The Obesity Epidemic April 1, 2018

By Luke Guyer

The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) reports that in 2015, 633,842 Americans died of heart
disease and 595,930 died of some form of cancer.1 In fact, these are the top two leading causes of
death in the United States today. In addition, 30 million Americans have type 2 diabetes, while
84 million more have “prediabetes, where their blood sugar levels are higher than normal but not
high enough to be classified as type 2 diabetes.” 2

There is a noticeable factor that all the above conditions have in common: they are linked to
obesity. Obesity is defined as having unnatural or excess body fat, or more technically, as having
a Body Mass Index over 30.3 The condition is the effect of a variety of different factors, and it
can generally be split into two categories: cases controllable through lifestyle changes
(overeating, lack of physical activity, poor diet), and cases that are unavoidable or difficult to
solve (genetics, medical conditions).4 This issue brief will focus on controllable cases, and how
they may be treated through campaign efforts and policy changes.

The Facts of America’s Growth

Obesity rates in various developed nations.5

1 The Obesity Epidemic Luke Guyer

The U. S. Surgeon General reports that in 1980, the obesity rate was 13.4% for adults and 5% for
children.6 By 2015, this number rose to approximately 40% for adults and 18.5% for children,7
making the United States the fattest developed nation in the world by percentage and by number
affected, with nearly 100 million obese residents.8

Health Risks of Obesity

Obesity is responsible for a variety of health issues that are now quite common throughout the
country. The most prevalent of these are diseases of the heart. The American Heart Association
notes that the risk of contracting the following cardiovascular issues correlates positively to
excess body fat: high cholesterol, hypertension (high blood pressure), and lower HDL (good)
cholesterol.9 These conditions, in effect, hinder healthy blood flow in the circulatory system and
increase the risk of cardiovascular disease, heart attacks, and stroke.10

Unhealthy fat levels have been linked to greater risk for type 2 diabetes. The Obesity Society
defines diabetes as “the body’s failure to produce any or enough insulin to regulate high glucose
levels.”11 Obese persons’ high calorie intake and blood sugar levels “pressure their bodies’
ability to use insulin,” requiring abnormally high levels of production.12 This production is not
easily sustained and causes damage to the insulin producing system. Diabetes may further lead to
blindness, kidney diseases, amputations, and cardiovascular issues, making it one of the leading
causes of death in America.13

Obesity increases the risk of developing several types of cancers.14 The International Agency for
Research on Cancer classifies the link between the following cancers and obesity as “sufficient”:
colon, breast, endometrium, kidney, and esophagus cancer.15 In fact, some scholars estimate that
“overweight and obesity now account for one in seven of cancer deaths in men and one in five in
women in the US.”16

Notice the span of bodily destruction for which obesity is responsible. Even still, the list goes on;
obesity’s reputation as an unhealthy condition widens as it is known to cause sleep apnea,
osteoarthritis, gallstones, and several respiratory problems.17 Overall, studies have estimated that
the total damage may be between 100,000 to 300,000 excess and otherwise avoidable deaths per
year.18

2 The Obesity Epidemic Luke Guyer

Death statistics alone do not gauge the entirety of the suffering that obese persons endure. Along
with the probable pain associated with the above causes, sufferers often grieve mentally and
emotionally. Higher BMI levels correlate to higher rates of psychiatric disorders and mental
illnesses.19 There are also significant associations between obesity and mood disorder,
depression, anxiety disorder, social phobia, and in severe cases, psychopathology.20

Finally, obesity is taking a toll on the

American healthcare system and
economy, costing the country an
estimated $147-168 billion extra per
year, or 16% of total healthcare
expenditures.21 Perhaps even more
troubling is that, since the government is
picking up the majority of the national
healthcare bill (64.3% according to the
PNHP22), the burden is falling largely on
the American people through higher
Medical expenditures by BMI in the United States.23
taxation and healthcare premiums. Obesity
also increases individual health bills; emergency room visits tend to cost between 28% and 41%
more depending on the extent of extra BMI, and obese persons are more likely than normal
weight persons to be prescribed pharmaceuticals.24 The condition also raises job absences and
lowers worker productivity, further hindering potential economic growth.25

Causes of Obesity

In order to understand how to stop obesity, we must understand where obesity comes from. It is
generally understood that weight is associated with a simple equation: calories in versus calories
out.26 If too many calories are consumed and equally as many are not burned off, the excess will
be stored in the body as fat. A lifestyle that continually takes in large excesses of calories will be
more susceptible to unhealthy weight gain.

Calorie output consists of physical activity that burns energy the body takes in.27 Energy is
needed for nearly every bodily function, and once essential systems are maintained, it is easy to

3 The Obesity Epidemic Luke Guyer

have thousands of calories left over that will gladly convert into pounds of unneeded weight. A
sedentary lifestyle will greatly limit the number of calories expended, leaving energy surpluses in
the body and fostering fat growth.

Calorie input and output still do not tell the whole story of fat growth. The quality of nutrition
also determines whether a body will become obese.28 In general, there are three types of nutrients
that humans consume: proteins, fats, and carbohydrates. Studies have shown that, though calorie
quantity is important, where they come from is equally important, and perhaps moreso.29

It is widely misunderstood that a high fat diet will lead to increased weight gain, and this trend
may be seen through the wide variety of “low fat” snack options found throughout the grocery
store. These low-fat foods are actually counterproductive because, in place of fat, they contain
carbohydrate fillers which often have a high “glycemic index,” meaning they dissolve into the
blood stream quickly and spike insulin and blood sugar levels.30 In fact, though saturated fats are
linked to high cholesterol and weight gain, normal consumption of unsaturated fats has no such
association. A carbohydrate heavy diet is much more dangerous, and it is actually one of the
primary reasons obesity is so prevalent today.31

Diets low in protein are also responsible for unhealthy weight gain. Proteins are molecules found
in nuts and animal products that are responsible for various bodily functions. People who
regularly eat protein tend to feel fuller while eating fewer calories overall.32 Protein also is more
difficult to break down than carbs and fats, so it accelerates the body’s metabolism and allows
for accelerated energy burn. Conversely, low protein diets slow the body’s metabolism and make
it harder to expend calories and keep weight off.33

Origin of Obesity

The obesity crisis in America can be traced to the evolutionary past of humans. For most of
history, food was a scarce resource. Consequentially, humans spent their time hunting and
gathering food, and did so with heavy physical exertion. For hundreds of thousands of years,
starvation was the biggest threat. To combat this, human ancestors developed a fat reserve
mechanism to store food in prosperous times so they would have a greater chance of surviving
should famine strike. The typical prehistoric person must have dreamt of having large stores of
food available with no physical exertion needed to retrieve it – and so our ancestors built

4 The Obesity Epidemic Luke Guyer

societies based around this idea. Thanks to civilization, food became available with less physical
work. Mankind developed its civilization quicker than it evolved, clinging to its archaic fat
storage mechanism to this day.34

Presently, food is “inexpensive, abundant and “Technology has made it possible to be

served in very large portions.” High calorie and
35 productive while being largely
sedentary. Under such conditions,
high glycemic index foods such as sugary drinks,
weight gain can only be prevented with
alcohol, and fast food are cheap and easily conscious efforts to eat less or to be
attainable, making the demand for these goods high physically active without the need to be
physically active.”37
and unhealthy.36 In addition, modern technology
and transportation rule out the need for physical activity, allowing humans to be productive
without moving much at all.38 Society now lacks the two things that were essential to our
prehistoric normalcy, and it is suffering dearly.

The Future of the Problem – A Case Study of Nauru

If this epidemic continues, the future of the United States will see an increasing number of the
aforementioned issues attributable to obesity: higher rates of heart disease, diabetes, economic
inefficiencies, and lower average life expectancy. The frightening reality is that America is on
this path with no signs of stopping. Several projections estimate that by 2030, the obesity rate
will arrive between 44% and 50%.39

The island nation of Nauru is a possible indicator of where the

United States is headed. Nauru is the smallest republic in the
world, measuring in at just over eight square miles. It is also
known as the fattest country in the world by percentage, with
72% of its 10,000 residents considered obese.40 Furthermore,
Nauruans are significantly obese, with an average BMI of 34-
35.42 Geographic location of Nauru.41

Nauru’s problem stems from its past. Jay Gopalan, a writer for
Harvard Political Review, summarizes the situation:

“Phosphate mining stripped Nauru of all arable land, destroying virtually all
domestic agriculture on the island. This has eliminated traditional diets of

5 The Obesity Epidemic Luke Guyer

 coconuts and other fresh vegetables, leaving fishing as one of the island’s only
methods of food production. As a result, the country now depends almost
entirely on food imports for sustenance.”43

Much like the United States, Nauru has a diet and exercise problem. Nauruans no longer need to
work to tend to their crops, and the natural food source has been replaced by highly caloric
processed imports. To exacerbate the problem, Nauru is largely a welfare state; the government
cares for the 90% of the population that is unemployed, which allowed for the rise of drinking
and watching television as the two main hobbies.44

Worst of all, Nauruans do not really want to change. One of the greatest things that the United
States can learn from the nation is that it cannot change without an attitude shift. Nauruan
culture, like many others, sees plump individuals as the result of a prosperous society – a society
that can keep its people well fed.45 Though U.S. is different in this sense, there is still a
noticeable lack of initiative when it comes to losing weight. The government and the people must
recognize the problem and begin to take steps to address it.

Declaring Obesity a National Threat

As one can surely see, there are copious studies that pinpoint the science of the problem and
solution. In general, the American people know what needs to be done – it all comes down to
eating appropriately and exercising regularly. Why, then, does the issue persist?

First of all, this epidemic does not receive nearly as much attention as it should. Though it is the
country’s top health issue, it seems people push it to the back of their minds; they acknowledge
the problem but do not wish to confront it.

Americans need an attitude change. The U.S. Government must realize the severity of the
country’s situation and announce a formal statement declaring obesity as one of the nation’s
biggest threats. This could be done through a statement from the president and policy that
reflects commitment to fighting the epidemic.

At first glance, this may seem irrational. The real threats to the America’s well-being are
terrorism and foreign invaders, right? As it turns out, the numbers display the sheer illogicality of
not treating obesity as the biggest threat to the nation. Per year, the number of people killed in

6 The Obesity Epidemic Luke Guyer

terrorist attacks averages between 1 and 49.46 As we have seen earlier, obesity is responsible for
at least 100,000 deaths annually, making it far deadlier any act of terror. Additionally, it is worth
remembering that obesity drains $150 billion from the economy, making it not only a threat to
the individual, but the nation’s prosperity as well.

Campaigning

Public campaigning is an extremely useful tool for changing behavior. The United States
Government should adopt a widespread obesity campaign to raise awareness and motivate obese
persons to undergo behavioral changes, as well as introduce obesity prevention strategies for
those at risk. Private organizations may be motivated by government incentives to strengthen
their campaigns as well.

To enunciate the importance of campaigning, one may examine Australia’s National Tobacco
Campaign (NTC). In 1997, the Australian government granted $7 million over two years to a
campaign that ended up lasting until 2004. The NTC focused on utilizing the following
psychological tactics to encourage non-smoking behavior:

Smokers must
a. gain fresh insights on the recommended
behaviour
b. reassess the importance of the behaviour
c. reassess the urgency of carrying out the
behaviour
d. reassess the personal relevance of the
behaviour
e. have confidence in their own ability to
carry out the behaviour (self efficacy)
f. remember or be reminded to do it
g. for long term change, gain more than is lost
by carrying out the behaviour (response
efficacy)47

The campaign chose television as the main medium,

though ads ended up in radio, newspapers, outdoor
flyers, and shopping carts, constantly reminding
smokers of the horrors associated with the NTC ad associating quitting with positive feelings.50

7 The Obesity Epidemic Luke Guyer

unhealthy habit. The ads usually associated disturbing visuals with smoking, along with the
often-repeated slogan, “every cigarette is doing you damage.” The negativity was contrasted with
positivity, however, as the NTC incorporated feel-good ads associated with quitting. This
allowed for a clear psychological distinction between right and wrong behavior.48 The campaign
proved to be a great success for Australia; to this day, the nation sees the rate of active smokers
declining. From 1995 to 2015, daily smoking dropped from 27.3% to 16.9% among men, and
from 20.3% to 12.1% among women. Nearly one third of Australian adults are now ex-
smokers.49

There have been numerous obesity campaigns throughout America, but it appears nothing has
worked significantly, considering the obese population keeps rising. A possible explanation is
that previous campaigns focused too much on exercise and calorie amount, and did not factor in
calorie type as well, which has proven very important in the calorie equation. In fact, Gary
Taubes, a writer for Newsweek, cites studies suggesting calorie quality is actually the most
important factor in losing weight. He claims that it is not lack of willpower, but appropriate
knowledge that is stopping people from shedding pounds, and highly addictive sugars, refined
grains, and starchy vegetables actually cause the largest problems.51 This finding allows for a
simplification of the obesity issue into a substance addiction, and it may allow countries to
follow Australia’s lead with similar campaigns to the NTC, which would theoretically produce
similar results.

The United States must launch a large, nationwide campaign pinning obesity as a national
enemy. Well researched psychological tactics from existing campaigns must be used to stage a
successful movement and promote actual solutions to the problem. Advertisements could be
posted on television, social media, grocery stores, radio, and more, constantly educating viewers
on the problem and the best way to fix it. Though campaign efforts prove costly, they will
provide a massive investment in the American economy by supplying it with a productive,
healthy labor market. A successful movement will benefit both the government and the consumer
through long run economic growth.

Policy

8 The Obesity Epidemic Luke Guyer

Campaigning will not work unless complemented with policy change. Simply telling people to
change without offering to help can sound hypocritical and counterintuitive.

Once again, the National Tobacco Campaign proved this quite well. Not only did Australia
advertise the horrors of smoking to its citizens, it offered programs and policies to help smokers
along. This included a telephone “quitline,” which smokers could call if they needed help
quitting.52 Similarly, to match the campaign, the government enacted legislation to prohibit
smoking in public food serving environments; graphic warning labels were required on all
tobacco products; political parties refused donations from tobacco companies; tobacco ads were
banned on the internet; excise taxes were constantly and heavily increased on tobacco products.53
Though many of these were not associated directly with the campaign, they certainly helped, as
the statistics show. In fact, obesity policy may be able to mirror some of these tax and
advertisement policies; obesity, much like smoking, is based in a substance addiction.

United States policy should combat the attraction to addictive sugars and starches. Healthy foods
must be more accessible through subsidies, while high sugar and unhealthy foods should be
taxed. Taxes and subsidies prove some of the most useful incentives for changing behavior.54

First and foremost, eating healthy is not cost effective. Healthy foods can cost a consumer an
extra $1.50 per day, or nearly $550 per year.55 This is largely due to the fact that producing
processed, unhealthy foods is inexpensive in high volume. Further, humans are naturally
attracted to sugary and fatty foods, raising the supply and lowering the price.56

The United States must start by subsidizing nutritious foods like fruits and vegetables, as
multiple studies show that these would lower prices and increase demand due to the high price
elasticity of food products. The same set of studies found that simultaneously enacting taxes on
fatty and sugary processed foods will further incentivize healthy eating habits, a fact that is also
related to the price elasticity of demand.57 Financial strain on the government and taxpayers will
not be much of a worry because much of the cost of implementing subsidies would be recovered
through the sugar and starch taxes. The government must be cautious not to cut existing farming
subsidies, however; as studies show that reducing corn and wheat subsidies can actually lower
the price of unhealthy products.58 While these subsidy cuts may seem tempting, they must be
avoided until their affects are more thoroughly understood.

9 The Obesity Epidemic Luke Guyer

One additional policy the United States could enact is in its social welfare programs. Currently,
over 45 million citizens in the Supplemental Nutritional Assistance Program (SNAP) can buy
nearly any item labelled as a food product, including soft drinks, candy, cookies, ice cream,
bakery cakes, and surprisingly, energy drinks.59 Unsurprisingly, low-income SNAP users take
advantage of this, scoring lower than average in nationwide nutrition quality.60 This perhaps
points back to the fact that junk foods are cheaper than healthy options; with food stamps, low
income families can acquire more calories for less money (which is very scarce for many of
them) . Therefore, the federal government could do two things: cut unhealthy foods from the
SNAP program and give extra rewards to consumers who chose certain healthy options. Much
like the taxes and subsidies proposed earlier, this incentivizes behavioral changes. Also, though
this targets only a fraction of the affected population, it may solve a significant portion of the
problem due to the fact that there is a negative correlation between obesity and income.61

Individuals

In a representative democracy like the United States, assembly gives individuals great power to
advocate for a cause. The people can work to stage their own obesity campaigns, as well as
donate to existing movements. The Campaign to End Obesity, for example, is private, nonprofit,
and committed to working with congress to pass obesity fighting legislation. They accept tax
deductible contributions from anyone who wants to sponsor change.62 Citizens can also promote
change through their local representatives. Anyone may communicate with their legislators and
advocate support for bills that combat the epidemic; advocates are always encouraged to write or
meet in person with officeholders to discuss their concerns.63 Finally, individuals may take
initiative and change into their own hands. The facts are out there; diet and exercise are key.
Individuals may try to make their own weight loss plans or find plans online to help achieve a
healthier life.

Conclusion

The obesity epidemic is exactly that: an epidemic. With over one third of Americans affected and
future estimates of up to half of the population, something must be done. If not, the health and
quality of life of Americans will continue to decline, along with the nation’s economic
productivity and prosperity. The United States must take action and move obesity to the top of its

10 The Obesity Epidemic Luke Guyer

list of priorities, lead a nationwide campaign, and implement effective policy changes. Our future
could be one of lower healthcare costs, a stronger and more productive economy, and a rising life
expectancy. We just have to want to change.
Endnotes
1. National Center for Health Statistics,
“Health, United States, 2016: With
Chartbook on Long-term Trends in Health,”
U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services (2017): 128 available from
https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/hus/hus16.pd
f#019
2. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,
“New CDC report: More than 100 million
Americans have diabetes or prediabetes,”
(July 2017) available from
https://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2017/p
0718-diabetes-report.html (last accessed
March 2018).
3. World Health Organization, “Obesity and
overweight Fact Sheet,” (February 2018)
available from
http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/f
s311/en/ (last accessed March 2018);
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,
“Defining Adult Overweight and Obesity,”
available from
https://www.cdc.gov/obesity/adult/defining.
html (last accessed March 2018)
4. National Health Service, “Obesity Causes,”
(June 2016) available from
https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/obesity/cause
s/ (last accessed March 2018)
5. Marion Devaux et al, “Obesity Update
2017,” OECD: 6 available from
https://www.oecd.org/els/health-
systems/Obesity-Update-2017.pdf
6. Office of the Surgeon General (US), “The
Surgeon General's Vision for a Healthy and
Fit Nation,” Rockville (MD): Office of the
Surgeon General (US), 2010. Background
on Obesity. Available from:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK4
4656/
7. Carrol Hales et al, “Prevalence of obesity
among adults and youth: United States,
2015-2016,” NCHS data brief 288 (October
2017): 1,3 available from
11 The Obesity Epidemic
https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db
288.pdf
8. Marion Devaux et al, “Obesity Update
2017”; https://renewbariatrics.com/obesity-
rank-by-countries/ (last accessed March
2018)
9. American Heart Association, “Obesity
Information,” (February 2018) available
from
http://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/Healthy
Living/WeightManagement/Obesity/Obesity
-
Information_UCM_307908_Article.jsp#.Wr
EtgqjwZPb (last accessed March 2018)
10. Ibid.
11. Obesity Society, “Your Weight and
Diabetes,” available from
http://www.obesity.org/content/weight-
diabetes (last accessed March 2018); Insulin
is a chemical produced in the pancreas that
regulates blood sugar levels.
12. Obesity Society, “Your Weight and
Diabetes.”
13. Obesity Society, “Your Weight and
Diabetes.”; National Center for Health
Statistics, “Health, United States, 2016:
With Chartbook on Long-term Trends in
Health.”
14. Eugenia Calle and Michael Thun, “Obesity
and Cancer,” Oncogene, 23 (2004): 6365-
6378, available from
https://www.nature.com/articles/1207751
(last accessed March 2018)
15. Ibid.
16. Ibid.
17. American Heart Association, “Obesity
Information”; Eugenia Calle and Michael
Thun, “Obesity and Cancer.”
18. Office of the Surgeon General (US), “The
Surgeon General’s Vision for a Healthy and
Fit Nation.”; Katherine Flegal et al,
“Estimating Deaths Attributable to Obesity
in the United States,” American journal of
Public Health, 94(9) (2004): 1486-1489
Luke Guyer
 available from
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/P
MC1448478/ (last accessed March 2018)
19. Valerie Taylor et al, “The impact of obesity
on quality of life,” Best Practice & Research
Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism,
27(2) (2013):139-146 available from
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/articl
e/pii/S1521690X13000365 (last accessed
March 2018)
20. Ibid.
21. Eric Finkelstein et al, “Annual Medical
Spending Attributable to Obesity: Payer-
And Service- Specific Estimates,” Health
Affairs, 28(5) (2009) available from
https://www.healthaffairs.org/doi/10.1377/hl
thaff.28.5.w822 (last accessed March 2018);
National Bureau of Economic Research,
“Health Economics Program,” NBER, 4(1)
(2017) available from
http://www.nber.org/programs/he/he.html
(last accessed March 2018)
22. Physicians for a National Health Program,
“Government finds nearly two-thirds of U.S.
health care costs: American Journal of
Public Health study,” PNHP (January 2016)
available from
http://www.pnhp.org/news/2016/january/go
vernment-funds-nearly-two-thirds-of-us-
health-care-costs-american-journal-of-pub
(last accessed March 2018)
23. National Bureau of Economic Research,
“Health Economics Program.”
24. Trust for America’s Health and the Robert
Wood Johnson Foundation, “The Healthcare
Costs of Obesity,” available from
https://stateofobesity.org/healthcare-costs-
obesity/ (last accessed March 2018)
25. Ibid.
26. National Health Service, “Obesity,”
available from
https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/obesity/cause
s/ (last accessed March 2018); Chances of
weight gain can also be influenced by poor
genetics or medical conditions such as
Prader-Willi syndrome, an underactive
thyroid gland, or Cushing’s syndrome. This
paper does not focus on these aspects
because they are, for the most part,
unavoidable and uncommon in the obesity
epidemic.
27. National Health Service, “Obesity.”
12 The Obesity Epidemic
28. Ibid.
29. Harvard School of Public Health, “Obesity
Prevention Source,” available from
https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/obesity-
prevention-source/obesity-causes/diet-and-
weight/ (last accessed March 2018)
30. Harvard School of Public Health, “Obesity
Prevention Source”; Carbohydrates with a
high glycemic index are known to increase
the risk of diabetes, which further explains
the link between diabetes and weight gain.
31. Harvard School of Public Health, “Obesity
Prevention Source”
32. Ibid.
33. Ibid.
34. Nia Mitchell et al, “Obesity: Overview of an
Epidemic,” Psychiatric Clinic North Am
34(4) (2011): 717-732 available from
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/P
MC3228640/ (last accessed March 2018)
35. Ibid.
36. National Health Service, “Obesity.”;
Harvard School of Public Health, “Obesity
Prevention Source.”
37. Nia Mitchell et al, “Obesity: Overview of an
Epidemic.”
38. Ibid.
39. Jeffrey Levi et al. “F as in Fat: How Obesity
Threatens America’s Future,” Robert Wood
Johnson Foundation, Preventing Epidemics,
Protecting People (2012): 8 available from
http://healthyamericans.org/assets/files/TFA
H2012FasInFat18.pdf; Harvard School of
Public Health, “Obesity Prevention Source.”
40. Jay Gopalan, “BMI Boom and Economic
Collapse in Nauru,” Harvard Political
Review (January 2017) available from
http://harvardpolitics.com/world/obesity-in-
nauru/ (last accessed March 2018)
41. Wordpress admin, “Where Is Nauru on a
Map,” available from
http://youknowyoucare.com/where-is-nauru-
on-a-map.html (last accessed March 2018)
42. Jay Gopalan, “BMI Boom and Economic
Collapse in Nauru,” Harvard Political
Review.
43. Ibid.
44. Ibid.
45. Ibid.
46. Miriam Valverde, “A look at the data on
domestic terrorism and who’s behind it,”
Politifact (August 2017) available from
Luke Guyer
 http://www.politifact.com/truth-o-
meter/article/2017/aug/16/look-data-
domestic-terrorism-and-whos-behind-it/
(last accessed March 2018)
47. D Hill and T Carroll, “Australia’s National
Tobacco Campaign,” BMJ 12(2), available
from
http://tobaccocontrol.bmj.com/content/12/su
ppl_2/ii9 (last accessed March 2018)
48. Ibid.
49. Australian Bureau of Statistics, “Smoking,”
National Health Survey (2014-15) available
from
http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Lo
okup/by%20Subject/4364.0.55.001~2014-
15~Main%20Features~Smoking~24 (last
accessed March 2018)
50. Australian Government, “I quit for my
family ad,” available from
http://www.quitnow.gov.au/internet/quitnow
/publishing.nsf/Content/73A6189F9CF986F
CCA257FB000183855/$File/Print%20-
%20Ted%20(Bikes).pdf
51. Gary Taubes, “Why the Campaign to Stop
America’s Obesity Crisis Keeps Failing,”
Newsweek (May 2012) available from
http://www.newsweek.com/why-campaign-
stop-americas-obesity-crisis-keeps-failing-
64977 (last accessed March 2018)
52. D Hill and T Carroll, “Australia’s National
Tobacco Campaign.”
53. Australian Council on Smoking and Health,
“Tobacco legislation and policy timeline,”
available from https://www.acosh.org/law-
policy/wa-tobacco-control-
legislation/tobacco-legislation-and-policy-
timeline/ (last accessed March 2018)
54. ASPC, “Changing behaviour: A public
policy perspective,” Australian Public
Service Commission (December 2015)
available from
http://www.apsc.gov.au/publications-and-
media/archive/publications-
archive/changing-behaviour (last accessed
March 2018)
55. Harvard School of Public Health, “Eating
healthy vs. unhealthy diet costs about $1.50
more per day,” Harvard University
(December 2013) available from
https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/news/press-
releases/healthy-vs-unhealthy-diet-costs-1-
50-more/ (last accessed March 2018)
13 The Obesity Epidemic
56. Ibid.
57. Ruopeng An et al, “’Effectiveness of
Subsidies in Promoting Healthy Food
Purchases and Consumption: A Review of
Field Experiments,” Public Health Nutr
16(7) (2013): 1215-1228 available from
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/P
MC3898771/ (last accessed March 2018);
High price elasticity means that, if prices
change by a certain percentage, demand will
change by more than the same percentage.
58. Allison Aubrey, “Does Subsidizing Crops
We’re Told To Eat Less Of Fatten Us Up?”
NPR (July 2016) available from
https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2016/0
7/18/486051480/we-subsidize-crops-we-
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14 The Obesity Epidemic Luke Guyer