CM8003 From Alchemy to Chemistry

• Assoc. Professor Tan Howe Siang

– SPMS-CBC-03-06. howesiang@ntu.edu.sg

• Reference Book: Transforming Matter. A history of Chemistry from

Alchemy to Buckyball
• Videos to watch, and short papers to read.
• One midterm (40%) [March 21st 2018]
– You MUST sit for the midterms even if you have gotten waivers for
timetable clash
• Final exam (60%).
• Pass/Fail only (No contribution to your GPA)
• Midterms and final exam will consist of MCQ and short questions
(not confirmed). Details will confirmed later
• Class size: 400
• Waitlist (as of 9/1/2018): 1094
• …So take it only if you are genuinely interested
in the topic…
• …and even if you can’t get in the course, you
are welcome to come to any of the lectures…
Yes! people DO fail CM8003!
 Contents
• Introduction: Key ideas of modern day chemistry
• Alchemy: Ancient china. Greece and Near east. Islamic.
Medieval Europe
• 17th century: Origins of modern chemistry
• Lavoisier and the chemical revolution
• The (re)-birth of atomic theory
• Modern views of molecules.
• Periodic table
• Classical Physics and Chemistry
• Quantum mechanics and the 20th century chemistry
• Present day and beyond
 Chemistry Today
• To talk about the history of chemistry, we
need to know first what is the present state of
chemistry. What are the key ideas in
chemistry?
• How did these key ideas get developed
through the ages?
 Key ideas in Today’s Chemistry
• Approximately 100 elements makes up our world
• Elements are made up of atoms. Atoms consist of
electrons and nucleus (protons and neutrons)
• How electrons are ‘arranged’ in the atoms affect its
chemical properties: Periodicity
• Chemical bonds arises when atoms ‘share’ electrons
• Arrangement of how atoms join to form molecules
determines properties
• Molecules change by atoms rearrangements : Chemical
reaction
Elements: The periodic table
 Elements
• All matter is made up of elements or
combinations of them (Compounds).

Diamond = Carbon, an element

Carbon dioxide CO2.

a compound

Polyethylene terphthalate
(PET) Plastic. A polymer
compound (C10H8O4)n
 Elements
of course, not all the elements have similar abundance
The universe as a whole: Hydrogen and helium 74% and 24%

Earth Crust Human Body

 To us the elements seem very different: gas like hydrogen, solid metal like iron,
liquid metal like mercury, crystals like diamond carbon.

Chlorine
uranium

Sodium

gold

Carbon (diamond) Mercury

Oxygen (liquid)
Silicon
 atom
• All these 100 elements, seemingly different are
actually very ‘similar’.
• They are all composed of ‘indivisible’ units called
atoms
• Example: 197g of gold contains 6.02×1023 gold
atoms; 12g of diamond(carbon) contains 6.02×1023
Carbon atoms. (1 mole = 6.02×1023)
 atom
The basic unit of the element is the atom
Diamond = Carbon, an element
 atom
• it is only in 1981 that we can actually ‘see’ atoms. Its pretty
amazing that mankind figured that out quite a while ago before
that

Fe atoms arranged in a ring

Individual Gold atoms (IBM)
observed by a scanning
tunneling microscope
Arrangement of electrons in atoms
• Why are different elements different from
each other?
• Why are some elements more similar and
some more different?
• Electrons are placed in ‘orbitals’. From inner
‘core’ orbitals to outside ‘valence’ orbitals. 1s
2s 3s 3p 3d…etc… By and large, only the
electrons in the ‘valence’ orbaitals determines
chemical properties: Periodicity Periodic
Table
Elements
 Chemical bonds
• Our complex world is mainly made up of
matter made up of atoms (same or different)
strongly linked to one another by ‘chemical
bonds’
• How atoms arrange to become molecules of
different sizes and complexities determines its
properties
 Chemical bonds & molecules

Water molecule: two hydrogen atoms

covelently bonded to an oxygen atom.

Hydrogen bonds between the water

molecules give the water its many unique
properties
 Chemical bonds & molecules

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecule.

The molecule of Life.
Different ways of Carbon atoms covalent
bonding to each other give rise to different
allotropes (and different properties)
 Chemical reactions
• Compounds changes: atoms rearrange. Bond
breaks and bond forms.

A reaction when you light up your gas cooker at home. Methane gas reacts
with Oxygen molecules to give you carbon dioxide, water and heat (hence
fire)
 Essential physical theories
• Thermodynamics: Conservation of
energy, universe is always getting
more disordered (Entropy)…etc…
• Quantum mechanics: Wave
nature of particles
 Key ideas in Today’s Chemistry
• Approximately 100 elements makes up our world
• Elements are made up of atoms. Atoms consist of
electrons and nucleus (protons and neutrons)
• How electrons are ‘arranged’ in the atoms affect its
chemical properties: Periodicity
• Chemical bonds arises when atoms ‘share’ electrons
• Arrangement of how atoms join to form molecules
determines properties
• Molecules change by atoms rearrangements : Chemical
reaction
 Key ideas in Today’s Chemistry
• Approximately 100 elements makes up our world

• This is the key idea, from which all the other

ideas followed
• Since ancient times, people have wondered what
are the basic ingredients of the physical world
and how to modify them to our own use
• How did that eventually evolved to be the
modern science of Chemistry ?
After 15th century. West: Renaissance, age of Reason, enlightenment, industrial
revolution…etc… History of Chemistry concentrates in the West (mainly Europe, later
includes the America as well)
Digression:
500-1400.
World History in 10 minutes
Europe
lapse into
‘dark age’.
Intellectual Silk Road, Invasion of
heritage in Mongols. Transfer of
hibernation. knowledge
Regained
slowly from
the Islamic
civilization

Rise of Islam 6th century.

Baghdad, Damascus,
Chinese civilization since
RomanEmpire (Greco Alexandria. Cordoba. Tang, Song and Mongol
2100BC. Zhou dynasty &
Ancient Greece:
Roman500BC to 250BC.
world). WesternTook over Greek-RomanWarring Empires. Gunpowder
Ancient EgyptClassical
3150BCknowledge
to 300BC and invented states 400BC:
th cent.
Philosophers: Socrates, Plato, Aristotle.
part survided till ~500AD 10
rise of Chinese alchemy.
~300BC Alexander the ‘Khem’
Great Blackexpand
Land. on it
 What is alchemy?

Alchemy is a cosmic art by which parts of the

cosmos – the mineral and animal parts – can be
liberated from their temporal existence and attain
states of perfection, gold in the case of minerals,
and for humans, longevity, immortality, and finally
redemption. Such transformations can be brought
about on the one hand, by the use of a material
substance such as ‘the philosopher stone’ or elixir,
or, on the other hand, by revelatory knowledge or
psychological enlightenment
-Harry Sheppard
 Chinese Alchemy
• From 5th century BCE, there has been
historical text recording alchemy
• Strong link between alchemy and medicine
• Quest for ‘immortality’
• Influenced by Taoist philosophy and religion
 Chinese Alchemy
• The first ever theoretical treatise on alchemy:
Zhouyi Cantongqi (周易参同契)
• Wei Boyang 魏伯阳, end of Eastern Han
dynasty (~200 CE)
• Based on tenets of I-Ching, five elements and
other Taoism beliefs.
 Chinese Alchemy
• Concept of ‘yin’ and ‘yang’
• Yang 阳: male, positive and light, heat, sun…
• Yin 阴: female, negative, darkness, cold, moon…
• Everything in the world can be described as a opposition of this
two forces
• ‘elixirs’ were concocted to balance the ‘yin’ and ‘yang’ in one’s
body to attain perfect harmony with the universe and hence
• Usually packaged with occult, spirit ..etc…

Elixir Pills, unearthed near Nanjing,

China (Eastern Jin Dynasty period ~4th
century AD)
 Chinese Alchemy
wood

• Concept of ‘five elements’ (五

water fire
行)
• Everything in the universe is
made up of the characteristics
of these five elements
• Applied to medicine, fengshui,
ethics, alchemy…etc… metal earth

generating
overcoming
 Chinese Alchemy 金丹术
Cinnabar (Mercuric Sulphide, HgS) is considered ‘yang’

Sulphur: ‘yang’

Saltpetre (Potassium nitrate). ‘yin’

Experimentations with the ‘yin yang’ concept in producing elixir of life led to major
innovations such as gunpowder in the 10th-11th century in China
 Cinnabar 丹砂(dansha)
Since more than 2000 years, Cinnabar has fascinated the Chinese, and it is
believed cinnabar contains the ingredients to give one longevity

An alchemist’s ‘application for research funding’ to

Han dynasty Wu Ti emperor (汉武帝), 133B.C.

“Summon spirits and you will be able to change

cinnabar powder into yellow gold. With this yellow
gold you may make vessels to eat and drink out of.
You will increase your span of life, you will be able to
see the sian 仙 （deity, fairy）of the Peng Lai
mountains (mythical home of the immortals) that is
in the midst of the sea. Then you may perform the
sacrifices and escape death”
 Cinnabar 丹砂(dansha)
the Chinese alchemists have been able to perform this reaction since 2000
years ago. It fascinates them, and it is believed cinnabar contains the
ingredients to give one longevity

+
∆
HgS + O2 Hg + SO2

+
Hg + 2S HgS
 Cinnabar 丹砂(dansha)
Reaction described by Ge Hong 葛洪 (283-342 AD), in his book
baopuzi neipian [Book 4. Alchemy] (抱朴子内篇) [卷四·金丹]

• …凡草木烧之即烬，而丹砂烧之成水银，积变又还成丹砂
，其去凡草木亦远矣。故能令人长生，神仙独见此理矣，
…
• Translation:
…All plant [based medicine] burns to ashes but cinnabar burns to
become mercury. After numerous transformation, it returns back
to cinnabar. This is far superior to plant [based medicine].
Therefore cinnabar can cause people to live forever. Only the
gods can see this reason…
The Greco-Roman world
 The Greco-Roman world

‘300’. Spartans @ battle of Thermopylae. 480BC

Classical Greece. Athens. (~500 – 300 BC)

Roman
empire
(~50BC
onwards)
• Empedocles c. 490 – 430 BC, Greek.
Agrigentum, a Greek city in Sicily.
• Postulated that all matter is composed
of four ‘elements’: Fire, Water, Air and
Earth. Different ratios of these elements
give you different materials
• Two divine powers: ‘love’ and ‘strife’
unites and divides, respectively, the
elements, to give one different
materials
• Aristotle 384-322 BC (Athens, Ancient
Greece). Greek Philosopher
• Postulates a prime matter that is featureless
and without any quality
• Four qualities: hotness, coldness, dryness
and wetness, can be impressed on the prime
matter to give the four Empedocles element

hot
FIRE AIR

dry moist The four elements and four

qualities became the standard
EARTH WATER
dogma for the next 2000 years
cold
• Another alternative philosophy proposed by
the Stoics: Cosmos governed by
correspondence between great and small.
• Correspondence between the seven metals
to seven planets
• The practice of alchemy connected to
astrology, dependent on the influence of the
planets
• Influence on medieval European alchemy
 The birth of Alchemy in the ‘west’
Metallurgy
• Since ancient times, metallurgy has been important.
• Observation that metal comes out from the earth. So
analogous to plants growing, perhaps metal ‘grows’
underground? From baser metal to finally gold?
• Perhaps man can accelerate this growth
• To get gold from baser metal. Replace the qualities of the
baser metal and replace with ‘gold’ quality.

Painting on terra cotta of slaves working in

mines in ancient Greece, ca 5 B.C.
 The birth of Alchemy in the ‘West’
Alexandria (Present day Egypt, then part of the Greek world) during 1st to 5th century
AD, was the capital of practical chemical ‘industry’ in the Greco-Roman world. Melting
pot of technology, Greek philosophy, near east religion

• Leyden and Stockholm Papyri: The earliest text on

chemical knowledge. ~3rd century AD.
• Contains recipes for gold/silver work, precious
stones and textile dyes.
• How to fake gold: “Lime, one dram; sulfur,
previously ground, an equal quantity. Put them
together into a vessel. Add sharp vinegar or the
urine of a youth; heat from underneath until the
liquid looks like blood. Filter it from the sediments,
and use it pure.” (Leyden papyrus)

Leyden Papyrus
 Zosimos of Panopolis

Zosimos of Panopolis, ~4th century AD,

Alexandria
Zosimos is not the first to attempt Chrysopoeia (Making Gold),
but the first ‘alchemist’ that we have any historical knowledge
of.

Knew about distillation, sublimation, metallurgy, dyeing and

other ‘chemical’ craft, and combined with ‘theory’.

Presumably wrote many books but only fragments are extant

Development of tools and equipments that remained

Description of Zosimos’
unchanged from 4th till 17th century
distillation equipments
(Codex Parisinus
2327,15th Cent.)
 Greco-Roman-Egyptian Alchemy

Zosimos provided one of the first definitions of alchemy as the study of "the
composition of waters, movement, growth, embodying and disembodying,
drawing the spirits from bodies and bonding the spirits within bodies

Metals are composed of two parts:

• a volatile part. soma (body)
• A nonvolatile part. pneuma (spirit)

The soma is the same for all metals. The pneuma gives the metal its colour
and other properties.

Zosimos uses fire (sublimation, distillation ..etc…) to separate ‘spirit’ from

‘body’. Then joins the ‘spirit’ to other ‘bodies’ to cause transmutation
The rise of Islam
 Islamic Alchemy
• Islamic/Arab empire covers from Spain, northern Africa,
middle east to central Asia from 7th century
• Greek-Roman philosophy (Ancient Classical knowledge)
transferred acquired by the islamic world after the 7th
century, centered around cities in Damascus, Baghdad ..etc…
• Islamic alchemists inherited and built on the Greco-Roman
classical knowledge, with possible interaction from the East
• Continental Europe (The ‘west’) went into the dark ages.
Most classical knowledge lost
• Through Spain, as the ‘Christian west’ reconquered Spain, the
combined Greco-Roman and Arab knowledge (including
alchemy) flowed back to the ‘West’, initiating the renaissance
 Islamic Golden Age. Abbasid Caliphate.
• ~750 till ~1250 A.D. Centered at Baghdad and Samarra (Present day Iraq)
• Caliphs Harun al-Rashid (786-809) and al-Mamun (813-833). Literature,
philosophy, and the natural sciences flourished
• House of Wisdom (Bayt al-hikma): Hellenistic works from Antiquity were
translated into Arabic, was founded in Baghdad

The Great Mosque of

Samarra (~850AD)

Muhammad ibn Musa al- Ali Baba. From ‘One

Khwarizmi (~780-~850 AD) Thousand and One Nights’.

Father of Algebra
The word algorithm is derived
from his name
 Islamic Alchemy
• Jabir Ibn Hayyan (ca. 8th to early 9th century AD,
Persian??)
• Accepts Aristotle’s four elements and four
qualities
• mercury-sulphur theory of metallic composition
• His works eventually came down to the west as
summa perfectionis under the name Geber.
Most influential of Latin text on alchemy 15th-century
• Hajarat al-falasifah: Philosopher’s stone: An agent to European portrait
change the density, malleability and colour of metal. of "Geber"
i.e. to change from base metal to gold
• Al-iksir: Elixir
 Jabir’s Mercury-Sulphur theory of metal
• ‘Mercury’ and ‘Sulphur’: not exactly the
material by the same name.
• Mercury: watery in principle. Spirit. ‘yin’?
• Sulphur: fiery in principle. Soul. ‘yang’?
• metal are made up of the wedding of ‘sulphur’
and ‘mercury’ in different proportion
 Islamic Alchemy

• Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi (850- c.923,

persian, lived in Baghdad)
• Polymath. Probably more famous as a physician
than a chemist or alchemist
 Islamic Alchemy
• Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi (850- c.923, persian,
lived in Baghdad)
• Manual of chemical practices: Sirr al-Asrar (Secret of
Secrets):
– Descriptions of chemicals and minerals.
– Apparatus described were used till 19th century and even today:
crucible, stirring rod, the retort, alembic, large oven, cylindrical
stove, glass cups, flasks, phials, beakers, glass funnel, heating
lamps, mortar, cauldron, hair-cloth, sand- and water-bath, sieve
– Described Codified lab processes used by alchemist/chemist:
distillation, calcination, filtration..etc…
 Alchemy in medieval Europe

“An Alchemist in his Workshop,” by David Teniers II, depicts alchemy in the 17th
century
Our direct ancestor of modern chemistry.
From the Iberian peninsula where the Arabs/Islamic empires/kingdoms
persisted from 7th till almost the end of 15th century, knowledge flowed back
to the west, including alchemical knowledge.
Gave us the words: Algebra, Algorithm, Alchemy, Alkali, Alcohol …etc…
 Philosopher’s stone
• Obsessed in obtaining the philosopher’s stone: a material to
transmute base metal to gold
• Practices shrouded in mysteries, secrets and the occult. Hidden
language, symbols. Spells …etc…

Green lion devouring a sun

George Ripley Marrow of
Alchemy. 17th century
 Philosopher’s stone
A famous Alchemist:
It was said that he acquired a
mysterious book which he tried
hard to translate. Later having
finally able to translate the book
after a pilgrimage trip to Santiago
de Compostela, Spain.

It was a recipe for the

Philosopher’s stone, and he was
able to create silver and gold.
Made him rich and he became a
philanthropist.
Nicolas Flamel (ca.
1330-1418) No historical basis for his story.
French scribe and Book published in 1612,
manuscript-seller. attributed to Nicolas Became famous through fiction…
Flamel. • Victor Hugo in Hunchback of
Notre Dame.
• Harry Potter.
 Philosopher’s stone
• Frauds abound… reflected in literature and culture
• ‘The Canon’s yeoman tale’ from Geoffrey Chaucer’s
‘The Canterbury Tales’ (written in middle english
~1400)
…… ……
To muchel folk we doon illusioun, To many folk we bring about illusion,
And borwe gold, be it a pound or two, And borrow gold, perhaps a pound or two,
Or ten, or twelve, or manye sommes mo, Or ten, or twelve, or any sum will do,
And make hem wenen, at the leeste weye, And make them think, aye, at the least, it's plain,
That of a pound we koude make tweye. That from a pound of gold we can make twain!
Yet is it fals, but ay we han good hope It is all false, but yet we have great hope
It for to doon, and after it we grope. That we can do it, and after it we grope.
But that science is so fer us biforn, But that science is so far us before,
We mowen nat, although we hadden it sworn, We never can, in spite of all we swore,
It overtake, it slit awey so faste. Come up with it, it slides away so fast;
It wole us maken beggers atte laste. And it will make us beggars at the last.
….. …..

http://www.librarius.com/canttran/yeotrfs.htm
 Philosopher’s stone
• Authorities, both church and political authority tried to
control the people’s craze about Philosopher’s stone and
transmutation. They don’t want gold (or fake gold) to
flood the market
• Kings and emperors like James IV of Scotland (1473-1513 )
and Rudolf II of Bohemia (1552-1612) heavily supported
alchemist.

Rudolf II of Bohemia, Holy Roman Emperor.

Patron of Arts, Sciences, occult studies
including Alchemy.
The Alchymist, In Search of the
People who attended his court include:
Philosophers’ Stone by Joseph
botanist Charles de l'Ecluse, and the Wright of Derby, 1771.
astronomers Tycho Brahe and Johannes
Kepler, alchemist John Dee
Philosopher’s stone
Alchemy was very much part of the intellectual
environment in those times. Very respected
people dabble in alchemy.

During these time, magic and science doesn’t

seem to have a clear cut difference

John Dee 1527-1609.

Alchemist, astrologer,
mathematician, philosopher.

Advisor to Queen Elizabeth I

of England.

John Dee performing an experiment before

Queen Elizabeth I
 A big fan of alchemy: Isaac Newton
"Newton was not the first of the age of reason, he was the last
of the magicians“(John Maynard Keynes)
Isaac Newton was an avid practitioner of alchemy, actively
seeking out the philosopher’s stone. Autopsy after his death
reveals high Hg content in his hair. Probable Hg poisoning
from his alchemical expts.

Isaac Newton
1642-1726
Apart from his
fame in Physics
and Mathematics,
later in life, he also
dabbled in occult
studies: alchemy,
biblical
Isaac Newton’s notebook on alchemy predictions…etc..
 Medieval Mining and Metallurgy
In parallel with the quack philosopher’s stone, advances in practical
technology in Metallurgy and medicine
Vannoccio Biringuccio c.1480-1539.
Italian Metallurgist.
Despises Alchemy.

His book De la Pirotechnia an early

classic on metallurgy and topics
include
• Smelting, glassmaking
• Treatment of metal ores
• Mercury, sulfur, antimony, alum,
arsenic…etc…
• Details on sublimation, distillation,
pyrotechny…etc…

De la Pirotechnia, 1540, Venice

 Medieval Mining and Metallurgy

• De Re Metallica (1556) by
Georgius Agricola (1494-
1555).
• Detailed account of mining
including how precious metal
can be separated from other
base metal, involving usage of
acid, high heat…etc…

from ‘De Re Metallica’

 Medieval alchemy
• Gradually, people engaging in honest crafts like metallurgy,
dyeing ..etc… begin to have the know-how and technology to
be able to verify or debunk the claims of transmutation
• Age of Reason, Scientific revolution starting in the 17th
century. Rise of the scientific method. Robert Boyle

Boerhaave’s allegory (1724): the farmer who had told his sons
that treasures lies in the wild fields surrounding their home. The
sons worked hard to cut the trees and turn the soil over to look
for the treasure. The treasure turns out to be fictitious but the
already ploughed land was ready to be farmed to let the sons
achieving prosperity.
 Etymology
Chimie (French). Chemie (German). Química (Spanish)
English word: ‘Chemistry’ from ‘chemist’ spelling from c.1790

Chymist. English 16th to 18th century. Eg. The sceptical chymist (1661) by
Robert Boyle.
‘Chymist’ from latin ‘chymia’ and ’chymista’

Arabic: al-kīmiyaʼ or al-khīmiyaʼ ‫ء‬ ‫ا‬or ‫ء‬ ‫ا‬

1530s. ‘Al-’ started to be dropped. chymia and chymista. Agricola

tries to return words to classical roots (instead of arabic origins). But
alchimia and chimia (and chymia) still synonymous. It was only in
early 18th century that there a semantic distinction appears between
the rational chimia and the occult alchimia
 Etymology
Arabic term is derived from the Greek χηµία or
χηµεία khymeia (χυµεία) . Only dates back to ~300AD

‘Khem’ from the coptic language (Egyptian)

meaning black land (Egypt). Art of the black
land: metallurgy, dyeing…etc…

Derived from Greek word ‘Cheo’

meaning ‘melt or fuse’

‘Kim’金 old chinese pronunciation of gold or

metal. 金液 is still pronounced ‘Kim ya’ in
Fujian dialect.金液 a common term in old
chinese alchemy
 Alchemy vs Chemistry. Pseudo-
science vs. Science?
• We tend to associate the alchemy as non-
scientific, and the modern chemistry as
scientific
• To seek to achieve transmutation or to obtain
elixir for immortality is not non-science.
• It is rather the method that needs to be
examined
• What makes science a science is the practice :
Scientific method
Scientific Method?
Francis Bacon
1561-1626
English philosopher, politician, scientist.
Established the ‘scientific method’

Hypothesis and Theory…etc…

Self consistent and non-contradictory
Predictive capabilities
Falsifiable

Refine or Change hypothese/theory

Experiments, Observation, Data Collection.

Quantitative Analysis. Check if it is as predicted
by theory.
Experiments repeated reliably by others
 Renaissance 1400-1600

1436, Filippo Brunelleschi. Duomo

Florence

David, Michaelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci's

1504 Vitruvian Man, 1490

Ancient Greek and Roman

knowledge re-introduced to
Europe. New knowledge being
created out of the old
Raphael, School of Athens, 1505
 Paracelsus
• Philippus Aureolus Theophrastus
Bombastus von Hohenheim (1493-1541)
• Celsus: Famous Roman Physician.
Paracelcus: Beyond or better than Celsus
– Rejected Classical Greek medical theory. Quentin Metsys
Galen four humour
– Rejected Aristotle’s four element and The word ‘Bombastic’
modified Geber’s mercury-sulphur theory may have originated from
his name?
• Doctrine: Tria Prima
• The rise of iatrochemistry: The
application of alchemy to Medicine
 Paracelsus’s Doctrine: Tria Prima
• Tria Prima: First three things
• Expanded from the sulphur-mercury (dyad) theory.
Added ‘Salt’.
• Not specific substances but more broad principles:
– Sulphur (inflammability)
– Mercury (fusability, volatility)
– Salt (incombustability, non-volatility)
• Example: analysis of wood by burning:
– Smoke: mercury
– Fire and light: sulphur
– Remaining ash: salt
 iatrochemistry
• Old term for medical chemistry. ‘iatro’ =
medical/doctor (Greek). Chemistry for the
purpose of medicine
• Traditional medicine: Galen believe in four
humors: blood, yellow bile, black bile, and
phlegm. Balance to achieve health. Herbal
and complex medicine
Coelum
• Paracelsus: Specific chemical cures for philosophorum by
Philippus Ulstadius,
specific ailments. Inorganic, salts. Simple to 1527. Iatrochemistry
textbook
describe.
• Iatrochemistry leads to a lot of people writing
textbooks, hence making it more open than the
secretive transmutation alchemy
 Jan Baptist van Helmont
• 1577-1644, Flemish (present day Belgium).
Iatrochemist.
• Van Helmont’s theory: Only two ultimate
elements: Air and Water Portrait by Mary Beale ca. 1674

– Air does not take part in transmutation

– Water can be molded into different materials
– An active, organizing principle “Ferment” molds
the various forms and properties of materials

The first beginnings of bodies, and of corporeal causes, are two, and
no more. They are surely the elements water, from which bodies are
fashioned, and the ferment
• Early Demonstration of scientific method: Willow tree
experiment
Experiments with Willow Tree: Early
demonstration of Scientific method
I took an earthen pot and in it placed 200
pounds of earth which had been dried out in an
oven. This I moistened with rain water, and in it
planted a shoot of willow which weighed five
pounds. When five years had passed the tree
which grew from it weighed 169 pounds and
about three ounces. The earthen pot was
wetted whenever it was necessary with rain or
distilled water only. It was very large, and was
sunk in the ground, and had a tin plated iron lid
with many holes punched in it, which covered
the edge of the pot to keep air-borne dust from
mixing with the earth. I did not keep track of the
weight of the leaves which fell in each of the
four autumns. Finally, I dried out the earth in the
pot once more, and found the same 200
pounds, less about 2 ounces. Thus, 164
pounds of wood, bark, and roots had arisen
from water alone.

Ortus Medicinae (1648)

Experiments with Willow Tree: Early
demonstration of Scientific method
• From modern understanding, it’s the
wrong conclusion
• Did not take into consideration
of air (actually CO2)
• Scientific Method features of the
expt:
• Designed an experiment to test
a hypothesis
• Quantitative. use of the balance
and belief in the conservation of
matter
• Controlled experiment: used
distilled water. Covered up to
minimize contaminants
 Chaos: Gas
• First to coin the word ‘Gas’. Greek word for chaos
• Heated 28 kg of charcoal in air and was left with 2.2 kg of ash.
Escaped as spiritus sylvester , or ‘wild spirit’. However when heated in
a sealed container, either it will not burn, or there will be a violent
explosion where the ‘spirit’ escape.
"Suppose thou, that 62 pounds of Oaken coal, one pound of ashes is
composed: Therefore the 61 remaining pounds are the "wild spirit" which,
also being fired, cannot depart, the Vessel being shut. I call this spirit,
unknown hitherto, the new name of 'gas,' which can neither be retained in
Vessels nor reduced to a visible form, unless the seed is first extinguished.“
Oriatricke, or Physick Refined, English language edition, 1662.

• Remember, he believes air is an element NOT involved in

transmutation (or reaction). So this ‘gas’ is not ‘air’. He thinks that
‘gas’ is water devoid of ‘ferment’
• Key point is that he notice that air and ‘gas’ from chemical reactions
are different