993, researchers from Jawaharlal Nehru University in India also found that Chlorella is
effective at protecting against and mitigating the damage caused by both acute and
chronic radioactive damage
• A 1995 study published in the Indian Journal of Experimental Biology found that when
administered before or upon exposure to sub-lethal radioactive gamma rays, Chlorella
helps to boost levels of colony-forming spleen cells. Such cells exist within the bone
marrow and are essential for the production of vital blood elements and immune factors.

7.10Neuroprotective Products
Both microalgae and macroalgae are neuroprotective agents and promote nerve cell survival.

Role of microalgae Role of macroalgae

Among the various microalgal species, * Several macroalgae are found to possess
Spirulina is most commonly referred as a therapeutic potential for combating
neuroprotective agent neurodegenerative diseases associated with
neuroinflammation.

* Spirulina platensis may be useful in the * A marine macroalgae, Ulva conglobata, a

development of novel treatments for marine algae, has neuroprotective effects in
neurodegenerative disorders such as murine hippocampal and microglial cells. 59
Alzheimer’s or Parkinson diseases.

* Spirulina maxima is found to partially

prevent MPTP (1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6
tetrahydropyridine) neurotoxicity and
oxidative stress, suggesting it could be a
possible alternative in experimental
therapy.

7.11Human Therapeutic Proteins

Pharmaceutical companies could substantially reduce the expense of costly treatments for
cancer and other diseases produced from mammalian or bacterial cells by growing human
therapeutic proteins in algae. Microalgae usually find extensive use as therapeutic and
diagnostic proteins.

Role of microalgae

59
http://bit.ly/9Iu2P93.
Expression of recombinant proteins in green algal chloroplast holds substantial promise as a
platform for the production of human therapeutic proteins The percentage of human proteins
produced in their algal cultures is comparable to the fraction produced by mammalian cell
cultures and much better than that produced by bacterial systems

The costs of using algae at large scale to commercially produce human proteins should be much
lower than for mammalian cell culture, which require expensive fermentation facilities 60

A study confirmed that diverse human therapeutic proteins could be produced in

Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, a green alga

Algae can be used to produce:

 VEGF (Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor) for treating emphysema

 HMGB1 (High Moblility Group Protein B1) which activates immune cells
 Domain 14 of human fibronectin
 Domain 10 of human fibronectin used to increase the accumulation of other proteins
 Human proinsulin could be produced by algae, but only at lower levels

7.12Other applications of algae in pharmaceuticals

Osmoregulators

• Certain carbohydrates can affect osmotic processes, andmicro-algae compete with

bacteria and animal fat assources of osmoregulators.
• Up to 50 percent of the dryweight of Dunaliella salina, can be transformed
toosmoregulators under the appropriate conditions.
• Research is likely to discover valuable osmoregulatorsthat can be produced uniquely
from micro-algae. 61

Fluorescent pigment

a) One of the speciality compounds from microalgae is fluorescent pigment. Many algal
photosynthetic pigments have been well characterized and a number of them are being
well utilized for commercial applications. The most widely used are the phycobiliproteins
especially in immunodiagnostics and similar assays (Zoha et al., 1998).

60
http://bit.ly/cdvA9B4.

61
http://oregonstate.edu/dept/IIFET/2000/papers/zilberman.pdf
 b) Phycobiliproteins are a family of light harvesting macromolecules that function as
components of the photosynthetic apparatus in Cyanobacteria and several groups of
eukaryotic algae like Cryptomonads (Apt et al., 1999).
c) The major qualities like having large number of chromophores and high quantum yields,
water solubility, forming stable conjugates with many materials, easy excitement by
argon or helium-neon lasers makes them most suitable for applications in immunoassays.
d) This allows phycobiliproteins to function as fluorescent tags for labeling highly specific
probes to identify cell types or proteins. More significant applications are in flow
cytometry and in fluorescence activated cell sorting. 62

Chondrillasterol component for cortisone synthesis

Researchers have isolated a sterol from the alga Scenedesmus obliquus the characteristics of
which match chondrillasterol, first isolated from a sponge, Chondrilla nucula, The significance of
this discovery can be better understood through a brief review of the problems encountered in
synthesizing cortisone, a drug now of considerable value. 63.

Delivering antigens

A method for inducing enhanced growth in an animal, comprising the steps of obtaining a
transgenic alga expressing a peptide derived from a growth hormone, and administering rthe
transgenic alga to the animal.

A method for controlling a pathogenic population in an animal, comprising the steps of obtaining
a transgenic alga expressing a peptide derived from a bactericidal or insecticidal protein, and
administering the transgenic alga to the animal.

The systems and methods provided include obtaining an algal cell transformed by an expression
vector, the expression vector comprising a nucleotide sequence coding for the biologically active
protein, operably linked to a promoter.

The algal cell expresses the antigenic determinant in an area selected from the group consisting
of nucleus, chloroplast, mitochondria, periplasmic space, cell membrane, or cell wall.

Drugs

Algal chemistry has interested many researchers in order to develop new drugs, as algae include
compounds with functional groups which are characteristic from this particular source.

62
http://www.newagepublishers.com/samplechapter/001544.pdf
63
http://www.ciw.edu/publications_online/algal_culture.pdf#page=323
Role of microalgae - Researchers have been able to produce an exciting class of anti-cancer
drugs originally isolated from blue-green algae For instance, a compound named cryptophycin 1
has been isolated from blue-green algae which hold significant promise as an anti-cancer drug.
Microalgae produce incredibly potent alkaloidal neurotoxins such as saxitoxin and polyketide
neurotoxins such as the brevetoxins for use as anticancer drugs.

Role of macroalgae - The alkaloids found in marine macroalgae are of special interest because of
their pharmacological activities. These alkaloids in macroalgae are largely focused on finding
drugs for cancer treatment.

HIV Vaccine Model

In the recent research it is found that algae-based proteins can inhibit the entry of the HIV virus.
HIV vaccine grown in a designer strain of algae may be used with the defective cell wall
technique to assure transgenic material does not escape into the environment. The vaccine cost
would be lower as the algal production would be done locally. Instead of extracting the vaccine,
people could eat the algae directly and let their bodies metabolize the vaccine. The same
process may work for other vaccines such as mumps, measles, malaria, polio, tuberculosis and
other preventable illnesses. There are many obstacles to the vaccine scenario, including
bioethics, biotechnology and socio-culture issues. However, the simplicity and cost effectiveness
of an algae solution would seem to make algae based vaccine model happen sooner rather than
later.

7.2 Methods of extraction of bioactive compounds from algae

Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE)

Working Principle

Supercritical fluid extraction is based on the use of solvents at temperatures and pressures
above their critical points. This technique has been employed previously to extract a wide vari-
ety of interesting compounds from different food-related materials.

One of the most valuable characteristics of SFE is the highly reduced (often to zero) employment
of toxic organic solvents. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the solvent most commonly used to extract
bioactive compounds from natural sources using SFE. In fact, CO2 has a series of interesting
properties for bioactive extraction: it is cost efficient, its critical conditions are easily attainable
(30.9°C and 73.8 bars), and it is an environmentally friendly solvent that is Generally Recognized
As Safe (GRAS) for use in the food industry. The main drawback of supercritical CO2 is its low
polarity, a problem that can be overcome by employing polar modifiers or cosolvents to change
the polarity of the supercritical fluid and to increase its solvating power towards the analyte of
interest. For example, the addition of relatively small percentages (1–10%) of methanol to
carbon dioxide expands its extraction range to include more polar analytes. The modifiers can
also reduce the analyte– matrix interactions, improving their quantitative extraction (Björklund
et al. 2005).

Advantages of using CO2 under supercritical conditions for the extraction of marine bioactive
compounds:

• High diffusivity and the relative ease in tuning the temperature and pressures applied, so
that solvent strength and density can be modified easily.
• Possibility of attaining solvent-free extracts.

Once the extraction procedure is finished, the depressurization of the system converts CO2 from
a liquid to a gas making it easier to recover the extract. These properties are responsible for the
extended use of supercritical CO2 for extraction of bioactive compounds.

Pressurized Liquid Extraction (PLE)

Working Principle

PLE is also known as pressurized fluid extraction (PFE), enhanced solvent extraction (ESE) , high
pressure solvent extraction (HPSE), or accelerated solvent extraction. In PLE, pressure is applied
to allow the use of liquids at temperatures higher than their normal boiling point. Among them,
ASE (which can be considered a new version of the Soxhlet apparatus but operating at high
pressures and temperatures), pressurized hot water extraction (PHWE or SWE, subcritical water
extraction), near -critical fluid extraction, and enhanced fluidity extraction are the most
promising techniques in bioactive extraction from different raw materials.

The combined use of high pressure and temperature provide faster extraction processes that
require small amounts of solvents (e.g., 20 min using 10-50 ml of solvent in PLE can be compared
with a traditional extraction procedure in which 10-48 h and upto 300 ml are required). The
increase on the extraction temperature can promote higher analyte solubility by increasing both
solubility and mass transfer rate. In addition, high temperatures decrease the viscosity and the
surface tension of the solvents, helping to reach areas of the matrices more easily, thus
improving the extraction rate.

Pressurized hot water extraction (PHWE)

Working Principle
Pressurized hot water extraction (PHWE), also known as subcritical water extraction, pressurized
low polarity water (PLPW) extraction, or superheated water extraction (SHWE) is a particular use
of PLE with water as extracting solvent. PHWE is based in the use of water at temperatures
above its atmospheric boiling point, while keeping it as liquid by applying pressure; under these
conditions, physical and chemical properties of water change dramatically, for instance, the
dielectric constant of water decreases from around 80 at room temperature (25°C) to around 33
at 200°C, that is, close to a polar organic solvent such as methanol. Moreover, the viscosity and
surface tension are both reduced with increasing temperature, whereas diffusivity is increased,
altogether enhancing the extraction process in terms of efficiency and speed. In addition,
water’s solubility parameter is also modified by temperature, thus favoring the solubility of
different type of compound and modifying its selectivity.

The conditions at which PHWE will be used will mainly depend on the target compound and the
target application. In this sense, pressurized hot water is a very versatile medium in both sub-
and supercritical conditions. For instance, supercriti- cal or near-critical conditions can be used
for supercritical water oxidation, hydro- lysis, and molecular transformations, such as biomass
conversion, whereas in the subcritical region, extraction of health-beneficial compounds can be
performed.

Ultrasound Assisted Extraction (UAE) and Microwave-Assisted Extraction (MAE)

Working Principle

UAE uses acoustic cavitation to cause disruption of cell walls, reduction of particle size, and
enhancement of contact between the solvent and the target compounds. MAE uses microwave
radiation that causes motion of polar molecules and rotation of dipoles to heat solvents and to
promote transfer of target compounds from the sample matrix into the solvent (Ying et al.
2011).

Both methods are very versatile due to the possibility of using several solvents of different
polarities; in fact, both can couple extraction and reaction at the same time. Moreover, both
techniques allow fast extractions, which is a key point to avoid degradation of labile compounds.
 Introduction
Microalgae
Algae as/in Food and Feed
8
◊ Microalgae as/in Food
◊ Seaweeds for Foods
◊ Food Thickeners
◊ Food Colourants
◊ Other Applications
◊ Algae as Feed
◊ Animal Feed
◊ Fish Feed
◊ Livestock Feed

Chapter Highlights

Japanese and Korean populations are the largest consumers of seaweed products. Most
of the brown seaweed intake in the daily diet is of Undaria, commonly known as wakame
and mekabu and of Laminaria species commonly known as Kombu. Both are used dried
in condiment and soup bases or eaten fresh in salads, rolls, or stews, or with rice.
Many species of algae are used for extracting potentially useful and valuable
phycocolloids, and are exploited commercially by the food industry.
For centuries, marine algae have been used as source of food in some parts of the world
but the recent realization that seaweeds and their polysaccharidic extracts are superior
sources of fibre, vitamins and minerals have created a huge demand in the other food
markets worldwide.
The major sources of algal polysaccharides include alginate, agar and carrageenan, and
these are finding widespread applications in foods such as frozen meat and poultry, dairy
products, bakery and alcoholic beverages.
A better understanding of the chemical and physical properties of these polysaccharides
will enable production of higher quality and cheaper food products in the near future.
Haematococcus and Schizochytrium are classified as food sources falling into the GRAS
(Generally Regarded as Safe) category by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Among
the most used microalgae are Chlorella and Spirulina, in addition, Dunaliella,
Haematococcus, Schizochytrium, Scenedesmus, Aphanizomenon, Odontella, and
Porphyridium are gaining acceptance in the food and health-food market.
8.1 Microalgae as/in Food

Microalgae are promising sources for new food

and functional food products, and can be used
to enhance the nutritional value of foods, due
to their well-balanced chemical composition.
Some of the bioactive compounds produced by
microalgae include: antioxidants,
polyunsaturated fatty acids, sterols,
tocopherols, pigments etc., Knowing their
physicochemical characteristics is fundamental
for the selection of the most suitable
microalgae to specific food technology
applications and consequently successful novel
foods development.
Seaweeds are an important source of food,
especially in Asia; They are excellent sources of
many vitamins including: A, B1, B2, B6, niacin
and C. They are rich in iodine, potassium, iron,
magnesium and calcium.
Microalgae Strains Used in Food Applications
include
• Spirulina (Arthrospira) maxima (Blue
Green Algae)
• Chlorella vulgaris (Green algae)
• Schizochytrium sp.(Marine Microalgae)
• Isochrysis galbana
• Scenedesmus sp.
• Porphyridium cruentum
• Haematococcus pluvialis (Green algae)
• Diacronema vlkianum
Snapshot of Spirulina ‘s Role in the Algae Food
Industry
• Spirulina can provide the basis for a variety of
food products, such as soups, sauces, pasta,
snack foods, instant drinks and other recipes.
• A marketing company in USA has
incorporated Spirulina into a variety of food
products such as granola bars and various
kinds of pasta.
• Spirulina powder is also an ingredient of an
orange-flavored chewable wafer and other
types of candy, protein flours (10 % Spirulina
added to soybean or to milk-egg powders)
and Pastalina, a green soy-whole wheat
noodle.
• Spirulina is also used to prepare food with
other ingredients, for example, instant
noodles, stylish noodles, nutritious blocks,
beverages and cookies.
• The preparation of fermented foods such as
cheese, yogurt and tofu, offers many new
• possibilities to the use of Spirulina.
• Spirulina is used as a pigment by Nestle in its
chocolate Smarties

Microalgae such as Spirulina, Chlorella, Dunaliella, Haematococcus, and Schizochytrium are

classified as food sources falling into the GRAS (Generally Regarded as Safe) category by the U.S.
Food and Drug Administration. Among the most used microalgae are Chlorella and Spirulina, in
addition, Dunaliella, Haematococcus, Schizochytrium, Scenedesmus, Aphanizomenon, Odontella,
and Porphyridium are gaining acceptance in the food and health-food market.
Applications:

• Traditional foods, such as mayonnaises/salad dressings, puddings/gelled desserts,

biscuits/cookies and pasta, were supplemented with biomass from different microalgae, to
add coloring and functional attributes, making the products more sensorially attractive and
with possible health benefits.
• Hydrocolloids such as agar, alginate and carrageenan isolated from wild and cultivated algae
and are used as additives in the food industry for their emulsifying and thickening properties.

8.2 Seaweeds for Food

Seaweeds are used a lot for food, especially in Asia. They are an excellent source of many
vitamins and many nutrients like magnesium, calcium or potassium. In China, at least 70 species
of algae are eaten as a Chinese vegetable and roughly 20 species of algae are used in everyday
cooking in Japan.

Some of the commonly used seaweed in the food industry include:

 Nori or purple laver,

 Aonori or green laver ,
 Kombu or haidai,
 Wakame, quandai-cai, Hiziki , Mozuku,
 Sea grapes or green caviar,
 Dulse, Irish moss or carrageenan moss ,
 Winged kelp,
 Ogo, ogonori or sea moss

• Red macroalgae called Palmaria

Marine algae have been used as dietary
palmata (Dulse/ Dilisk) is mainly used in
supplements by maritime societies since centuries
food. It must be washed and processed.
ago. Seaweeds were also used as supplements in
It can then be used as snack foods or as
animal meals, fertilizers and soil conditioners.
an ingredient in a dish. It contains
Marine algae used for consumption is now called
vitamins A, B, C, D, K and E and Omega
"sea vegetables" and is consumed in Japan, Ireland,
-3 which can be found in fish that
Canada, Norway and other developed countries as
protect against heart disease
well . The major groups of seaweeds that are
exploited commercially include Chlorophyta,
• Brown algae called Saccharina latissima
Phaeophyta and Rhodophyta
(Sugar Kelp) is dried and used as an
ingredient in cooked dishes.
• Porphyra (Nori) is another red macroalgae used as an ingredient in sushi.

Market

Nori is produced from red seaweed - a species of Porphyra. It is a high value product, about US$
16,000/dry tonne, compared to kombu at US$ 2 800/dry tonne and wakame at US$ 6 900/dry
tonne.

The use of seaweed as food has been traced back to the fourth century in Japan and the sixth
century in China. Those two countries and the Republic of Korea are the largest consumers of
seaweed as food. However, as nationals from these countries have migrated to other parts of
the world, the demand for seaweed as food has followed them, for example, in some parts of
the United States of America and South America. Increasing demand over the last fifty years
outstripped the ability to supply requirements from natural (wild) stocks. Research into the life
cycles of these seaweeds has led to the development of cultivation industries that now produce
more than 90 percent of the market's demand. In Ireland, Iceland and Nova Scotia (Canada), a
different type of seaweed has been traditionally eaten, and this market is being developed.
Some government and commercial organizations in France have been promoting seaweeds for
restaurant and domestic use, with success. An informal market exists among coastal dwellers in
a few developing countries where there has been a tradition of using fresh seaweeds as
vegetables and in salads.

China is the largest producer of edible seaweeds, harvesting about 5 million wet tonnes. Kombu
is produced from hundreds of hectares of the brown seaweed, Laminaria japonica, which is
grown on suspended ropes in the ocean. The Republic of Korea grows about 800 000 wet tonnes
of three different species, and about 50 percent of this is for wakame, produced from a different
brown seaweed, Undaria pinnatifida, grown in a similar fashion to Laminaria in China. Japanese
production is around 600 000 wet tonnes and 75 percent of this is for nori, the thin dark
seaweed wrapped around a rice ball in sushi.

8.3 Hydrocolloids

8.3.1 Sea Weed Hydrocolloids

Hydrocolloids can perform a wide range of functions such as thickening, stabilizing, and gelling
agent in the food industry.The global food hydrocolloid market is projected to reach $7 billion,
growing at a CAGR of 5% by 2018. North America dominated the global food hydrocolloid
market in 2012. The market for food hydrocolloid is witnessing a remarkable growth due to
growing demand for healthier food products and natural food ingredients.
Seaweed Hydrocolloids Market

Seaweed hydrocolloid markets continue to grow, but instead of the 3–5% achieved in the 1980s
and 1990s, the growth rate has fallen to 1–3% per year, after 1990s (Refer table 1). This growth
has been largely driven by emerging markets in China, Eastern Europe, Brazil, etc. Price increases
to offset costs in 2008 and 2009 have begun to have a dampening effect on sales, especially in
markets where substitution or extension with less expensive ingredients is possible. These
higher prices have been driven by higher energy, chemicals and seaweed costs. The higher
seaweed costs reflect seaweed shortages, particularly for carrageenan-bearing seaweeds.

Table 1. Seaweed hydrocolloid sales volume 1999-2009

Seaweed 1999 2009

gum sales sales
(t) (t)
Agar 7,500 9,600
Carrageenan 42,000 50,000
Alginate 23,000 26,500
Total 72,500 86,100

Table 2. Growth in seaweed hydrocolloid market from 1999-2009

Seaweed 1999 2009

gum sales sales
($ ($
million) million)
Agar 128 173
Carrageenan 291 527
Alginate 225 318
Total 644 1,018
Table 3.Average prices of seaweed hydrocolloids

Seaweed 1999 2009

gum sales sales
(US $/kg) (US $/kg)
Agar 17 18
Carrageenan 9 12
Alginate 7 10.5

Dominant Producers
 The Philippines and Indonesia are the dominant producers of the farmed Kappaphycus and
Eucheuma species upon which the carrageenan industry depends and both countries are
experiencing factors limiting seaweed production. Similar tightening of seaweed supplies are
beginning to show up in brown seaweeds used for extracting alginates, and in the red seaweeds
for extracting agar. The structure of the industry is also undergoing change. Producers in China
are getting stronger, and while they have not yet developed the marketing skills to compete
effectively in the developed world markets, they have captured much of their home market.
China does not produce the red and brown seaweeds needed for higher end food hydrocolloid
production. Stocking their factories with raw material has led to the supply problems. Sales
growth continues to suffer from few new product development successes in recent years;
although some health care applications are showing some promise, i.e., carrageenan gel
capsules and alginate micro-beads.

Seaweed hydrocolloids extracted from seaweeds fall into three categories: alginates
(derivatives of alginic acid), agars and carrageenans

8.3.2 Agar

Product Category Polysaccharide/ Food thickener

Other Current Sources Algae
Algae Strains Used Acanthopeltis japonica, Gelidium amansii, G
cartilagineum, Pterocladia capillacea. Pterocladia
lucida
Status of Commercialised
Commercialisation

Agar is extracted from red seaweeds like Gracilariadeae and Gelideaceae. It is present
aspolysaccharide in the cell walls of these seaweeds and is generally extracted by boiling the
weed with water and drying the extract. Agar is insoluble in cold water but becomes soluble in
boiling water forming a gel on cooling down. It has been shown that low strength agar has a
viscous nature rather than showing good gelling properties and has been added in honey to
make honey melt in the mouth. This desirable quality is not achieved if pectin is added

Agar is a Polysaccharide that solidifies almost anything that is liquid. This gelatinous substance is
derived from seaweeds of the Rhodophyceae class. It is therefore used as a thickener and also
for its water-holding capacity. It was chiefly used as an ingredient in desserts throughout Japan,
but now the most important worldwide use of agar is as a gelatin-like medium for growing
organisms in scientific and medical studies.
Agar was first used in China in the 17th century, and today it is produced in Japan, Korea,
Australia, New Zealand, and Morocco

Species of Algae Used for Making Agar

Acanthopeltis japonica
Gelidium amansii, G cartilagineum, G
caulacanthum, G corneum, G liatulum, G
ligulatum, G pacificum, G pristoides, G
sesquipedale
Gelidiella acerosa
Gracilaria conferviodes
Pterocladia capillacea
Pterocladia lucida

Production Process 64

• Desired strains of algae are collected, cleaned of shells and diatoms, washed with
Collection
seawater, and air dried.

•Once they are air dried, the algae are pretreated with 2% suspension of Ca(OH)2 at 110~
for 2 h. After this pretreatment, the solution was decanted and algae were washed with
Pretreatment water

•Three levesl of extractions were performed using Ca(OH)2 at specific pH's

Extraction

•Extracted algea are filtered under vacuum through a filter carton with diatomite layer,
Filteration
cooled, gelatinized, and cut into pieces.

•The gels are then washed washed with tap water, frozen, thawed, dehydrated with
Washing
acetone, and dried in air..

Applications

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Food Industry
• Agar extracted from Gracilaria chilensis can be used in confectionery with a very high
sugar content, such as fruit candies.
• Agar is a popular component of jellies. A popular Japanese sweet dish ‘mitsumame’
which consists of Agar gel containing fruit and Agar gel.
• Agar is also used in gelled meat and fish products, and is preferred to gelatin because of
its higher melting temperature and gel strength.
• Agar has been used to stabilize sherbets and ices.
• It improves the texture of dairy products like cream cheese and yoghurt
• Agar is used to clarify wines.
• Agar is used as a vegetarian, non-dairy thickening agent in a number of foods. Dairy-
based custards, sauces, puddings and candies can be produced without milk or eggs with
the substitution of agar.

Other Uses

• Some other products containing agar are: almost home cookies, continental yogurt,
hostess fruit pies (agar in the filling keeps the crust from getting soggy)
• It is used as a smooth laxative in the pharmaceutical industry.
• Agar gels containing appropriate nutrients are used as the growth substrate to obtain
clones or copies of particular plants.
• Bacteriological agar is used in testing for the presence of bacteria. It is specially purified
to ensure that it does not contain anything that might modify bacterial growth.

Factoids

Red macroalgae called Palmaria palmata (Dulse/ Dilisk) is mainly used in food. It must be
washed and processed. It can then be used as snack foods or as an ingredient in a dish. It
contains vitamins A, B, C, D, K and E and Omega -3 which can be found in fish that protect
against heart disease.
Red macroalgae called Palmaria palmata (Dulse/ Dilisk) is mainly used in food. It must be
washed and processed. It can then be used as snack foods or as an ingredient in a dish. It
contains vitamins A, B, C, D, K and E and Omega -3 which can be found in fish that protect
against heart disease.
One of the oldest groups of eukaryotic algae is the Rhodophyta (red algae). Some
Rhodophyta known as agarophyte produce hydrocolloid agar in their cell walls. The order
Gracilariales (Gracilaria) is the largest world-wide agar source for agar extraction. Research
 studies have reported that the amount of agar produced from Gracilaria and Gelidium was
the largest in the world which were 53% and 44% respectively. 65

Market
Agar is a relatively mature industry in terms of manufacturing methods and applications. The
world production of agar in 2010 is estimated to be 10,000 tonnes. Food-grade agar is now
considered a commodity and may be relatively cheap, often around US$18 per kg. The highest-
quality agarose can exceed US$5,000 per kg, but much less of it is used and only for very specific
applications.

The compound annual volume growth rate in agar production from the year 1999-2009 has been
2.5% per year as mentioned in Table 1. The compound annual value growth rate over the same
period has been 3.1% per year (Table 2). This annual value increase is less than that for alginate
and carrageenan. Competition both among processors and other gums has held down price
increases.

Market research done in late 2014 suggests an agar industry having a market value well above
US$ 200 million. According to this research, Japan is the main agar consuming country (about
2000 MT a year), almost all coming from domestic production. The USA another major consumer
(1 000 MT per year), obtains more than 80% from imports, main suppliers being Chile, Morocco
and Spain, and more recently the Philippines. The demand for agar in the EEC is approximately
1300 MT per year, according to this review

Market Segments

Agar – about 90% of this is used for food applications (bakery uses, confectionary, meat and fish,
plus dairy products) the other 10% for bacteriological applications.

Market Distribution by Region

Geographic Distribution of Agar Production

Region 1999 Volume (t) 2009 Volume (t)

Europe 1000 700
Africa 900 800
Americas 2600 2,800
Asia – Pacific 3000 5,300
Total Production 7500 9,600
Total Capacity 9000 12,500

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8.3.3Alginates

Product Category Polysaccharide

Other Current Sources Mostly Algae.
Algae Strains Used Macrocystis spp, Laminaria sp, Ecklonia sp,
Durvillea sp
Status of Commercialised
Commercialisation

Alginates are cell-wall constituents of brown algae (Phaeophyceae). Brown seaweed contains
mixed alginic acid salts, which are the basic raw materials used in the production of alginates.
Alginate is a polymer consisting of sequences of α-L-guluronic acid and β-D-mannuronic acid.
Alginates are referred to as either high-M or high-G alginates, depending on the ratio of the two
monomers that form the alginate molecule. The process of extraction depends whether the wet
or dry varieties of seaweeds are used

Species of Algae Used:

• Macrocystis pyrifera
• Ascophyllum nodosum
• Laminaria hyperborean
• Laminaria japonica
• Lessonia nigrescens
• Lessonia flavicans
• Ecklonia maxima
• Durvillea antarctica
• Durvillea potatorum

Applications

• In the food industry, alginates have an excellent functionality as a thickening agent,

gelling agent, emulsifier stabilizer, texture-improver (for noodles), to improve the quality
of food. The unique properties of alginate are utilized in foods like ice cream, jelly, lactic
drinks, dressings, instant noodle, and beer.
• Alginate is used in textile printing, ice cream, jelly, lactic drinks, dressings, instant noodle,
and beer.
• Alginate is used for the production of welding rod, as a binder of flux. It is also used as a
binder and thickening agent for pet-food, fish feed.
• In pharmaceutical industry, alginic acid is compounded into tablets to accelerate
disintegration of tablet for faster release of medicinal component. Alginate forms gel in
the high-acidic stomach and protect stomach mucosa.
 • In cosmetics, alginate is used in cosmetics area with several applications with its
functionality of thickener and moisture retainer. Alginate helps retaining the color of
lipstick on lip surface by forming gel-network
• Alginate bearing weeds are typically found in temperate or cold water. Major commercial
sources of alginates are the giant kelp from California (Macrocystis pyrifera) and
Ascophyllum Nodosum from the north Atlantic. Along the Pacific coast large beds of kelp
(Macrocystis pyrifera) are harvested to produce alginic acid. The largest company is
Kelco, which "mows" the top of the canopy. This chemical, also from the cell walls, is
used as a stabilizer or emulsifier in a variety of products.

Alginate Market Size:

The world production of alginates in 2009 was 26,500 tonnes with a value of about US$318
million (Bixler & Porse 2010). The growth rate is estimated to be around 1-2% per year. China, a
relatively recent addition to the alginate manufacturers of the world, is said to produce about 8 -
10,000 t of alginates from cultivated Laminaria japonica. The main producers are Scotland,
Norway, China and the USA, with smaller amounts being produced in Japan, Chile, and France.

The Asia-Pacific region is one of the prominent producers and exporters of alginates. This region
is projected to grow at the highest CAGR of 5.6% from 2014 to 2019.

Market Segments

Alginates are commonly used in the food and pharmaceutical industries as stabilisers for
emulsions and suspensions, e.g. ice cream, jam, cream, custard, creams, lotions, tooth paste, as
coating for pills. They are also used in the production of paint, construction material, glue and
paper, the oil, photo and textile industry

The geographic distribution of alginate production for the period 1999-2009 has been provided
below:

Geographic Distribution of Alginates Production

Region 1999 Alginate 2009 Alginate

Volume (t) Volume (t)
Europe 12,000 10,000
Americas 4,000 1000
Asia – Pacific 9,000 15,500
Sub-total 25,000 26,500
Total Capacity 28,000 35,000
From the above table, it can be understood that the alginate manufacturing in USA has ceased
to exist; whereas Europe is still able to maintain a fairly substantial part of their alginate industry
even though Europe is a high-cost production region. Asia-Pacific, on the other hand, is where
the real capacity growth has taken place, but at the same time markets for this capacity is mostly
in the Asia-Pacific region.

8.3.4Carrageenan

Product Category Polysaccharide/Thickening agent

Other Current Sources Seaweeds
Algae Strains Used • Chondrus crispus
• Gigartina skottsbergii
• Gigartina stellata
• Eucheuma cottonii
• Eucheuma spinosum
• Hypnea musciformis
• Furcellaran species
Status of Commercialisation Commercialised
Carrageenan is extracted from species of red seaweeds. This cell wall hydrocolloid is extracted
with water under neutral or alkaline conditions at elevated temperature. Carrageenan is a
multifunctional ingredient and it behaves differently in water and in milk systems. In water it
shows typical hydrocolloid properties of thickening and gelling, while in milk systems it also has
the property of reacting with proteins to furnish additional stabilizing abilities. Based on the
gelling properties and protein reactivity, the carrageen family can be distinguished commercially
into three main classes:
 Carrageenan

Kappa Lota Lambda

Carrageenan Carrageenan Carrageenan

- It is the most commonly

used type of carrageenan.
- Its most important
properties are its high gel
strength and strong
interaction with milk
proteins.
- About 70% of the world’s
carrageenan production is
based on kappa
carrageenan. It forms firm
gels in the presence of
potassium ions.
- Highly sulphated type of
- Type of carrageenan
carrageenan mainly used
with a sulphate content
for its ability to impart
intermediate between
mouth feel and a creamy
kappa and lambda
sensation to dairy products.
carrageenan.
- It does not gel.
- Forms an elastic gel
- Commercially it is supplied
with good freeze thaw
as it is extracted from the
and re healing
seaweed which is as a
properties. It forms
kappa / lambda mixture. It
elastic gels in the
forms viscous, non-gelling
presence of calcium ions
solutions

Species of strains used for making carrageenan

• Chondrus crispus
• Gigartina skottsbergii
• Gigartina stellata
• Eucheuma cottonii
• Eucheuma spinosum
• Hypnea musciformis
• Furcellaran species

Applications of Carrageenan

• Carrageenan is used in the poultry and the meat industry mainly for the following
advantages: It presents such as the water holding capacity, improves product texture, and
acts as a fat replacement. Furthermore, the charged nature of carrageenan stabilizes
water/fat emulsions during preparation, cooking and storage.
• All these properties increase product quality and yield, which more than offsets the cost of
the carrageenan.

• Carrageenan has a strong functional synergism with starches, which can be exploited in
starch-based foods to improve product quality through moisture retention.

• Carrageenan stabilizes toothpaste preparations through a combination of viscosity,

continuous-phase gel formation and specific interactions with the abrasive.

• Small nuggets of carrageenan gel can be used when it is necessary to control the humidity
within a package

Production Process 66

• Algae/ seaweed is pretreated with dilute aqueous inorganic acid, preferably

Pretreatment
nitric, sulfuric or hydrochloric acid, at a relatively low temperature,

• The pretreated seaweed is washed with water, then rapidly heated to extraction
Washing temperature by means of, for example, live steam injection.

• Digesting at elevated temperature a mixture of seaweed with water and alkaline

Digestion
metal hydroxide

• Acid extraction results in certain proportion of the Lambda-(λ-) carrageenan

fraction and to recover the residual carrageenan with enriched Kappa-(κ-)
Product
extraion content.

Market

According to FAO statistics, world carrageenan seaweed farming production increased from less
than 1 million wet tonnes in 2000 to 5.6 million wet tonnes in 2010, with the corresponding
farmgate value increasing from USD72 million to USD1.4 billion.

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Major carrageenan seaweed farming countries include Indonesia, the Philippines, the United
Republic of Tanzania, Malaysia and China

Market Distribution by Region

• Indonesia is currently the largest carrageenan seaweed farming country, accounting for
61 percent of world production in 2010. Kappaphycus is the main cultivated species in
Indonesia.
• The Philippines used to be the largest carrageenan seaweed farming country, accounting for
72 percent of world production in 2000. Its share declined to 32 percent in 2010 following
the rapid expansion of carrageenan seaweed farming in Indonesia. Kappaphycus is the main
cultivated species in the Philippines.
• Compared with Indonesia and the Philippines, which together accounted for 90 percent of
world production in 2010, carrageenan seaweed cultivation in the United Republic of
Tanzania is on a much smaller scale, accounting for only 2.3 percent of world production in
2010. The operation is concentrated in Zanzibar (accounting for 95 percent of the country’s
seaweed farming production in 2010). Unlike Indonesia and the Philippines, the main
cultivated species in the United Republic of Tanzania is Eucheuma denticulatum.
• According to FAO statistics, the production of cultivated carrageenan seaweed in 2010 was
8000 wet tonnes in Solomon Islands and 4,240 wet tonnes in India. Other major cultivating
countries include Malaysia and China

The demand for carrageenan seaweeds is a derived demand influenced primarily by the market
for carrageenan products. Refined or semi-refined carrageenan has been widely used in dairy,
meat, pet food, water gels and other products (McHugh, 2003; Neish, 2008a; Bixler and Porse,
2011). Europe and Northern America (mainly the United States of America) have been the main
international markets for carrageenan. As more processed food is consumed by growing,
wealthier and more urbanized populations, the carrageenan market has expanded in developing
regions. The price of carrageenan in the international market was generally stable in the first
half of the 2000s but has increased rapidly since the mid-2000s and become more volatile. 67

Some updates for the Carrageenan Market based on market research undertaken in 2014

Distribution of Carrageenan Sales

By End Use Percent By region Percent

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Dairy 52 Europe 45
Water gel 16 North America 23
Other food 10 Latin Americal 12
Non-food 22 Far East

8.4 Food Colourants

Colourants are used extensively in the food industry to make them more attractive to
consumers.

Phycocyanin colorants in general are non-toxic and non-carcinogenic. Uses of phycocyanin in

foods include the coloring of fermented milk products, ice creams, chewing gum, soft drinks,
alcoholic drinks, desserts, sweet cake decoration, and milk shakes.

Microalgae Porphyridium cruentum contains a protein called Ficoerithrin, which confers the
algae a reddish colour.

8.5 Other Applications

Algae arealso used in "instant" puddings, sauces and creams.Ulva lactuca (common name: sea
lettuce), is used locally in Scotland where it is added to soups or used in salads.

Sources say that the carrageenan, a hydrocolloid extracted from algae, used for gelling biscuits
enriched with omega3 fatty acids is made using Isochrysis galbana.

• One another novel algae food products is Solazyme’s whole algae flour, which can replace
eggs, butter, milk and other lipid ingredients, providing a unique solution for gluten-free,
sweet and savory baking applications.
• Sea weed Laminaria saccharina can be used in the wine production.

8.6 Algae as Feed

Product Category Protein feed for animals, fish and poultry

Other Current Sources Many sources that are protein -rich
Algae Strains Used Various algae. Chlorella is one of the commonly
used species.
Status of Research stage/Infancy
Commercialisation
8.6.1 Animal Feed

The use of microalgal biomass as animal feed represents the second largest area of application.
Up to 30% of the current algal production globally is sold and used as a feed supplement. Not
every microalgae is suitable for aquaculture.Each strain needs to meet several criteria;it must be
easily cultured, not be toxic and must have an easily digestible cell wall, the correct shape and
size to be digested, and a high nutritional value.

Algae that meet the above mentioned criteria include Chlorella, Tetraselmis, Isochrysis, Pavlova,
Phaeodactylum, Spirulina, Scenedesmus, Skeletonema, Chaetoceros, Nitzschia and Thalassiosira.

Chlorella as Livestock Feed

About five decades ago, the mass production
In 1924, the German scientists Garder and Uitsh
of certain protein-rich micro-algae was
noted the key necessity of Chlorella industrial considered as a possibility to close the
cultivation for the production of feed additives. predicted so called “protein gap”.
Research studies reveal that Chlorella gets
Comprehensive analyses and nutritional
digested by animals much more easily in the studies have demonstrated that these algal
form of paste. About 5 percent is recommended proteins are of high quality and comparable
in the daily diet. Trials have found that use of to conventional vegetable proteins.
chlorella resulted in weight gain for sheep. It However, due to high production costs as
has also been found that the use of Chlorella as well as technical difficulties to incorporate
the algal material into palatable food
a feed additive could become the best choice
preparations, the propagation of algal
for solving problems associated with the use of protein is still in its infancy.
antibiotics, organic acids, or other ingredients in
feed because microalgae contain natural
organic acids, reducing the colonization of pathogenes.

Algae may be an inexpensive way to harvest proteins in developing countries where farmland is
scarce.

8.6.2Fish Feed

Aquaculture Feed (Shrimp feed, Shellfish Feed, Marine Fish Larve cultivation)
Micro-algae are an essential food source in the rearing of all stages of marine bivalve molluscs
(clams, oysters, and scallops), the larval stages of some marine gastropods (abalone, conch),
larvae of several marine fish species and penaeid shrimp, and zooplankton.

Microalgae are used as essential live feeds and supplements in the aquaculture of larval and
juvenile animals including oyster spat, juvenile abalone, finfish larvae and rotifer.

The effects of the presence of micro-algae in the larval rearing tank are still not fully understood
and include:

• Stabilizing the water quality in static rearing systems (remove metabolic by-products,
produce oxygen),
• A direct food source through active uptake by the larvae with the polysaccharides
Present in the algal cell walls possibly stimulating the non-specific immune system in the
larvae,
• An indirect source of nutrients for fish larvae through the live feed (i.e. by maintaining
the nutritional value of the live prey organisms in the tank),
• Increasing feeding incidence by enhancing visual contrast and light dispersion, and
• Microbial control by algal exudates in tank water and/or larval gut.

Shrimp Feed

• Pavlova is a small golden/brown flagellate that is very similar to Isochrysis. It has a very
high DHA profile and is excellent for enriching rotifers and other zooplankton.
• Tetraselmisis a large green flagellate with a very high lipid level. It also contains natural
amino acids that stimulate feeding in marine animals. It is an excellent feed for larval
shrimp.
• Nannochloropsis is small green algae that are extensively used in the aquaculture
industry for growing small zooplankton such as rotifers and for Greenwater. It is also
used in reef tanks for feeding corals and other filter feeders.
• Isochrysis is a small golden/brown flagellate that is very commonly used in the
aquaculture industry. It is high in DHA and often used to enrich zooplankton such as
rotifers or Artemia.
• Thalassiosira weissflogii is a large diatom that is used in the shrimp and shellfish
larviculture industry. This alga is considered by several hatcheries to be the single best
algae for larval shrimp.

Shellfish Diet
Shellfish Diet1800® is a mix of five marine microalgae that all have demonstrated success with a
variety of shellfish including oysters, clams, mussels, and scallops. A mixed diet provides a much
better nutritional profile for all types of shellfish, increasing both growth rates and survival.

Shellfish Diet can be used with pre-set larvae all the way up through broodstock and will
typically perform as well as live algae so it can be used as a complete live algae replacement.

Marine Fish Larvae Cultivation

Apart from the requirement for micro-algae for culturing and/or enriching live prey organisms
such as Artemia and rotifers, algae are often used directly in the tanks for rearing marine fish
larvae. This “green water technique” is part of the commonly applied techniques for rearing
larvae of gilthead seabream Sparus aurata (Isochrysis sp., Chlorella), milkfish Chanos chanos
(Chlorella), Mahimahi Coryphaena hippurus (Chaetoceros gracilis, Tetraselmis chui, or Chlorella
sp.), halibut Hippoglossus hippoglossus (Tetraselmis sp.), and turbot Scophthalmus maximus
(Tetraselmis sp. or I. galbana).

Many bivalve hatcheries increase larval production by including an algal culture operation within
the facility. Vats of dense algae provide mollusc larvae with a nutritious diet. The high quality
diet accelerates growth and shortens the time to larval settlement or spat set. Production of
algae in large amounts (mass cultures) is accomplished by providing a favorable environment for
the species being cultured.

Market
Animal nutrition is one of the dynamic markets of algae. Alltech, one of the global leaders in the
animal health and nutrition industry, acquired the Martek algae facilities in 2010 for $14 million
and since then renovated these production facilities to be one of the largest algae production
sites in the world.

Animal feed and fish feed are typically produced from the biosolid residues left when lipids and
carbohydrates have been extracted from algae.

Global Feed Market Statistics

• The world is producing 959 million tons of feed and has increased its production by at least
four percent in the last year, according to the 2013 Global Feed Tonnage Survey released by
Alltech. Poultry continues to dominate with a 43 percent share of the feed market at 411
million tons. Aquaculture is the fastest growing species sector by tonnage with growth
greater than 55 percent since 2011. Pet food represents 20.5 million tons.

• Global commercial feed manufacturing generates an estimated annual turnover of over US

$370 billion.
• The global animal feed market is expected to exceed 1.5 billion tons per year by 2020, 15
percent of which (220 million tons) is protein.

• Aquaculture is the fastest growing segment increasing at a compound annual growth rate of
9%. Aquaculture represents 40% of the total seafood market and is expected to reach 50%
by 2024, representing a market size of $100 billion. World per capita consumption of fish and
fishery products has risen by close to 50% from an average of 11.5 kg during the 1970s, to
over 17 kg in 2011.

• The global market for aquaculture was valued at $135.10 billion in 2012 and is expected to
reach $195.13 billion in 2019, growing at a CAGR of 5.1% from 2013 to 2019.

Algae Feed Market

For the use of algae in animal feed, the algae product has to be cost competitive with
alternatives as cost is the main driver in any animal feed. A very large market for aquaculture
feeds could be developed for micro-algae biomass containing long chain omega-3 fatty acids, to
replace fish meal and oil, but for this production costs must be reduced from $50 -$100 to
between $1 and 2/kg of algal biomass

Rising prices of fish oil and fish meal due to the aquaculture expansion in relation to fish stock
depletions while breakthroughs in large-scale algal production may turn micro-algae to be a
sustainable source for Omega-3 and aquaculture feed

The cost of farming algae would be around $400 to $600 US dollars per metric Ton. If compared
to the $1700 dollars per ton that fishmeal costs, this induces a 60-70% savings in fishmeal costs.

Sea Weed as Animal Feed

In Europe seaweeds were used as animal feed as early as in Roman times. In Iceland, France and
Norway domestic animals were fed with algae to enhance nutritional value of feed. In 2004 the

9
use of macroalgae as animal feed comprised 1% of global value of seaweed industry (US$ 10
million, mostly Ascophyllum nodosum). For microalgae as feed additives, the value of the
industry in the same year was about US$ 300 million.
Algae Cosmetics

◊ Algae Cosmetics
◊ Important Cosmetics Products from Algae
 ◊ Fucoidans
◊ Anticellulite
◊ Skin Care, Sun Protection
◊ Algae Cosmetic Market

Chapter Highlights

Microalgae are naturally designed to resist several environmental aggressions. They produce
pigments as sun-blockers; several metabolites to fight bacteria and virus; polysaccharides to
protect themselves from outer menaces. Cosmetologists have long exploited these benefits
in cosmetic formulations.
Microalgae are usually used in the form of extract, and can be mainly found in face and skin
care products (anti-aging creams, refreshing or regenerative care products, emollient and as
an anti-irritant). Microalgae are also introduced in formulation of sun protection and hair
care
Cosmetics manufacturers can use algae in their products through three main routes: as raw
materials; as bulk extracts for formulation; and as specialized functional ingredients. Each of
these is associated with a different size of industry.
Some microalgal species are established in the skin care market, the main ones being
Arthrospira and Chlorella.
Some cosmeticians have even invested in their own micro- algal production system (LVMH,
France and Daniel Jouvance, France).
Microalgae extracts can be mainly found in face and skin care products (e.g., anti-aging
cream, refreshing or regenerant care products, emollient and as an anti-irritant in peelers).
Microalgae are also represented in sun protection and hair care products. Algae repairs the
signs of early skin aging, exerts a tightening effect and prevents stria formation
The global demand for organic personal care products was over $7.6 billion in 2012 and is
expected to reach $13.2 billion by 2018, growing at a CAGR of 9.6%

Algae Cosmetics
 Product Category Personal Care
Other Current Sources Various vegetables, fruits, leaves , chemicals are
used as cosmetics.
Algae Strains Used Laminaria sp, Chlorella sp, Spirulina sp
Status of Pilot –Commercial
Commercialisation

Microalgae are naturally designed to resist several environmental aggressions. They produce
pigments as sun-blockers; several metabolites to fight bacteria and virus; polysaccharides to
protect themselves from outer menaces. Cosmetologists have long exploited these benefits in
cosmetic formulations.

Microalgae are usually used in the form of extract, and can be mainly found in face and skin care
products (anti-aging creams, refreshing or regenerative care products, emollient and as an anti-
irritant). Microalgae are also introduced in formulation of sun protection and hair care

Algae has become an increasingly important ingredient for a cross-section of cosmetic and
personal care ingredients, and is emerging as a segment with several opportunities for
development.

Cosmetics manufacturers can use algae in their products through three main routes: as
raw materials; as bulk extracts for formulation; and as specialized functional
ingredients. Each of these is associated with a different size of industry.

In cosmetics, algae are used as a thickening and water-binding agent as well as an antioxidant.
Rich in vitamins, minerals; algae conditions and hydrates the skin while it nourishes, rejuvenates,
detoxifies and replenishes minerals. Irish moss and carrageenan (two popular forms of algae)
contain proteins, vitamin A, sugar, vitamin B1, iron, sodium, phosphorous, magnesium, copper
and calcium. These are all useful as sources for skin care, either as emollients or antioidants.

9.1 Important Cosmetics from Algae

Some of the important cosmetic products from algae:

Cosmetic Type Description

Potent Sea Kelp Masque Concentrated, cold-pressed Nereocystis, Laminaria and
(for oily/sensitive skin) Rockweed seaweeds, packed with antioxidants and further
combined with BC Glacial and Kaolin Clays to help re-balance
and heal the most sensitive skin types. This masque will be a
 perfect suggestion for your oily/sensitive skin types for oil
control and assists with healthy cell turnover from sun-damage.

Laminaria Body Lotion (for A soothing, fragrance free moisturizing body lotion, formulated
sensitive skin) with nutrient rich wild seaweeds, therapeutic rainforest
botanicals and natural oils to supplement skin's moisture
balance, revitalize stressed skin and further promote soft,
youthful skin. Suitable for all skin types, especially sensitive.

Seaflora Companion Wrap Wrapped in a handcrafted Canadian maple wood tube.Contains

for Face (normal) 6 of our most popular wild seaweed facial products for
sensitive/normal skin. Excellent as a gift or for
traveling.Includes full instructions for your own at-home spa
facial treatments.

Includes:
1. Sea Foam Cleanser Concentrate
2. Iridaea Exfoliating Masque
3. Iridaea Purifying Masque
4. Potent Sea Kelp Masque
5. Laminaria Facial Moisturizer
6. Rich Laminaria Facial Moisturizer
Extra bonus: Contains Seaflora's signature Wild Sun-Dried
Seaweed Chamois for face or body.
 Alguronic Acid is a group of complex polysaccharides, produced
Alguronic acid by specific strains of microalgae that function to protect and
regenerate the microalgae cell. Alguronic acid protects and
regenerates microalgae cells in extreme environmental
conditions. Alguronic acid is used in skin care creams for anti-
aging benefits.

Alguronic acid was launched in the market in July 2011 by

Solazyme, a US based algae fuels and company.

Hyaluronic acid is the natural substance in the skin that

Hyaluronic acid protects from aging. However, it is degraded by
hyaluronidases. As Alguronic acid has a more complex structure
than hyaluronic acid, it has shown not to be affected by the
same degradation effects within the skin as those experienced
by hyaluronic acid.

Mycosporine like amino More details not available with Oilgae at the present moment.
acids
Repairs the signs of early skin aging, exerts a tightening effect
Protein -rich extract from and prevents striae.
Spirulina

Chlorella fraction
Acts against wrinkles and protects skin against harmful
environmental aggressions.

Stimulates collagen synthesis in skin, thereby supporting tissue

Cholrella Vulgaris Extract regeneration and wrinkle reduction

Fucoidans Fucoidans are a class of bioactive carbohydrates found only in

brown marine macroalgae and echinoderms. Purified fractions
of fucoidans can be easily incorporated into creams and
lotions, providing cosmetic anti-ageing benefits. More details
of Fucoidans have been provided below.

Properties of Algae Employed in the Cosmetics Industry

The table below highlights some of the properties of algae, especially microalgae employed in
the cosmetics industry.
Microalgae Antio Antiagin Sun Soothing Bactericide Pigment Fatty Acids
xidan g care Anti Antiviral
t Anti irritant
Antic wrinkle
helati
ng
Nannochloro +++ Nt + Nt Nt B-carotene EPA
psis Lutein ALA
Neoxanthin
Tetraselmis +++ nt +++ nt Nt B-carotene EPA
Lutein PA
Neoxanthin Stearic Acid
Violaxanthin
Diadinoxanth
in
Phaeodactylu + +++ + Nt Nt Zeaxanthin DPA
m Fucoxanthin DHA
EPA
Porphyridium ++ nt ++ +++ +++ Zeaxanthin ALA
Phycoerythri EPA
n
Isochrysis +++ nt ++ +++ +++ B-carotene DHA
Zeaxanthin ALA
Fucoxanthin Mistiric Acid
Cantaxanthin Oleic
nt – not tested.; more number of plus better they exhibit the specific property.

9.2 Fucoidans

Fucoidans are a class of bioactive carbohydrates found only in brown marine macroalgae and
echinoderms. Purified fractions can be easily incorporated into creams and lotions, providing
cosmetic anti-ageing benefits such as inhibition of matrix enzymes and anti-inflammatory
activity, in addition to increasing numbers of dermal fibroblasts and collagen tightness.

Strains Used

Macroalgae are widely used for the personal care applications when compared to microalgae.
Few microalgae species that are used in the cosmetics industry are Spirulina and Chlorella.

Macroalgae Species Utilized

• Laminariales
• Lithothamnion corallioides
• Porphyra umbilicalis
• Ascophylum nodosun
• Fucus serratus
• Palmaria palmate
• Chondrus crispus

Schematic process of manufacture of microalgal extracts

 Algae Cultivation in PBRs

Cell Harvest

Rehydration and Hot Water

Extraction

Downstream
Processes

Centrifugation

Ultrafiltration

Formulation, Preservation
and Conditioning

End control and release

9.3 Anticellulite
Anticellulite creamis used to tighten the skin tone. It boosts up metabolism of fat by diminishing
the look of cellulite, reduces fluid retention under the skin for a smoother look and acts on the
fatty deposits n responsible for dimply ,‘orange feel ‘ effect.

Key ingredients of Anti-cellulite cream

 Caffeine Marine algae
Coffee berry Ivy
Aminophylline Shea butter
Retinol Green tea extract
AHA(Alpha hydroxyl Ingredients vary in
Acids) different products 68
Herbal cellulite lotion (Citric ,Tartaric and Phytic acids)

Algal Strains for Production of Anti Cellulite

• Laminaria digitata
• Skeletonema potamos
• Skeletonema menzelii
• Skeletonema tropicum
• Skeletonema subsalum
• Skeletonema pseudocostatum
• Skeletonema costatum
• Fucus vesiculosus

Fucus vesiculosus - It is a brown algae which reaches lengths between 0.1 and 1 meter .They
have compounds like polygalactosides which react with outer layer of the skin and the ion-ion
interaction form a protecting moisturizing complex.The fucose polymers in it are hyroscopic and
act as hydrating agents and the ursolic acid helps to form a protective barrier on the skin. Fucus
contains non essential and essential amino acids such as proline,glycine and lycine which help in
improving skin’s elasticity. Even after drying it still contains 10-12% water and contains 15%
mineral salts ( iodine and potassium) ,1-2% fatty acids and fucosterol ,4-5% proteins and 65%
condensed carbohydrates ,alginic acid and cellulose.

Laminaria digitata - Belongs to the family of brown algae.It’s height varies from 3- 4 metres.It’s
dry form contains 12% water, 15% mineral salts (chlorines,sulphates and iodine) .It contains less
than 1% lipids, some 5% protides and 65% or less percentage of sugars like mannitol (12-15%)
and some soluble condensed glucosides (15-40%) and fucoidine and laminaran,algin (15-40%)

Mineral salts especially iodine stimulate metabolism and increase the osmotic exchanges and
thus excess fluids get eliminated.This phenomenon is applied in anti cellulite creams. 69

68
http://www.cosmeticsandtoiletries.com/formulating/category/skincare/9359651.html
http://www.cbsnews.com/2100-500169_162-3439563.html
Sometimes algae is directly applied to the body as a body wrap in order to reduce cellulite.This
method is used in Spas and Natural therapy centres.

Production Process

The algae is frozen at a temperature between -40˚C and

-20˚C for 7 days

Lipid extract * obtained from the algae is treated in an

organic solvent which has polarity index preferably
between 4.2 and 4.4 .

The frozen algae is immersed directly in the solvent and

heated to reflux temperature .

Now algae is macerated for time period of 20 to 40

minutes in nitrogen saturated (inert) atmospherewith
agitation.

The extract is obtained by solid/liquid extraction step

followed by fractionation,decolorization, and
deodorization step.

*This lipid extract acts as a cosmetic agent which inhibit 3’,5’-cAMP phosphodiesterase. Hence
this used for combating cellulite and obtains a slimming effect on different parts of the
body.(http://www.google.com/patents/US6447782)

9.4 Skin care, sun protection

The table below illustrates the use of three major groups of algae in skin care.

Brown Algae Red Algae Green Microalgae

69
http://www.ageless.co.za/herb-seaweed.htm
The most commonly This group of algae (AKA Green micro-algae are full of
used algae in skincare is rhodophyta) has been found to phytochemicals, one of which is
brown algae,” says protect against sun damage by called astaxanthin, which acts as a
Wilson. “Why? Perhaps helping to absorb UVA rays— potent antioxidants. More
because brown is the making it a natural sunscreen! specifically, chlorella, which is a type
oldest and most And like other marine algae, it’s of single-cell green algae fights
studied.” It’s also super an excellent source of inflammation and irritating free
popular because of its antioxidants. Some red algae radicals that mess with our melanin
super antioxidant species called porphyra (a type production, meaning a more even
powers. Brown algae of seaweed) also have skintone for you.
extract (or antimicrobial benefits, making it
phaeophyceae) is useful for fighting blemishes.
amazing at combating
free radical oxidation.

Algae Cosmetic Market

In cosmetics, algae act as thickening agents, water-binding agents, and antioxidants.

Carrageenans are extracted from red algae and alginates from the brown algae. Other forms of
algae, such as Irish moss, contain proteins, vitamin A, sugar, starch, vitamin B1, iron, sodium,
phosphorus, magnesium, copper and calcium. These are all beneficial for skin, either as
emollients or antioxidants.

Global Market

The global demand for organic personal care products was over $7.6 billion in 2012 and is
expected to reach $13.2 billion by 2018, growing at a CAGR of 9.6%

Cosmetics Market Size Forecast – OverviewCountry

Country Market Size, (all units in billions in local CAGR

currencies, except where specified)
2006 2011 2016 2021 2026 2006- 2016-
2016 2026
EU12 5.2 8.5 12.2 15.9 21.1 8.8% 5.6%
EU15 50.9 61.3 73.4 88.1 111.5 3.7% 4.3%
EU27 65.5 81.8 100.5 122.4 156.2 4.4% 4.5%
U.S. 47.9 62.9 78.4 94.9 114.5 5.0% 3.9%
Japan** 3.5 3.9 4.7 5.7 6.7 3.1% 3.6%
China* 10.3 20.8 38.7 67 108.8 14.1% 10.9%
Source: Global Insight based on Global Consumer Markets – Nov 2007; *Chinese market size is
given in USD
**Japanese market size is in trillions of yen

Spending on natural personal care and cosmetic products is growing steadily globally, and
especially in BRIC countries. Natural and organic products have a 2% share of global personal
care product sales. In some countries – such as the USA, Germany and Austria – the market
share is reaching 10% and for the UK market revenues have been increasing by about 6% per
annum since 2008, despite the financial crisis.

Rising average life expectancy leads to increased popularity of anti-ageing products and exotic
natural ingredients have strong marketing power and can command a premium price. Research
is being conducted into novel functional ingredients from macro- and microalgal sources:
Compounds such as mycospoine-like amino acids, terpenes and carotenoids, tocopherols and
pyrenoine (an extract from the macroalga Fucus) are all under investigation as photo –protective
ingredients.

There are three main routes for algal products to enter the cosmetics market: as raw
materials; as bulk extracts for formulation; and as specialised functional ingredients. Each of
these is associated with a different size of industry.

Small businesses with innovative products based on raw materials may provide local
employment and there could be potential for acquisition by larger entities if the product is
promising. Cosmetic ingredient suppliers are increasingly interested in non-petrochemical
derived surfactants so products can be labelled as “natural”; bulk extracts are an attractive
source. On the specialist, high value end of the scale, large multinationals invest heavily into
R&D and patent protection of functional extracts from seaweed and microalgae.
Environmental Applications of Algae
Introduction
Microalgae
10
◊ Wastewater treatment and nutrient credits
◊ Algae-Based Wastewater Treatment vs.
Traditional Methods
◊ Non-fuel Applications of Wastewater Grown
Algae
◊ CO2 Capture Using Algae
◊ Soil additives, conditioners and fertilizers

Chapter Highlights

Using algae for waste water treatment has been shown to be a more cost effective way to
reduce biochemical oxygen demand, pathogens, phosphorus and nitrogen than activated
sludge
The use of microalgae for the treatment of municipal wastewater has been a subject of
research and development for several decades. Some macroalgae species such as Gracilaria
crassa, Ulva lactuca, Ulva reticulate, Eucheuma, Chaetomorpha, Laminaria japonica and
Sargassum kjellmanianum are also widely investigated for nutrient removal from
wastewater.
Algae based carbon capture is still in its infancy, as investors and engineers continue to
develop the financing and technological frameworksfor the long-term feasibility of this
technology.
10.1 Algae-Based Wastewater Treatment

Algae-Based Wastewater Treatment vs. Traditional Methods

Using algae for wastewater treatment offers some interesting advantages over conventional
wastewater treatment. It has been shown to be a more cost effective way to reduce biochemical
oxygen demand, pathogens, phosphorus and nitrogen than activated sludge

Traditional wastewater treatment processes involve the high energy costs of mechanical
aeration to provide oxygen to aerobic bacteria to consume the organic compounds in the
wastewater. Aeration is an energy intensive process, accounting for 45 to 75% of a wastewater
treatment plant’s total energy costs. Algae provide an efficient way to consume nutrients and
provide the aerobic bacteria with the needed oxygen through photosynthesis. Roughly one kg of
BOD removed in an activated sludge process requires one kWh of electricity for aeration, which
produces one kg of fossil CO2 from power generation (Oswald, 2003). By contrast, one kg of BOD
removed by photosynthetic oxygenation requires no energy inputs and produces enough algal
biomass to generate methane that can produce one kWh of electric power (Oswald, 2003).

Through the process of algae wastewater treatment very large amounts of algal biomass can be
grown. However, it has proven to be difficult to harvest, and even when harvested it is typically
not used in a beneficial way (Lundquist et al., 2007). Converting this algal biomass into a higher
value energy product in the form of biodiesel is a promising prospect.

Cromar et al., (1996) found a relationship between algal biomass and the removal of
nitrogen.This relationship demonstrated that there was an optimum level of algal biomass,
between 2 and 5 mg L -1 above which the efficiency of nitrogen removal declined rapidly. The
finding that maximum nutrient removal was achieved at relatively low concentrations of algal
biomass indicates that there exists an optimum algae density in the pond. Higher algal densities
will achieve a lower productivity and nutrient uptake rate due to increased light attenuation,
which causes self-shading (Hartig et al., 1988).

Advantages

Oxidization of sewage is required to remove some of the impurities in sewage, and the oxidation
process requires large amounts of mechanical energy. Algae use the sun's energy to provide that
oxygen. These algae use the nutrients in sewage and the carbon dioxide released from the
micro-organisms in sewage and release oxygen, which is in turn used by the micro-organisms to
grow and decompose the matter in sewage.
Removes Heavy Metals

Trace quantities of many metals such as nickel (Ni), lead (Pb), chromium (Cr) and mercury (Hg)
are important constituents of most wastewaters. Algae have the ability to accumulate the heavy
metals and thereby remove toxic compounds from the wastewater. Many algae have immense
capability to remove metals from wastewaters. Algae can effectively remove metals from multi-
metal solutions.

Produce Oxygen with Low Energy Input

Conventional wastewater treatment typically involves a mechanical aeration device to provide

oxygen for breakdown of organic matter contained in the wastewater, which require high
energy consumption. Algae wastewater treatment consumes low energy compared to more
conventional systems. In a successful wastewater treatment test, algae grow simultaneously
with the oxidizing bacteria, producing oxygen as fast as it is required by bacteria. In the process
of bacterial oxidation of incoming waste, algae photosynthesis represents an ample supp1y of
oxygen in the water of a pond being decontaminated.

Fixes CO2

Micro algae have the ability to fix CO2 with efficiency 10 times greater than that of terrestrial
plants. Typically 1.8 tons of CO2 are required to produce 1 ton of algae.

Produces Biomass

The resulting algal biomass from wastewater treatment plant can be converted into feedstock
for fish, poultry, pigs, or even cows helping to reduce the overall costs of food. It can also be
used in various sustainable energy generation systems.

Greater Feasibility

The intensive chemical or bacterial biodegradation technologies are not easily transferable to
the polluted sites; neither is the transport of wastewater to decontamination plants. A more
versatile and feasible way has to be designed to suit this special demand. Microalgae may play a
central role in this case. It offers a cost effective treatment option. It does not require complex
systems for operation.

Ease of Handling

Microalgae can be harvested by precipitation, centrifugation or filtration, and preserved as a dry

powder or immobilized as solid pills for easy transport to the remediation sites. Cost Benefits
from Algae-based Sewage and Wastewater Treatment. While there are a good number of algae-
based wastewater treatment systems currently operational around the world, there are no
authentic data available that allow cost- benefit analyses to be performed for these operations.
Some available data suggest that high rate algal ponds used for wastewater or sewage could
result in capital cost reductions to the tune of 50%, and operational cost reductions of 50-75%.

A summary list of non-fuel applications of wastewater grownalgae:

• Animal & Fish Feed - Shrimp feed, Shellfish Diet, Marine Fish Larvae Cultivation
• Chemicals & Fertilizer
• Biopolymers & Bioplastics
• Paints, Dyes and Colorants
• Lubricants
• Pollution Control
• CO2 Sequestration
• Uranium/Plutonium Sequestration
• Fertilizer Runoff Reclamation
• Sewage & Wastewater Treatment

10.2 Biofilters for fish pond effluents

Algal biofiltration has a stabilizing influence on water quality since, unlike bacteria, algae
counteract the consumption of oxygen and the production of CO2 by the fish. However, algal
biofilters probably cost more to build and use a larger land area when compared with the
alternative bacterial nitrification- denitrification aquaculture biofilter systems.

Biofiltration by algae is based on algal sunlight-dependent assimilation of nutrients and their

conversion into microalgal or macroalgal biomass.

The algae are then consumed by algivore invertebrates such as bivalves, gastropods, and sea
urchins. Sea urchins in particular can also be used to remove organic detritus. In the fish-
phytoplanktonbivalve integrated culture system, bivalves filter microalgae that develop in
fishponds and sedimentation ponds in which fishpond effluents collect.

Such systems require large treatment areas relative to fish production, and are therefore
suitable for extensive or semi-intensive fish culture with relatively low land costs. In fish-
seaweed integrated culture, nutrients are removed from the fishpond effluents by green
macroalgae such as Ulva lactuca.

The macroalgae (seaweeds) can subsequently be fed to macroalgivores or processed for human
consumption. While water from the fishponds passes through the macroalgae ponds, most of
the ammonia (up to 90%) and significant fractions of other dissolved nutrients are removed from
the water.

The macroalgae improve the quality of the water by adding O2 and removing excess CO2, thus
making the water suitable for recirculation into the fishponds. The seaweed produced is
excellent for feeding high-value macroalgivores such as abalone and sea urchins.

Fish-seaweed integrated systems require less extensive land area than fishphytoplankton-
bivalve integrated systems and produce cleaner effluents. However, they may require larger
inputs of capital and energy. Fish culture integrated with algal and shellfish biofilters has the
potential to expand sustainably, meeting economic, environmental, and social concerns.70

10.3 CO2 Capture Using Algae

Even though algae represent only 0.5% of total global biomass by weight, algae produce about
60% of the net global production of oxygen on earth, which is more than all the forests and
fields combined. Algae’s ability to sequester CO2 and produce massive amounts of O2 has
prompted scientists to theorize that propagating algae in large ocean dead zones may be a way
of sequestering millions of tons of CO2 and adding to atmospheric oxygen.

History
• 1960 - Oswald and Golueke introduced the concept of use of power plant flue gases to
grow algae in ponds. 71
• The “Aquatic Species Program” funded from 1978 through 1996 by the Department of
Energy (DOE) started out as a project investigating the possibilities of using algae to
sequestering CO2 emissions from coal power plants (Sheehan et al., 1998). The main
direction of the program became increasingly focused on the specific application of
developing a production of high-quality diesel from algae utilizing the CO2 in the exhaust
gas from coal-fired power plants.
• 1982 - Report from Argonne National Laboratory concluded that power plant flue gases
would be a poor source of CO2 for algal cultivation since very few power plants were
located at sites suitable for growth of microalgae.
• Early 1990s - Pittsburgh Energy Technology Center supported the analysis of microalgal
systems for the use of power plant flue gases and mitigation of CO2.

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 • Late 1990s - NREL studied the utilization of flue gas CO2 by microalgae.
• 1996 Onwards - Aquatic Species Program proposed the shifting of algal ponds next to
power plants and bubbling of the waste CO2 from the power plants into the ponds to
promote algal growth.
• From the turn of this century there have been large scale worldwide investments in algae
biofuels and CCS technology, which has promoted intensive research and development.

Advantages of Algae-based CO2 capture

Selecting the most appropriate technology to limit the amount of carbon dioxide entering the
atmosphere has been the major focus of research for the last five years.
An ideal methodology for photosynthetic sequestration of anthropogenic carbon dioxide must
have the following attributes:

• Highest possible rates of CO2 uptake

• Permanent sequestration of carbon
• Revenues from substances of high economic value
• Use of concentrated, anthropogenic CO2 before it is allowed to enter the
atmosphere.
• Capturing CO2 at the source
• Recycling CO2 into multiple beneficial uses
• Displacing the use of fossil fuels and their CO2 emissions
• Enhancing the net CO2 emission performance of fossil fuel gasification and thermal
extraction processes 72

Algae culture, which satisfies most of the above attributes, is one potential pathway to mitigate
CO2 emissions from fossil fuel fired flue gas. Many scientists and environmentalists therefore
think that algal farming, when it is aligned closely to nature, will give the most promising results
in this context.

Microalgae have the advantages of efficient photosynthesis superior to C4 plants (those plants
that form four-carbon stable intermediates in the photosynthetic process; generally associated
with agricultural and large terrestrial plants), fast proliferation rates, wide tolerance to extreme
environments, and potential for intensive cultures. These properties promise high potential in

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the reduction of carbon dioxide (Kurano et al., 1996). Once harvested, microalgae can provide
various high-value and low-value products to offset some of the costs that have been incurred.
Potential uses for the algae include biodiesel, biofuel for use in electricity production, fodder for
livestock, food and chemicals, colorants, perfumes, and vitamins (Michiki, 1995). The range of
end-product possibilities from algae enables this to become an economically feasible technology
as well.

Microalgae are able to fix CO2 from sources, such as: (i) atmosphere; (ii) industrial flue gases and
(iii) soluble carbonates (NaHCO3 or Na2CO3). Hence it would be beneficial if microalgae were
used to fix carbon dioxide from flue gases.

Some combustion products such as NOx can be effectively used as nutrients for the growth of
microalgae. This could simplify flue gas scrubbing for the combustion system. Algae that find
industrial applicability can grow in varying temperature range (freezing range to higher
temperatures). The tolerance of thermophilic microalgae to relatively high temperature is very
helpful in reducing cooling costs of the fed flue gas released from industrial facilities at high
temperature.

The location of microalgae pond systems in areas which offer flat land, high incident solar
radiation, few competing land uses, and large reservoirs of saline water is envisioned for the
algae based CO2. This helps minimize land costs, while the use of saline water, which is not
suitable for agricultural, domestic, or industrial purposes, minimizes competition with the
domestic and other consumption for the limited supplies of fresh water.

The following are the positive attributes of algal carbon capture technology:

• Sustainable – Algal carbon capture technology is believed to be environmentally,

economically and socially viable.
• Ensures Safety - Leakage concerns associated with other methods are avoided in algal
carbon capture technology.
• Transportation of CO2 is not needed when the photobioreactor is located within the
industry premises.
• Biodiesel can be obtained from microalgae that are used for carbon capture
• Generates biomass which provides additional revenue with high and low value co-
products.
 • Could be coupled with wastewater treatment to enable recycling of the industrial
sewage.
• Revenue can be generated with emission trading and carbon credit.
• The use of processed industrial flue gas and sea water offers a potential advantage of
minimizing the expenses incurred over nutrients required to supplement algal growth.
This generates nutrient credits.

Therefore, for power plants and other entities which are large-scale emitters of CO2, capturing
the carbon using algae will help a great deal in monetizing the carbon- credits as well as
providing algae biofuels. Hence, algae can be said to present the most feasible biological route
for sustainably capturing CO2 for large scale CO2 emitters compared to other technologies.

Right now the technology is still in its infancy, as investors and engineers continue to develop
the financing and technological wherewithal to plan the long-term feasibility of this carbon
capture technology.

Overview of Algae-based Carbon Capture Process

 Flue Gas Pure Streams of
Post – Combustion Oxy-fuel
Pre - Combustion Recycling CO2
Combustion

Power Plants (NGCC, IGCC,PC, Pulverized Steam Aluminum Smelting Refinery Flue Ethanol, Ethylene
INDUSTRIES

Boiler &Boiler Coal), Cement Power Plants, Coal or and Recycling, Iron, Gas Oxide (Process
Plants, Oil Refineries, Iron and Natural Gasfired Steel, Glass Melting Stream), Ammonia
Steel Plants, Natural Gas Steel, Cement & H2 production
Combined Cycles, Fuel plants
Processing Sites
Coal, Gas
Coal, Gas Coal Coal
Biomass Air/O2, Steam
Biomass Biomass Biomass
Power & Heat Gasification O2
FGD

Flue gas
CO & H2 Power & Heat Power & Heat

Absorption Membrane
Physical or CO2 & H2 Combustion Combustion
(using liquid or filtration
chemical
solid (polymer - based,
Absorption
chemicals) ceramic or metal- Flue Gas - Water
based) Power & Heat Flue Gas
vapour & CO2
Recovery systems
(E.g. Econamine, Amine Removal of air
Guard) pollutants & non
Fractionation
condensed gases

CO2 (99.9%) CO2 CO2 CO2 (80%) CO2

Flue Gas
Desulfurization O2
(FGD)
Algae Cultivation Systems CO2

Extraction
Algal Biomass
Fermentation
Anaerobic digestion
Gasification

Methanation
Catalytic Synthesis Methane
Methanol Syngas Fermentation

Ethanol
IGCC/ IC /Fuel cell
Ethylene
Biophotolysis
Hydrogen
Acetic Acid
Combustion / Gasification /
Electricity
Formaldehyde Fischer Tropsch pyrolysis
Algal Oil
Methyl Acetate
Transesterification
DME Gasoline Wax Naphtha Kerosene Diesel
Algae strains suitable for carbon capture
Several species of microalgae are known to capture carbon dioxide from flue gas. However, mass
culture of defined strains has been demonstrated in only a few cases (Spirulina, Dunaliella), and
other algae (e.g. Chlorella, Haematococcus) are mass cultured with considerable difficulty.
However, most algal species have not yet been mass cultured in open ponds.

Carbon-Capture Efficiency and Characteristics for Some Microalgae Species

Some species of algae prefer more acidic cultures, like Galderia sp. and Viridella sp., while others
grow best in neutral or slightly basic media, such as Chlorococcum and Synechococcus lividus.
The species that survive best in acidic conditions are generally more tolerant to high CO2
concentrations, since CO2 lowers the pH of a solution. The microalgae with the shortest doubling
times, like Chlorella and Synechococcus lividus, generally show higher productivity than other
strains. The following table shows evidence that different microalgae species require different
growth conditions.

Growth Parameters for Algae 73

Species Temp pH CO2% Doubling Features
(0C) time( hr)
Chlorococcum sp. 15 – 4 -9 Up to 8 High CO2 fixation rate
27 70 Densely culturable
Chlorella sp. 15 – 3–7 Up to 2.5 - 8 High growth ability
45 60 High temperature
tolerance
Euglena gracilis 23- 27 3.5 Up to 24 High amino acid content
100 Good digestibility
(effective fodder)
Grows well under acidic
conditions
Not easily contaminated
Galdieria sp. Up to 1 -4 Up to 13 High CO2 tolerance
50 100
Viridiella sp. 15 - 2 -6 Up to 2.9 Accumulates lipid

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 42 5 granules inside the cell
High temp. and CO2
tolerance
Synechococcus 40 - Upto Up to 8 High pH tolerance
lividus 55 8.2 70

Some organisms have been isolated using flue gas, but studies to date have only been
performed at a bench-scale (currently, no commercial ponds use flue gas). Two very promising
organisms are Chlorella sp. and Spirulina platensis.

Here we present brief information on the principal algal strains used, and their potential in CCS.

Chlorella sp.

In 2014, Chien-Ya Kao et al., conducted an experiment to analyze the biomass and lipid
productivity of Chlorella sp. MTF-15 cultivated using aeration with flue gases from a coke oven,
hot stove or power plant in a steel plant of the China Steel Corporation in Taiwan. Using the flue
gas from the coke oven, hot stove or power plant for cultivation, the microalgal strain obtained a
maximum specific growth rate and lipid production of (0.827 −1,d 0. 688 g L−1), (0.762 d−1,
0.961 g L−1), and (0.728 d−1, 0.792 g L−1), respectively. This study demonstrated that Chlorella
sp. MTF-15 could efficiently utilize the CO2, NOX and SO2 present in the different flue gases. The
results also showed that the growth potential, lipid production and fatty acid composition of the
microalgal strain were dependent on the composition of the flue gas and on the operating
strategy deployed.

In 1999, Sung et al., isolated and examined the cultural characteristics of Chlorella sp., a highly
CO2-tolerant microalga,.The algashowed excellent stabilities to high concentrations of CO2 and
high temperature. It maintained consistent growth in air containing up to 30% CO2 and at
temperatures up to 40°C. The alga showed a good growth rate in a broad range of pH. Chlorella
KR-1 was found to be suitable for high density culture. The results of the experiments indicated
the possibility of using the KR-1 strain for mass cultivation using stack gases.

Chlorella sorokiniana was proved to be suitable for practical application of converting CO2
present in the stack gases emitted by thermal power plants.
Hirata et al.,(1996a; 1996b) reported that Chlorella sp. UK001 could grow successfully under
10% CO2 conditions. It is also reported that Chlorella sp. can be grown under 40% CO2
conditions. Furthermore, Maeda et al(1995) Chlorella sp. T-1 can grow under 100% CO2,
although the maximum growth rate occurred under a 10% concentration. 74

Synechococcus lividus

Miyairi (1995) examined the growth characteristics of Synechococcus under high CO2
concentrations. The upper limit of CO2, concentration and growth temperature for the species
was 60% CO2 and 60°C (Miyairi, 1995)

Miller et al., studied the effect of carbon dioxide on pigment and membrane content
in Synechococcus lividus by depriving cells of CO2 and examining cell populations biochemically
and by electron microscopy. The cells lost all their chlorophyll a and c. Re-introduction of CO2
into chlorophyll deprived algae resulted in the re-synthesis of both the chlorophylls. 75

Euglena gracilis

Growth of Euglena gracilis was enhanced under 5-45 % concentration of CO2. The best growth
was observed with 5% CO2 concentration. However, the species did not grow under greater than
45% CO2.

W. T. Forsee and J. S. Kahn (1972) developed a method for isolating functionally intact
chloroplasts from heterotrophically grown Euglena. It was found that the isolated chloroplasts
were capable of fixing CO2 at a rate of 30 μmoles/mg chlorophyll/hr, which is only half the CO2
fixing rate of the total cells. 76

Chlorococcum sp.

A study by Dinesh Kumar et al., 2010, ascertained the oxygen production and carbon abstraction
potential of two species of green algae (Chlorococcum sp and Desmococcus sp.) and two species
of blue green algae (Oscillatoria sp and Spirulina sp).

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Results revealed that green algae, especially Chlorococcum sp.have greater potential to reduce
the stress on the global warming effect with a maximum production of 6.02 mg/l of oxygen for
every 18 X 104 cells/ml of culture during day time per hour of light period, during this process it
abstracts 8.27 mg of carbon dioxide. The investigation indicates the potential of microalgae as
an indoor carbon removal tool. 77
Cyanidium sp.

Cyanidium caldarium and some other species of Cyanidium can grow in pure CO2. Cyanidium
caldarium, which can grow under 1M sulfuric acid at 70°C and can grow anaerobically in high
CO2 concentrations.

The activity of C. caldarium for CO2 fixation was comparable to that of blue-green algae and was
10 to 100 times greater than that of green plants. Thus, C. caldarium was shown to be useful for
the fixation of CO2.

Scenedesmus sp.

Scenedesmus sp. could grow under 80% CO2 conditions but the maximum cell mass was
observed in 10-20% CO2 concentrations.

In a study by Shih-Hsin Ho et al.,(2010), seven out of twenty-two indigenous Scenedesmus

obliquus isolates were selected for detailed study on their CO2 fixation ability. Among them, 2
strains, namely, S. obliquus CNW-N and AS-6-1, displayed high cell growth rate and CO2 removal
ability when they were grown on 20% CO2. The two strains show a high specific growth rate of
1.019 and 1.065 d−1, respectively, along with a high biomass concentration (2.63 and 1.90 g L−1,
respectively).

Chlamydomonas

Sultemeyer et al., conducted Mass spectrometric measurements of dissolved free

CO2 were used to monitor CO2uptake by air grown (low CO2) cells and protoplasts from the
green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. 78

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Simulation of chemostat cultivation showed that the rate of CO2 fixation per unit volume of
culture medium could reach 1.01 kg CO2/ (m3 · d) at a cell concentration of 0.57 kg cells/m3. 79

Dunaliella sp.
Dunaliella species have Ci transporter in the chloroplast membrane which is responsive to
medium changes. D. tertiolecta shows carbon fixation rates greater than Chlorella sp.

CO2 tolerance of Dunaliella sp. also has been examined and the species has been used in the
industrial production of β-carotene (Graham and Wilcox, 2000)

Botryococcus braunii

Botryococcus brauniiis a promising species for carbon capture. B.brauniiis claimed to produce
hydrocarbons which represent 86% of its dry weight. Though it possesses high oil content, it
poses several disadvantages, one of which is it takes about 72 hours to reproduce. However, a
few research studies claim that on producing optimum growth environment, the doubling time
of this alga can be considerably reduced to about 48 hours. An optimum growth environment of
this alga refers to ambient temperature of 23°C, a light intensity of 30-60 W/m2, right amount of
salt and a photoperiod of 12 hours light and 12 hours dark. It is believed that if these parameters
are provided B.braunii will double in two days.

Factoids

During their ASP program research, the team estimated that CO2 recovery from existing
processes was relatively lower in cost from ethanol and ammonia plants, and much more
expensive from cement, refineries, or power plants

Production of marine unicellular algae from power plant flue gas - In order to have an optimal
yield, these algae need to have CO2 in large quantities in the basins or bioreactors where they
grow. Thus, the basins and bioreactors need to be coupled with traditional thermal power
centers producing electricity which produce CO2 at an average tenor of 13% of total flue gas
emissions. The CO2 is put in the basins and is assimilated by the algae. It is thus a technology
which recycles CO2 while also treating used water. In this sense, it represents an advance in the
environmental domain, even if it remains true that CO2 produced by the centers would be
released in the atmosphere by the combustion of biodiesel in buses and cars. Diatoms, which

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millions of years ago helped create the conditions necessary for the formation of hydrocarbons
consumed today, will be useful to us a second time.

Some researchers considered the effect of trace acid gases on CO2 sequestration by microalgae,
such as NOx and SO2. As a source of trace elements, both model flue gas (Maeda et al., 1995;
Nagase et al., 1998; Yoshihara et al., 1996) and actual flue gas (Matsumoto et al., 1995) have
been used. It is reported that Nannochloris sp. could grow under 100 ppm of nitric oxide (NO)
(Yoshihara et al., 1996). Less than 1000 ppm of NO and15% CO2 concentration, Dunaliella
tertiolecta could remove 51% to 96% of nitric oxide depending on the growth condition (Nagase
et al., 1998). Tetraselmis sp. could grow with actual flue gas with 185 ppm of SOx and 125 ppm
of NOx in addition to 14.1% CO2 (Matsumoto et al., 1995). Maeda et al(1995) examined the
tolerance of a strain of Chlorella and found that the strain could grow under various
combinations of trace elements and concentrations. According to Geva Technologies (South
Africa), direct use of flue gas reduces the cost of pre-treatment, but the high concentration of
CO2 and the presence of SOx and NOx inhibit the growth of cyanobacteria and other microalgae

CO2 mitigation from photosynthetic microbes - Reported here are results of a privately funded
US$20 million program that has engineered, built, and successfully operated a commercial-scale
(2 ha), modular, production system for photosynthetic microbes. The production system couples
photobioreactors with open ponds in a two-stage process - a combination that was suggested,
but never attempted - and has operated continuously for several years to produce
Haematococcus pluvialis. The annually averaged rate of achieved microbial oil production from
H. pluvialis is equivalent to <420 GJ ha -1 yr-1, which exceeds the most optimistic estimates of
biofuel production from plantations of terrestrial ``energy crops.'' The maximum production rate
achieved to date is equivalent to 1014 GJ ha-1 yr-1. Evidence is presented to demonstrate that a
rate of 3200 GJ ha-1 yr-1 is feasible using species with known performance characteristics under
conditions that prevail in the existing production system. At this rate, it is possible to replace
reliance on current fossil fuel usage equivalent to 300 EJ yr-1 - and eliminate fossil fuel emissions
of CO2 of 6.5 GtC yr-1 - using only 7.3% of the surplus arable land projected to be available by
2050. By comparison, most projections of biofuels production from terrestrial energy crops
would require in excess of 80% of surplus arable land. Oil production cost is estimated at
$84/bbl, assuming no improvements in current technology. Enhancements that could reduce
cost to $50/bbl or less are suggested (CO2 Mitigation and Renewable Oil from Photosynthetic
Microbes 80

One calculation showed that 1600 giga-watt power plants converted to algae production could
manufacture enough ethanol and biodiesel to replace the US annual consumption of 146 billion
gallons of gasoline. Replacing convention diesel too would increase this requirement to over
2000 giga-watt sized power plants—or twice the number of suitably located major plants.
Smaller facilities or other industries might conceivably close the gap - (David zaks et al,2007) 81

A different perspective for algae-based CO2 capture - Although recycling carbon from power
generation for transportation would be a huge advance, it could slow the transition to a truly
sustainable economy by prolonging dependence on fossil fuels. A 50% emission reduction would
no doubt be a great victory, and one we would likely accept from anything less uncharismatic
than coal. Any net carbon emissions to the atmosphere, however, are unsustainable in the long
run.

In October 2004, a report from the testing firm CK Environmentalindicated that during a
measuring period of 7 days for emissions, the bioreactors reduced nitrogen oxides by 85.9% (+/-
2.1%); reduced CO2 by 82.3% (+/-12.5%) on sunny days, and by 50.1% (+/-6.5%)on overcast or
rainy days. Previous systems using algae managed to reduce CO2 emissions by 5% and NOx
emissions by 70%. The system can be used in latitudes where solar exposure is weak, albeit with
relatively reduced efficiency. It is theoretically possible to achieve 90% CO2 capture, but financial
and technological constraints must be taken into account to reach such levels. Nevertheless, this
bioreactor already constitutes a considerable technological advance.

In Lake Elsinore, Calif., BioCentric Energy will collaborate with Southern Pacific Energy Inc. to
deliver its carbon dioxide reduction and algae growth solution for biodiesel production, as well
as residue gasification process to produce electricity (Oct 2008)

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Mark E. Huntley and Donald G. Redalje (2006) CO2 Mitigation and Renewable Oil from Photosynthetic Microbes: A
New Appraisal, Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, Springer 2006. Retrieved from:
http://www.hrbp.com/PDF/Huntley%20&%20Redalje%202006.pdf
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In Wuhan, China, through a joint venture BioCentric Energy will work with a coal-fired steel
facility to implement its carbon dioxide reduction/algae growth solution for biodiesel
production, and residue gasification process to produce electricity (Oct 2008)

In Orange County, Texas, BioCentric Energy will collaborate with joint venture partner Petroleum
Equipment Institute, which purchased 54 acres owned by a prior Exxon refinery, to implement a
project involving the development of two acres of both covered and non-covered algae canals to
absorb carbon dioxide emissions and produce biodiesel and electricity (Oct 2008).

Much work has been done on the effect of different flue gas constituents on microalgal growth
rates and carbon dioxide fixation. Typical power plant flue gases have carbon dioxide levels
ranging from 10%–15%. At the typical carbon dioxide percentages, microalgae show no signs of
significant growth inhibition. Furthermore, studies have shown that microalgae respond better
to increased carbon dioxide concentrations, outgrowing (on a biomass basis) microalgae
exposed to only ambient air (Maeda et al., 1995; Brown, 1996).

In some experiments, it was estimated that the average yearly productivity of unicellular marine
algae on flue gas in open ponds ~20 g/m2/day

The pH of the culture medium is an important factor in algal cultivation. It can determine the
solubility and availability of CO2 and minerals in the culture (Bunt 1971 Raven 1980)

It is known that growth of algae is positively influenced at all levels of CO2 increase. (Lee and Lee
2003). Strains that grow well at CO2 concentrations of 5-10% show drastic decreases in their
growth rate above 20% (Watanabe et al.,1992).

Mark Capron of POD energy has a plan to establish giant "forests" of kelp seaweed at the surface
of the ocean. These would be harvested and placed in large plastic bags suspended in the sea.
Natural bacteria in the bags would digest the kelp, breaking it down into CO2 and methane. The
two gases would be separated, with the CO2 sent to the deep ocean for permanent storage and
the methane piped to the surface for use as a renewable heating and cooking fuel

In July 2009, Algenol partnered with Dow Chemical. The companies announced plans to build
and operate a demonstration plant on 24 acres of property at Dow's sprawling Freeport, TX,
manufacturing site. The plant will consist of 3,100 horizontal bioreactors, each about 5 feet wide
and 50 feet long and capable of holding 4,000 liters. The bioreactors are essentially troughs
covered by a dome of semitransparent film and filled with salt water that has been pumped in
from the ocean. The photosynthetic algae growing inside are exposed to sunlight and fed a
stream of carbon dioxide from Dow's chemical production units

In June 2009, a US Department of Energy program announced that chemical companies and
other industrial sources of greenhouse gas emissions are eligible for $1.3 billion in grants for
large-scale carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) demonstration projects. The same
announcement also offered $100 million in funding for demonstrations of beneficial uses of CO2,
such as using it to grow algae or converting it to fuel or chemicals. The announcement also says
that DOE's targets for the grants are projects that are integrated into the plant's operations and
are designed to capture and sequester 1 million tons of CO2 per plant per year by 2015.

Renewed World Energies (RWE) wanted to clean up power plant and industrial plant emissions
using algae and then have the algae turn the CO2 captured to generate both oil and a cake
product. In June 2009, RWE will be building its first facility in Georgetown County, South
Carolina. The company grows several different strains of algae and has a proprietary automated
harvesting technology. RWE recently announced a process that captures the CO2 and nitrous
oxide from smokestacks to grow algae

In May 2009, Cynthia J. Warner, president of Sapphire Energy, testified before the full U.S.
Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works Hearing on ‘Business Opportunities and
Climate Policy’ to ensure that upcoming Cap and Trade legislation included a proper ‘carbon
accounting’ for emerging and proven algae-based fuel.

In May 2009, the company BioProcessAlgae has been awarded a $2.1 million grant from the
state of Iowa to build the first photobioreactor systems attached to an industrial plant in the
United States. The pilot project, which is supposed to be installed by the fall of this year, would
capture CO2 from a Green Plains corn ethanol plant in Shenadoah, Iowa, and use it to grow
algae.

MRI’s Center for Integrated Algal Research 82- MRI’s Center for Integrated Algal Research focuses
on research and technology development associated with identifying and optimizing algal
species for carbon dioxide sequestration and biofuel production. MRI scientists and engineers
have expertise in:

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• Isolating and purifying algal seed cultures
• Optimizing growth kinetics
• Integrating processing technologies (harvesting, de-watering, oil extraction, refining) for
scale-up
• Operating and maintaining open, closed and hybrid algal production systems
• Identifying and eliminating bioreactor contamination
• Recovering and processing algal products for other sustainable applications
• Integrating instrumentation to monitor system performance in algal culture systems
• Characterizing algal species (expression profiling , lipid, protein, phylogenetic analysis,
gene sequencing)
• Providing carbon sequestration test and evaluation
• Conducting studies for bioprocess mass and energy balance and economic feasibility
• Designing and constructing algae bioreactor systems
• Bioprospecting native algae species to determine suitability for specific applications.
 Novel Applications in Other Industries 11
◊ Introduction
◊ Algae Chemicals
◊ Dyes and Colourants
◊ Solvents
◊ Biopolymers and Bioplastics
◊ Algae Textiles
◊ Pigments
◊ Lubricants

Chapter Highlights

Cosmetics: Algal pigments are used for adding exotic colors to soaps. Sea weeds
(Macroalgae) are a source of pigments for various hair coloring products due to their
long lasting properties.
Paint Additives: Diatoms are also used in paint additives, other than algal pigments, due
to the iridescent nature of their silica shells.
Paper Industry: Paper products used generally are not recyclable because of the
chemical inks they use. The paper industry is shifting their focus to algae because the
inks derived from them are easy to break down and hence easily recyclable.
Cancer Research: Both phycocyanin and phycoerythrin fluoresce at a particular
wavelength. The light produced by this fluorescence is so distinctive and reliable, that
phycobilins may be used as chemical "tags". The pigments are chemically bonded to
antibodies, which are then put into a solution of cells.
Chemicals:The production of chemicals from microalgae is an emerging field of
biotechnology and is still in its fantasy.
11.1 Algae Chemicals

The production of chemicals from microalgae is an emerging field of biotechnology. A 2013

USDA report estimated that global chemical sales, excluding pharmaceuticals, would reach
$2.183 trillion by 2025, estimating a 3 to 6 percent annual growth rate. The report, focused on
biobased products, also found that 9-13% of 2010's chemical sales were bio-based and it
projected this sector would grow to 22 to 28 % ($ 483 billion to $614 billion) by 2025.

Some of the biofuel companies which diversified into algae chemicals business include Solazyme,
Blue Marble Biomaterials, Aquaflow, Solix and BASF.

The building blocks for producing chemicals come from sugars, carotenoids, phycobilins, fatty
acids and hydrocarbons present in algae. For instance, Cyanobacteria such as Spirulina and
Synechocystis produce polyhydroxyalkonates (a phycobilin) such as poly-3-hydroxybutyrate
(P3HB) which can be used as a source of production of biodegradable plastics.

Global Chemicals Market

A USDA report estimated that global chemical sales, excluding pharmaceuticals, would reach
$2.183 trillion by 2025, estimating a 3 to 6 percent annual growth rate. The report, focused on
bio-based products, also found that 9 to 13 percent of 2010’s chemicals sales were bio-based,
and it projected this sector would grow to 22 to 28 percent ($483 billion to $614 billion) by 2025.

Market Drivers

According to US market research firm, Global Industry Analysts (GIA) , the renewable chemicals
industry ‘has admirably withstood’ the slowdown in venture capital and other funding issues,
patent issues, declines in the purchasing of what are seen as expensive bio-based chemicals and
deferred investments in their production.

However, the report also states that government support and intervention is expected to
increase through incentives and subsidies, particularly for start-up companies seeking to achieve
the first level of economies of scale and cost competitiveness, to meet growing demand to
replace petroleum-based chemicals.

The industry’s development of bio-based chemicals that facilitate easy substitution with lower
transition costs is expected to fuel the market in the short term while future growth is forecast
to be based on next-generation novel chemicals.
Although the major share of the market is accounted for by the US and Europe, developing
countries in Asia-Pacific, Latin America and the Middle East are expected to take ‘centre stage’ in
the future as they move from fossil-based feedstocks.

Algae Chemicals Market

The production of industrial chemicals from microalgae is still in its infancy, with many more
breakthroughs still to come. Algae based added value commodities such as lactic acid,
polyhydroxyalkanoates (both used e.g. for production of bioplastics) and butanol price ranges
from US $1300 to US $7000 per tonne.

Market Segments

Companies such as Solazyme, Aquaflow Bionomic Corporation, Blue Marble Biomaterials are
now developing many high-value chemicals from wild algae. Algae based chemicals have
potential value in many sectors such as:
• Cosmetics
• Lubricants
• Polymers
• Solvents
• Surfactants
• Biofuels

Challenges and Efforts

Currently, high cost of capital and operations limit the production of bio-based materials and
chemicals; Production of microalgae for medium - low value products (bulk chemicals and
energy) needs to take place on a much larger scale at much lower costs. In addition the energy
balance should be positive. A leap in the development of microalgae technology is required for
the production of biofuels and bulk chemicals; on a practical level, the scale of production needs
to increase at atleast 3 orders of magnitude with a concomitant decrease in the cost of
production by a factor of 10. In addition a biorefinery structure needs to be established in order
to make use of the entire biomass, which is essential to achieve economic viability. Technology
needs to be developed /improved for both cultivation and biorefinery. The support from
industry will play a major role in this development and will enable the development of new
markets.

11.2 Dyes and Colourants

Algae is the ideal substitute for chemical dyes and pigments. Algae contain three major classes
of photosynthetic pigments: chlorophylls, carotenoids (carotenes and xanthophylls) and
phycobilins.

• Chlorophylls are greenish pigments which contain a porphyrin ring. This is a stable ring-
shaped molecule around which electrons are free to migrate.

• Carotenoids are usually red, orange, or yellow pigments, and include the familiar
compound carotene, which gives carrots their color. These compounds are composed of
two small six-carbon rings connected by a "chain" of carbon atoms.

• Phycobilins are water-soluble pigments, and are therefore found in the cytoplasm, or in
the stroma of the chloroplast. They occur only in Cyanobacteria and Rhodophyta.

Pigment Composition of Several Algal Groups

Division Common Name Major Accessory Pigment

Chlorophyta Green algae Chlorophyll b
Charophyta Charophytes Chlorophyll b
Euglenophyta Euglenoids Chlorophyll b
Phaeophyta Brown algae Chlorophyll c1 + c2, fucoxanthin
Chrysophyta Yellow-brown or golden-brown Chlorophyll c1 + c2, fucoxanthin
algae
Pyrrhophyta Dinoflagellates Chlorophyll c2, peridinin
Cryptophyta Cryptomonads Chlorophyll c2, phycobilins
Rhodophyta Red algae Phycoerythrin, phycocyanin
Cyanophyta Blue-green algae Phycocyanin, phycoerythrin

Production Process

Chlorophylls and carotenes are generally fat soluble molecules and can be extracted from
thylakoid membranes with organic solvents such as acetone, methanol or DMSO. The
phycobilins and peridinin, in contrast, are water soluble and can be extracted from algal tissues
after the organic solvent extraction of chlorophyll in those tissues.

Applications

Food Coloring:

Phycocyanin colorants in general are non-toxic and non-carcinogenic. Uses of phycocyanin in

foods include the coloring of fermented milk products, ice creams, chewing gum, soft drinks,
alcoholic drinks, desserts, sweet cake decoration, and milk shakes.
Clothing:

Algae can be used for dyeing our clothes in an eco-friendly way. Chlorophyll Derivatives are used
for dyeing of fabrics such as wool, acetate derivatives and cotton.

British scientists have come up with a novel application of using algae to add color to fabrics and
paints. These algae called diatoms are single celled organisms paced in shining shells. These
shells add a distinctive feature to the algae, which makes them act as crystals, enabling them to
change their color depending on the configuration of the holes in their shell. The sensitivity of
the color is maintained without changing the chemical composition of the fabric. As the paint
dries, the algae align themselves horizontally at the surface, reflecting light in a uniform manner.
So, even a transparent paint, and transparent silica shells can produce strong shade. This can
provide a safe and an economical alternative for dye industry.

Paints, Dyes & Colorants Market

Natural colors are a growing segment of the food and cosmetic industries, as synthetic colors
have started to be replaced either due to consumer request or by government demands. The
global volume consumption of natural colors increased from over 550000 metric tons in 2002 to
over 600000 tons in 2008, with a further 5% increment expected by 2012 (Madden 2009). The
natural pigments produced by algae can be used as an alternative to chemical dyes and coloring
agents.

All microalgae contain a large palette of pigments, some ranging from yellow to red, and all the
way to blue, many of which double as functional molecules such as α-carotene, β-carotene,
astaxanthin, violaxanthin, lutein, phycocyanin, alloxanthin, neoxanthin, zeaxanthin,
cryptoxanthin, monadoxanthin, crocoxanthin, phycoerythrin, and others (Arad and Yaron 1992;
Dufosse and others 2005)

Market

The global paints and coatings market size increased from US$42.2 billion in 2007 to US$49.2
billion in 2011, reflecting a compounded annual growth rate (CAGR) of 3.90% during the review
period (2007– 2011).The global paints and coatings market is expected to increase at a CAGR of
7.10% in value terms and at a CAGR of 6.60% in volume terms during 2012-2016. In 2011, Asia-
Pacific represented the largest regional paints and coatings market, accounting for 40.7% of the
global market size with its value of US$20.0 billion.

The global colorants market is projected to grow at a CAGR of 3.6% from 2013 to 2018 and reach
11 million metric tons by 2018. Asia-Pacific, with its thriving economies and rapidly expanding
manufacturing bases, is expected to experience highest consumption during the next five years.
Drivers

The major driving factors of this market are growth in end user industries, rising demand for
high performance pigments (HPP), and rising preference towards environment-friendly
products. The factors restraining the growth of this market are raw material price volatility, its
global over capacity, and environmental concerns. Some of the trends witnessed in this market
are shifting of the manufacturing facilities from U.S. and Europe to India, China, and Taiwan and
the rising preference towards eco-friendly products.

11.3 Solvents

Butanol

Butanol, as a fuel, has several significant advantages over ethanol, the current primary additive
in gasoline. Butanol releases more energy per unit mass and can be mixed in higher
concentrations than ethanol. It is less corrosive than ethanol. In most gasoline engines, butanol
can be used in place of gasoline with no modifications. In several tests, is has been showed that
the butanol consumption is similar to that of gasoline, and when blended with gasoline, provides
better performance and corrosion resistance than that of ethanol or E85.

Micro-algae contains up to 50% sugar polymers by dry weight, which makes them an attractive
feedstock for fermentations for the production of high value bioproducts such as acetone,
butanol and ethanol.

Production Process

Researchers at the Sustainable Waste-to-Bioproducts Engineering Center (SWBEC) of Utah State

University demonstrated a process of extracting bioacetone and bioethanol from the algal
biomass.Clostridium saccharoperbutylacetonium, an obligate anaerobic, spore forming,
saccharolytic, and acetone butanol and ethanol (ABE) producing microorganism is capable of
metabolizing the carbohydrates present in algal cells. This metabolic activity produces acetone
and butanol, in relatively high quantities, as fermentative byproducts.

A method of producing solvents from algae comprises the following steps:

1. Processing algae to yield processed biomass

2. Fermenting the processed biomass with a Clostridium bacteria to yield solvents

Factoids

• Some companies around the world (e.g.: Martek Biosciences Corp., of Columbia) develop
algae-based fluorescent dyes.
11.4 Biopolymers and Bioplastics

The market for bioplastics, currently a tiny niche in the $250 billion global plastics market (2008),
is expected to double by 2012 as rising oil prices and environmental regulations crimp
petroleum-based products.

The most widely used bioplastic is made by NatureWorks LLC, a unit of Cargill & Teijin Ltd. of
Japan. It is a corn-based and biodegradable plastic, and is already is used in dozens of products.
More companies aspiring to produce bioplastics are regularly emerging. And more feedstock for
bioplastics is also being experimented. Algae are a potential feedstock for bioplastics.

• A project titled BIOPAL has been set up to design and process a new generation of algae
derived bioplastics and biocomposites, targeting applications in agriculture, automotive and
packaging industries as well as biofilter systems for heavy metal accumulation including the
biodegradation and bio-recycling aspects. A part of the project is dedicated for over all
specification, collection, pre-treatment of algae, and the monitoring of algae proliferation as
natural resource tasks. European socio-economic and environmental objectives will be
mainly taken into consideration in order to create jobs and enhance rural economy of
Coastal regions. 83
• Arizona (US) based PetroSun is making efforts at obtaining bioplastics using algae.

Algae Strains that are used in manufacturing Biopolymers

• Nostoc sp
• Phormidium mucicola
• Chlorella stigmaaphora, C vulgaris, C pyrenoidosa
• Chlamydomonas Mexicana
• Ulva lactuca
• Scenedesmus obliquus, S braziliensis
• Stichiciccis bacillaris
• Anabaena flos-aquae
• Porphyridium aerugineum, P cruentum

Production Process

Various processes for the cultivation of algae and production of biopolymers exist.
Fundamentally, two stages exist: first stage, in which algae growth is initiated and a second stage

83
BIOPAL-Algae as raw material for production of bioplastics and biocomposites contributing to sustainable
development of European Coastal Regions, (2003). Retrieved from:

http://www.biomatnet.org/secure/FP5/S1383.htm
where the biopolymer is carried to completion. U.S Patent No. 4079544 describes a biopolymer
synthesis procedure employing a culture medium with traces of sodium nitrate and sodium
glycerophosphate. In the first stage, the algae culture is subjected to continuous artificial
illumination. In the second stage, the illumination is terminated and the culture is subjected to
diurnal cycles of solar radiation and darkness. In addition to this, carbon dioxide an air is
introduced into the culture by which biopolymer production is carried out.

Applications of Algal Biopolymers

The advantages of biopolymers over traditional plastics are unprecedented, provided that they
are used in situations in which they raise the functionality and generate extra benefits. As
mentioned above: biopolymer is a sustainable material and it can be produced from renewable
resources. The practical side of the use of biopolymers is the economical advantage for
industries and municipal works. These consist of the saving of raw materials and the reduction in
costs when the products are finally discarded. Renewable biologically degradable products also
plead for a sustainable economy. This means that the agricultural sector obtains the possibility
to produce a rising percentage of its turnover extra as non-food products. After the disposal of
the products can the recuperated materials been taken back by the agriculture as certificate
quality-compost and the economical (and ecological) advantages are only a pleasant accidental.

• Thickening agents for mobility control in waterflood oil recovery

• Food additives
• Flocculants useful in waste water treatment
• Soil conditioning
• Drilling mud extenders
• Pet food
• Farm feed stabilizers
• Culture media from specialty crops like orchids
• Brewery fining
• Slurry stabilizer for pigments in ceramics & textile applications
• Biopolymers can be converted into packaging materials, which have the advantage of
being renewable

Challenges in Biopolymer Production

There are some issues concerning cultivation, harvesting and treatments leading to some
uncertainty for the breakthrough of this promising way. Alginic acid and alginate polymer
derivatives are well-known as hydroswelling, gelling and thickening additives but they also have
uses as material for dental impression and moulding for soft or delicate objects or, in
combination with other polymers, for specific applications.
The true innovative breakthrough can come from algae-based plastic grades, the ethanol and
other alcohol routes leading to biopolyethylene, bio-PVC or bio-EVA.

Biopolymers & BioplasticsMarket

Typically, long chain polymers, present in the algae lipids are used for making bioplastics. Mary
Rosenthal, Executive Director of Algae Biomass Organization, says the potential market for
bioplastics - of which a growing amount could be taken up by algae - is 45 billion pounds (around
20m tonnes) - 2010 data

The consumption of petroleum for the production of plastic is expected to decrease by 10-15%
percent by 2018. It has been estimated that the bioplastics industry could be worth $20bn
[€16bn] by 2020.

Market Drivers

• High consumer acceptance

• High fossil fuel prices
• Increase in dependence on fossil fuels
• Need for ecofriendly products

Market Distribution by Region

Bioplastics market is dominated by the United States and Europe which are followed by Asia –
Pacific and rest of the world. The market is growing rapidly because more and more companies
are entering this market with newer innovations and applications. The applications responsible
for higher market growth are in food and beverage packing, catering, products and bags.

11.5 Algae Textiles

Alginate Fibre for fabrics

Case Study: A Chinese company is using alginate fibres extracted from algae to mass produce the
fabrics that could be used in protective clothing worn by firefighters and medical personnel.
Historically, however, the original algae-based fibres were fragile and only served for medical textiles
such as bandages and surgical dressing.
A factory has been built in Qingdao, a coastal city in east China's Shandong province, with a designed
annual production capacity of 1,000 tons of fiber made from alginate, a chemical salt extracted from
algae.

The plant and technologies were jointly funded by Qingdao University and Qingdao Xiyingmen
Group, one of China's leading textile companies.

Approximately 200 to 250 kg of alginate can be extracted from a ton of dry algae which can be used
to make 200 kg of fibres. Production cost is estimated to be around 50, 000 to 70, 000 Yuan for a ton.
Researchers also believe that they can bring down the production costs, if the fibres are blended with
cotton.
The world’s output of natural fibers produced from plants and animals reached the $50 billion
mark in 2010 for a total production of 35 million tons, of which 23 million tons are reserved for
textiles and clothing.

The largest natural fiber produced in the world with an output of 25 million tons in 2010 is
cotton. The three biggest cotton producers are China (32%), India (22%) and USA (12%).
However, cotton is on the decline, especially in the US where this natural fiber’s farming area
dropped 30 percent in one year to just over 3 million HA, the lowest since 1983. Whereas the
decline has been traditionally due to the replacement of natural by synthetic fibers, the global
trend is reinforced by the Chinese wish to farm food on land that is now reserved for cotton.
China wants to broadly substitute the water intensive cotton farms with food crops.

They have opted to substitute cotton with industrial hemp. The cultivation of hemp will expand
from a modest 20,000 HA at present to perhaps as much as 1.3 million HA in a few years. Hemp
grows prolific on hilly and less fertile soil without any need for irrigation while stabilizing erosion,
a key ecosystem service. The second most important natural fiber produced in the world is jute,
good for 2.9 million tons and mainly produced in India, commanding higher prices (up to
$400/T) than cotton since it is predominantly used as a substitute for plastic packaging and
therefore linked to the international price for petroleum.

11.6 Pigments

11.6.1 Phycocyanin

Product Category Pigment ( Colouring Agent)

Other Current Sources
Algae Strains Used Cyanobacteria mainly Arthospira.sp, Nostoc etc..
Status of Commercialised
Commercialisation

Phycocyanin is a blue color pigment –protein complex from the light harvesting phycobiliprotein
which absorbs orange and red light particularly 620nm .Phycocyanin is from Greek ;phyco means
algae and Kyanos means blue-green algae. These phycobiliproteins are water-soluble.It is
composed of equal number of α and β subunits. The product produced by Aphanizomenon flos-
aquae and Spirulina is used in food and beverage industry as a coloring agent. Under UV
radiation they show intensive red –fluoescence

It is mainly extracted from Spirulina Platensis. It is often found in cyanobacteria which thrive
around hot –springs and accounts to 20% of proteins in them. Cyanobacteria like Nostoc and
Aphanizomenon are used to extract phycocyanin.
Habitats with sufficient algae growth include the Pacific Ocean near Japan and Hawaii, and large
freshwater lakes, including Lake Chad in Africa, Klamath Lake in North America, Lake Texcoco in
Mexico, and Lake Titikaka in South America.

Algae Strains Used

Arthospira plantensis
Nostoc.sp

Production Process

The algae that are employed for making Phycocyanin are cultivated by growing the desired algae
in open- ponds or closed photobioreactors. The most commonly cultivated strain for
Phycocyanin is Arthospira plantensis.

Spirulina is ideally grown in outdoor photobioreactor.

The water that is supplied for cultivation purposes is
supplemented some medium such as the Zarrouk
medium(check composition)
Phycocyanin is extracted from wet biomass of Arthospira
platensis.First homogenize the frozen biomass in a
mortar and pestle in the prescence of diatomaceous
earth.Now the biomass is freezed and thawed. The wet
biomass is treated with hydrochloric acid with different
concentrations .Depending on the optical density of the
solution the content of phycocyanin varies.
Phycocyanin yield is generally
calculated based on grams per 10 grams
of algae, yield baseline estimate varies
10% to 20%. Parameter optimization in
PBR systems can yield Phycocyanin at
~20% to ~25%. Phycocyanin price
ranges approximately $500.00 to
$100,000.00 per kg depending on grade

The phycocyanin content is the highest extracted from

fresh biomass using the freezing and thawing method whereas phycocyanin content extracted
from dried samples is considerably reduced .

Applications

Benefits of Phycocyanin

• Rejuvenation of damaged cells and bone marrow .It increases lymphocyte activity and
stimulate the production of blood.
• Blood flow is improved and stickiness is reduced
• Bone marrow damaged by radiation is rehabilitated
• Immune system is strengthened by enhancing production of antibodies and interleukin-1
to fight infections
 • Inhibits cancer cells and its spread
• It has antioxidant properties and antihydroxyl radical properties.Inhibits hydroxyl
radicals released from activated platelets, which inhibits platelet aggregation. It can be
used as a potential antiplatelet agent for treatment of arterial thromboembolism
• Protects cells against oxidative DNA damage
• It is a detoxifier –it can leach out heavy metals by its strong chelating power
• It has anti-inflammatory properties .It can suppress nitric oxide, prostaglandin E-2, tumor
necrosis factor alpha and the Cox-2 enzyme. This anti-inflammatory mechanism may
contribute, to its anti-hyperalgesic activity. [ Hyperalgesia is an increased sensitivity to
pain.]
• It helps in the improvement and protection of liver
• It increases cyclic GMP/VASP Ser157 phosphorylation and subsequently inhibits
protein kinase C activity, resulting in inhibition of both P47 phosphorylation
and intracellular Ca2+ mobilization.
• Exhibits antiviral activity against herpes simplex virus type 2. 84

Mice have shown increased immunity, bone marrow reproduction, growth of thymus and spleen
when fed complex sugars and phycocyanin from spirulina.

Uses of Phycocyanin

• Phycocyanin colorants are non –toxic and non-carcenogenic and they are natural
hence they are used in foods like icecreams,chewing gum,soft drinks,alcoholic
drinks ,sweet cake decoration,milk shakes ,in coloring fermented food products
• They are used in cosmetics
• Used in treating cancers ,tumors and various other diseases.

11.6.2 Chlorophyll
Product Category Pigment
Other Current Sources Green Plants
Algae Strains Used Chlorella, Spirulina
Status of Commercialized
Commercialisation

Chlorophyll, the green pigment found in almost all plants, algae and cyanobacteria is the vital
pigment for photosynthesis. Chlorophyll molecules are arranged in and around the

84
http://www.kingdnarmsa.cn/en/Product.aspx?id=6,
http://www.zhion.com/herb/Spirulina.html
http://newhope360.com/key-constituent-spirulina-phycocyanin-shows-anti-inflammatory-and-anti-hyperalgesic-action
http://solecoltd.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=62&Itemid=40
photosystems in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts. The function of chlorophyll in plants
is to absorb sunlight, which is an essential requirement for plants to carry out photosynthesis.

Sources of Chlorophyll

Chlorophyll is present in all plants, most of the algae and cyanobacteria. Chlorophyll is abundant
in leafy vegetables and generally to a lesser extent in fruits. For example in spinach, chlorophyll
can be as high as 1% on a dry weight basis. Chlorophyll a, due to its stability properties, has been
widely used as a coloring substance and is conventionally obtained from higher plants.

Chlorophyll a is abundantly found in Chlorella and Spirulina. Chlorella is called ‘Emerald food’
due to its amazingly high content of chlorophyll.

Chlorella contains five times the amount of chlorophyll than Sprirulina. The chlorophyll content
of Chlorella is about 7% of the biomass.

Types of Chlorophyll

Chlorophyll itself is actually not a single molecule but a family of related molecules, designated
chlorophyll a, b, c, and d. Chlorophyll a is the molecule found in all plant cells. Chlorophyll d is
found only in marine red algae, but chlorophylls b and c are common in fresh water algae.

Pigment Composition of Several Algal Groups 85

DIVISION COMMON NAME MAJOR ACCESSORY PIGMENT

Chlorophyta Green algae Chlorophyll b
Charophyta Charophytes Chlorophyll b
Euglenophyta Euglenoids Chlorophyll b
Phaeophyta Brown algae Chlorophyll c1 + c2, fucoxanthin
Chrysophyta Yellow-brown or golden- Chlorophyll c1 + c2, fucoxanthin
brown algae
Pyrrhophyta Dinoflagellates Chlorophyll c2, peridinin
Cryptophyta Cryptomonads Chlorophyll c2, phycobilins
Rhodophyta Red algae Phycoerythrin, phycocyanin
Cyanophyta Blue-green algae Chlorophyll a, Phycocyanin, phycoerythrin

Production Process

The cyanobacterium Spirulina platensis is an attractive alternative source of the pigment

chlorophyll, which is used as a natural color in food, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical products.S
platensis, on the contrary, presents only chlorophyll a on its composition. In addition, this micro

85
http://www.clarku.edu/faculty/robertson/Laboratory%20Methods/pigments.html
alga presents one of the highest chlorophyll contents found innature, corresponding to 1.15% of
its biomass. The use of the Spirulina sp for pigments as colorant has already been explored by
the cosmetic, pharmaceutical and food industries.

In Brazil, the chlorophyll used as natural green colorant is obtained from spinach, which contains
approximately 0.06 mg g−1, whereas the Spirulina sp biomass contains 1.15 mg g−1of chlorophyll.

Chlorophyll is generally produced by Spirulina using fermentation process. It has been shown
that the composition of the cultivation medium, cellular age, and light intensity are the main
factors influencing chlorophyll content in S platensis biomass. Research studies have shown that
Spirulina cultivated under poor light intensity present higher chlorophyll concentration in the
biomass than that cultivated under highly illuminated conditions. This suggests an inverse
relationship between light intensity and chlorophyll content. The concentration of chlorophyll in
S platensis also increases with the increase in nitrogen concentration of the medium. Chlorophyll
can be extracted from the algal cells using dimethyl sulfoxide. 86

Chlorophyll Production

Chlorophyll production from Chlorella can be carried out in open ponds as well as fermenters.

Chlorella cultivation is also carried out in open ponds, but concrete ponds are not economical.
One company in Taiwan has developed an inexpensive 'red mud plastic' which is resistant to
sun's UV rays.

Lack of sunlight is a major problem with chlorophyll production in closed fermentation systems.
In a Taiwan company,Chlorella is produced in completely closed systems from test tubes to small
tanks to large fermenters. The concentrated stream of Chlorella is produced from large
fermenter onto the roof of the factory, where it then flows down through translucent plastic
tubes while exposing the algae to sunlight and then returns to the fermenter. The sunlight
transmitted into the medium through the plastic tubes produces a chlorophyll concentration
that compares favorably with that of Chlorella grown in open ponds.

Source: Chlorella: the emerald food

Applications

Health Benefits of Chlorophyll

• Chlorophyll and its derivatives are known to have antioxidant activity.

• Consumption of vegetables rich in chlorophyll and chlorophyll derivatives such as
chlorophyllin, is associated with reduced risks of certain types of cancers.

86
http://jalgalbiomass.com/paper4vol1no5.pdf
• Consumption of chlorophyll-rich diet could prevent or delay the onset of certain diseases
such as cancer that manifest with aging and are induced by free radicals.
• The function of chlorophyll in animals is suggested to be inhibition of lipid peroxidation and
protection of mitochondria from oxidative damage induced by various free-radicals and
other reactive oxygen species.
• Chlorophyllin has also been reported to inhibit radiation-induced DNA and mitochondrial
membrane damage and it would also appear to be a potent protector of DNA with regard to
oxidative damage.
• Chlorophyll is sometimes called `green blood" because of its similarity to the hemoglobin
molecule found in human blood cells.
• Chlorophyll increases peristaltic action and thus relieves constipation, and also normalizes
the secretion of digestive acids. It soothes the inflammation and reduces the excess pepsin
secretion associated with gastric ulcers.
• Chlorophyll actually helps remove heavy metals from the body that have accumulated due to
the ingestion of contaminated food products.
• During World War II, the drying action of chlorophyll and its antiseptic qualities made it a
common first-aid measure to prevent festering of wounds. In addition, chlorophyll soothes
swelling and promotes granulation, the process that regenerates new tissue over injuries.
• Chlorophyll appears to promote regeneration of damaged liver cells, and also increases
circulation to all the organs by dilating blood vessels.
• It is believed that if chlorophyll is ingested with sufficient iron, the magnesium can be
displaced to yield a hemoglobin molecule. Experiments in Japan have demonstrated that
Spirulina has a marked positive effect on anemia, possibly due to the conversion of
chlorophyll into hemoglobin.

Industrial Uses of Chlorophyll

• In the food industry, chlorophyll is used as a natural pigment ingredient in processed foods.
• Because of its strong green pigment and consumers growing preference for natural foods,
chlorophyll is gaining importance as food additive. Increasing number of researches are also
reporting health benefits from consumption of high chlorophyll diet. This in turn is
encouraging food processors to switch from artificial pigments to chlorophyll-based natural
coloring.
• In the cosmetics industry, chlorophyll a (known as Natural Green 3) is used in soaps and
cosmetics products.

11.7 Lubricants
Some algae strains contain a high percentage of oils that can be processed as bio-based
lubricants for bicycle and chain saw maintenance, as well as fuels for cars, trucks, and
commercial aviation.

Algae biofuel and bioproducts company, Solazyme can be claimed as a forerunner in

commercializing algae derived lubricants.
• Solazyme partnered with Sasol Olefins and Surfactants GmbH in August 2013 for the supply
of erucic acid 87 algal oils for use in downstream derivatives such as behenyl alcohol.
• Solazyme has entered into with Goulston Technologies, a fibre lubricants company, to supply
microalgae-derived, high-performance textile lubricants.
• Solazyme, in addition, signed a deal with Dow Chemicals in 2011 for supplying algal oils to be
used in dielectric fluid applications.

LubricantsMarket

The global lubricant market was worth USD 44.0 billion in 2011 and is expected to grow at a
CAGR of 5.5% from 2012 to 2018. The global lubricant consumption was 35,605.6 kilo tons in
2011 and is expected to reach 42,304.7 kilo tons in 2018, growing at a CAGR of 2.5% from 2012
to 2018.Bio-based lubricants account for only a small fraction of the total lubricants market:
estimates range from 2-5% to less than 1%. However, demand is growing at a healthy rate - most
believe about 5-10%/year globally.

There is little research on the contribution of algae to the global bio-lubricants market.

Drivers

Increasing automobile demand is expected to fuel lubricant demand over the forecast period.
Increasing regulatory support and the need to reduce crude oil dependence are expected to
support bio-based lubricant market growth over the next decade. However, volatility in mineral
oil prices and high production cost of bio-based lubricants are key challenges faced by industry
participants.

11.8 Other Applications of Algae

Electronics –Algae based Batteries

Researchers purport that Cladophora (green algae) could be placed in areas where batteries are
currently unable to go -- think of perpetually charged wall sensors, energized clothing or even
light-up wrapping paper. 88

87
Erucic acid is a key raw ingredient for the fatty amide erucamide, used mostly in plastic film application. r end uses
of erucic acid are found in pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and personal care, and as additives in Chaindustrial lubricants
and biofuels.
88
http://www.engadget.com/2009/11/29/ultrathin-algae-based-batteries-could-charge-things-you-never-t/
Diatomeous Earth
This product comes from large fossil
deposits of planktonic algae called
diatoms. One of the largest sites of
diatomaceous earth is in Lompoc,
California. This material is actually the silica
cell walls of these protists, walls that have
minute pores; it is used as an abrasive or
filtering agent. Products containing
diatomaceous earth are:
• Tooth Paste
• Silver polish
• Swimming pool filter powder
A group of researchers at the Ångström Laboratory
(Sweden) have discovered that the distinctive cellulose
nanostructure of Cladophora algae can serve as an
effective coating substrate for use in environmentally
friendly batteries.
“These algae has a special cellulose structure
characterized by a very large surface area By coating this
structure with a thin layer of conducting polymer, we
have succeeded in producing a battery that weighs
almost nothing and that has set new charge-time and
capacity records for polymer-cellulose-based batteries.”
This is the first attempt at using algae cellulose for
battery applications. This type of cellulose has a unique
nanostructure, entirely different from that of terrestrial
plants. Its large surface area made it a candidate for
energy-storage applications.

Diatomite is also widely used as a filler and extender in paint, paper, rubber, and plastic
products. The gloss and sheen of “flat” paints can be controlled by the use of various additions
of diatomite. During the manufacture of plastic bags, diatomite can be added to the newly
formed sheets to act as an antiblocking agent so that the plastic (polyethylene) can be rolled
while it is still hot. Because it can absorb approximately 2.5 times its weight in water, it also
makes an excellent anticaking carrier for powders used to dust roses or for cleansers used to
clean rugs. Diatomite is also used in making welding rods, battery boxes, concrete, explosives,
and animal foods.

Process:

Diatomaceous earth is a naturally occurring, soft, chalk-like sedimentary rock that is easily
crumbled into a fine white to off-white powder, with a particle size extending from less than 1 to
over 100 microns, but typically around 2 to 10 microns. This powder has an abrasive feel, similar
to pumice powder, and is very light, due to its high porosity. The typical chemical composition of
diatomaceous earth is 86% silica, 5% sodium, 3% magnesium and 2% iron.

Diatomaceous earth consists of fossilized remains of diatoms, a type of hard-shelled algae. It is

used as a filtration aid, as a mild abrasive, as a mechanical insecticide, as an absorbent for
liquids, as cat litter, as an activator in blood clotting studies, and as a component of dynamite. As
it is also heat-resistant, it can be used as a thermal insulator.

Paints seeded with the diatoms.

Diatoms have hard shells made out of silica, or glass. When they die, these shells sink to the
bottom of their watery environments. We mine deposits of these silica shells that formed
hundreds of thousands of years ago to make abrasives, shiny road paint The following strains are
employed for the use of algae in paints: Chondrus Gigartina,, Eucheuma , Hypnea

Construction Industry Algae is also employed in the construction industry mainly as sand
composites as substitutes for mortar,brick,concrete, asphalt and other civil engineering
application

Lubricants

Dielectric fluids and lubricants Studies reveal that the stability of algae, for example,
Porphyridium sp. polysaccharide to heat and to hyaluronidase combined with its ability to
reduce friction and wear indicate its potential as an advantageous biolubricant.89

Paper from algae

Making paper out of algae, leaves and old paper is a very efficient way of reducing waste. To
obtain a modelling paste you can use old paper alone but the quality of the product (colour,
flexibility) increases if you add a 15-30 percentage of leaf flour or 10-15 percentage of algae
flour. 90

89
http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/la060600x
90
http://www.youngreporters.org/article.php3?id_article=885
 12
Companies and Universities
Asssociated with Algae Products

12.1 Summary of Companies Associated with Algae Products

Agar 1. Acroyali Holdings Qingdao Co. Ltd., China

2. Agar del Pacifico S.A., Chile
3. Agarmex S.A., Mexico
4. Ina Food Industry Co. Ltd., Japan
5. Coast Biologicals Ltd., New Zealand

Carrageenan 1. CP Kelco ApS, Denmark

2. Danisco Cultor, Denmark
3. Marcel Carrageenan Corporation, Philippines
4. Henan Boom Gelatin Co. Ltd., China
5. Hispanagar S.A., Spain
6. Marcel Carragenan, Philippines
7. Seatech carrageenan, Indonesia
8. FMC Biopolymer,
Alginate 1. Qingdao Jiaonan Bright Moon Seaweed Industrial Co., China
2. Qingdao Nanshan Seaweed Co. Ltd., China
3. Taurus Products Ltd., South Africa
4. Lyg Seaweed Ind., China
5. FMC Biopolymer, USA

Algae-based cosmetics 1. Codif Recherche & Nature, France

2. Exsymol S.A.M., Monacco
3. LVMH group, France
4. Pentapharm, Switzerland
5. Solazyme, USA
Astaxanthin 1. Mera Pharmaceuticals, USA
2. AlgaTechnologies, Israel
3. Cyanotech, Hawaii
4. Jingzhou Natural Astaxanthin Inc, China
5. Algaetech International, Malaysia
6. Parry Nutraceuticals, India
7. Fuji Chemicals, Japan & Sweden
8. Valensa International, Florida
β-Carotene 1. AquaCarotene, USA
2. Cognis Nutrition & Health, Australia
3. Cyanotech, Hawaii, USA
4. Nikken Sohonsha Corporation, Japan
5. Tianjin Lantai Biotechnology, China
6. Parry Nutraceuticals, India
7. Seambiotic, Israel
8. Muradel, Australia
Omega-3 Fatty Acids 1. Live Fuels, USA
2. Aurora Algae, USA
3. Martek Biosciences, USA
4. Blue Biotech International GmBH, Germany
5. Lonza, Switzerland
6. Photonz, New Zealand
7. Ingrepro BV, The Netherlands
8. Astaxa, Germany
Spirulina 1. Wuhan Sunrise Biotech Co. Ltd., China
2. Hainan Simai Pharmacy Co. Ltd., China
3. Fuqing King Dnarmsa Spirulina Co.Ltd., China
4. Earthrise Nutritionals, USA
5. Parry Nutraceuticals, India
6. Cyanotech, Hawaii, USA
7. Hydrolina Biotech, India
8. Nutrex Hawaii, USA
9. Australian Spirulina, Australia
10. Fuqing King Dnarmsa Spirulina Co. Ltd, China
11. BlueBiotech International GmBH, Germany
Chlorella 1. Sun Chlorella, Japan
2. Yaeyama Shokusan Co Ltd., Japan
3. Maypro Industries Inc., USA
4. Taiwan Chlorella Manufacturing Co ltd, Taiwan
5. Far East Microalgae Ind Co., Ltd, Taiwan
6. Roquette Klötze GmbH & Co. KG, Germany
7. BlueBiotech International GmBH, Germany
Whole-cell aquaculture 1. Aquatic Eco-Systems (USA)
feed 2. BlueBiotech International GmbH (Germany)
3. Coastal BioMarine (USA)
4. Reed Mariculture (USA)

Biopolymers 1. PetroSun, Arizona, USA

2. Dow Chemicals, USA
3. Cereplast, USA
4. Soley Biotechnology Institute, USA
12.2 Prominent Companies Working on Non Fuel Products

This section provides details of the companies belonging to the following industries:

Algae in Nutraceuticals Pharmaceuticals Algae as/in food & Feed

Algae Cosmetics Pollution Control Textiles and Chemicals

12.3 Companies Associated in the Algae Nutraceuticals Sector

Parrys Nutraceuticals, India

Headquartered at Chennai, India

Main line of activity Microalgal health supplements production

Company Profile
Parry Nutraceuticals is a division of E.I.D. Parry (I) Ltd. and a part of the USD 3.8 billion
Murugappa group. E.I.D. Parry businesses cover a wide range of products including sugar,
microalgal health supplements from Parry Nutraceuticals and bio products from Bio Products
Division.Parry Nutraceuticals’ products have become an integral part of several major brands in
38 countries, the main markets being in North America, Europe, South East Asia and the Far East
for many years now.

Non-fuel algae products

• Organic Spirulina
• Parry SuperBlu (Phycocyanin extracted from Parry Organic Spirulina)
• Natural Mixed Carotenoids (from Dunaliella salina)
• Astaxanthin (from Haematococcus pluvialis)
• Lutein
• Lycopene

PartnershipsValensa International, USA

Hydrolina Biotech, India

Headquartered at Chennai, India

Main line of activity Spirulina Products
Company Profile

Hydrolina Biotech is a global enterprise with the primary objective to manufacture products of
nutraceutical significance derived from natural resources specifically algae, fungi and bacteria.
The company is presently engaged in the manufacturing and exporting of “Vitalinaa” - spirulina
dried powder, tablets & capsules.

Non-fuel algae products

Spirulina

Sun Chlorella

Main line of activity Chlorella supplements manufacturer

Company Profile

Sun Chlorella USA manufactures and sells chlorella and eleuthero supplements. Sun Chlorella
supplement is made from Chlorella pyrenoidosa.

Non-fuel algae products

Chlorella

Technology employed

Sun Chlorella uses a process called Dynomill, to process its chlorella. The process was designed
to maximize total digestibility of chlorella’s nutrients as well as its cell walls, which, if kept intact,
compromise the bioavailability of key purification constituents within the algae. Compared with
other chlorella manufacturing methods (methods that crack the cell wall by heat, the so-called
blanching method, or a method that dissolves fibers by enzyme) the digestibility of Sun
Chlorella’s pulverized cell wall is dramatic, over 80%.

Partnerships: Whole Foods Market

Cyanotech

Headquartered at Hawaii, USA

Main line of activity Microalgae natural products

Company Profile
Cyanotech develops and commercializes natural products from microalgae. The company is
currently producing microalgae products for the nutritional supplement and immunological
diagnostics markets in addition to microalgae-based products and food coloring markets.

Non-fuel algae products

• Spirulina Pacifica® (a select strain of Spirulina platensis)

• BioAstin (Hawaiian Astaxanthin)

Technology employed

Cyanotech’s microalgae is cultured in shallow, open ponds (approximately 20 cm deep) adjacent

to the Pacific Ocean. A combination of fresh water and supplemental deep ocean water is used
to fill the ponds. The other major components required for growing Spirulina Pacifica are food-
grade baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) and carbon dioxide. Food grade fertilizers are used and
the deep sea water is added as a rich source of minerals and trace elements. Paddle wheels
agitate the water, ensuring even exposure of the algae to the sun for optimal growth and
nutritional value.

Highlights

• Cyanotech’s BioAstin product was the first source of astaxanthin for human nutrition
reviewed by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA).
• Hawaiian Spirulina is the only cultured microalgae grown with ultra pure deep ocean
water as a source of minerals and trace elements. The deep ocean water is pumped up
from a depth of 2000 feet, supplying magnesium, calcium, and every trace element.

Qualitas Health

Headquartered at Israel

Main line of activity Nutritional supplements and pharma ingredients from microalgae

Company Profile

Qualitas Health is a privately-held company developing high-value vegetarian food supplements

and pharmaceutical ingredients based on microalgae. Building on over 10 years' experience in
algae cultivation and extraction from the biofuel sector, the company's team has developed a
unique and proprietary technology for strain selection, sustainable algae farming, harvesting and
oil processing. The technology allows for the effective production of proprietary premium
Omega-3 algae oil for a wide range of applications.
Having successfully completed several long-term integrated pilot studies in Israel and the USA
validating its technology, Qualitas Health has initiated its commercial rollout of an integrated
commercial production farm and extraction facility in the Southwestern United States.

Qualitas Health has completed several integrated, long-term pilot studies in Israel and the
United States to validate its technology. In 2012, the company completed a 12-month pilot algae
growth project in the north of Israel, optimizing its process parameters and sustainability
protocols while maintaining high omega-3 yields.

Non-fuel algae products

Omega 3 fatty acids

Technology employed:

Qualitas Health has developed a proprietary, vertically integrated system for the production of
vegetarian Omega-3 oil from algae. The company has optimized the biology of the natural salt-
water algae strain, Nannochloropsis Oculata, to enhance its ability to produce high content
Omega-3 oil and to deliver optimal yields in a variety of climates and conditions. Microalgae are
cultivated in shallow open or closed ponds using a proprietary growth medium that is based on
saline water to conserve resources.

Qualitas uses wet oil extraction system from Valicor Renewables for the extraction process. This
unique hexane-free extraction keeps the natural and bioavailable polar-lipid Omega-3 form
intact, while using significantly less energy compared to conventional dry oil extraction
technologies. Once extracted, the algae oil is further concentrated, with a focus on the polar
lipid content of the Omega-3 oil.

Funding

Qualitas Health secured an $8.5 Million Investment from a group of private investors in August
2012.

Partnerships

• Qualitas Health and Valicor Renewables announced a strategic partnership to

commercialize algae-based omega-3 supplements, in February 2013.
• In 2012, Qualitas Health partnered with Galilee Algae, Ltd. in a pilot-scale manufacturing
project in the north of Israel. This pilot is testing the application of the Qualitas
technology to the Israeli environment, and is studying optimization of the process
parameters and minimization of environmental footprint while maintaining high omega-
3 oil yields.
Highlights

Qualitas’ EPA fatty acids are bound with polar lipids and this differentiation factor makes the
company to stand apart among other EPA rich oils.

In 2014, Qualitas Health struck a distribution agreement for its Almega PL omega-3 ingredient
with Lipa Pharmaceuticals for sale to the dietary supplement sectors.

Astareal AB (former Bioreal AB) -www.bioreal.se

The company was founded 25 years ago in Uppsala and is today owned by Fuji Chemical Industry
CO, Japan.

AstaReal is a research based biotech company, dedicated to the production, research and
marketing of natural astaxanthin.

They were the first to produce natural astaxanthin commercially from the microalgae
Haematococcus pluviailis.

They have developed a unique cultivation method to yield the highest and purest form available
of natural astaxanthin and offer both bulk ingredients for use in feed, food and dietary
supplements and retail products based on natural astaxanthin.

BM Energy Group and AstaNovo AS

BM Energy Group and AstaNovo AS have been focusing in large scale production of
Haematococcus pluviailis, however, today they have turned the focus on algal EPA and DHA
production.

CO2BIO

CO2BIO is an innovation network of participants from industry and research. The network is
organized as a company where Salmon Group, Grieg Seafood, EWOS, BTO and NHIL are
shareholders. CO2BIO AS was established in 2011.

The company’s objective is to develop new profitable business on the basis of available CO2
capture at Mongstad.

The first goal to establish a national pilot plant for the production of Omega-3 rich algae
biomass and to conduct research projects in order to develop the entire value chain. The
experience from the pilot phase may trigger the creation of large- scale production at Mongstad.

The pilot plant is scheduled for completion in 2013, the estimated cost is probably 11 mill.
MicroA AS MicroA was established in 2007 by local entrepreneurs and investors with the
purpose of producing “microalgaepaste” (lived feed) for the cod juveniles farming industry in
Norway. MicroA decided to end this project in 2009 due to the market collapse.

The MicroA’s previous patented photobioreactor was quite small (60-70 litre volume) and had
technical limitations with regard to scalability. This project gave MicroA valuable experience in
cultivation and harvesting of microalgae and led to the best “algae match” for rotifer
production. MicroA made a new invention in 2009 showing promising results with regards to
scaling up algae production.

Administration and laboratory facilities are located in Tananger and temporary greenhouse is
installed at Sola.

Cellana

Headquartered at San Diesgo, CA, United States

Main line of activity Algae based prodcuts

Company Profile: Cellana is a developer of algae-based bioproducts which uses marine

microalgae to photosynthetically produce its ReNew™ line of Omega-3 EPA and DHA oils, animal
feed, and biofuel feedstocks. Cellana has received funding from grants, government contracts,
and strategic partners, as well as equity investments from individual accredited investors.
Cellana has finished its development phase in June 2013 and is close to entering full scale
production soon. The company plans to bring its omega 3 oils to market in 2014.

Non-fuel algae products

• Omega 3 oils
• Aquaculture and Livestock Feed

Technology employed

Cellana’s core technology is a photosynthetic production system that economically grows

proprietary algae strains at a commercial-scale. The patented production system, called
ALDUO™ technology, couples closed-culture photobioreactors with open ponds in a two-stage
process. Cellana claims that its patented ALDUO™ mid-scale technology simulates large scale
production (up to 750,000L), with greater experimental flexibility at significantly lower cost.

Funding

Cellana LLC has received a $5.5 million U.S. Department of Agriculture grant to develop
affordable animal feed from marine algae to facilitate the large-scale production of feedstocks
for biofuels, aquaculture and other animal feeds. The project began May 1, 2011 and runs
through April 30, 2014.

Partnerships

Company/Research Organization Details of the project

University of Hawaii Algae-related research projects

National Alliance for Advanced Biofuels & Sustainable commercialization of algal biofuel
Bioproducts (NAABB) / Department of (such as renewable gasoline, diesel, and jet
Energy fuel) and bioproducts

Cornell Consortium/Department of Energy Large-scale production of fuels and feed from

(DOE) microalgae grown in seawater

The Algae Test bed Public-Private Research and Development of Algae-based

Partnership (ATP3)/ DOE Technologies for Biofuels and other Valuable
Coproducts

More about the partnerships can be found from this page - http://bit.ly/1bT5B3p

Highlights - Cellana’s algae growing technology, combines both closed-culture photobioreactors

and open ponds, which enables it to grow algae at large scale under low costs.

Aurora Algae

Headquatered at Hayward, USA

Main Line of Activity: Algae Biofuels and Algae Products

Aurora Algae has opened its demonstration scale project in Karratha, Western Australia. The
farm is consisting of 6 ponds, 0.4 ha each one where they consistently are producing 12 to 15
metric tons of algal biomass per month.

A full-scale commercial facility in nearby Maitland is planned for 2014 which initially will consist
of more than 100 ha of algae ponds, capable of producing up to 600 metric tons of biomass per
month, and scalable to more than 2.000 ha.

Aurora Algae produce the omega-3-fatty acid EPA from the microalgae Nannochloropsis sp.

Martek Biosciences

Headquartered at USA
Main line of activity Algae Products

Company Profile

Martek Biosciences Corporation, a component of Royal DSM NV, produces nutritional

supplements from cultivated fungi and microalgae. The company's products include the omega-
3 fatty acid docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and arachidonic acid (ARA), an omega-6 fatty acid. DHA
is used in foods, beverages, infant formula, and supplements. The ARA is used in infant formulas.
The company is based in Columbia, Maryland.

Martek employs more than 500 people, boasts annual revenue of more than $300 million. It
also has an R&D site in Colorado and manufacturing plants in South Carolina.

Non-fuel algae products

• DHA
• ARA

Australian Spirulina, Australia (TAAU Australia Pty Ltd)

Headquartered at Australia

Main line of activityAlgae Products ( Spirulina)

Company Profile

TAAU Australia Pty Ltd was established in 1996 and is the only company licensed and patented
(with a 20 year Australian Patent) to commercially grow the health food Spirulina in Darwin in
the Northern Territory of Australia.

Other 2014 Updates for Algae Nutraceuticals Companies

• Israel’s AlgaeTechnologies invested significantly into its AstaPure-natural astaxanthin

product
• Cerule, an algae nutraceutical company, based in Oregon, U.S., has developed a blue
antioxidant named ‘Cyactiv’ with a unique concentration of Phycocyanin and other active
compounds derived from blue- green algae.
• Allma, a Portuguese microalgae company, has signed a partnership to supply its sun-
grown Chlorella to Frulact, a Portuguese group. Collaborating with Allma, Frulact
develops ‘bubble tea’ containing tiny pearls of Chlorella.
• Advanced Algal Technologies purchased animal nutrition company Ridley’s former salt
fields in north Queensland, Australia, while on their plans to produce 500 acres of
spirulina.
• Smart Microfarms continued to develop the practical prototype for home-style spirulina
growers.
• While on proteins, Solazyme got into the protein market through AlgaVia Protein, an
algae powder that is a source of protein, fiber, healthy lipids and micronutrients. This
potential could be used in everything from nutrition bars and smoothies to crackers and
gummy bears.
• This is an interesting and positive news for all Spirulina lovers. Spirulina gained approval
in the US as a naturally derived blue colorant
• Synthetic Genomics and Archer Daniels Midland Company announced that they are
entering into a long-term agreement to commercialize omega-3 Docosahexaenoic Acid
(DHA) from algae.
• Blue Ocean Nutrasciences demo-ed EPA and DHA rich omega 3 production systems
• Solarvest Bioenergy Inc., a Canadian algae company, has tied up with two European
facilities for the production of omega-3 using its proprietary process. The company’s
production process is the world’s first used to make organic omega-3 from algae.
12.4Companies Associated in the Health/Pharmaceutical Sector
Rincon Pharmaceuticals

Headquartered at

3030 Bunker Hill Street

Suite 318
San Diego, CA 92109
United States

Main line of activity

Development, manufacture, and commercialization of recombinant protein therapeutics

Company Profile

Rincon Pharmaceuticals is a biopharmaceuticals company using eukaryotic algae to produce

human therapeutic proteins, especially monoclonal antibodies. The company was incorporated
in 2002. Dr. Stephen Mayfield, chairman of scientific advisory board at Sapphire Energy, co-
founded Rincon.

Rincon's mission is to increase the availability of protein-based therapeutics by dramatically

decreasing the time and cost of developing complex recombinant proteins. Rincon's business
strategy is to develop and manufacture both partnered and proprietary products utilizing its
patented protein production system that is significantly faster, more scalable, and less expensive
than conventional technologies and other alternative expression systems.

Non-fuel algae products

Algae therapeutic proteins

Technology employed

Rincon Pharmaceuticals develops recombinant protein therapeutics, such as monoclonal

antibodies, using an eukaryotic algae, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, as a production system. The
technology was developed at Scripps Research Institute and involves introducing the gene
sequence responsible for producing a particular human protein into the cells of the algae. The
algae will then produce that protein which can be harvested and developed into a drug.

Funding
In 2005, Rincon Pharmaceuticals received $4.7M in venture round funding from Paperboy
Ventures, a Washington D.C. based private equity firm with investments in high-tech and
biotechnology companies.

Partnerships

Mera Pharmaceuticals - a Hawaii based algae nutraceutical company - partnered with Rincon
Pharmaceuticals to test whether microalgae can be cultivated on a large scale for the production
of human protein therapies on May 2005.

Highlights

Triton Health and Nutrition

Headquartered at

302 Washington St #150-2995

San Diego, CA 92103

Website www.tritonhn.com

Main line of activity Algae Therapeutics

Company Profile

Triton Health and Nutrition is a biotechnology company transforming animal and human health
through nature-made, powerful, and time-tested proteins, delivered in a botanical orally
available form. Triton was founded by algae biotechnology pioneers, Drs. Jason Pyle and
Stephen Mayfield, who also founded the leading algae biofuels company, Sapphire Energy.

Non-fuel algae products

• Algae based proteins for human and animal health

Future products

• Antibacterials / antimicrobials: Naturally occurring mammalian proteins that have high

efficacy in killing bacteria, fungi and viruses; addressing infection; does not create
resistance in bacteria; natural replacement of chemical antibiotics
• Bone growth enhancement: Proteins that enable the body to bind calcium in bone
matrices more effectively; treatment for osteoporosis
• Intestinal health: Proteins that treat and prevent diarrhea and intestine inflammation
 • Antioxidants: Natural proteins that prevent and/or repair damage caused by UV radiation
and oxidation; prevents aging and cancer
• DNA repair enzymes: Natural proteins that repair damage to DNA caused by UV
radiation; prevents aging and cancer
• Biosurfactants: Natural proteins that clean skin and prevent bacterial buildup
• Growth factors: Hormones and proteins that enable healthy muscle and bone growth
• Vaccines: Novel and low cost vaccinations against rotavirus (major cause of diarrheal
disease) and malaria
• Anti-cancer agents: Potent anti-tumor treatments

Technology employed

Triton Health and Nutrition has developed the PhycoLogix™ Platform, enabling oral delivery of
proteins that are simple, safe, and effective. These biologics improve animal and human health
without the use of antibiotics or hormones, instead relying on highly effective natural proteins,
activating mammal’s innate defense systems to prevent infection and reduce morbidity and
mortality.

PhycoLogix™ Platform

PhycoLogix™ is a process to genetically enhance algae. Triton enhances algal genomes, creating
cell lines that produce high levels of valuable and useful proteins. Many of these are proteins
that cannot be produced in other organisms.

The method of engineering algae is similar to that of engineering bacteria or animal cells. In
other words, Triton uses the same basic tools and approaches developed over the past 40 years
for these other systems, but Triton’s scientists have spent more than 25 years learning how to
apply these tools to algae. This approach enables Triton to rapidly create new strains of algae
that produce a variety of proteins.

The first product made with this platform, Triton MAA (Mammary Associated Amyloid), is said
to be transforming the animal and human health markets by being the first botanical delivered
in an edible oral platform. Sales of MAA will begin in 2014. Mammary Associated Amyloid
(MAA), is a mammalian colostrum protein with high value in addressing intestinal diseases in
pets, livestock, and humans.

Triton is now developing other biologic molecules to insert into the PhycoLogix™ Platform. Not
only has Triton extended the platform to other proteins, but many additional types of complex
molecules have been produced in this platform, including enzymes and metabolic products.
These products are derived from multiple classes of proteins, including antibacterials,
antioxidants, chelators, and calcium binders. Each of these proteins is valuable in multiple
markets as well, spanning therapeutics, nutraceuticals, and cosmetics.

Funding

Triton announced the completion of its Series- A equity financing of $5 million in September
2013. The investment was made by Heliae Technology Holdings.

Partnerships

Triton entered into a partnership with Heliae in September 2013. Under this agreement, Triton’s
proprietary MAA algae will be produced using Heliae’s VolarisTM advanced algae technology
platform. More about the partnership - http://bit.ly/1kyesqp

Highlights

• Triton Algae Innovations has developed the world’s foremost synthetic biology platform
for the production of high value proteins in algae.
• Triton’s MAA protein (Mammary Associated Amyloid), is said to be transforming the
animal and human health markets by being the first botanical delivered in an edible oral
platform.

Companies in Algae Health Products Ingredient Manufacturing

Country Company Alga Product Effects On

USA Martek Crypthecodinium DHA Brain

Development
Israel Algatechnologies Haematococcus Astaxanthin Immune System
Canada Oceannutrition Chlorella Carbohydrate Immune System
Extract
Germany Salata Cyanos Cosmetic Skin health
Ingredients
France Dior Odontella EPA Anti-
inflammatonic
Austria Panmol/Madaus Spirulina Vit. B12 Immune System
Germany Nutrinova Uklaria DHA Brain, heart,
mental disorder
USA Gates Kappaphycus Carrageenan Anti-HIV, Biocide
Foundation
USA R&D Labophora Macrolides Anti-fungal
Denmark Dansico Macroalga HOX (Hexose Antiaxidant
Oxidase)
Table : After Pulz 2009

12.5Companies in the Algae Textiles and Chemicals Sector:

Algix LLC

Headquartered at

198 Ben Burton Circle

Bogart, GA
30622
Main line of activity Algae biomass production and Algae Bioplastics Manufacturing

Company Profile

ALGIX buys and sells aquatic biomass to the businesses in algae biofuels and bioplastics. ALGIX is
targeting industrial and agricultural operations, such as waste-water treatment facilities and
aquaculture farms, as a source of low-cost nutrients for high productivity aquatic biomass
cultivation. Additionally, Algix’s division called ALGENT, is developing customized algae based
bioplastic formulations for industrial, commercial and retail applications. ALGIX is evaluating a
wide variety of fast growing strains of aquatic biomass for their suitability and conversion into
bioplastic. Species shown to demonstrate the potential for polymerization are evaluated for
compression molding, extrusion compounding and injection molding.

ALGIX’s goal is to develop a biorefining approach for on-farm remediation of water for the
production of algal biomass for developing the next generation of biodegradable packaging
materials for commercial applications.

Non-fuel algae products

• Algae blended thermoplastic resins

Technology employed

ALGENT has developed technology comprised of mobile algae harvesting platforms and down-
stream dewatering and drying operations for the production of dry algae biomass. The ALGENT
technology is deployed near nutrient enriched ponds that suffer from algae blooms. The mobile
harvesting platform sits pond side while concentrating the algae-rich pond water into an algae
slurry for further dewatering and drying. ALGENT has incorporated energy efficient and high
throughput equipment to convert the algae slurry into dry free-flowing coarse granules that can
be stably stored and transported for conversion into value added applications.
Funding

Algix, in 2012, received a $100,000 grant from the University of Georgia and $500,000 of private
capital to scale up production of algae-content bioplastics.

Partnerships

ALGIX has partnered with the University of Georgia and Kimberly-Clark to commercialize the
cultivation of aquatic biomass, such as algae, as a feedstock for bioplastic conversion.

2014 Update for Algix:Algix in 2014 opened a new state-of-the-art facility to convert algae into
bioplastic.

Cereplast

Headquartered at

2213 Killion Avenue

Seymour, IN 47274
USA

Main line of activity Bioplastics manufacturing

Company Profile

Cereplast, Inc. designs and manufactures proprietary starch-based, sustainable plastics which
are used as substitutes for traditional plastics in all major converting processes such as injection
molding, thermoforming, blow molding and extrusions.

Click here to view the Cereplast’s product line, their applications and properties -
http://bit.ly/1kBIbyB

Cereplast announced the incorporation of a new wholly owned subsidiary, Algaeplast™, in

February 2013. Algaeplast's focus lies on the development and manufacture of algae-based
bioplastics.

Non-fuel algae products

• PP-based algae biomass-filled resins

Cereplast’s first commercial algae based thermoplastic was introduced in 2012 as Biopropylene
109D with 20% post-industrial algae biomass in PP. Biopropylene 109D is designed for thin-
walled injection molding with density of 0.94 g/cc, melt flow index of 24 g/10 min. at 190 C and
flex modulus of 125 kpsi.
Technology employed

Bioplastics manufacturing at Cereplast begins once the appropriate polymer matrix is selected.
The polymer matrix may be a biopolymer such as polylactic acid (NatureWorks Ingeo® PLA), PHA
or PBS or other resin such as PBAT, polypropylene (PP) or thermoplastic elastomer (TPE). Other
blend components include fillers (e.g., calcium carbonate, talc or gypsum), starch (e.g., from
corn, rice or potato) or additives (e.g., UV and thermal stabilizers, lubricants and
compatibilizers). The blended components are then dispersively and distributively mixed
together using proprietary Cereplast processing equipment and knowhow.

Algae Plastics

Cereplast uses a post-industrial process that significantly reduces the odor that is normally
inherent to algae biomatter, eliminating customer concerns about working with the material.
Additionally, the Company uses algae biomass byproducts from algae biofuels and nutritionals
that do not rely on the commercialization of biofuel production

Funding

• In 2007, Cereplast received $14.5 million in new capital through a private placement of
common stock from a group of “green” institutional funds, including UBS Global
Innovator Fund, Swisscanto Green Invest Fund, Fortis L Fund Equity Environmental
Sustainability World, and Credit Suisse Future Energy Fund.
• Cereplast received funding from a European group of investors led by a major Swedish
bank in 2009.
• In September 2010, Cereplast secured $5 million in growth capital from Horizon
Technology Finance Corporation.
• Institutional investment firm Ironridge Technology Co. of San Francisco, invested $5
million in Cereplast, in September 2012.

Partnerships

• Cereplast announced supply deals in 2009 with Georgia-Pacific, Warner Tool

Manufacturing and Dorel Juvenile Group, a division of Dorel Industries.
• In 2008, Cereplast partnered with Pace Industries to develop biodegradable printable
plastic material
• In 2011, Cereplast entered into a distribution agreement with the companies such
as DMT Plasticolor and GAMA Plastik to supply Cereplast bioplastic resins.
Highlights

Algaeplast hopes to generate 100% algae bio-content polymers within 2018.

Other 2014 Updates for Algae Specialty Chemicals Sector

• It appears to be Solazyme most on the cover when it comes to algae based specialty
chemicals and products.
• Solazyme’s partnerships in 2014 included Versalis, the chemical subsidiary of one of the
world’s largest oil and gas companies, to expand the commercial use of Solazyme’s
Encapso™ lubricant for drilling fluids.
• Solazyme also increased their partnership with AkzoNobel, a leading global paints and
coatings company, to grow their surfactant business.
• Unilever and Solazyme, Inc. announced the introduction of sustainable algal oils for one
of Unilever’s biggest soap brands, Lux.
• Japanese household goods maker Kao Corp announced plans to use algae to produce
cleansing agents for its products, specifically shampoo. Kao found two types of algae
among nearly 1,200 species in its research into more sustainable raw materials for its
products
• Ecover, the Belgium-based green cleaning company, announced plans to launch algae-
based laundry liquid in Europe in 2014, as part of its pledge to ultimately replace all palm
oil.

12.6Companies Associated with the Algae Food or Feed Industry

Alltech

Headquartered at

3032 Catnip Hill Pike Nicholasville

Lexington, Kentucky 40356
United States

Main line of activity

Manufacturer and supplier of animal feed

Company Profile

Alltech is an American animal health and nutrition company, headquartered in Lexington,

Kentucky. Alltech develops agricultural products for use in both livestock and crop farming, as
well as products for the food industry. Alltech operates under three main divisions: animal
nutrition and health; crop science; and, food and beverage.

Alltech Algae

Alltech is presently devoting a growing portion of their operations to researching and

incorporating algae into their feed products. In 2011, Alltech opened its $200 million algae plant
in Winchester, Kentucky.

Alltech Algae is a state-of-the-art algae fermentation facility that was acquired in 2010 from
Martek Bioscience Corporation for approximately $14 million. The primary focus of the facility
will be the development of products derived from algae. The algae will be used for value-added
feed products, algae-derived bio-fuel and for the production of ethanol.

Non-fuel algae products

• Algae based feed products

Technology employed

Alltech Algae in Winchester, Kentucky, is one of the largest algae production facilities in the
world. It houses a variety of sizes and types of fermentors for growing heterotrophic algae. Algae
production starts with inoculation of a flask in the lab. A dense culture of algae cells is grown in
the flask and then transferred to a seed fermentor. A dense cell culture is grown again and then
transferred to a larger seed fermentor.

This process continues until the cell culture is large enough to inoculate one of the eight-story
tall production fermentation tanks. These tanks are fully automated and can be monitored and
run from a central control room. When the algae are ready to be harvested, they are transferred
to the centrifuges to remove most of the growth solution and then to the spray dryers where
they are turned into powder.

Funding NA

Partnerships

In July 2012, Alltech and the Norwegian Institute of Food, Fisheries and Aquaculture Research
(Nofima) entered a strategic research alliance, to focus on optimizing nutrition and management
practices in the salmon industry.

Heliae

Headquartered at
 614 E. Germann Rd
Gilbert, AZ 85297
USA
Main line of activity Algae based products

Company Profile: As a start-up venture spun out of Arizona State University with the support of
Science Foundation of Arizona, Heliae’s mission is to develop and validate technology solutions
for the commercial production of algae for a variety of potential uses including food & feed,
fertilizer, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and fuel. Heliae began operations at its first
commercial facility in Gilbert, Arizona in October 2013.

Non-fuel algae products

Food & feed, fertilizer, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics

Technology employed

Heliae’s Volaris production platform makes use of both sunlight and low-cost carbon feedstocks
to optimize algae production. This mixotrophic production process lowers operating and capital
costs and reduces contamination while increasing productivity and the flexibility to produce a
variety of end products at the same time, the company says.

Funding

The company's investors include select members of the Mars family, the global conglomerate
Salim Group, through one of its subsidiaries, Agri Investments Pte Ltd, and Thomas J. Edelman, a
private investor.

Heliae raised $28.4 million from all its investors in July 2013.

Partnerships

• In an attempt to bring algae therapeutics to the market, Heliae partnered with Triton
Health and Nutrition, a division of Triton Algae Innovations, in September 2013. In
addition, Heliae has purchased a minority share of Triton as part of the strategic
partnership.
• In May 2013, Heliae entered into a partnership with Clarecastle Group to bring novel
algae-based products to the health and beauty industry.
• In April 2013, Heliae partnered with Evodos, an algae harvesting equipment
manufacturing firm, to offer its proprietary spiral plate technology to the North American
market.
 • In 2014, Heliae announced a partnership with Japan-based Sincere Corporation to
develop a commercial algae production facility in Saga City, Japan, to supply natural
astaxanthin.

Monsanto

Headquartered at

800 North Lindbergh Blvd.

St. Louis, Missouri

Main line of activity Sustainable agricultural products

Company Profile

Monsanto Company is a leading global provider of technology-based solutions and agricultural

products that improve farm productivity and food quality. Monsanto remains focused on
enabling both small-holder and large-scale farmers to produce more from their land while
conserving more of our world’s natural resources such as water and energy.

Non-fuel algae products

Algae for sustainable agriculture

Technology employed

Genetic engineering

Funding Not applicable

Partnerships

Monsanto Company has entered into a multi-year collaboration with Sapphire Energy that will
leverage Sapphire’s algae-based research platform to discover genes that could be applied to
agriculture, particularly in the field of yield and stress. Under the agreement, Monsanto and
Sapphire will collaborate on algae-based research projects, and Monsanto will make an equity
investment in Sapphire.

Other 2014 Updates for Algae Food or Feed Industry

Human Nutrition:
 • Allma launched crispy snacks – Portuguese based microalgae company Allma launched
cereal based Chlorella pieces. The product is a blend of rice cereal and Chlorella vulgaris
in multiple sizes and favours like carrots, rosemary and lemon. Having a high nutritional
value and food technology characteristics, Chlorella can be used as a natural colourant.
• Nutrusta launched a new algae based health supplement – Researchers at Nutrusta, a
natural supplement company, have tried to include pure and natural astaxanthin
extracted from micro-algae in their new omega-3 Formula together with Vitamin D3. This
omega-3 formula contains other active ingredients not found in other supplements. High
ratio of DHA to EPA, along with astaxanthin and Vitamin D3 makes this product unique.
• Solazyme thinks algae milk is the next big thing on the nutritional product launch
calendar – Solazyme displayed one use of its algal flours in the form of Algae Milk. This
innovation in food ingredients could provide Solazyme with a significant market
opportunity.

Animal Nutrition:

• Trials in 2014 proved that supplementing algae meal into chicken diets produced meat
that was healthier than that of chickens raised on traditional diets without algae. (for
more info on this topic, see here, here, here)
• Omega3 Beef debuted the results of its innovative, all-natural cattle feed, supplemented
with algal-based omega-3.
• Algasol’s launched new facilities in Bangladesh that comprises a unique, large-scale
demonstration of micro-algae production for fish feed.
• Agricultural specialist Olmix launched a new product called MFeed+ to boost the value of
animal feed by optimizing digestion using a unique combination of seaweed extracts.
• Animal feed giant Alltech developed SP1 – a safe, DHA-rich algae product fed directly to
fish, poultry and cattle, which can allow the commodities of meat, eggs, and milk to be
transformed into value-added, DHA-enriched functional foods.
• Nofima’s Heterotrophic Algae to Replaces Fish Oil in Salmon Feed – Nofima, the
Norwegian institute of food, fisheries and aquaculture research, showed through their
experiments that heterotrophic algae can completely replace fish oil in salmon feed. The
Algae meal seemed to be a better alternative in various aspects

12.7Other Companies

Algaeon Inc.

Headquartered at Indiana, US
Main line of activity Manufacturing high value algae-based products

Company Profile

Algaeon is growing a variety of algae species to produce high-value products for leading
companies in the nutraceutical and animal / fish feed markets. Algaeon has developed a patent-
pending industrial scale algae cultivation technology. Algaeon is building commercial scale
production capacity and will be licensing their technology. The company is developing
partnerships with industry leaders in the human nutraceutical and animal / fish feed markets
who have established sales and distribution networks.

Non-fuel algae products

• Nutraceuticals
• Animal and Fish Feed

Technology employed

Algaeon has a patent-pending algae cultivation technology and efficient production process that
is adaptable, versatile and of low cost. This technology is well suited for high volume production
of nutraceutical and animal / fish feed products because of its ability to control contamination,
improve efficiency and the use of inexpensive materials for construction. The production process
optimizes environmental conditions while minimizing costs. Algae are harvested continuously to
maximize a sustained production rate.

Partnership

Algaeon Inc., signed an agreement with Valensa International of Florida in September 2013.
According to the agreement, Algaeon will develop manufacturing processes and technology
while Valensa will produce finished form condition specific products that will be sold to
marketers with recognized brands.

Simris Alg

Simris Alg AB is a Swedish company establishing a large scale greenhouse plant for microalgae
cultivation from which they intend to develop unique health products, food and feed
supplements. The company is located in sunny and marine area at Hammenhög Österlen.

MicroAlgae

MicroAlgae is specialized in the supply of live and frozen microalgae biomass and technical
equipment to the fish farming industry and represents Reed Mariculture, YSI and Aquatic
Ecosystems Inc in Norway. After the collapse of the cod farming industry they turned to be a
supplier of equipment and instruments concerning water quality and oxygenation.

Sahara Forest Project

The Sahara Forest Project has a vision of creating re-vegetation and green jobs through
profitable production of food, water, clean electricity and biomass in desert areas. This is done
by combining already existing and proven environmental technologies, such as evaporation of
seawater to create cooling and distilled fresh water (i.e. in a saltwater based greenhouse) and
solar thermal technologies. In this way The Sahara Forest Project is designed to utilize what we
have enough of to produce what we need more of, using deserts, saltwater and CO2 to produce
food, water and energy.

12.8Universities Working on Algae Non fuel Products

University of Mississippi

The National Center for Natural Products Research at the University of Mississippi is carrying out
considerable amount of research on various applications and benefits of Spirulina. Dr. David
Pasco, assistant director of the research center, focuses on developing biological screens that
use molecular tools to identify compounds within plants that contribute to their health benefits,
especially those that exhibit immune enhancing and anti-cancer properties. His research also
deals with the isolation and identification of innate immune enhancing components within
natural products that have been used traditionally to enhance immune function. Some of this
research has led to the development of two patented and commercialized botanical extracts,
one for general enhancement of immune function (Spirulina extract-Immulina®) and the other
for improving skin elasticity and wrinkle reduction (fraction from Aloe vera). Numerous clinical
trials have been conducted using these products and several more are underway.

Oregon State University

Oregon State University reports on a 2005 study headed by The University of South Florida’s
Paula Bickford, PhD. Dr. Bickford and her colleagues at James A. Haley Veteran’s Hospital and
the National Institute on Drug Abuse found that, following induced strokes, rats which had been
given diets supplemented with spirulina showed brains lesions 75% smaller than those of control
group rats. The rats fed spirulina also recovered mobility to a greater extent.

Kansas State University

Kansas State University’s International Food Safety Network has published a 2005 article from
the Decca, India Herald reporting that Spirulina is approved by both the FDA and the World
Health Organization for use as a health food, and mentions it as a source of five essential amino
acids which the human body cannot manufacture. The article also refers to spirulina’s high
mineral content, in particular the amount of iron it contains, its abilities to reduce gastro enteric
distress by promoting the growth of intestinal bacteria, and to help prevent gastro enteric
infection; and its cholesterol-reducing effects.

University of Hyderabad, India

A study by the Department of Animal Sciences at India’s University of Hyderabad from the US
National Institutes of Health’s research data publication site, also cited by the University of
Maryland Medical Center, explains the process by which spirulina is able to inhibit the elevated
levels of Cycloxygenase-2 associated with inflammation and cancer.

UC Davis

Spirulina’s effectiveness in fighting allergies was shown in 2005 UC Davis research in which
thirty-six rhinitis sufferers were treated with spirulina supplementation, and those who took two
grams daily experienced a significant reduction in their allergic symptoms. That research
followed a 2000UC Davis study which showed that when incubated spirulina dilutions, cultured
human mononuclear blood cells, including macrophages and lymphocytes, are able to mount a
stronger immune response.

Arizona State University

Researchers from Arizona State University, Northern Arizona University and the University of
Arizona are collaborating to grow algae using wastewater. The algae can then be harvested to
create fuel, feed and food products. The collaboration is designed to advance the application of
algae in Arizona as an industry to produce valuable products and remediate wastewater, and to
educate and develop a workforce to support the industry. The goal is to maximize Arizona’s
resources.

New State Mexico University

The University is looking at using algae as a livestock feed. An associate professor at New Mexico
State University is hoping to discover through her research combining algal co-product with
livestock feed. The long-term goal of the project is to add more value to the co-product. One of
the challenges they are facing now is that they cannot get to a consistent product and that in
order to create a product that people can depend on, they need to find a way to make the algal
co-product consistent in value and nutrients.
University of Greenwich

An international team of scientists aim to build a biorefinery called the D-Factory to turn an
algae called Dunaliella into useful products like food, plastics and fuel. Researchers at the
Medway campus of the University of Greenwich are leading the team, made up of experts from
13 institutions across eight countries.

Purdue University

A Purdue Research Park affiliate company that developed a strain of algae that grows yearlong in
the Midwest has increased production to a mid-scale level of 20 liters in six days.Mustapha
Benmoussa, founder and CEO of Atlantic Green Technology Inc., said the algae can be harvested
for several uses, and end users range from private individuals to industry and government.
"Nutraceuticals, or nutritional pharmaceuticals, are extracted from harvested algae and could
provide important health benefits like antioxidant activity and the prevention of heart disease,"
said Benmoussa, who also is a visiting scholar in Purdue University. The harvested algae also
could be another option to develop national independence from imported foreign oil and keep
the environment cleaner."

Ben Gurion University of the Negav

Ben-Gurion University has research colloborarion with a Thailand based company to develop
pharmaceuticals for chronic inflammation, high blood pressure, cholesterol levels and hear
attack risks. Ben-Gurion University’s Landau Family Microalgal Biotechnology Laboratory (MBL)
at the Jacob Blaustein Institutes for Desert Research represents one of the few research centers
that are interfacing basic algal physiology with industrial applications. As an outcome of this
work, the group has been instrumental in developing one of the largest and most advanced
tubular photobioreactor facilities (200-300 m3) for the production of astaxanthin-rich
Haematococcus biomass. MBL uses algae in all aspects of environmental remediation, as well as
a potential alternative energy source (biofuel).

Banaras Hindu University, India

A team from Banaras Hindu University is working on variety of Botryococcus found in fresh
water ponds in India. The research involves supplying large doses of carbon dioxide to algae
through controlled atmosphere and starving it of oxygen and nitrogen, in order to influence its
growth. The university is working on producing various nutraceutical products from algae.

University of California, San Diego

UC San Diego inserted genes for production of several different therapeutic proteins into the
green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. Of the seven proteins they were searching for, the algae
produced four of them identically and at commercial volumes. With some more adjustments,
researchers might even be able to increase yield.

Other 2014 Updates for Universities Conducting Research in the Algae Nutraceuticals
Sector

• Researchers from Chlorella Industry Co., Ltd., and Innovative Cancer Therapy of Kureme
University, Japan conducted a study on the effects of unicellular green algae Chlorella
and its hot water extract supplementation on quality of life (QOL) in patients with breast
cancer.
• Projects sprung up to cultivate spirulina as a superfood to fight malnutrition. These
include efforts from the National Center for Biotechnology Information for spirulina to
benefit HIV-infected adult women, and another to explore use of spirulina in controlling
the spread of pancreatic cancer cells.

Medicine and Pharma:

• Scientists in 2014 also demonstrated that an algae-based anti-viral drug could cure
horses of equine herpes virus-1.
• Other algal research showed that Chlorella proved effective in lowering serum
cholesterol, and that Alaskan seaweed could offer protection against conditions including
obesity, diabetes and cardiovascular diseases.
• Michigan State University researchers discovered that a protein in algae could possibly
enable early cancer detection and prevention. (for more on use of algae in fight against
cancer.

Algae Plastics:

• Researchers from Korean Institute of Science and Technology and Korean University have
developed a technology to produce succinic acid from microalgae, in order to make
bioplastics.

Algae in Speciality Chemicals:

• A team of Swedish researchers from the KTH Royal Institute of Technology has found a
way to eliminate the growth of smell-inducing bacteria using algae. They have created an
algae-based material that can prevent both body odour and the bacteria that cause it.
Industries with Synergistic Benefits from 13
Algae Energy Opportunities

13.Industries with Synergistic Benefits from Algae Energy Opportunities

As a result of the wide range of applications and end uses of algae, a number of industries could
derive synergistic benefits from the algae energy industry. For these industries, cultivating algae
could mean that they are able to add value to their existing business while at the same time
producing biofuels.
A list of these industries and inputs on the synergistic benefits that can be derived are provided
below.

List of Potential Industries

The list of industries for which it is attractive to explore investing in the algal energy domain
owing to synergistic benefits:

Sewage & Water Treatment Companies

The industries listed below can use algae for the secondary stage of wastewater treatment

 Meat and Poultry

 Pulp and Paper, and Produce (i.e.,
Fruits & Vegetable)
 Textiles Dyeing
 Metal Finishing
 Dyes & Pigments
 Pharmaceutical
 Food & Dairy
 Biotechnology
 Starch & Cellulose
 Chemicals
 Pesticides & Insecticides
 Photography
 Fertilizers

Agriculture & Farming

 Traditional crops – If farming companies grow algae for biodiesel, they can use the de-
 oiled algae extract as bio-fertilizer.
 Algae farms – Existing algae farms can grow algae for fuel in addition to the end-product
markets for which they are already cultivating algae.

Companies Producing Animal Waste

Many companies that produce large quantities of animal waste use the waste in digesters to
produce methane, which in turn is used as a heating fuel. Using large quantities of methane
gives out CO2 which can be used to grow algae. Algae can also grow in the liquid effluents
released from the anaerobic digesters. The additional benefit these companies get is that they
can use the de-oiled algae meal as animal feed.
The following is the list of companies producing animal waste that could specifically benefit from
growing algae:
 Pork
 Poultry
 Meat
 Diary

Polluting Industries
Industries that emit large amounts of CO2 during their operations can use algae for CO2
sequestration. They thus get two benefits: They are able to sequester CO2 cost-effectively, and
they get a fuel feedstock.
The following is the list of companies producing animal waste that could specifically benefit from
growing algae:

 Coal Burning and Natural Gas

Power Plants
 Petrochemicals
 Iron & Steel
 Cements
 Sugar
 Tyres
 Carbon Black
 Mining
 Aluminium
 Paper
 Inorganic Chemicals
 Fertilizers
Algae-based Products Manufacturers
Many industries that use algae use primarily the protein component of the algae. For these
companies, algae fuel in the form of biodiesel presents an interesting opportunity: these
companies can extract the oil (lipid) from algae for biodiesel and can use the deoiled algae cake
rich in proteins for their products. For those industries that use the lipids in algae, they can
consider using the left-over biomass for producing fuels such as ethanol or other hydrocarbons.

Chemical Industries

Following is the list of companieswhich can consider using algae as a source for their chemical
requirements.
 Dyes and Colourants
 Paints and Coatings
 Biopolymers and Bioplastics
 Pharmaceuticals
 Textile
 Cosmetics
 Adhesives
 Surfactants

Feed Manufacturers

Microalgae are rich in protein and many strains possess a desirable amino acid profile. Many
animal and fish feed companies are now beginning to explore algae as a protein source.One of
the fastest growing segments of algae applications is the aquaculture. Indeed many fish feed
manufacturers are now lookingat algae as a source to displace the highly unsustainable protein
source fishmeal in aquaculture.

Cosmetics Manufacturers

Algae has become an increasingly important ingredient for a cross-section of cosmetic and
personal care ingredients, and is emerging as a segment with several opportunities for
development.Cosmetics manufacturers can use algae in their products through three main
routes: as raw materials; as bulk extracts for formulation; and as specialised functional
ingredients. Each of these is associated with a different size of industry.

Pharmaceutical Companies

The major pharmaceutical compounds from algae which are currently being commercialized or
under consideration for commercial extraction include carotenoids, phycobilins, fatty acids,
polysaccharides, vitamins, sterols, and biologically active molecules for use in human and animal
health.Thevast untapped potential of algaein pharmaceuticalsprovides opportunities for many
pharmaceutical companies to develop novel high value products from algae and benefit
significantly.
Authors of This Report
Any Feedback or Suggestions About the Report Can be Sent To

Sumukhi Sreevatsan, Senior Research Analyst , Oilgae – sumukhi@eai.in

Sindhuja Ramar, Research Analyst, Oilgae - sindhu@oilgae.com

About Oilgae
Oilgae is the global information support resource for the algae fuels industry.

Started in 2007, Oilgae has today grown into one of the most well-known brands in the algae
industry. The extent to which Oilgae and the site www.oilgae.com have influenced the algae fuels
industry can be gauged by the fact that oil from algae is today generically known as Oilgae! We
assist hundreds of individuals and companies around the world in their efforts to produce useful
products from algae, through our site, research team and research reports.

Oilgae aims to be a critical catalyst for making algae products a commercial reality. Today, Oilgae
has grown into a large web resource, has a strong team of brilliant and passionate people, and is
assisting hundreds of individuals and companies around the world in their efforts to produce
profitable products from algae.

Our Site
Our website (www.oilgae.com) is hugely popular in the algae biofuels domain. Thanks to a
dedicated team of researchers and technical experts, our website has been on the forefront of the
algae biofuels research since the inception of the site in 2005-06. It gets over 2500 focused visitors
each day. Its mailing list is subscribed by 10,000 people and its club plays host to more than 2500
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regularly witnesses lively discussions and healthy arguments on the latest developments on the
field. Oilgae acts as the single stop destination for everything related to algae biofuels and by-
products.