Approaches and Methods in L Acq (Resumen)

Approaches and methods in L Ting.
CHAPTER ONE: A BRIEF HISTORY OF L TING.

As ‘modern’ Ls began to enter the curriculum of European schools in the 18th C, they were taught by using
the same basic procedures that were used for ting Latin. Textbooks consisted of statements of abstract gr
rules, lists of vocabulary and sentences for translation. Speaking the foreign L was NOT the goal, and oral
practice was limited to sts reading aloud the sentences they had translated. These sentences were
constructed to illustrate the grammatical system of the L and consequently bore NO
RELATION to the L of real communication.
19th this approach based on the study of Latin had become the standard way of studying foreign Ls in
schools. A typical textbook consisted of chapters or lessons organized around grammar points. Each gr
point was listed, rules on its use were explained, and it was illustrated by sample sentences.
determined to codify the foreign L into frozen rules of morphology and syntax to be
explained and eventually memorized. This approach became known as the Grammar-Traslation Method.
THE GRAMMAR-TRANSLATION METHOD.
Its object was to know everything about something rather than the thing itself. Principal characteristics:
 Its goal is to learn a L so as to read its literature or so as to benefit from the mental discipline and
intellectual development that result from foreign L study.
 It approaches the L first through detailed analysis of its gr rules, followed by application of this
knowledge to the task of translating sentences and texts into the target L.
 The L1 is maintained as the reference system in the acq of L2.
 Vocabulary selection is based on the reading texts used. Words are taught through bilingual word
lists, dictionary study and memorization.
 The sentence is the basic unit of ting and L practice.
 Accuracy is emphasized.
 The sts’s native L is the medium of instruction. Used to explain new items and to enable
comparisons to be made between the foreign L and the sts’s native L.
*Although this method creates frustration for sts, it makes few demands on Ts.
In the mid- and late 19th C opposition to the Gr-Translation Method gradually developed in several
European countries. This REFORM MOVEMENT laid to the foundations for the development of new ways
of Ting Ls and raised controversies that have continued to the present day.
L TEACHING INNOVATIONS IN THE 19TH C.
Increased opportunities for communication among Europeans created a demand for oral proficiency in
foreign Ls. New approaches to L Ting were developed by individual L Ts although they did not manage to
achieve any lasting impact.
Marcel (Frenchman) referred to child L ling as a model for L Ting, emphasized the
importance of meaning in ling and tried to locate L Ting within a broader educational context.
Prendergast (Englishman) observed that ch use contextual and situational cues to interpret
utterances and they use memorized phrases and routines in speaking. He proposed the first ‘Structural
Syllabus’ advocating that learners should be taught the most basic structural patterns occurring in the L.
Gouin (Frenchman) he developed an appoach based on his observations of ch’s use of L. He
believed that L ling was facilitated through using L to accomplish events consisting of a sequence of related
actions. His method used situations and themes as ways of organizing and presenting oral L.
He emphasized on the need to present new Ting items in a context that makes their meaning clear, the use
of gestures and actions to convey the meanings of utterances.
*These ideas and methods lacked the means for wider dissemination, acceptance, and implementation.
They were writing at a time when there was not sufficient organizational structure in the L Ting profession.
THE REFORM MOVEMENT.
From the 1880s practically minded linguists began to provide the intellectual leadership needed to give
reformist ideas greater credibility and acceptance.
The discipline of linguistics was revitalized (linguists would now argue that speech was the primary form of
L); phonetics was established, giving new insights into speech processes.
 study of spoken L;
 phonetic training in order to establish good pronunciation habits;
 use of conversation texts and dialogues to introduce conversational phrases and idioms;
 an inductive approach to the Ting of gr;
 Ting new meanings through establishing associations with the target L rather than by establishing
associations with the mother tongue.
In general the reformers believed that:
1. The spoken L is primary; so the methodology should be oral-based.
2. Phonetics should be applied to Ting and T training.
3. Sts should hear the L first.
4. Words should be presented in sentences, and sentences in meaningful contexts.
5. The rules should be taught inly after the sts have practiced the gr points in context, i.e. gr should be
taught inductively.
6. Translation should be avoided although the mother tongue could be used in order to explain new
words or check comprehension.
*Parallel to the ideas put forward by members of the Reform Movement was an interest in developing
principles for L Ting out of naturalistic principles of L ling, such as seen in L1 acq. This led to what have
been termed natural methods and ultimately led to the development of what came to be known as the
Direct Method.
THE DIRECT METHOD.
Sauveur (19th C) tried to apply natural principles to L classes; he used intensive oral interaction in the
target L, employing questions as a way of presenting and eliciting L. His method soon became referred to
as the Natural Method.
> Believers in the NM argued that a foreign L could be taught without translation or the use of the l’s native
tongue if meaning was conveyed directly through demonstration and action.
> A L COULD BEST BE TAUGHT BY USING IT ACTIVELY IN THE CLASSROOM.

> Ts must encourage direct and spontaneous use of foreign L in the classroom. Learners would then be
able to induce rules of gr. Speaking began with systematic attention to pronunciation.
> Known words could be used to teach new vocabulary, using mime, demonstration and pictures.
All these principles provided the foundation for what came to be known as the Direct Method. It stood for
the following principles and procedures:
1. Classroom instruction was conducted exclusively in the target L;
2. Only everyday vocabulary was taught;
3. Oral communication skills were built up in a carefully graded progression organized around
question-and-answer exchanges;
4. Gr was taught inductively;
5. New Ting point were introduced orally;
6. Concrete voc was taught through demonstration, objects and pictures; abstract voc taught by
associations of ideas;
7. Speech and listening comprehension were taught;
8. Correct pronunciation and gr were emphasized.
*This method was successful in private L schools; but not in public schools since it failed to consider the
practical realities of the classroom. Additionally, it lacked a rigorous basis in applied linguistic theory.
Drawbacks: it required Ts who were native speakers or who had nativelike fluency; largely dependent
on the T’s skills; not all the Ts were proficient enough to adhere to it; Ts were required to go to great
lengths to avoid using the native tongue.
CHAPTER 2: THE NATURE OF APPROACHES AND METHODS IN L Ting.

APPROACH AND METHODS.
Anthony’s Model:
There are three levels of conceptualization and organization: approach, method, and technique. The
organizational key is that techniques carry out a method which is consistent with an approach.
*approach is the level at which assumptions and beliefs about L and L ling are specified, it is axiomatic, it
describes the nature of the subject matter to be taught;
*method is the level at which theory is put into practice and at which choices are made out about the
particular skills to be taught, the content to be taught, and the order in which the content will be presented,
is procedural and within one approach there can be many methods;
*technique is the level at which classroom procedures are described, t is implementational and it must be
consistent with a method, and therefore in harmony with an approach as well.
This approach is simple and comprehensive but it fails to give sufficient attention to the nature of a method
itself.
Revision and extension of Antony’s model:

Approach and method will be treated at the level of design: that level in which objectives, syllabus, and
content are determined, and in which the roles of the Ts, ls and instructional materials are specified.
The implementation phase (level of technique) is going to be referred to by the term procedure. Thus, a
method is theoretically related to an approach, is organizationally determined by a design, and is practically
realized in procedure.
APPROACH: refers to the theories about the nature of L and L ling that serve as the source of practices
and principles in L Ting. We will examine the linguistic and psycholinguistic aspects of the approach in turn.
 Theories of L.
1. Structural view: the view that L is a system of structurally related elements for the codying of meaning.
The target of L ling is seen to be the mastery of elements of this system, which are generally defined in
terms of phonological units, grammatical units/operations and lexical items. the Audiolingual Method,
Total Physical Response, Silent Way.
2. Functional view: the view that L is a vehicle for the expression of functional meaning. The
communicative movement in L Ting subscribes to this view of L. This theory emphasizes the semantic and
communicative dimension and leads to a specification and organization of L Ting content by categories of
meaning and function. the English for specific purposes.
3. Interactional view: it sees L as a vehicle for the realization of interpersonal relations and for the
performance of social transactions between individuals. L is seen as a tool for the creation and
maintenance of social relations.
All of these need to be complemented by theories of L ling.
 Theory of L ling.
Process-oriented theories built on ling processes, such as habit formation, induction, inferencing,
hypothesis testing, and generalization. Condition-oriented theories emphasize the nature of the human and
physical context in which L ling takes place.
Krashen’s Monitor Model of L2 development is an example of a ling theory on which a

method (the Natural Approach) has been built. This theoy addresses both the process and the
condition dimensions of ling.
 At the level of process, K distinguished between acq and ling.
refers to the natural assimilation of L rules

through using L for communication.
refers to the formal study of L rules
and is a conscious process. However, ling is only available as a MONITOR. The monitor is the repository of
conscious grammatical kn about a L that is learned through formal instruction and that is called upon in the
editing of utterances produced through the acquired system.
 K’s theory also addresses the conditions necessary for the process if acq to take place: he
describes these in terms of the type of input the learner receives. INPUT MUST BE
COMPREHENSIBLE, SLIGHTLY ABOVE THE learner’s PRESENT LEVEL OF COMPETENCE,
INTERESTING OR RELEVANT, NOT GRAMMATICALLY SEQUENCED, IN SUFFICIENT
QUANTITY, AND EXPERIENCED IN LOW-ANXIETY CONTEXTS.
Asher’s Total Physical Response is a method that derives from ling theory rather than from a theory
of the nature of L. It addresses both the process and condition aspects of ling. It is based on the belief that
child L ling is based on motor activity, on coordinating L with action, and that this should form the basis of
adult foreign L Ting.
Gattegno’s Silent Way is built around a theory of the conditions necessary for successful ling to be
realized. He states that the learners’ needs need to be met, the sts need to feel secured about ling and to
assume conscious control of ling. The techniques in this method are designed to train learners to
consciously use their intelligence to heighten ling potential.
*There often appears to be natural affinities between certain theories of L and theories of L ling.
At the level of APPROACH:

LANGUAGE THEORY: concerned with a model of L competence and an account of the basic
features of linguistic organization and L use.
LEARNING THEORY: concerned with an account of the central processes of ling and an account
of the conditions believed to promote successful L ling. These principles may/may not lead to A method.
A group of Ts holing similar beliefs about L and L ling (i.e. sharing a similar approach) may each implement
these principles in different ways. Approach does not specify procedure. Theory does NOT dictate a
particular set of Ting techniques and activities. What links THEORY with PRACTICE (or
approach with procedure) is what we call DESIGN.
DESIGN: in order for an approach to lead to a method, it is necessary to develop a design for an
instructional system. Design is the level of method analysis in which we consider:
a) what the objectives of a method are;
b) how L content is selected and organized within the method, that is, the syllabus model the method
incorporates;
c) the types of ling tasks and Ting activities the method advocates;
d) the roles of learners;
e) the roles of Ts;
f) the role of instructional materials.
A) OBJECTIVES.
Different theories of L and L ling influence the focus of a method; that is, they determine what a method
sets out to achieve. The specification of particular ling objectives, however, is a product of DESIGN, not of
approach.
Some methods focus primarily on oral skills.
Some methods set out to teach general communication skills and give greater priority to the ability to
express oneself meaningfully and to make oneself understood than to grammatical accuracy or perfect
pronunciation.
Others place a greater emphasis on accurate gr and pronunciation.
‘Learning is not seen as the means of accumulating knowledge but as the means of becoming a more
proficient learner in whatever one is engaged in.’ This process-oriented objective may be offered in contrast
to the linguistically oriented or product-oriented objectives of more traditional methods.
*The degree to which a method has process-oriented or product-oriented objectives may be revealed in
how much emphasis is placed on voc acq and gramm proficiency and in how grammatical or pronunciation
errors are treated in the method.
B) CONTENT CHOICE AND ORGANIZATION: THE SYLLABUS.

Since all methods of L Ting involve the use of the target L, all methods will involve overt or covert decisions
concerning the selection of L items that are to be used within a course or method.
*Decisions about the choice of L content relate both too SUBJECT MATTER (makes decisions about what
to talk about) and LINGUISTIC MATTER (how to talk about it). Methods typically differ in what they see
as the relevant L and subject matter around which L Ting should be organized and the principles
used in sequencing content within a course.
Content issues involve the principles of selection that ultimately shape the syllabus adopted in a course
as well as the instructional materials that are used, together with the principles of gradation the method
adopts.
 In grammar-based courses matters of sequencing and gradation are generally determined
according to the difficulty of items or their frequency.
 In communicative or functionally oriented courses sequencing may be according to the learner’s
communicative needs.
Traditionally, the term Syllabus has been used to refer to the form in which linguistic content is specified in
a course or method. Inevitably the term has been more closely associated with methods that are product-
centered rather than those that are process-centered.
The syllabus underlying the Situational and Audio-lingual methods consist of a list of grammatical
items and constructions, often together with an associated list of vocabulary items.
Notional-functional syllabuses specify the communicative content of a course in terms of functions,
notions, topics, grammar and vocabulary. Such syllabuses are usually determined in advance of Ting and
for this reason they have been referred to as ‘a priori syllabuses’.
The term is less frequently used in process-based methods, in which considerations of L content are often
secondary. In Counsellin-Ling there would be an ‘a posteriori approach’ to syllabus specification: the
syllabus would be determined from examining lesson protocols.
C) TYPES OF LEARNING AND Ting ACTIVITIES.
The objectives of a method are attained though the instructional process, through the organized and
directed interaction of Ts, learners, and materials in the classroom. Differences among methods at the
level of approach manifest themselves in the choice of different kinds of ling and Ting activities
(act) in the classroom.
Ting acts that focus on GRAMMATICAL ACCURACY COMMUNICATIVE SKILLS.
Acts designed to focus on the DEVELOPMENT OF SPECIFIC PSYCHOLINGUISTIC PROCESSES IN L
ACQ those directed toward MASTERY OF PARTICULAR FEATURES OF GR.
*The act types that a method advocates –the 3rd component in the level of design in method analysis- often
serves to distinguish methods. Act types in methods include the primary categories of ling and Ting activity
the method advocates.
 AUDIOLINGUALISM: uses dialogue and pattern practice extensively;
 THE SILENT WAY: employs problem-solving acts that involve the use of special charts and coloured rods;
 COMMUNICATIVE L: tasks that involve an ‘information gap’ and ‘information transfer’.
Because of the different assumptions they make about ling processes, syllabuses, and ling acts, methods
also attribute different roles and functions to Ts, learners, and instructional materials within the instructional
process.
D) LEARNER ROLES.
The design of the instructional system will be influenced by HOW learners are regarded. A method
reflects explicit or implicit responses to questions concerning the learners’ contribution to the learning
process.
This is seen in the types of acts learners carry out, the degree of control learners have over the content of ling, the
patterns of learner groupings adopted, the degree to which learners influence the ling of others, and the view of the
learner as processor, performer, initiator, problem solver.
a) AUDIOLINGUALISM: very limited roles available to learners; they were seen as stimulus-response
mechanism whose ling was a direct result of repetitive practice.
b) NEWER METHODOLOGIES: more concern for learner roles and for variations among leaners: (Johnson
and Paulston) spell out learner roles in an individualized approach to L ling.
1. Learners plan their own ling program and thus ultimately assume responsibility for what they do in
the classroom.
2. Learners monitor and evaluate their own process.
3. Learners are members of a group and learn by interacting with others.
4. Learners tutor other learners.
5. Learners learn from the T, other sts and from other Ting sources.
E) T ROLES.
Are similarly related both to assumptions about L and L ling at the level of approach. Some methods are
totally dependent on the T as a source of knowledge and direction; others see T’s role as catalyst,
consultant, guide, and model of ling; others try to ‘teacher-proof’ the institutional system by limiting T
initiative and by building instructional content and direction into texts or lesson plans. T and learner roles
define the type of interaction characteristic of classroom in which a particular method is
being used.
T roles in methods are related to the following issues:
1. The types of functions Ts are expected to fulfill;
2. The degree of control the T has over how ling takes place;
3. The degree to which the T is responsible for determining the content of what is taught;
4. The interactional patterns that develop between Ts and sts.
Methods typically depend critically on T roles and their realization.

AUDIOLINGUAL METHOD: the T is regarded as the primary source of L and of L ling.
SILENT WAY: depends upon thorough training and methodological initiation. Only Ts who are
thoroughly sure of their role and the concomitant learner’s role will risk departure from the security of
traditional text-book oriented T ing.
COUNSELING-LEARNING: sees the T’s role as that of psychological counselor, the effectiveness of
the T’s role being a measure of counseling skills and attributes.
*The potential role relationships of learner and T are many varied: they may be in an asymmetrical relation
or a more symmetrical relation.
The role of the T will reflect both the OBJECTIVES of the method and the LEARNING THEORY on
which the method is predicated, since the success of the method may depend on the degree to which the T
can provide the content or create the conditions for successful L ling.
F) THE ROLE OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS.

What is specified with respect to objectives, content (i.e. the syllabus), ling acts, learner and T role
suggests the function for materials within the system.
The syllabus defines linguistic content in terms of L elements or in terms of ling tasks. It also defines the
GOALS for L ling in terms of speaking, reading, listening or writing skills.
The instructional materials specify subject matter content, even when no syllabus exists, and define
or suggest the intensity of coverage for syllabus items, allocating the amount of time, attention, and detail
particular syllabus items or tasks require.
they also define or imply the day-to-day ling objectives that collectively constitute
the goals of a syllabus.
Materials designed on the assumption the ling is initiated and monitored by the T must meet quite different
requirements from those designed for st self-instruction or for peer tutoring.
*Some methods require the instructional use of existing materials, found materials and relia. Some assume
T-roof materials that even poorly trained Ts that even with imperfect control of the L can teach with. Some
materials require specially trained Ts with near-native competence in the target L. Some others are
designed to replace the T, so that ling can take place independently.
Some materials dictate various interactional patters in the classroom; others inhibit classroom interaction;
still others are noncommittal about interaction between T and learner and learner and learner.
The role of IM within a method or instructional system will reflect decisions concerning:
 the primary goal of M (e.g. to present content, to practice content, to facilitate communication bet
learners, or to enable learners to practice content without the T’s help);
 the form of M (e.g. textbook, audiovisuals)
 the relation of materials to other sources of input (i.e. whether they serve as the major source of
input or only as a minor component of it);
 the abilities of Ts (e.g. their competence in the L, degree of training and experiencing).
The role of IM within a functional/communicative methodology:
1. M will focus on the communicative abilities of interpretation, expression and negotiation.
2. M will focus on understandable, relevant and interesting exchanges of info, rather than on presentation of
grammatical form.
3. M will involve different kinds of texts and different media, which the learners can use to develop their
competence through a variety of different acts and tasks.
The role of IM within an individualized instructional system:

1. M will allow learners to progress at their own rates of ling.
2. M will allow for different styles of ling.
3. M will provide opps for independent study and use.
4. M will provide opps for self-evaluation and progress in ling.
COOUNSELING-LEARNING has proposed the use of Ting machines and other programmed
materials to support the ling of some of the more mechanical aspects of L so as to free the T to
function increasingly as a ling counselor.
PROCEDURE: is the last level of conceptualization within a method. This encompasses the actual
moment-to-moment techniques, practices and behaviors that operate in Ting a L according to a particular
method. It focuses on the way a method handles the presentation, practice and feedback phases of
Ting.
*At the level of procedure we are concerned with how tasks and acts are integrated into lessons and used
as the basis for Ting and ling. There are 3 dimensions to a method at the level of procedure:
A. The use of Ting acts (drills, dialogues,info-gao acts) to present new L and to clarify and
demonstrate formal, communicative, or other aspects of the target L;
B. The ways in which particular Ting acts are used for practicing L;
C. The procedures and techniques used in giving feedback to learners concerning the form or content
of their utterances and sentences.
CHAPTER 3: THE ORAL APPROACH AND SITUATIONAL L Ting.

These terms refer to an approach to L Ting developed by Br applied linguists from the 1930s and 1960s.
The impact of the OA has been long lasting.
BACKGROUND:
1920s A number of outstanding applied linguist developed the basis for a
and principled approach to a methodology in L Ting. Two of the leaders of
1930s this movement were Harold Palmer and A. S. Hornby. Both of them were familiar
with the work of such linguists as Otto Jespersen and Daniel Jones, as well as with the Direct Method.
What they attempted was to develop a more scientific foundation for an oral approach to Ting
English than was evidenced in the D Method.
The result was a systematic study of the principles and procedures that could be applied to the selection
and organization of the content of a L course.
VOCABULARY CONTROL: the first aspect to receive attention was the role of vocabulary. There was a
general consensus amongst L Ting specialists that voc was one of the most important aspects of
foreign L ling. A second influence was the increased emphasis on reading skills as the goal off foreign
L study in some countries.
VOCABULARY WAS SEEN AS AN ESSENTIAL COMPONENT OF READING PROFICIENCY.
This led to the development of principles of vocabulary, which were to have a major practical impact on
the Ting of English in the following decades. These efforts to introduce a scientific and rational basis for
choosing the vocabulary content of a L course represented the first attempts to establish principles of
syllabus design in L Ting.
GRAMMAR CONTROL: focus on the grammatical content of a L course. Palmer view gr as the underlying
sentence patterns of the spoken L. So linguists analyzed English and classified its major grammatical
structures into sentence patterns (later called ‘substitution tables’), which could be used to help internalize
the rules of English sentence structure.
With the development of systematic approaches to the lexical and grammatical content of a L course and
with the efforts of specialists in using these resources as part of a comprehensive methodological
framework for the Ting of E as a foreign L, the foundations for the Br approach in TELF/TESL –the Oral
Approach- were firmly established.
THE ORAL APPROACH AND SITUATIONAL L Ting: Palmer and Hornby developed aan approach to
methodology that involved systematic principles of selection (the procedures by which lexical and
grammatical content was chosen), gradation (principles by which the organization and sequencing of
content was determined), and presentation (techniques used for presentation and practice of items in
a course). Although E Ting specialists had differing views on the specific procedures to be used in Ting
English, their general principles were referred to as the Oral Approach to L Ting. This was NOT to be
confused with the DM, which, although it used oral procedures, lacked a systematic basis in applied
linguistic theory and practice.
the learner was
bewildered by a flow of ungraded speech, suffering all the difficulties he would have encountered in picking
up the L in its normal environment and losing most of the compensating benefits for better contextualization
in those circumstances.
The main characteristics of the approach were as follows:
1. L Ting begins with the spoken L. Material is taught orally before it is presented in written form.
2. The target L is the L of the classroom.
3. New L points are introduced and practiced situationally.
4. Vocabulary selection procedures are followed to ensure that an essential general service voc is
covered.
5. Items of gr are graded following the principle that simple forms should be taught before complex
ones.
6. Reading and writing are introduced once a sufficient lexical and grammatical basis is established.
1960s the 3rd principle became a key feature of the approach and the term SITUATIONAL was
used increasingly in referring to the Oral Approach. (The term Situational L Ting will include Structural-
Situational and Oral approaches.)
Situational Language Teaching.
APPROACH.
Theory of L: the one underlying the SLT can be characterized as a type of Br ‘structuralism’. Speech was
regarded as the basis of L and structure was view as being at the heart of speaking ability. Applied linguists
had prepared pedagogical descriptions of the basic grammatical structures of English, and these were to
be followed in developing methodology.
*Word order, Structural words, the few inflections of E, and content words will form the material of this Ting.
The Br theoreticians had a different focus to their vision of structuralism: the notion of ‘situation’. ‘Our
principal classroom activity in the Ting of E structure will be oral practice of structures, This oral practice of controlled
sentence patterns should be given in situations designed to give the greatest amount of practice in E speech to the
pupil.’
The theory that knowledge of structures must be linked to situations in which they could be used
gave SLT one of its distinctive features. Many Br linguists had emphasized the close relationship between
the structure of L and the context and situations in which L is used. The emphasis now is on the description of L
act as part of the whole complex of events which, together with the participants and relevant objects, make up actual
Thus, in contrast to American structuralist views on L, L was viewed as
situations.
purposeful act related to goals and situations in the real world.
Theory of ling: is a type of behaviorist habit-learning theory. It addresses primarily the processes
rather than the conditions of ling. There are 3 processes in L ling –receiving the kn or materials, fixing it in
the memory by repetition, and using it in actual practice until it becomes a personal skill.
Like the DM, the SLT adopts an inductive approach to the Ting of gr. The meaning of words or structures is
not to be given through explanation in either the native L or the target L but is to be induced from the way
the form is used in a situation. Explanation is therefore discouraged, and the sts is expected to deduce the
meaning of a particular structure or voc item from the sit in which it is presented. Extending structures and
vocabulary to new situations takes place by generalization. The learner is expected to apply the L learned
in a classroom to sit outside the classroom.
THIS IS HOW CHILD L LING IS BELIEVED TO TAKE PLACE, AND THE SAME PROCESSES ARE
THOUGHT TO OCCUR IN L2 AND FOREIGN L LING, ACCORDING TO PRACTIOTIONERS OF SLT.
DESIGN.
Objectives: to teach a practical command of the 4 basic skills of L, goals it shares with most methods of L
Ting. But the skills are approached through structure. Accuracy in both pronunciation and gr is
regarded as crucial, and errors are to be avoided at all costs. Automatic control of basic structures and
sentence patterns is fundamental to reading and writing skills, and this is achieved through speech work.
The syllabus: a structural syllabus -that is a list of the basic structures and sentence patterns of E,
arranged according to their order of presentation- and a word list. In SLT structures are always taught
within sentences, and vocabulary is chosen according to how well it enables sentence patterns to be
taught. The syllabus was not a situational syllabus in the sense that this term is sometimes used (i.e. a list
of situations and the L associated with them). Rather, situation refers to the manner of presenting and
practising sentence patterns.
Types of ling and Ting acts: SLT employs a situational approach to presenting new sentence patterns and
a drill-based manner of practising them.
*The situation will be controlled carefully to teach the new L material in such a way that there can be no
doubt in the learner’s mind of the meaning of what he hears. By situation Pittman means the use of concrete
objects, pictures and realia, which together with actions and gestures can be used to demonstrate the
meanings of new L items. The practice techniques employed generally consist of guided repetition and
substitution activities, including chorus repetition, dictation, drills.
Learner roles:
>Initial stages of ling: the learner is required simply to listen and repeat what the T says and to respond to
questions and commands. The learner has no control over the content of ling and is often regarded as
likely to succumb to undesirable behaviors unless skillfully manipulated by the T.
>Incorrect habits are to be avoided at all costs.
>Later, more active participation is encouraged, this includes learners initiating responses and asking each
other ?s, although T-controlled introduction and practice of new L is stressed throughout.
T roles:
>In the PRESENTATION STAGE of the lesson, the T serves as model, setting up sits in which the need for
the target structure is created and then modeling the new structure for sts to repeat.
>Then the T is required to be a skillful manipulator, using ?s, commands and other cues to elicit correct
sentences from sts.
The T’s responsibilities includes dealing with: timing; oral practice to support the textbook structures;
revision; adjustment to special needs of individuals; testing; developing L acts other than those arising from
the notebook.
THE T IS ESSENTIAL TO THE SUCCESS OF THE METHOD, SINCE THE TEXTBOOK IS ABLE ONLY
TO DESCRIBE ACTS FOR THE T TO CARRY OUT THE CLASS.
The role of IM: SLT is dependent upon both a textbook and visual aids. The textbook contains tightly
organized lessons planned around different gramm structures. Visual aids may be produced by the T or
may be commercially produced; they consist of wall charts, flashcards, and pictures and so on. The
textbook should be used only as a guide to the ling process. The T is expected
to be the master of this textbook.
PROCEDURE.
Classroom procedures in SLT vary according to the level of the class, but procedures at any level aim to
move from controlled to freer practice of structures and from oral use of sentence patterns to their
automatic use in speech, reading and writing.
Drills and the T’s kit (a collection of items and relia that can be used in situational L practice) are and essential part of the T’s equipment.
Davies et al. likewise give detailed information about teaching procedures to be used with Situational Language Teaching. The sequence of
activities they propose consists of:
1. Listening practice in which the teacher obtains his student's attention and repeats an example of the patterns or a word in isolation clearly,
several times, probably saying it slowly at least once (where . .. is ... the . .. pen?), separating the words.
2. Choral imitation in which students all together or in large groups repeat what the teacher has said. This works best if the teacher gives a clear
instruction like "Repeat," or "Everybody" and hand signals to mark time and stress.
3. Individual imitation in which the teacher asks several individual students to repeat the model he has given in order to check their pronunciation.
4. Isolation, in which the teacher isolates sounds, words or groups of words which cause trouble and goes through techniques 1-3 with them before
replacing them in context.
5. Building up to a new model, in which the teacher g~ts students to ask and answer questions using patterns they already know III order to bnng
about the information necessary to introduce the new model.
6. Elicitation, in which the teacher, using mime, prompt words, gestures,
etc., gets students to ask questions, make statements, or give new examples of the pattern. .
7. Substitution drilling, in which the teacher uses cue words (words, plctures, numbers, names, etc.) to get individual students to mix the examples
of the new patterns.
8. Question-answer drilling, in which the teacher gets one student to ask a question and another to answer until most students in the class have
practiced asking and answering the new question form. .
9. Correction in which the teacher indicates by shaking his head, repeating the error, etc. , that there is a mistake and invites the student or a
different student to correct it. Where possible the teacher does not simply correct the mistake himself. He gets students to correct themselves so
they will be encouraged to listen to each other carefully.
CHAPTER FOUR: THE AUDIOLINGUAL METHOD.

BACKGROUND:
This method sounded similar to the Br Oral Approach, although the two traditions developed independently.
The American approach differed in its strong alliance with American structural linguistics and its applied
linguistic applications, particularly contrastive analysis.
*The problems of ling a foreign L were attributed to the conflict of different structural systems (i.e.
differences bet the gramm and phonological patterns of the native tongue and the foreign L). Contrastive
analysis of both Ls would allow potential problems of interference to be predicted and addressed through
carefully prepared Ting materials.
Thus was born a major industry in American applied linguistics –systematic comparisons of English with
other Ls, with a view toward solving the fundamental problems of foreign L ling.
The approach developed at Michigan U became to be known as the Oral Approach, the Aural-Oral
Approach and the Structural Approach. It advocated aural training first, then pronunciation training, followed
by speaking, reading, and writing. L was identified with speech, and speech was approached through
structure.
If there was any ling theory underlying the Aural-Oral materials it was a commonsense application of
the idea that practice makes perfect.
It was the incorporation of the linguistic principles of the Aural-Oral approach with state-of-the-art
psychological ling theory in the mid-fifties that led to the method that came to be known as Audiolingualism.
1950s there was an increased attention given to foreign L Ting in the USA. The need
for a radical change and rethinking of foreign L Ting methodology was prompted by the
launching of the Russian satellite in 1957.The US G acknowledged the need for a more intensive effort to
teach foreign Ls in order to prevent Americans from becoming isolated from scientific advances made in
other countries.
*the combination of structural linguistic theory, contrastive analysis, aural-oral procedures, and behaviorist
psychology led to the Audiolingual Method. Audiolingualism claimed to have transformed L Ting from an art
to a science, which would enable learners o achieve mastery of a foreign L effectively and efficiently.
APPROACH.
Theory of L: Structural linguistics developed in part as a reaction to traditional gr, which was prompted
by the movement toward positivism and empiricism and by an increased interest in non-European Ls on the
part of the scholars.
A sophisticated methodology for collecting and analyzing data developed, which involved transcribing
spoken utterances in a L phonetically and later working out the phonemic, morphological and syntactic
systems underlying the gr of the L. L was viewed as a system of structurally related elements for the
encoding of meaning, the elements being phonemes, morphemes, words, structures, and
sentence types.
The term structural referred to these chs:
a. elements in a L were thought of as being linearly produced in a rule-governed (structured)way;

b. L samples could be exhaustively described at any structural level of description;
c. linguistic levels were thought of as systems within systems –that is, as being pyramidally structured;
phonemic systems led to morphemic systems, and these in turn led to the higher level systems of
phs, clauses and sentences.
Ling a L entails mastering the elements or building blocks of the L and ling the rules by which these
elements are combined, from phoneme to morpheme to word to phrase to sentence.
SPEECH IS LANGUAGE: since many Ls do not have a written form and we learn to speak before we
learn to read or write, it was argued that L is primarily what is spoken and only secondarily what is written.
THEREFORE, IT WAS ASSUMED THAT SPEECH HAD A PRIORITY IN L Ting.
*But a method cannot be based simply on a theory of L. It also needs to refer to the psycology of ling and to
ling theory.
Theory of ling: period when a prominent school of American psychology –known as behavioral psychology-
claimed to have tapped the secrets of all human ling, including L ling.
Behaviorism is an antimentalist, empirical based approach to the study of human behavior. To the
behaviorist, the human being is an organism capable of a wide repertoire of behaviors. The occurrence of
these behaviors is dependent upon 3 crucial elements in ling: stimulus (which serves to elicit behavior);
a response (triggered by a stimulus); and reinforcement (which serves to mark the response as
being appropriate or inappropriate and encourages the repetition or suppression of the response in the
future).
L mastery is represented as acqing a set of appropriate L stimulus-response chains.
Learning principles, which became the psychological foundations of Audiolingualism and came to shape its
methodological practices:
1. Foreign language learning is basically a process of mechanical habit formation. Good habits are formed
by giving correct responses rather than by making mistakes. By memorizing dialogues and performing
pattern drills the chances of producing mistakes are minimized. Language is verbal behavior - that is, the
automatic production and comprehension of utterances - and can be learned by inducing the students to do
likewise.
2. Language skills are learned more effectively if the items to be learned in the target language are
presented in spoken form before they 3fe seen in written form. Aura l-oral training is needed to provide the
foundation for the development of other language skills.
3. Analogy provides a better foundation for language learning than analysis. Analogy involves the
processes of generalization and discrimination. Explanations of rules are therefore not given until students
have practiced a pattern in a variety of contexts and arc thought to have acquired a perception of the
analogies involved. Drills can enable learners to form correct analogies. Hence the approach to the
teaching of grammar is essentially inductive rather than deductive.
4. The meanings that the words of a language have for the native speaker can be learned only in a
linguistic and cultural context and not in isolation. Teaching a language thus involves teaching aspects of
the cultural system of the people who speak the language.
DESIGN.
They advocated a return to speech-based instruction with the primary objective of oral proficiency, and
dismissed the study of gr or literature as the goal of foreign L Ting.
Objectives: distinction between short-range and long-range objectives of an Au program.
include training in listening comprehension, accurate pronunciation, recognition of speech symbols as

graphic signs on the printed page, and ability to reproduce these symbols in writing. ALSO, control of the
structures of sound, form and order in the new L; acquaintance with voc items that bring content into these
structures; meaning, in terms of the significance these verbal symbols have for those who speak the L
natively.
must be L as the native speaker uses it.
 In practice this means that the focus in the early stages is on oral skills, with gradual links to other
skills as learning develops. Oral proficiency is equated with accurate pronunciation and grammar
and the ability to respond quickly and accurately in speech situations. The teaching of listening
comprehension, pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary are all related to development of oral
fluency. Reading and writing skills may be taught, but they are dependent upon prior oral skills.
Language is primarily speech in audiolingual theory, but speaking skills are themselves dependent
upon the ability to accurately perceive and produce the major phonological features of the target
language, fluency in the use of the key grammatical patterns in the L, and knowledge of sufficient
vocabulary to use with these patterns.
The syllabus: the starting point is a linguistic syllabus, which contains the key items of phonology,
morphology, and syntax of the L arranged according to their order of presentation. These may have been
derived in part from contrastive analysis of the differences bet the native tongue and the target L, since
these differences are thought to b the cause of the major difficulties the learner will encounter. In addition, a
lexical syllabus of basic voc items is also usually specified in advance.
The L skills are taught in the order of listening, speaking, reading and writing. Listening is viewed largely as
training in aural discrimination of basic sound patterns. The L may be presented entirely oral at first; written
representations are usually withheld from learners in early stages.
When reading and writing are introduced, sts are taught to read and write what they have already learned
to say orally. An attempt is made to minimize the possibilities for making mistakes in both speaking and
writing by using a tightly structured approach to the presentation of new L items. At more advanced levels,
more complex reading and writing tasks may be introduced.
Types of ling and Ting acts: dialogues and drills form the basis of au classroom practices.
provide the means of contextualizing key structures and illustrate situations in which structures might be
used as well as some cultural aspects of the target L. They are used for repetition and memorization.
Correct pronunciation, stress, rhythm and intonation are emphasized. After the dialogue has been
presented and memorized, specific gramm patterns in the dialogue are selected and become the focus of
various kinds of drill and pattern-prctice exercises.
various kinds of drills are used: repetition, inflection (one word in an utterance appears in another form
when repeated), replacement (one word in an utterance is replaced by another), restatement (the st
rephrases an utterance and addresses it to someone else), completion (the st hears the utterance that is
incomplete and then repeats it in a completed form), transposition (a change in word order is necessary
when a word is added), expansion (add a word), contraction (a single word stands for a ph or cl),
transformation (a sentence is transformed), interrogation (two separate utterances are integrated into one),
rejoinder, restoration.
Leaner roles: sts are viewed as organisms that can b directed by skilled training techniques to produce
correct responses. Ting focuses on the external manifestations of ling rather than on internal processes.
Learners play a reactive role by responding to stimuli, and thus have little control over the content, pace, or
style of learning.
T roles: the T’s role is central and active; it is a T-dominated method. The T models the target L, controls
the direction and pace of ling, and monitors and corrects the leaner’s performance. L ling is seen to result
from active verbal interaction bet the T and the learners. Failure to learn results only from the improper
application of the method; but the method itself is never to blame .
The T must be trained to do the following:

 Introduce, sustain and harmonize the ling of 4 skills: hearing, speaking, reading, and writing.
 Use Eng in the L classroom.
 T spoken L in dialogue form.
 Direct choral response.
 T the use of structure through pattern practice.
 Guide the st in choosing and ling voc.
 Show how words relate to meaning in the target L.
 Get the individual st to talk.
 Reward trials so ling is reinforced.
 T a short story and other literary forms.
 Formalize the rules.
The role of IM: these assist the T to develop L mastery in the learner. They are primarily T oriented. A st
textbook is not used: sts should be listening, repeating and responding and exposure to the printed word
may not be considered desirable because it distracts attention from the aural input. However, Ts do have
access to the T’s book.
Tape recorders and audiovisual equipment often have central roles when the T has not achieved native-like
pronunciation. A L laboratory may also be considered to be essential: it provides the opportunity for more
drill work and to receive controlled error-free practice of basic structures.
PROCEDURE.
The process of Ting involves extensive oral instruction. The focus of instruction is on immediate and
accurate speech; there is little provision for gramm explanation or talking about the L. As far as possible,
the target L is used as the medium of instruction, and translation or use of the native tongue is discouraged.
THE DECLINE OF AU.
The theoretical foundations of Au were attacked as being unsound both in terms of L theory and ling theory.
Moreover, practitioners found that the practical results felt short expectations. Sts were often found to be
unable to transfer skills acquired through Au to real communication outside the classroom, and many found
the experience of studying through Au procedures to be boring and unsatisfying.
1960s there was a change in Am linguistic theory. Chomsky rejected the structuralist approach to L
description as well as the behaviorist theory of L ling. Ch’s theory of transformational grammar proposed
that the fundamental properties of L derive from innate aspects of the mind and from how humans process
experience through L. The focus of attention would now be on the mental properties people bring to bear
on L use and L ling.
Ch also argued that the ling theory held by the Au supporters could NOT possibly serve as a model of how
humans learn L, since much of human L use is not imitated behavior but is created anew from underlying
knowledge of abstract rules. SENTENCES ARE NOT LERNED BY IMITATION AND REPETITION BUT
GENERATED FROM THE LERANER’S UNDERLYING COMPETENCE.
CHAPTER FIVE: COMMUNICATIVE L Ting.
BACKGROUND.
By the mid-1960s Br applied linguists began to call into question the theoretical assumptions underlying
SLT. The origins of CLT are to be found in the changes in the Br L Ting tradition dating from that date: what
was required was a closer study of the L itself and a return to the traditional concept that utterances carry
meaning in themselves and expressed the meanings in intentions of the speakers and writers who created
them.
Besides Ch’s contribution to this change, Br applied linguists emphasized that the functional and
communicative potential of L was inadequately addressed. They therefore saw the need to
focus in L Ting on communicative proficiency rather than on mere mastery of structures.
*Wilkins proposed a functional or communicative definition of L that could serve as a basis for developing
communicative syllabuses for L Ting. His contribution was an analysis of the communicative meanings that
a L learner needs to understand and express; he attempted to demonstrate the systems of meanings that
lay behind the communicative uses of L. He described 2 types of meanings: NOTIONAL CATEGORIES
(concepts such as time, sequence, quantity, location, frequency) and CATEGORIES OF
COMMUNICATIVE FUNCTION (requests, denials, offers, complaints.)
The rapid acceptance of all these ideas led to what came to be known as the Communicative Approach of
the CLT.
Nowadays it is seen as an APPROACH and not as a method that aims to:
A. make communicative competence the goal of L Ting and

B. develop procedures for the Ting of the 4 L skills that acknowledge the interdependence of L and
communication.
Howatt distinguishes between a ‘strong’ and a ‘weak’ version of CLT.
Has become more or less standard practice in the last years, stresses the importance of providing learners
with opp to use their Eng for communicative purposes and attempts to integrate such acts into a wider
program of L Ting. –Learning to use E.
Advances the claim that L is acq through communication so that it is not merely a ? of activating an existing
but inert kn of L but of stimulating the development of the L system itself. –Using E to learn it.
APPROACH.
Theory of L: the communicative approach in L Ting starts from a theory of L as communication. The
goal of L Ting is to develop ‘communicative competence’ (this term coined by Hymes was due to
contrast a communicative point of view of L and Ch’s theory of competence).
For Ch, the focus of linguistic theory was to characterize the abstract abilities speakers possess that enable
them to produce grammatically correct sentences in a L. Hymes held that such a view of linguistic theory
was sterile, that linguistic theory needed to be seen as part of a more general theory incorporating
communication and culture.
Hymes’ theory of communicative competence was a definition of what a speaker needs to know in order to
be communicatively competent in a speech community. A person who acqs communicative competence
acqs both knowledge and ability for L use with respect to:
 whether sth is formally possible;
 whether sth is feasible in virtue of the means of implementation available;
 whether sth is appropriate in relation to the context;
 whether sth is in fact done.
Halliday elaborated a powerful theory of the functions of L. He described seven functions that L performs
for children ling their L1:
1. the instrumental function: using L to get thigs;
2. the regulatory function: using L to control others’ behaviors;
3. the interactional function: using L to create interaction with others;
4. the personal function: using L to express personal feelings and meanings;
5. the heuristic function: using L to learn and discover;
6. the imaginative function: using L to create a world of the imagination;
7. the representational function: using L to communicate info.
*ling a L2 was seen as acqing the linguistic means to perform different kinds of functions.
Canale and Swain identified 4 dimensions of communicative competence: grammatical

competence (refers to what Ch calls linguistic competence; it is the domain of grammatical and lexical
capacity); sociolinguistic competence (refers to an understanding of the social context in which
communication takes place, including the role relationships, the shared info of the participants and the
communicative purpose for the interaction); discourse competence (refers to the interpretation of
individual message elements in terms of their interconnectedness and of how meaning is represented in
relationship to the entire discourse or text); strategic competence (refers to the coping strategies
that communicators employ to initiate, terminate. maintain, repair and redirect communication).
Theory of ling: little has been written about this topic. However, elements of an underlying ling theory can
be discerned in some CLT practices. One such element might be described as the communication
principle: acts that involve real comm promote ling. A second element is the task principle: acts
in which L is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote ling. A third element is the
meaningfulness principle: L that is meaningful to the learner supports the ling process.
Ling acts are consequently selected according to how well they engage the learner in meaningful and
authentic L use (rather than merely mechanical practice of L patterns). They address the conditions needed
to promote L2 ling, rather than the processes of L acq.
Krashen (who is not directly associated with CLT but developed theories cited as compatible with the
principles of CLT) sees acq as the basic process involved in developing L proficiency and distinguishes this
process from ling.
 ACQ: refers to the unconscious development of the target L system as a result of using the L for
real communication.
 LING: is the conscious representation of grammatical knowledge that has resulted from instruction,
and it cannot lead to acq.
It is the acqed system that we call upon to create utterances during spontaneous L use. The learned
system can serve only as a monitor of the output of the acqed system. Krashen and other L2 acq theorists
typically stress that L ling comes about through using L communicatively, rather than through practicing L
skills.
Johnson and Littlewood consider an alternative ling theory that they also see as compatible with CLT –a
skill-ling model of ling. According to this theory, the acq of communicative competence in a L is an example
of skill development. This involves both a cognitive and a behavioral aspect: the cognitive aspect involves
the internalization of plans for creating appropriate behavior. For L use, these plans derive mainly form the
L system –they include gramm rules, procedures for selecting voc, and social conventions Ging speech.
The behavioral aspect involves the automation of these plans so that they can be converted into fluent
performance in real time. This occurs mainly through practice in converting plans into performance. This
theory thus encourages an emphasis on practice as a way of developing communicative skills.
DESIGN.
Objectives:
Particular objectives cannot be defined beyond this level of specification since such an approach assumes
that L Ting will reflect the particular needs if the target learners. These needs may be in the domains of
reading, writing, listening or speaking. Instructional objectives for a particular course would reflect specific
aspects of communicative competence according to the learner’s proficiency level and communicative
needs.
The syllabus: one of the first syllabus models to be proposed was described as a notional syllabus,
which specified the semantic-grammatical categories and the categories of communicative function that
learners need to express.
This was expanded in what came to be known as Threshold Level English: syllabus that
included descriptions of the objectives of foreign L courses for European adults, the situations in which they
might need the use of foreign L, the topics they might need to talk about, the functions they needed L for,
the notions made use of in communication, as well as the voc and gramm needed. It was an attempt to
specify what was needed in order to be able to achieve a reasonable degree of communicative proficiency
in a foreign L, including the L items needed to realize the ‘threshold level’.
*the syllabus concept may be abolished since only learners can be fully aware of their own needs,
communicational resources and desired ling pace and path and each sts must create a personal, albeit
implicit syllabus as part of ling.
Types of ling and Ting acts: the range of exs and acts compatible with this approach is unlimited, provided
that such exs enable sts to attain the communicative objectives of the curriculum, engage leaners in comm,
and require the use of such communicative processes as info sharing, negotiation of meaning, and
interaction. Classroom acts re often designed to focus on completing tasks that are mediated through L or
involve negotiation of info and onfo sharing.
Littlewood distinguishes bet ‘FUNCTIONAL COMMUNICATION ACTS’ and ‘SOCIAL INTERACTION ACTS’
as major act types in CLT. The former includes such tasks as learners comparing sets of pictures and
noting similarities and differences; working out a series of events from a set of pictures; following directions,
etc. The latter includes conversation and discussion sessions, dialogues and role plays, simulations and
debates.
Learner roles: the emphasis on the process of communication leads to different roles for learners from
those found in more traditional L2 classrooms.
Often there is no text, gr rules are not presented, classroom arrangement is nonstandard, sts are expected
to interact primarily with each other rather than with the T, and correction of errors may be absent.
T roles:
Other roles assumed for Ts are:

>NEEDS ANALYST: the CLT T assumes a responsibility for determining and responding to learner L
needs. On the basis of such needs assessments, Ts are expected to plan group and individual instruction
that responds to the learners’ needs.
>COUNSELOR: the T-counselor is expected to exemplify an effective communicator seeking to maximize
the meshing of speaker intention and hearer interpretation, through the use of paraphrase, confirmation
and feedback.
>GROUP PROCESS MANAGER: it is the T’s responsibility to organize the classroom as a setting for
communication and communicative acts. During an act the T monitors, encourages, and suppresses the
inclination to supply gaps in lexis, gr and strategy but notices such gaps for later commentaries.
The role of IM: this approach views materials as a way of influencing the quality of classroom interaction
and L use.
>TEXT-BASED MATERIALS: textbooks.
>TASK-BASED MATERIALS: sts interact according to a task.
>RELIA: authentic material in the classroom. These might include L-based relia, such as signs, magazines,
advertisements, etc in which communicative acts can be built.
PROCEDURE.
A description of the procedure is not feasible. There is great room for individual interpretation and variation.
CHAPTER SIX: TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE.
Background: It is a L-Ting method built around the coordination of speech and action; it attempts to teach L
through physical (motor) act. –Developed by James Asher.
TPR is linked to the ‘trace theory’ of memory in psychology, which holds that the more often or the
more intensively a memory connection is traced, the stronger the memory association will be and the more
likely it will be recalled. Combined vb rehearsals accompanied by motor act, hence increase the probability
of successful recall.
*Asher sees successful adult L2 ling as a parallel process to child L1 acq. He claims that speech directed to
young children consists primarily of commands, which children respond to physically before they begin to
produce vb responses. Asher feels adults should recapitulate the processes by which children acq their
mother tongue.
Asher shares with the school of humanistic psychology a concern for the role of affective factors in L
ling: gamelike movements reduced learner stress and creates a positive mood in the learner, which
facilitates ling.
Asher’s emphasis on developing comprehension skills before the learner is taught to speak links him to the
Comprehension Approach. This approach shares the belief that: comprehension abilities precede
productive skills in ling a L; the Ting of speaking should be delayed until comprehension skills are
established; skills acqedd through listening transfer to other skills; Ting should emphasize meaning rather
than form; Ting should minimize learner stress.
APPROACH.
Theory of L: the labeling and ordering of TPR classroom drills seem to be built on assumptions that owe
much to structuralist or gr-based views of L. Asher views the vb in imperative as the central linguistic motif
around which L use and ling are organized. He sees L as beign composed of abstractions and
nonabstractions, with nonabstractions being most specifically represented by concrete nouns and
imperative vbs.
He believes that learners can acq a detailed cognitive map as well as the gramm structure of a L without
recourse to abstractions. Asher also refers in passing to the fact that L can be internalized as wholes or
chunks.
*there is no further elaboration of a theory of L.
Theory of ling: Asher still sees a stimulus-response view as providing the ling theory underlying L Ting
pedagogy. Asher has elaborated an account of what he feels facilitates or inhibits L ling. For this dimension
of his ling theory he draws on 3 rather influential ling hypothesis:
1. There exists a specific innate bio-program for L ling, which defines an optimal path for L1 and L2
development.
2. Brain lateralization defines different ling functions in the left- and right-brain hemisphere.
3. Stress (an affective filter) intervenes between the act of ling and what is to be learned; thee lower
the stress, the greater the ling.
1.THE BIO PROGRAM.
Asher’s TPR is a Natural Method inasmuch as Asher sees L1 and L2 ling as parallel processes. L2 Ting and ling
should reflect the naturalistic processes of L1 ling. Asher sees 3 processes as central: a) Ch develop listening
competence before they develop the ability to speak. During this period of listening the learner may be making a
mental blueprint of the L that will make it possible to produce spoken L later. b) Ch’s ability in listening comprehension
is acqedd because ch are required to respond physically to spoken L in the form of parental commands. c) Once a
foundation in listening comprehension has been established, speech evolves naturally and effortlessly out of it.
Parallel to the the ps of L1 ling, the foreign L learner should first internalize a cognitive map of the target L through
listening exs. Listening should be accompanied by physical movement. Speech and other productive skills should
come later. Asher bases these assumptions on his beliefs in the existence in the human brain of a bio-
program for L, which defines an optimal order for the L1 and L2 ling .
The brain and the nervous system are biologically programmed to acq L in a particular sequence and in a
particular mode. The sequence is listening before speaking and the mode is to synchronize L with the individual’s
body.
2.BRAIN LATERALIZATION.
Drawing on Piaget, Asher holds that the ch L learner acqs L through motor movement –a right-hemisphere act. Right-
hemisphere acts must occur before the left hemisphere can process L for production.
Similarly, the adult should proceed to L mastery through right-hemisphere motor acts, while the left-hemisphere
watches and learns. When a sufficient amount of right-hemisphere ling has taken place, the left hemisphere will be
triggered to produce L and to initiate other, more abstract L ps.
3.REDUCTION OF STRESS.
L1 acq takes place in a stress-free environment whereas the adult L ling environment often causes considerable
stress and anxiety. The key is to recapture the relaxed and pleasurable experiences that accompany L1 ling; the focus
should be on meaning interpreted through movement.
DESIGN.
Objectives: its general objectives are to teach oral proficiency at a beginning level. Comprehension is a
means to an end, and the ultimate aim is to teach basic speaking skills. Whatever goals are set, however,
must be attainable through the use of action-based drills in the imperative form.
The syllabus: sentence-based syllabus, with grammatical and lexical criteria being primary in selecting Ting
items. TPR requires initial attention to meaning rather than to the form of items. Gr is thus taught
inductively. Gr features and voc items are selected according to the sits in which they can be used in the
classroom and the ease with which they can be learned.
A course designed around TPR principles would not be expected to follow TPR syllabus exclusively.
Types of ling and Ting acts: imperative drills are the major classroom act. They are typically used to elicit
physical actions and activity on the part of the learners: role plays, slide presentations, reading and writing
acts.
Learner roles: have the primary roles of listener and performer. They listen attentively and respond
physically to commands given by the T. Learners have little influence over the content of ling, since content
is determined by the T, who must follow the imperative-basedd format lessons.
Learners monitor and evaluate their own progress. They are encouraged to speak when they are ready to
speak –that is, when a sufficient basis in the L has been internalized.
T roles: plays an active and direct role. It is the T who decides what to teach, who models and presents the
new materials, and who selects supporting materials for classroom use. The T is encouraged to be well
prepared and well organized so that the lesson flows smoothly and predictably. The T should ALSO provide
opportunities for ling so that sts can internalize the basic rules of target L.
In giving feedback, Ts should imitate the way parents give feedback to their children: little corrections at
first since these can inhibit the learner and then more T intervention is expected.
The role of IM: there’s no basic text. Materials and relia play an increasing role in later ling stages. For
beginners the T’s voice, actions and gestures are sufficient. Later, the T may use common classroom objs.
PROCEDURE.
CHAPTER SEVEN: THE SILENT WAY.

Background: devised by Caleb Gattegno. It is based on the premise that the T should be silent as much as
possible in the classroom and the learner should be encouraged to produce as much L as possible.
TSW shares a great deal with other ling theories and educational philosophies:
1. Ling is facilitated if the learner discovers or creates rather than remembers and repeats what is to
be learned. TSW views ling as a problem-solving, creative, discovering act, in which the learner is a
principal actor.
2. Ling is facilitated by accompanying (mediating) physical objects.
3. Ling is facilitated by problem solving involving the material to be learned.
APPROACH.
Theory of L: Gattegno takes an skeptical view of the role of linguistic theory in L Ting methodology. He
views L itself as a substitute for experience, so experience is what gives meaning to L.
Considerable discussion is devoted to the importance of grasping the spirit (the way each L is composed of
phonological and suprasegmental elements that combine to give the L its unique sound system and
melody) of the L and not just its component forms.
>TSW takes a structural approach to the organization of L to be taught: L is separated from its social
context and taught through artificial sits, usually represented by rods. The sentence is the basic unit of
Ting, and the T focuses on propositional meaning rather than communicative value. Sts are presented with
the structural patterns of the target L and learn the grammar rules of the L throughout largely inductive ps.
Gattegno sees voc as a central dimension of L ling and the choice of voc is crucial. He distinguishes bet
several classes of voc items:
 semi-luxury voc: expressions common in the daily life of the target L culture;
 luxury voc: used in communicating more specialized ideas;
 functional voc: deals with the most functional and versatile words of the L, many of which do not
have direct equivalents in the learner’s native tongue. This voc helps to comprehend the spirit of
the L.
Theory of ling: Gattegno makes an extensive use of his understanding of L1 ling processes as a basis for
deriving principles for Ting foreign Ls to adults. The L2 learner cannot learn another L in the same way,
however, because of what they already know. So the ‘natural’ approach to ling a L2 does not exist so a
successful L2 approach should replace this one: the artificial approach. This one is based on the principle
that successful ling involves commitment of the self to L acq through the use of silent awareness and then
active trial.
The SELF consists of 2 systems:
o a ling system: is activated only by way of intelligent awareness. Silence is considered to be the best
vehicle for ling, because in silence sts concentrate on the task to be accomplished.
o a retaining system: allows us to remember and recall at will linguistic els and their organizing
principles and makes linguistic comm possible.
Awareness is educable. As one learns ‘in awareness’ one’s powers of awareness and one’s capacity to
learn become greater. TSW thus claims to facilitate the ‘ling to learn’.
Gattegno sees L ling through TSW as a recovery of innocence: his aim is the education of the spiritual
powers and of the sensitivity of the individual.
DESIGN.
Objectives: the gral obj is to give beginning level sts oral and aural facility in basic elements of the target L.
The gral goal set for L ling is near-natïve fluency in the target L, and correct pronunciation and mastery of
the prosodic els of the target L are emphasized.
An immediate objective is to provide the learner with a basic practical kn of the gr of the L.
The syllabus: adopts a basically structural syllabus, with lesson planned around grammatical items and
related voc. There is no general Silent Way syllabus. But it is clear that L items are introduced according to
their gr complexity, their relationship to what has been taught previously, and the ease with which the items
can be presented visually.
Typically, the imperative is the initial structure introduced (because of the ease with which action vbs may
be demonstrated using SW materials); pl forms of nouns are taught within a similar structure; numeration
occurs early in the course because of the importance of numbers in everyday life; prepositions of location
also appear early for similar reasons. Also, pronouns, quantifiers, words dealing with temporal relations and
words of comparison are introduced early because they refer to oneself in everyday situations.
Types of ling and Ting acts: these have the function of encouraging and shaping st oral response without
direct oral instruction from or unnecessary modeling by the T. Basic to the method are simple linguistic
tasks in which the T models a word, ph, or sentence and then elicits learner responses. They then go on to
create their own utterances by putting together old and new info. Charts, rods, etc may be used to elicit.
Learner roles: the learner first experiences a random feeling of the area of act in question until one finds
one or more cornerstones to build on. Then starts a systematic analysis, first by trial and error and then by
directed experiment with practice of the acqed subareas until mastery follows. The absence of correction
and repeated modeling from the T requires the sts to develop ‘inner criteria’ and to correct themselves. The
absence of explanations requires sts to make generalizations, come to their own conclusions, and
formulate whatever rules they themselves feel they need. Sts are expected to develop independence,
autonomy and responsibility.
Learners have only themselves as individuals and the group to rely on, and so they must learn to work
cooperatively rather than competitively. SO at times, a st is an independent individual, other times a group
member, also a T, problem solver and a self-evaluator. AND IT IS THE ST WHO IS USUALLY EXOECTED
TO DECIDE ON WHAT ROLE IS MOST APPROPRIATE TO A GIVEN SIT.
T roles: T silence is the most demanding aspect of TSW. Using TSW would require most Ts to change their
perception of their role. Ts have to: a) teach; b) test; c) get out of the way. By Ting is meant the
presentation of an item once, typically using nonverbal clues to get across meanings. Testing follows where
elicitation and shaping of st production, which is done as silent as possible. Finally, T silently monitors sts’
interactions with each other.
The T is responsible for creating an environment that encourages st risk taking and that facilitates ling.
The role of IM: they consist mainly of a set of colored rods, color-coded pronunciation and voc wall charts,
a pointer, and reading/writing exs, all of which are used to illustrate the relationships between sound and
meaning in the target L. The materials are designed for manipulation by the sts as well as by the T in
promoting L ling by direct association.
Other materials that may be used include books and worksheets for practising readins and writing, picture
books, tapes, video tapes, films and other visual aids. However, these materials are secondary and are
used to supplement the classroom use of rods and charts.
PROCEDURE.
It typically follows a standard format. The first part of the lesson focuses on pronunciation. Depending on
the st level, the class might work on sounds, phs or even sentences designated on the Fidel chart. The T
will model the appropriate sound after pointing out to a symbol in the chart. Later, the T will silently point to
individual symbols and combinations of symbols, and monitor sts utterances. The pointer is used to indicate
stress, phrasing and intonation.
After this, sentence patterns, structure and voc are practised. The T models an utterance while creating a
visual realization of it with the colored rods. After the structure is correctly uttered by sts, the T will create a
sit in which the sts can practise the structure.
CHAPTER EIGHT: COMMUNITY LANGUAGE LEARNING.

Background: developed by Charles A. Curran and his associates. CLL represents the use of
Counseling-Ling theory to teach Ls.
*Counseling consists of one individual giving advice, assistance and support to another who has a problem
or is in some way needed.
It is also related to humanistic techniques: they engage the whole person, including the emotions and
feelings as well as the linguistic kn and behavioral skills.
Another L Ting tradition is L alternation: a message/lesson/class is presented first in the native tongue and
then again in the L2. Sts know the meaning and flow of a L2 message from their recall of the parallel
meaning and flow of a L1 message. The st gets a gist of L2 from these pieces.
APPROACH.
Theory of L: L theory must start, though not end, with criteria for sound features, the sentence, and abstract
models of L. The foreign L learners’ tasks are to apprehend the sound system, assign fundamental
meanings, and to construct a basic gr of the foreign L.
*alternative theory of L: L as Social Process. This view of L is elaborated in terms of 6 qualities: 1) the
whole-person p; 2) the educational p; 3) the interpersonal p; 4) the developmental p; 5) the communicative
p; 6) the cultural p.
CLL interactions are of 2 different kinds:
 interactions between learners; (they are unpredictable in content –the degree of intimacy plays an
important part)
 interactions between learners and knowers. (is initially dependent, the learner tells the knower what
they wishes to say in the target and the knower tells the learner how to say it)
Theory of ling: the techniques of counseling could be applied to ling in general and to L Ting in particular.
CLL advocates a holistic approach to L ling, since true human ling is both cognitive and affective. This is
termed whole-person ling. Such ling takes place in a communicative sit where Ts and learners are
involved in an interaction in which both experience a sense of wholeness. The p is divided into 5 stages:
1. BIRTH STAGE: feelings of security and belonging are established.
2. As the learner’s abilities improve, as a child, begins to achieve a measure of independence from the
parents.
3. The learner speaks independently.
4. The learner is secured enough so as to take criticism.
5. The learner merely works upon improving style and kn of linguistic appropriateness.
By the end of the p the learner can become a knower for a new learner. The p of ling a new L then is like
being reborn and developing a new persona. Success in L ling follows from a successful relationship bet
learner and T, and learner and learner.
*consensual validation or convalidation: mutual warmth, understanding, and a positive

evaluation of the other person’s worth bet the T and the learner. A relationship ch by convalidation is
considered essential to the ling process and is a key element of CLL classroom procedures.
DESIGN.
Objectives: linguistic or communicative objs are NOT defined in CLL. Through the method, the T can
successfully transfer their kn and proficiency in the target L to the learners, which implies that attaining
certain native-like mastery of the target L is set as a goal.
The syllabus: CLL does not use a conventional L syllabus, which sets out in advance the gramm, voc, and
other L items to be taught and the order in which they will be covered. Each CLL course would evolve its
own syllable, however, since what develops out of T-learner interactions in one course will be different from
what happens in another.
Types of ling and Ting acts: CLL combines innovative ling tasks and acts with conventional ones:
Learner roles: learners become members of a community and learn through interacting with members of
the community. Ling is viewed as sth that is achieved collectively. They view of the learner is an organic
one, with each new role growing developmentally out of the one preceding.
T roles: the T’s function derives from the functions of the counselor. More roles are keyed to the 5
developmental stages. In the early stages of ling, the T operates in a supportive role providing translations
and a model for imitation; later interaction may be initiated by the sts and the T monitors their utterances.
As sts can tolerate criticism, the T may intervene directly to correct utterances. The T is also responsible for
providing a safe environment in which clients can learn and grow.
The role of IM: since a CLL course evolves out of the interaction, a textbook is not considered a necessary
component. Materials might be developed by the T as the course develops, although these generally
consist of summaries on the blackboard. Conversations may also be transcribed and disturbed for study
and analysis.
In early accounts of CLL the use of Ting machines is recommended for necessary rote-drill and practice in
L ling. In recent descriptions, Ting machines are not mentioned.
PROCEDURE.
Since each CLL course is in a sense a unique experience, description of typical CLL procedures in a class
period is problematic. Learners will be placed in a circle, all facing one another. Sts sit in silence while they
determine what is supposed to happen in their L class. Someone would break the ice and the knower will
introduce discussion. The T might gathered the sts in different groups and the summary of their discussion
is to be presented to other groups. Finally, the T asks learners to reflect on the L class. Reflection provides
the basis for discussion of contracts.
CHAPTER NINE: THE NATURAL APPROACH.

Background: Krashen and Terrell have identified TNA with what they call traditional approaches to L Ting.
These are defined as based on the use of L in communicative sits without recourse to the native L.
Natural Approach Natural Method.
Is another term for what by the turn of the century had become known as the Direct Method.
It is believed to conform to the naturalistic principles found in successful L2 acq. There is emphasis on
exposure, input, rather than practice.
APPROACH.
Theory of L: Kr and Terrell see communication as the primary function of L so they refer to the Natural
Approach as an example of a communicative approach. Kr and Terrell give little attention to a theory of L.
L is viewed as a vehicle for communicating meanings and messages. Hence they state that acq can take
place only when people understand messages in the target L. They viewed L ling as mastery of structures
by stages.
*THE INPUT HYPOTHESIS states that in order for acqers to progress to the next stage in the acq of the
target L, they need to understand input L that includes a structure that is part of the next stage. I+1 i.e. input
that contains structures slightly above the learner’s present level.
Theory of ling: Kr’s L acq theory.
*see Krashen in psycholinguistics.
The implications of these 5 hypothesis in L Ting are:
1. As much comprehensible input as possible must be presented.
2. Whatever helps comprehension is important.
3. The focus in the classroom should be on listening and reading; speaking should be allowed to
emerge.
4. In order to lower the affective filter, st work should center on meaningful communication rather than
on form; input should be interesting and so contribute to a relaxed classroom atmosphere.
DESIGN.
Objectives: TNA is for beginners and is designed to help them become intermediates. It has the
expectation that the sts will be able to function adequately in the target situation. They will understand the
foreign L and be able to convey new ideas.
Specific objectives depend upon the learner needs and the skill and level being taught.
The syllabus: as well as fitting the needs and interests of sts, content selection should aim to create a low
affective filter by being interesting and fostering a friendly, relaxed atmosphere, should provide a wide
exposure to voc that may be useful to basic personal communication and should resist any focus on gramm
structures, since if input is provided over a wide variety of topics while pursuing communicative goals, the
necessary gramm structures are automatically provided in the input.
Types of ling and Ting acts: EMPHASIS IS ON PRESENTING COMPREHENSIBLE INPUT IN THE
TARGET L. Charts, pictures, advertisements and other relia serve as the focal point for ?s (that move from
simple to more complex, sts should not answer until they feel ready to do so). Acquisition acts –those that
focus on meaningful communication rather than on L form- are emphasized.
Learner roles: learners should not try to learn a L in the usual sense. The extent to which they can lose
themselves in acts involving meaningful communication will determine the amount and kind of acq they will
experience and the fluency they will ultimately demonstrate. The L acqrer is seen as a processor of
comprehensible input.
Learners’ roles are seen to change according to their stage of linguistic development:
 PRE-PRODUCTION STAGE: sts participate in L acts without having to respond in the target L.
 EARLY-PRODUCTION STAGE: sts respond to either-or ?s, use single words and short phs and
use fixed conversational patterns.
 SPEECH-EMERGENT PHASE: sts involve themselves in role plays and games, contribute
personal info and opinions and participate in group solving acts.
T roles: 3 central roles.

1. T is the primary source of CI in the target L.
2. T creates a classroom atmosphere that is interesting, friendly, and in which there is a low affective
filter for ling.
3. T must choose and orchestrate a rich mix of classroom acts, involving a variety of group sizes,
content, and contexts. These materials should also be based in sts’ needs and interests.
The role of IM: its primary goal is to make classroom acts as meaningful as possible by supplying the extra
linguistic context that helps the acquirer to understand and thereby, to acquire BY RELATING
CLASSROOM ACTS TO THE REAL WORLD, AND BY FOSTERING REAL COMMUNICATION AMONG
THE LEARNERS.
Materials come from relia rather than textbooks and they include: pictures, visual aids, schedule,
brochures, advertisements, maps, games.
PROCEDURE. TNA adpts techniques and acts freely from various method sources.

Approaches and Methods in L Acq (Resumen)

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Approaches and methods in L Ting.

CHAPTER ONE: A BRIEF HISTORY OF L TING.

> A L COULD BEST BE TAUGHT BY USING IT ACTIVELY IN THE CLASSROOM.

CHAPTER 2: THE NATURE OF APPROACHES AND METHODS IN L Ting.

Revision and extension of Antony’s model:

Krashen’s Monitor Model of L2 development is an example of a ling theory on which a

 At the level of process, K distinguished between acq and ling.

refers to the natural assimilation of L rules

At the level of APPROACH:

B) CONTENT CHOICE AND ORGANIZATION: THE SYLLABUS.

Methods typically depend critically on T roles and their realization.

F) THE ROLE OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS.

The role of IM within an individualized instructional system:

CHAPTER 3: THE ORAL APPROACH AND SITUATIONAL L Ting.

1920s A number of outstanding applied linguist developed the basis for a

and principled approach to a methodology in L Ting. Two of the leaders of

VOCABULARY WAS SEEN AS AN ESSENTIAL COMPONENT OF READING PROFICIENCY.

Situational Language Teaching.

CHAPTER FOUR: THE AUDIOLINGUAL METHOD.

The term structural referred to these chs:

a. elements in a L were thought of as being linearly produced in a rule-governed (structured)way;

Objectives: distinction between short-range and long-range objectives of an Au program.

include training in listening comprehension, accurate pronunciation, recognition of speech symbols as

must be L as the native speaker uses it.

The T must be trained to do the following:

THE DECLINE OF AU.

CHAPTER FIVE: COMMUNICATIVE L Ting.

Nowadays it is seen as an APPROACH and not as a method that aims to:

A. make communicative competence the goal of L Ting and

Howatt distinguishes between a ‘strong’ and a ‘weak’ version of CLT.

Canale and Swain identified 4 dimensions of communicative competence: grammatical

Other roles assumed for Ts are:

CHAPTER SEVEN: THE SILENT WAY.

CHAPTER EIGHT: COMMUNITY LANGUAGE LEARNING.

*consensual validation or convalidation: mutual warmth, understanding, and a positive

CHAPTER NINE: THE NATURAL APPROACH.

T roles: 3 central roles.

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