Connect+

The magazine of TWI

TWI Events Assessing the acceptability of flaws in metallic

6 March 2014
Bridges and Infrastructure
Manchester
25 March 2014
Advantages of using probabilistic
methods for assessing the structural
significance of weld flaws
Great Abington
27 March 2014
NDT of Aerospace Composites
Manchester
Exhibitions
2-5 March 2014
Waste Management Exhibition
Arizona, USA
10-13 March 20104
European Wind Energy Association
Barcelona, Spain
24-25 March 2014
BINDT UK Certification 2014
Luton, UK
Connect+ is the new electronic newsletter
from TWI. This regular e-mail publication
showcases a selection of news and
technical information but for an expanded
view and access to a wider collection of
recent papers, please visit our Connect+
webpage www.twi-global.com/news-
structures – introducing BS 7910:2013
A new edition of the long-standing procedure BS 7910 (Guide to methods
for assessing the acceptability of flaws in metallic structures) has just been
published, superseding the 2005 edition and 2007 amendment. The new
document is available from BSI and authorised retailers.
Features of the new procedure
include: ECA service: analyses carried out
• a re-structuring of the fracture from 1 January 2014 will usually
assessment clauses and revised be carried out using the new
procedure for the treatment of procedure (although there may be
fracture toughness data circumstances in which the 2005
• methods for incorporating procedures should be used, eg
crack-tip constraint and weld legacy calculations and projects
strength mismatch into fracture which have already started).
calculations
• a revised compendium of CrackWISE® software: CW4
residual stress distributions, (compatible with the 2005 edition,
and a new method for applying plus Amendment 1, issued in 2007)
them has now been superseded by CW5
• revisions to the clauses on flaw (compatible with the 2013 edition).
interaction and a new annex on
reliability of NDT techniques Training in BS 7910 and CrackWISE
• revised procedures for the has been revised to take account
assessment of creep and creep/ of the new procedures and can
fatigue be undertaken either at one
• an improved corrosion of our regular courses held in
assessment procedure Abington, UK and Houston, USA or
• corrections and clarifications as a customised course for your
throughout the document. organisation.
The new procedures have Contact isabel.hadley@twi.co.uk for
implications for a number of TWI further information
services, products and training.

TWI Ltd, Granta Park, Great Abington, Cambridge CB21 6AL, UK Tel: +44 (0)1223 899000
 January/February 2014

BeamAssure – electron beam welding quality

assurance tool
TWI has developed BeamAssure™, a quality assurance tool which helps to analyse electron beam parameters, giving
an effective fingerprint of the beam and an independent monitor of beam characteristics. Engineered and supported by
TWI, this product provides unrivalled confidence in electron beam welding and processing performance to ensure product
quality.

Electron beams are challenging to measure and calibrate due to their nature but BeamAssure™ is able to capture
relevant data, giving assurance of beam power, profile consistency and quality every time.

This tool enables monitoring of beam consistency and the detection of human error and thus leads to reduced scrap
or rework rates. It provides a QA record for each assembly and has visual and numeric presentation of key process
variables.

The BeamAssure probe is installed at an UK aerospace production company,

integrated with the welding machine. It has been running for over two years
now, capturing 30,000 data sets and no issues have been reported.

The tool is suitable for use across all industry and research sectors. For more
information please contact us: beamassure@twi.co.uk

New Members of TWI

Bengtsson Studio AB Ceona Services UK Ltd DB Thermal - Division of Spectra Solutions
Sweden UK DBT Technologies Experts
Sports and leisure Oil and gas (Pty) Ltd Saudi Arabia
South Africa NDT and field inspection
Engineering services

Gatherer Systems Ltd Ingenieria y Diseno Kurashiki Boring Kiko LPI, Inc
UK Europeo SA Co Ltd USA
Biomechanical devices Spain Japan Full-service consulting
Pressure vessel and Thermal spraying engineering firm
offshore wind foundation
manufacturing

Neptune Offshore RAY Skills Stryker Ireland Tecnicas Reunidas SA

Services Development LLC Ireland Spain
UK Oman Medical device design, Design and construction of oil,
Subsea and renewable Learning and development manufacture and supply petrochemical and power plant
energy engineering solutions.

Terex GB Ltd. Dungannon VerdErg Connectors Ltd Winoa

UK UK France
Off highway OEM Subsea engineering Steel abrasives and diamond
cutting tools

22

News in brief
Wayne Thomas Building opens at the Centre for
Materials and Coastal Research to honour the
inventor of friction stir welding
A new building at the Centre for the Institutes of
Materials and Coastal Research in Germany has been
named after Dr Wayne Thomas, the inventor of friction
stir welding. Helmholtz-Zentrum, Geeshacht bestowed
the honour on the former TWI employee to recognise
his discovery of the solid state welding process which
has, in the last 20 years, revolutionised manufacturing
worldwide.
From left to right: Jorge dos Santos, Wayne Thomas,
Wolfgang Kaysser and Norbert Huber.
Aviation Industry Corporation of China to advance
welding and joining research capabilities in
collaboration with TWI
TWI welcomes the start of a technical collaboration
with the Aviation Industry Corporation of China to
create new opportunities for the Corporation’s Aviation
Foundation Technology Establishment AVIC Tech, in the
innovation and application of advanced research in novel
welding and coating technologies, along with additive
manufacturing. The initiative is part of AVIC’s drive for
technology advancement through co-operation with key
international partner organisations.
The opportunities for innovation and extended research
will focus on technologies specific to the advancement of
aviation engineering together with software development,
and training support.
For more information contact steve.shi@twi.co
January/February 2014
Newly launched Confederation of Indian Industry
and TWI awareness seminar in composites
technology proves a success
A new technology awareness seminar in composites
technology attended by 30 industry delegates and
presented as a joint venture between the Confederation
of Indian Industry (CII) and TWI has proved to be a great
success. The presentations – which covered fabrication
and joining methods for different composite materials,
current and potential applications, commercial data, and
health and safety concerns – sparked great interest in
the use of composites for new or alternative applications
and resulted in a number of requests from delegates
for more in-depth information. TWI has been offering
training and examinations services in India for over 20
years, across all sectors. Its joint venture programme
with the CII adds technology awareness and technical
support to its existing services portfolio.
In the year since the launch of TWI’s new facility in
Chennai in January 2013, TWI has expanded its staff base
to include experienced specialists from Indian industry
and has been building its training, examination and
technical services portfolio for customers and Industrial
Members in the region. Training in NDT and inspection is
supported by an NDT Research and Engineering Services
department at the facility, linking direct with the services
offered by TWI in the UK.
For more information, contact jim.kerins@twi.co.uk
Vince Cable India visit promotes UK business
successes
As part of the Great British Festival, Business Secretary
Vince Cable led a UKTI delegation to India this December
to showcase UK companies operating successfully in the
region and to encourage new companies to follow suit.
During his tour, Dr Cable visited TWI India in Chennai
where he saw how the company’s training and
examinations and technical support services have seen
rapid growth in the past year. The visit coincided with
the timely announcement by TWI that, in response to
this success, it plans to open further offices in Mumbai,
Trichy and Cochin.
3
 January/February 2014
Job Knowledge - 128
Ultrasonics Examination:
Part 2
The previous article (127) explained the basic principles of
ultrasonic examination. To determine accurately the size and
position of a feature it is necessary, with any measuring
equipment, to calibrate the ultrasonic examination system.
The type of calibration blocks (there are varying shapes and
sizes to be used), depend on the application and the form
and shape of the subject being tested. The calibration block
should be made the same as the material being inspected
and the artificially-induced flaw should closely resemble
the actual flaw of concern. The best calibration block for
calibrating ultrasonic testing equipment is one in the same
grade of material and heat treatment condition as the
production items and with a weld containing genuine flaws
such as slag entrapment, porosity, lack of fusion, or cracks..
Techniques developed enable flaws of known sizes to be
introduced into a welded joint. Such calibration blocks can
be produced to validate the ultrasonic test method but are
expensive and tend to be used only in applications such as
nuclear vessel manufacture and critical offshore/process
plant fabrication.
A number of standard calibration blocks are available with
the shape and dimensions being specified in international
standards such as ISO 2400, ISO 7963, ASME V and
ASTM E164. Calibration of a compression wave probe used
to measure thickness is simple and carried out using a
stepped wedge calibration block. These calibration blocks
have smooth, machined features and are not therefore truly
representative of flaws in a welded component.
For calibrating equipment to be used to interrogate welded
joints the calibration block needs to be more complex than
a simple step wedge, with probably the two most common
types illustrated in Fig. 1, the ISO 2400 Number 1 block and
the ISO 7963 Number 2 block. These are machined from
steel to very closely controlled tolerances and contain
a number of features that can be used to calibrate the
ultrasonic equipment. The standard Number 1 block is
300mm long and 25 or 50mm thickness with a 100mm
Fig 1 Number 1 and number 2 calibration blocks
4
radius machined on one end. The test block also contains
two drilled holes, 50 and 1.5mm in diameter and a flat
bottomed machined notch.
Smaller lighter blocks are useful for site use, and may
be used to calibrate both compression and shear-wave
probes for beam angle, time base, resolution and sensitivity.
Sensitivity and resolution are terms frequently used –
sensitivity is the ability to detect small flaws within the
weld, resolution the ability to locate and separate individual
flaws.
Weld discontinuity acceptance criteria are initially based
on the height of the signal displayed on the oscilloscope
screen. This is not as simple as it may appear since
the ultrasonic beam is influenced by the microstructure
of the metal through which it is propagating, becoming
scattered and diffused - similar to car headlights in fog!
As a general rule the larger the grain size the greater the
scattering effect, The reflected beam becomes attenuated
or decreased in strength the further away the reflector is
from the ultrasonic probe. This must be taken into account
when accepting or rejecting flaws within the weld – a 4MHz
signal would lose some 0.02–0.03db per mm in steel. Fig 2
illustrates this decrease in amplitude or signal height with
distance.
Fig. 2 The reduction in amplitude with distance
Before calibrating, the operator must select the frequency
of the transducer as this determines the wavelength of the
sound. The frequency has a significant effect on the ability
to detect a flaw. A rule of thumb is that a flaw must be
larger than one half the wavelength to be readily detectable.
The ultrasonic operator will select a calibration block with
some feature of known dimensions, often a 3mm diameter
flat bottomed hole and the appropriate ultrasonic probe,
these generally being specified in the relevant application
code or standard. The height of the reflection at known
distances from the probe would be determined and from
this data would be drawn a distance amplitude correction
(DAC) curve by joining the tips of the signals that can
be seen in Fig 2. This provides a means of establishing a
‘reference level sensitivity’ as a function of distance from
the ultrasonic probe and allows the signals from similar
reflectors to be evaluated.
 January/February
January/February
2014
2014

The characteristics of an ultrasonic probe vary according to
the size of the piezo-electric transducer and its frequency.
It is therefore essential that each probe to be used to
examine a welded component is individually calibrated and a
DAC curve established for each different situation.
The contract specification, application code or acceptance
standard specifies the relevant ultrasonic acceptance
standard of height, length, position etc of the reflector. It
is unwise to refer to a visual or radiographic acceptance
standard in the absence of a relevant ultrasonic acceptance
standard. An ultrasonic acceptance standard will state
which reflectors are acceptable or unacceptable based on
the amplitude of the signal compared with a DAC curve
or other ultrasonic specific acceptance criteria. One such
specification that refers to the DAC curve is ISO 11666 ‘NDT
of welds. Ultrasonic testing – Acceptance levels’ which
defines four levels:
• the reference level,, ie the amplitude of the DAC curve
at the relevant distance
• the evaluation level,, ie the amplitude at which the
reflector must be examined more closely to determine
through thickness height and length of the discontinuity
• the recording level ie amplitude at which the size and
position of the discontinuity must be recorded
• the acceptance level, above which the discontinuity
must be rejected. This may be above or below the DAC
curve. Any reflector with a signal below the evaluation
level would be ignored
the length or height of the reflector can be determined
(Fig 3). If above the recording level this would be recorded
on the U/T report before being compared with the
acceptance standard for either acceptance or rejection.
It is impossible to measure accurately the size of a
reflector using a manual scanning technique for a number
of reasons. The speed of the sound within the component
may vary due to changes in the microstructure and the
cleanliness of the parent metal; the probe will be made to
within dimensional tolerances, as will the calibration block
and these will affect the accuracy of calibration; the beam
width may vary; the couplant and surface condition of
the component will affect the coupling and hence sound
transmission; the surface of flaws within the weld are
generally not flat, smooth reflective surfaces oriented at
90o to the beam; the probe movement is measured manually
with a rule or tape measure. The most important factors in
achieving accurate, consistent and reproducible results are
the skill, competence and integrity of the operator.

If, as the ultrasonic testing (U/T) probe is scanned across

the surface of the component, and the amplitude of the
signal exceeds the specified evaluation level, the U/T
operator would need to investigate the reflector in detail
to determine its size, orientation and position within the
component. If the probe is moved transverse and parallel
to the weld and rotated slightly, a skilled and experienced
operator can often identify the flaw type (crack, lack of
fusion, etc) by observing the changes in the shape of the Fig. 3 The 6db drop method for sizing of reflectors
pulse-echo on the oscilloscope screen.

To enable the operator to identify the position of a flaw
it must be possible for the path and width of the beam
to be visualised. Accurately dimensioned diagrams of the
weld-cross section superimposed on what would be the
beam path are required. This may be unnecessary in many
situations but provides additional confidence in critical
applications and may be a mandatory part of a written U/T
procedure.
The accuracy of conventional manually-scanned pulse-echo
ultrasonic examination carefully performed by a competent
operator is around ±2mm. Such inaccuracy can be important
when carrying out a fitness-for-service analysis,, where the
through thickness of a flaw is of critical importance. Some
methods of achieving greater accuracy will be dealt with in
the next article.

The size of a reflector is generally determined by the ‘6db

drop method’, as illustrated in Fig. 3.

The operator moves the probe backwards and forwards at

right angles to the axis of the reflector until the maximum
amplitude response is found. This point is noted and the
scanning continued until the amplitude of the signal has This article was written by Gene Mathers.
dropped by 6dB, this point also being recorded. From this

5
 January/February 2014

MAINLINE railway infrastructure

project on track to deliver industry-
ready asset management tool

During its third and final year, the consortium of the With a number of needs arising from emerging freight
European railway infrastructure project ‘MAINLINE’ is and passenger demands, the results of these and similar
pleased to report that important progress has already tests will enable more effective planning of maintenance
been made in the development of methods and tools that by the railway infrastructure managers, who will in turn
will contribute to the improvement of railway systems. have access to new and improved renewal, strengthening
The consortium has taken a holistic approach to its or refurbishment solutions. MAINLINE will provide
work in considering the life cycle of specific railway the rail industry with an evaluation tool capable of
infrastructure, ranging from plain line to bridges and accurately comparing cost efficiency on a whole-life basis,
tunnels, for example, and looking at how the introduction bringing together in a quantified manner the economic
of new construction methods, inspection technologies and environmental consideration required to inform
or life extension procedures can impact on long-term management decision makers.
operation. Results from the project’s comprehensive
workplan of assessment and analysis will form the basis A meeting to mark the end of the project’s second year
of an industry-accessible whole-life asset management took place in September 2013 at TWI in Cambridge
and environmental tool. with the next meeting, to include a regional workshop,
scheduled for Budapest in May 2014.
The project is co-ordinated by UIC with support from
ARTTIC in France. The role of TWI in the project has been Contact collaborative@twi.co.uk for more information
instrumental during the assessment of current inspection
practices used in the European rail infrastructure and
the task of providing guidance to increase the uptake of
useful and cost-effective approaches by the rail sector.
One study example applying to existing infrastructure
and carried out by project partner University of Lulea, is
of two bridges in Sweden. Testing and analysis included
the pre-stressing of a concrete trough bridge to increase
its shear capacity and a test-to-failure of a steel truss
bridge to gauge its capacity.

Young engineers provide inspiration for the technologists of the

future

Young engineers from TWI’s materials joining and engineering groups have
helped provide inspiration for graduates and postgraduates interested in
a career in research and technology development. Positive feedback from
both delegates and event organisers IOM3, highlighted TWI’s proactive
approach in reaching-out to young engineers and supporting professional
development. As a result of the Conference, over 30 delegates expressed an
interest in career opportunities with TWI.

66

Advanced materials conditioning
facility expands exposure testing
opportunities
Six large-volume autoclaves commissioned at TWI
are expanding the company’s existing capability for
exposure testing of polymeric, composite and metallic
test specimens together with larger components. Early
tests, carried out during a recent joint industry project,
have demonstrated the new facility’s potential for
extended research of materials’ behaviour in supercritical
environments.
The long-term performance of polymeric, composite,
cementitious and metallic materials in oilfield,
construction and automotive applications is of interest
to many of TWI’s Industrial Member organisations. Until
now, it has been difficult to test large components in a
maintained constant test environment. Recently, TWI
and a subcontractor designed a new series of autoclaves
to exacting specifications. This new facility was installed
in the harsh environment (H2S sour service and corrosive
produced fluids) testing laboratory in Cambridge and
expands the exposure testing opportunities.
The autoclaves have already been used in a joint
industry project on materials selection for transport of
supercritical carbon dioxide (MASCO2T), investigating
the conditioning of large polymeric tensile specimens at
elevated temperatures and pressures. Also included in
the test programme for the project was a metre-long
section of composite tube. This could be aged for the
customer for extended periods while keeping the ratio
of fluid reservoir volume to surface area at 25cm (as
specified by oilfield standards including ISO 23936).
Five of the autoclaves have an internal depth of 600mm
and two of these are lined with C276. A resulting 19.4L
volume allows application of testing standards where the
ratio of the fluid volume to the sample surface area is
specified as 25cm. The sixth C276-lined autoclave has an
internal depth of 1000mm making it ideal for conditioning
tubular components made from thermoplastics, fibre-
January/February
January/February 2014
2014
reinforced composite or coated metal parts. The
autoclaves can be run under conditions up to 190bar and
180°C.
All six autoclaves can be compartmentalised to allow for
testing different materials under similar conditions, using
specially welded leak-proof inserts to prevent cross-
contamination of fluids within the vessels.
New large-volume autoclaves at TWI
A dual-stage 2L syringe-pump enables materials
conditioning operations with starting feed pressures as
low as 20bar and, thanks to a specially designed single
thermocouple holder, operators can routinely check
internal temperatures throughout the vertical depth
while the autoclave is still under pressure.
At the end of an extended period of conditioning,
pressure in the autoclave can be reduced under operator
control to reproduce a rapid gas decompression (RGD)
event. This can be applied even in the largest autoclave,
significantly enhancing our current RGD capabilities to
larger components, whilst maintaining high safety and
environmental standards. As pressure reduces, the
released gas is sampled to TWI’s extensive suite of gas
chromatographs, ready for analysis.
Please contact us for further information
contact@twi.co.uk
7
 January/February 2014
SpotTrack: a spot weld
inspection device ready
for field trials
A European project to develop an easy-to-use, affordable
non-destructive tool using ultrasound to detect flaws
in spot welds under automotive repair is reaching its
field trial phase. We look at the work carried out by the
consortium so far.
An example of one of the finite element models being
used to predict the reflections from a large spherical
pore in the centre of the nugget
When considering the thousands of spot welds present in
the manufacturing of a car, it is inevitable that some will
need to be remade when the vehicle undergoes repair.
Clearly, it is not possible to destructively-test repair
welds. Matching test samples could be made for some
reassurance but there is currently no suitable method to
ensure the integrity of welds going into service.
The SpotTrack TM project aims to meet the need and is
developing an automated spot weld inspection device.
Project partners (Vermon, Tecnitest, ACT, Nardoni, TWI,
KTU, CAB, Tofas and Karl Vella) first worked to assess
market requirements, then, using a combination of
numerical modelling and experimentation, designed the
device.
The numerical modelling results provide visualisation
of the sound field throughout the whole volume at any
point in time during the weld test. This enables a deeper
understanding of the effects of test variables on the
reliability of the results.
SpotTrack uses an array probe to allow greater
inspection resolution with a multiplexer, which allows
signals to be collected without the need for expensive
phased array equipment. The inspection system
hardware will comprise a hand held probe, an ultrasonic
unit and a laptop to view the results.
As part of the development work, the project team also
created a set of samples to ensure that SpotTrack could
reliably determine the quality of spot welds. Samples
included good welds and a range of defective welds:
undersized; stuck (where the zinc coating melts and
sticks the two plates together but a proper bond is
not achieved); oversized (burnt) and porous. The team
used the data from these tests to develop novel signal
processing algorithms for the inspection system.
The next step for the project is to take the device to a
body shop for field trials on cars that are under repair.
For more information please contact: Ruth Sanderson
(ruth.sanderson@twi.co.uk) or An Nguyen-Dinh
(an.nguyendinh@vermon.com).
The SpotTrack project has received funding from
the European Union under the Seventh Framework
Programme [FP7/2007-2013] and grant agreement
No 284471.
Connect+ is the bi-monthly
magazine of TWI
Photography
Simon Condie
Production
Kerry Jamieson
Graphic Design
Craig Carter
Copyright © TWI Ltd 2013
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