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Mechanics of Microelectronics

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Mechanics of Microelectronics
SOLID MECHANICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS
Volume 141

Series Editor: G.M.L. GLADWELL

Department of Civil Engineering
University of Waterloo
Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2L 3GI

Aims and Scope of the Series

The fundamental questions arising in mechanics are: Why?, How?, and How much?
The aim of this series is to provide lucid accounts written by authoritative researchers
giving vision and insight in answering these questions on the subject of mechanics as it
relates to solids.

The scope of the series covers the entire spectrum of solid mechanics. Thus it includes
the foundation of mechanics; variational formulations; computational mechanics;
statics, kinematics and dynamics of rigid and elastic bodies: vibrations of solids and
structures; dynamical systems and chaos; the theories of elasticity, plasticity and
viscoelasticity; composite materials; rods, beams, shells and membranes; structural
control and stability; soils, rocks and geomechanics; fracture; tribology; experimental
mechanics; biomechanics and machine design.

The median level of presentation is the first year graduate student. Some texts are
monographs defining the current state of the field; others are accessible to final year
undergraduates; but essentially the emphasis is on readability and clarity.

For a list of related mechanics titles, see final pages.

Mechanics of
Microelectronics
by
G.Q. ZHANG
Philips Semiconductors and Delft University of Technology,
The Netherlands

W.D. VAN DRIEL

Philips Semiconductors and Delft University of Technology,
The Netherlands

and

X.J. FAN
Intel Corporation, U.S.A.
A C.I.P. Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.

ISBN-10 1-4020-4934-X (HB)

ISBN-13 978-1-4020-4934-7 (HB)
ISBN-10 1-4020-4935-8 (e-book)
ISBN-13 978-1-4020-4935-4 (e-book)

Published by Springer,
P.O. Box 17, 3300 AA Dordrecht, The Netherlands.

www.springer.com

Printed on acid-free paper

All Rights Reserved

© 2006 Springer
No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted
in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording
or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception
of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered
and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work.

Printed in the Netherlands.

CONTENTS

Preface …………………………………………………………………… xi
1. Microelectronics Technology ………………………………………… 1
1. Introduction ………………………………………………………. 1
1.1 A Heart of Silicon .………………………………………… 3
1.2 In a Little Black Box……………………………………… 7
2. Baseline CMOS …………………………………………….…….. 8
2.1 Diffusion …………………………………………………. 11
2.2 Patterning ………………………………………………… 11
2.3 Deposition …………………………………………….… … 12
2.4 Planarization ………………………………………….… … 13
2.5 Integration …………………………………………….… … 14
2.6 Interconnect …………………………………………….… 15
3. Non-CMOS Options ………………………………………….….. 17
3.1 Memory ………………………………………………… … 18
3.2 Analog/RF ………………………………………………... 19
3.3 Passive Integration ……………………………………..… 19
3.4 High-Voltage/Power …………………………………….... 21
3.5 Sensors and Actuators ……………………………………. 22
4. Packaging …………………………………………………….….. 24
5. Systems ……………………………………………………….….. 28
6. Conclusions ………………………………………………….…… 31
7. References …………………………………………………….…. 33
8. Nomenclature ………………………………………………….… 34

2. Reliability Practice ………………………………………….………… 35

1. Introduction …………………………………………………….... 35
2. Reliability Assessment ……………………………………………. 37
2.1 Burn In ……………………………………….……………. 38
2.2 Biased Moisture Test …………………………………..… 38
2.3 Unbiased HAST and Steam Test ……………………….… 39
2.4 Bake and Extended High Temperature Storage Test …….. 39
2.5 Electromigration Testing on Devices and Packages …….… 40

v
vi Contents

2.6 Moisture Sensitivity Test ………………………………… 40

2.7 Temperature Cycling and Temperature Shock Tests …….. 40
2.8 Power Cycle Testing ………………………………….… … 41
2.9 Mechanical Testing…………………………………….…. 42
2.10 Design for Manufacturability, Reliability,
and Testability (Df MRT)………………………………… 43
3. Reliability Statistics……………………………………….….…. .. 44
3.1 Life Distributions ………………………………………..… 44
3.2 Confidence Level .…………………………………….….. 51
4. Acceleration Factor Models …………………………….………... 52
4.1 Arrhenius Relationship …………………………….……… 52
4.2 Peck’s Model ………………………………………..……. 53
4.3 Temperature-Voltage-Relative Humidity Model
(Eyring model) …………………………………….….….. 53
4.4 Coffin-Manson Model ………………………………..…… 54
4.5 Norris-Landzberg Model …………………………….…… 55
5. Failure Mechanisms…………………………………….….…….. 55
5.1 General … ……………………………………….……….… 55
5.2 Examples of Failure Mechanisms …………………….… … 56
6. Conclusions ……………………………………….………….….. 61
7. References ……………………………………….……………..… 62
8. Exercises ……………………………………….…….………….. . 63

3. Thermal Management………………………………….……………… 65
1. Introduction ………………………………………….…………... 65
2. Heat Transfer Basics ………………………………….…….…… 68
2.1 Conduction ……………………………………….………. 68
2.2 Convection ……………………………….…….………… 72
2.3 Radiation………………………………….…….………… 76
2.4 Remarks on Thermal Resistance ……………….………… 80
2.5 Typical Thermal Properti es…………………….………… 81
3. Thermal Design of Assemblies ……………………….……….…. 82
4. Thermal Design for a SQFP ………………………….…………. . 87
5. Heatsink Design Choices …………………………….………….. 89
6. Conclusions/Final Remarks ………………………………….…... 91
7. References ……………………………………….…………….…. 92
8. Exercises ……………………………………….…….………….. . 93

4. Introduction to Advanced Mechanics … ……………………………… 95

1. Introduction ……………………………………….….………….. 95
2. Stress and Strain ………………………………………..………... 97
2.1 Analysis of Stress……………………………….………… 97
2.2 Analysis of Strain ………………………………………... 101
2.3 Thermal Strain and Thermal Stress ……………….……… 103
Contents vii

2.4 Thermoelasticity …………………………………………. 104

2.5 Geometric Nonlinearity ………………………………….. 109
2.6 Material Nonlinearity ……………………………………. 110
2.7 Contact Nonlinearity ……………………………….…….. 120
3. Failure Criteria ……………………………….…………………. 122
3.1 Failure of Ductile Materials ……………………………… 122
3.2 Failure of Brittle Materials – Maximum Normal Stress
Theory................................................................................. 124
3.3 Fatigue Failure …………………………………………… 124
4. Fracture Mechanics ……………………………………….……... 126
4.1 Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics ………………………. 126
4.2 Elasto-Plastic Fracture Mechanics ………………….……. 132
4.3 Fatigue Crack Propagation ………………………………. 134
4.4 Mixed-Mode Fracture ……………………………….…… 135
4.5 Crack Closure ……………………………………………. 138
4.6 Singularity of Angular Corner of a Homogeneous
Material............................................................................... 140
4.7 Interface Fracture Mechanics ………………………..…… 141
5. Finite Element Method ……………………………………….….. 147
5.1 Introduction …………………………………………….… 147
5.2 Treatment of Nonlinearity in Finite Element Analysis …... 148
5.3 Finite Element Implementation in Fracture Mechanics ….. 158
5.4 Advanced Techniques in Finite Element Analysis …….… 162
6. References ………………………………………………………... 165
7. Exercises ……………………………………………………….… 166

5. Thermo-Mechanics of Integrated Circuits and Packages ………… 169

1. Introduction ………………………………………………….…… 169
2. Manufacturing Processes and Testing Methods …………………. 171
2.1 IC Backend Processes ……………………………….…… 171
2.2 Packaging Processes ……………………………………... 174
2.3 Reliability Testing for IC Packages ……………………… 177
3. Thermo-Mechanics of IC Backend Processes …………………… 179
3.1 IC Material Characterization ………………………….….. 180
3.2 Wafer Warpage as a Function of Temperature ……….….. 183
3.3 Nano-Indentation ………………………………………… 185
3.4 IC Interface Toughness Characterization ………………... 188
3.5 Other IC Material Characterization Techniques …………. 190
3.6 Typical IC Material Properties …………………………... 191
3.7 Finite Element Modelling for Backend Processes .…….… 191
4. Thermo-Mechanics of Packaging Processes ………………….…. 206
4.1 Packaging Material Characterization ………………….…. 207
4.2 Silicon Anisotropy ……………………………………….. 208
viii Contents

4.3 Characterization of Thermosetting Resins ………………. 210

4.4 Advanced Experimental Techniques for Packaging
Stresses and Deformations ……………………………….. 214
4.5 Package Interface Toughness Characterization ………..… 216
4.6 Typical Packaging Material Properties …………………... 221
4.7 Finite Element Modelling for Packaging ………………… 222
5. Thermo-Mechanics of Coupled IC Backend and Packaging
Processes......................................................................................... 245
5.1 Effect of IC Metal Design on Passivation Crack
and Pattern Shift Occurrence .............................................. 246
5.2 Effect of Package Structure on IC-Compound
Interfacial Delamination..................................................... 253
6. Case Studies ……………………………………………………… 259
6.1 Reliability Predictions of Thermo-Mechanical Integrity
of the Damascene Process .................................................. 259
6.2 Simulation-based Material Selection for a TBGA Package.. 263
7. References ………………………………………………….…….. 271
8. Exercises ………………………………………………….……… 278

6. Characterization and Modelling of Moisture Behaviour…………… 281

1. Introduction ……………………………………………………… 282
2. Moisture Diffusion Modelling ……………………………..…..…. 285
2.1 Diffusion in Multi-Material System ……………….…….. 285
2.2 Application to PBGA Package …………………….…….. 289
2.3 Moisture Desorption ……………………………….…….. 291
3. Characterization of Moisture Diffusivity and Saturation
Concentration…………………………………………….………. 292
3.1 Diffusivity Measurement ………………………………… 292
3.2 Saturated Moisture Concentration ……………………….. 296
4. Vapour Pressure Modelling ……………………………….….…. 298
4.1 Micromechanics-based Vapour Pressure Model …….…... 298
4.2 Vapour Pressure as External Loading in Delaminated
Areas………………………………………………..……. 305
4.3 Vapour Pressure-Induced Expansion ……………….……. 307
4.4 Whole-Field Vapour Pressure Modelling …….….….…… 308
4.5 Failure Mechanism………………………………….……. 309
4.6 Underfill Selection for Flip Chip BGA Package
for Moisture Performance ………………………………... 309
5. Hygroscopic Swelling Characterization & Modelling ……….….. 311
5.1 Hygroscopic Swelling Characterization ……………….… 311
5.2 Hygroscopic Swelling Modelling for FCBGA Package … 327
Contents ix

6. Single Void Instability Behaviour Subjected to Vapour Pressure

and Thermal Stress ……………………………………………… 330
6.1 Void Behaviour at Bulk ………………………………….. 331
6.2 Void Behaviour at Interface ……………………………... 336
7. Interface Strength Characterization and Modelling ……………... 338
7.1 Mechanics of Interfacial Delamination ………………….. 338
7.2 Interfacial Fracture Toughness …………………….…….. 341
7.3 Interface Modelling using Cell Element …………….…… 342
8. Case Studies ……………………………………………….…….. 345
8.1 Integrated Stress Study for QFN Package …………….…. 345
8.2 BGA Moulding Compound Selection with Optimal
Resistance to Moisture Induced Failures ………………… 361
9. References …………………………………………………….…. 370
10. Exercises …………………………………………………….….. 374

7. Characterization and Modelling of Solder Joint Reliability………. 377

1. Introduction ……………………………………………………… 377
1.1 Low Cycle Fatigue Loading .…………………………….. 379
1.2 Thermally Induced Solder Joint Reliability ……………… 381
2. Analytical-Empirical Prognosis of the Reliability ………………. 385
3. Thermo-Mechanical Characteristics of Soft Solders ……………. 389
3.1 Eutectic Sn-Pb-(Ag) Solder ……………………………… 396
3.2 Tin-Based Lead Free Solders ……………………………. 399
3.3 Discussion on the Solder Creep Characteristics ……….… 405
3.4 Primary Creep ……………………………………………. 408
4. Data Evaluation and Life-time Estimation ………………….…… 410
5. Case Studies ……………………………………………………… 418
5.1 Comparing Different Creep Laws for a Ceramic Capacitor
and a PBGA on FR-4 Boards ……………………………. 418
5.2 Comparison of Predicted and Test Results for Surface
Mount Quartz Components ................................................ 428
5.3 Parametric Study on Chip Size Packages ………………… 438
5.4 Flip Chip on Board Assemblies ………………………….. 449
6. References ………………………………………………….…….. 462
7. Exercises ………………………………………………………… … 466

8. Virtual Thermo-Mechanical Prototyping …………………….…… 469

1. Introduction ………………………………………………….…… 469
2. Strategy, Methodology and Procedures of Virtual Prototyping …. 473
2.1 Strategy and Methodology ………………………….……. 473
2.2 Procedures ……………………………………………….. 477
x Contents

3. Fundaments of Simulation-based Optimisation …………….…… 480

3.1 Design of Experiments (DOE) ……………………….….. 480
3.2 Response Surface Models (RSM) ………………….….…. 482
3.3 Design Optimisation ……………………………………... 489
3.4 Reliability and Robustness Analysis ………….…………. 507
4. Case Studies ……………………………………………….…….. 512
4.1 Analytical Examples ………………….…………….……. 512
4.2 Industrial Application Cases …………….………….……. 517
5. Conclusions ………………………………………………….…… 531
6. References …………………………………………………….…. 532
7. Exercises ……………………………………………………….… 534

9. Challenges and Future Perspectives ………………………………. 537

1. Introduction ……………………………………………………… 537
2. Mechanical Related Characteristics of Microelectronics ……….. 538
3. Reliable Inputs ……………………………………..…….….…… 542
3.1 Design Inputs …………………………………….………. 542
3.2 Failure Inputs …………………………………….………. 543
4. Tests and Experiments …………………………………………… 545
5. Material and Interface Behaviour ……………………………….. 546
5.1 Material Behaviour ………………………………………. 546
5.2 Interface Strengths ……………………………………….. 547
6. Multi-scale Mechanics …………………………………….……... 549
6.1 Introduction ……………………………………….……… 549
6.2 Hierarchy of Methods for Mechanical Modelling ……..… 551
6.3 Handshaking between Approaches ……………….……… 556
6.4 Summary and Outlook ………………….…………….…. 558
7. Multi-Physics Modelling ……………………….………….…….. 560
8. Advanced Simulation Tools ……………………………….……... 561
9. Conclusions ……………………………………………….……… 561
10. References ……………………………………………….……… 562
PREFACE

Microelectronics has pervaded our lives for the past fifty years, with
massive penetration into health, mobility, security, communications,
education, entertainment, and virtually every aspect of human lives. In the
past decades, as the main stream, these progresses are powered by Moore’s
law, focusing on IC miniaturization down to nano dimensions and silicon-
on-chip (SoC) based system integration. While microelectronics community
continues to invent new solutions around the world to keep Moore’s law
alive, there are ever-increasing awareness, R&D effort, and business drivers
to push the development and application of “More than Moore” (MtM) that
are based upon or derived from silicon technologies but do not simply scale
with Moore’s law (with typical examples as RF, HV and power, sensors and
actuators, MEMS/NEMS, system-in-package (SiP), heterogeneous
integration, etc.). This emerging trend is partially triggered by the increasing
social needs for high level microelectronic systems including non-digital
functionalities, the necessity to speed up the innovative product creation and
to broaden the product portfolio of existing wafer fabs, and the limiting cost
and time factors of advanced SoC development. Along with the major
technology development trends characterized by Moore’s law and “More
than Moore”, the business trends are mainly characterized by cost reduction,
shorter-time-to-market and outsourcing. The combination of these techno-
logy and business trends leads to increased design complexity, decreased
design margins, increased chances and consequences of failures, decreased
product development and qualification times, increased gap between
technology advance and development of fundamental knowledge, and
increased difficulties to meet quality, robustness and reliability requirements.
Based on the root cause analyses from observed failures of micro-
electronics during different life cycles, it is found that, among others,
thermo-mechanical (thermal, mechanical and thermo-mechanical) related
failures account for about 65% of total failures in microelectronics, and they
originate mostly from the product/process design phase. Thermo-mechanical

xi
xii Preface

reliability is becoming one of the major bottlenecks for both current and
future microelectronics technologies.
Due to the lack of available mechanics knowledge on one hand, and non-
sufficient attention and R&D effort from both the academia and industry on
the other hand, unfortunately, thermo-mechanical design and qualification of
microelectronics are still largely depending on one’s experience, supported
by some qualitative numerical simulations. As a result, many design cycles
are needed: from material development/pre-selection to concept design, to
building and testing multiple physical prototypes. It is hard to achieve
competitive designs with shorter-time-to-market, optimized performance,
low costs, and guaranteed quality, robustness and reliability. Therefore, there
is an urgent need to exploit and develop advanced knowledge of mechanics
for microelectronics to enable the development of innovative thermo-
mechanical design methods and tools.
Driven by our strong motivation and experience of leading and participating
in many relevant research, development, and graduate education activities,
ranging from microelectronics technologies to fundaments of mechanics, we
present this book, as our obligation, to graduate students in universities,
researchers, engineers and managers in industries. Our aims are to provide
industry and academia with the cutting edge methods and solutions for
various thermo-mechanical related problems of microelectronics in a
systematic way, and also the development roadmap of mechanics for
microelectronics. The book chapters are written by the worldwide leading
experts with both profound theoretical achievement and rich industrial
experience, containing essential and detailed information about the state-of-
the-art theories, methodologies, way of working and real industrial case
studies.

Acknowledgements
We would like to thank for their contributions to the book, A.J. van
Roosmalen, J. Zhou, R. Dudek, E. Eggink, J.H.J. Janssen, F. G. Kuper, and
N. Tzannetakis. We also would like to make acknowledgment to many of
our colleagues who have contributed to this book in one way or another,
among them, D. van Campen and M. Geers from Technical University of
Eindhoven; L.J. Ernst, F. van Keulen, L.G. Wang, C. Yuan from Delft
University of Technology; R. van Silfhout, M. van Gils, D.G. Yang,
J. Beijer, O. van der Sluis, J. Bisschop, Y. Li, and many others from Philips.
G.Q. Zhang is particularly grateful to his wife Suping, his son Luke and
his daughter Romy for their motivating, understanding and supporting.
W.D. van Driel is grateful to his partner Ciel for her support and
understanding on the many evenings at home he has spent on writing and
 Preface xiii

editing this book. X.J. Fan is grateful to have the opportunity working
together with his wife, Jenny, and the support from their son Bill.

G.Q. Zhang
W.D. van Driel
X.J. Fan

May of 2006

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