 Rate of Reaction – change in the concentration of a reactant or product per unit time

 Expressed in terms of the increase in the concentration of a product per unit time, or
the decrease in the concentration of a reactant per unit time

 Unit: mol/L-time

 COLLISION THEORY OF REACTION

RATES
 For a chemical reaction to
occur, the reacting species
should collide with each
other
 However, the collision may
or may not be effective. It is
effective if it results in a
chemical reaction.

 Requirement for an Effective Collision

 Correct orientation
 Enough energy (Energy
required is the Activation
Energy, Ea )

Ea
product

Ea
reactant

E E
Hreleased Habsorbed

product reactant

reaction pathway reaction pathway

Fig.12.1. Reaction pathway for an exothermic reaction. Fig.12.2. Reaction pathway for an endothermic reaction.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT REACTION RATES

1. The physical state/ nature of the reactants

Reactants must come together to react. The more readily molecules collide with each other, the
more rapidly they react. When reactants are in different phases, as when one in a gas and
another a solid, the reaction is limited to their area of contact. Thus, reactions that involve solids
tend to proceed faster if the surface area of the solid is increased. For example, a medicine in
the form of a fine powder will dissolve in the stomach and enter the bloodstream more quickly
than the same medicine in the form of tablet.

2. The concentration of the reactants

Most chemical reactions proceed faster if the concentration of one or more of the reactants is
increased. As concentration increases, the frequency with which the reactant molecules collide
increases, leading to increased rates.

3. The temperature at which the reaction occurs

The rates of chemical reactions increase as temperature is increased. Increasing temperature

increases the kinetic energies of molecules. As molecules move more rapidly, they collide more
frequently and also with higher energy, leading to increased reaction rates.

4. The presence of a catalyst

Catalyst – a substance that speeds up

a chemical reaction without being
used up.

Example: decomposition of
aqueous hydrogen peroxide,
H2O2 (aq), into water and oxygen:

2H2O2(aq)→ 2H2O(l) + O2(g)

The bromide ion reacts with hydrogen

peroxide in acidic solution, forming aqueous bromine and water:

2Br─ (aq) + H2O2 (aq) + 2H+ → Br2 (aq) + 2H2O (l)

If this were the complete reaction, bromide ion would not be a catalyst, because it undergoes chemical
change, bromide ion would not be a catalyst, because it undergoes chemical change during the reaction.
However, hydrogen peroxide also reacts with the Br2(aq) generated.

Br2 (aq) + H2O2(aq) → O2 (g) 2Br─ (aq) + 2H+

Bromide ion, therefore, is indeed a catalyst of the reaction because it speeds the overall reaction
without itself undergoing any net change. It is added at the start of the reaction, reacts, and then
reforms at the end. In contrast, Br2 is an intermediate because it is first formed and then consumed.
Neither the catalyst nor the intermediate appears in the chemical equation for the overall reaction.

A catalyst lowers the overall activation energy for a chemical reaction. A catalyst usually lowers the
overall activation energy for a reaction by providing a different mechanism for the reaction.

In the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide, two successive reactions of H 2O2 with bromide and then
with bromine take place. Because these two reactions together serve as a catalytic pathway for
hydrogen peroxide decomposition, both of them must have significantly lower activation energies than
the uncatalyzed decomposition.

CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
 When opposing reactions are proceeding at
equal rates
 equilibrium mixture results because the
reaction is reversible

N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)

 State of equilibrium
o state where the concentration of all reactants and products remain constant with time

At Equilibrium:
Forward reaction:

Reverse reaction:
EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT EXPRESSION

Lé Chatelier’s Principle (“le-SHOT-lee-ay”)

If a system at equilibrium is disturbed by a change in temperature, pressure, or the concentration

of one of the components, the system will shift its equilibrium position so as to counteract the
effect of the disturbance.

 Factors Affecting Equilibrium

 Concentration
 Pressure
 Temperature