BO S M

AB OLU
O TR E I
V

K AC II
O T
F S
QUEBEC CITY
CANADA
AUGUST 10-14

WORLD CONFERENCE ON TIMBER ENGINEERING

••under the aegis of••

WCTE 2014
August 10-14, 2014

CENTRE DES CONGRÈS DE QUÉBEC

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Toll-free: 888 679-4000

WCTE 2014 INTERNATIONAL PANEL OF REVIEWERS

Hamidah Abdullah Simon Aicher Shiro Aratake
Marco Ballerini Leander Bathon Frank Beall
Graeme Beattie Robert Beauregard Hans Blass
Andy Buchanan Carlito Calil Jr David Carradine
Ario Ceccotti Myriam Chaplain Kevin Cheung
Ying-Hei Chui Peggi Clouston Keith Crews
Christian Dagenais Richard Desjardins Dondald DeVisser
Alfredo Dias J. Daniel Dolan Ghasan Doudak
Bradford Douglas Michael Flach Massimo Fragiacomo
Andrea Frangi Steffen Franke Bettina Franke
Caroline Frenette Philippe Galimard Dominique Gauzin-Müller
Igor Gavric Ulf Arne Girhammar Rainer Goerlacher
Kiril Gramatikov Peer Haller Richard Harris
Joergen Jensen André Jorissen Fumio Kamiya
Erol Karacabeyli Stephen Kelley Abdy Kermani
Jochen Köhler Kohei Komatsu David Krestshumann
Ulrike Kuhlmann Petr Kuklik Frank Lam
Bob Leicester Adrian Leijten Peggy Lepper
Philip Line Joseph Loferski Robert Malczyk
Kjell A. Malo Mohammad Mohammad Thomas Morrison
David Moses Michael Newcombe Chun Ni
Weichiang Pang Moon Jae Park Marjan Popovski
Pierre Quenneville Patrick Racher Vlatka Rajcic
Douglas Rammer Alexander Salenikovich Carmen Sandhaas
Gerhard Schickhofer John «Buddy» Showalter Christophe Sigrist
Thomas Skaggs Ian Smith Iztok Sustersic
Thomas Tannert Will Teron Tomi Toratti
John van de Lindt Jacques White Gary Williams
Stefan Winter Motoi Yasumura Borjen Yeh

Copyright © 2014 World Conference on Timber Engineering

 WCTE 2014
World Conference on Timber Engineering
Quebec City, Canada, August 10-14, 2014

BOOK OF ABSTRACTS
Edited by Alexander Salenikovich

Volume III
Posters

ISBN 978-0-86488-561-6
CONTENTS OF THIS BOOK
The Book of Abstracts consists of three volumes:
Volume I
Presentations Day 1: Monday, August 11
Presentations Day 2: Tuesday, August 12
Volume II
Presentations Day 3: Wednesday, August 13
Presentations Day 4: Thursday, August 14
Volume III
Posters
The electronic version of this book consists of three files representing the three volumes, easy to navigate using the table of
contents in the front pages or in the side bar of the Adobe viewer. All terms and authors’ names are searchable using ‘ctrl+f’
key combination. The page numbers in the table of contents are linked to the abstracts. The list of authors provided at the
end of each volume also indicates the page numbers linked to the abstracts associated with each name. Clicking on the text
of the abstract in Adobe viewer opens a PDF file of the abstract in a new window (not functional in Mac Preview).
 PREAMBLE

Dear WCTE 2014 delegates,

The conference organising committee welcomes you to the 2014 World Conference on Timber Engineering (WCTE 2014)
held August 10-14 in Quebec City, Canada, the birthplace of Canada’s wood industry. WCTE is the most prestigious
international event in timber engineering, engineered wood products and design of timber structures, which is held
biannually in different parts of the world and attracts researchers, engineers and architects, code consultants and building
officials, contractors and project managers, fabricators and suppliers from all continents. This conference is hosted by
FPInnovations, Université Laval and cecobois.
CONFERENCE MAIN THEME: RENAISSANCE OF TIMBER CONSTRUCTION
Timber construction has a rich history. We are re-discovering what our predecessors had accomplished and we are striving to
surpass their level of ingenuity by capitalizing on the past achievements and modern wood-based products and systems,
design tools and technology developed at the forefront of the research, design and construction communities.
TECHNICAL PROGRAM
The technical program is divided into the following six tracks:
1. Materials and products
2. Connections
3. Structural systems
4. Buildings and structures
5. Serviceability / Fire safety / Rehabilitation
6. Past, present and future

Track 1: Materials and products

This track is dedicated to the structural performance, grading and quality control of various building materials and products
including round and sawn timber, glued-laminated timber (glulam), cross-laminated timber (CLT), sandwich panels as well
as new structural products and shapes, including those made of hardwoods, palm trees and bamboo.

Track 2: Connections
This track is dedicated to various aspects of structural performance, modelling and design of connections, including
traditional dowel-type fasteners, self-drilling screws, glued-in rods, moment resisting connections, and innovative fastenings
for timber, CLT and composite systems. Long-term behaviour, fatigue and effects of moisture are also covered under this
track.

Track 3: Structural systems

This track covers a wide range of structural systems, such as traditional heavy timber frames and light-frame bracing, CLT
structures and various composite systems (timber-concrete, timber-steel, timber-glass, etc.) along with other innovative
assemblies for multi-storey and tall wood buildings. Of particular interest are the long-term performance and fatigue of
timber-concrete composites, advances in seismic design and code development, including progress in low damage seismic
design philosophy.

Track 4: Buildings and bridges

This track deals with the latest achievements in testing, modelling, design, assessment and upgrading of whole buildings,
specifically addressing multi-storey and tall buildings made of CLT, hybrid structures and other innovative systems,
including post-tension frames and 3D modules, with predominant focus on seismic and high wind designs. A special session
is reserved to spotlight the Canadian Guide on tall wood buildings including structural and serviceability design, fire safety,
prefabrication, quality assurance, etc. One full session is dedicated to design, construction and assessment of timber bridges.
Track 5: Serviceability / Fire safety / Rehabilitation
This track combines three different themes that have become deciding performance considerations in material specification
and structural design in code requirements for multi-storey and tall wood buildings as well as repair of existing constructions
around the world. Serviceability issues that are of specific interest to designers are short and long-term deflections, floor and
building vibrations, and noise transmission. The second theme focuses on fire resistance and fire protection of building
components, connections and systems. Issues of rehabilitation, recycling, and retrofitting of historic buildings and structures
are discussed in the third theme.

Track 6: Past, present and future

This track is of particular interest for architects and engineers developing principles of integrated design and construction in
the current and future projects. It focuses on the re-emergence of wood as a main stream building material in contemporary
architecture and its role in creating comfortable and healthy living environments showcasing whole building design
approaches, integrated design process, and case studies. It also showcases the latest architectural and engineering
achievements in timber design and construction, advances in design tools and teaching, as well as the industry strategies to
increase and improve wood use in modern constructions considering sustainability, environmentally responsible
construction, passive and net-zero energy house technologies, life cycle assessment, and multi-criteria evaluation.

HOW ABSTRACTS WERE SELECTED

Each abstract submission has been reviewed by two peers from the international scientific community (International panel of
reviewers) and then by the WCTE 2014 Steering Committee. Abstract acceptance was based upon quality, the potential
significance of the observations, and the rigor with which the scientific methods were applied. In addition, the Steering
Committee considered thematic balance in determining which abstracts would be presented orally during the conference.
The abstracts in this book have been compiled and processed from manuscripts provided by the authors.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We wish to thank the authors for their contributions. Sincere gratitude is owed to the members of WCTE 2014 Steering
Committee, International Advisory Committee and International Panel of Reviewers, especially for their encouragement and
time given to review the large number of abstracts. The financial support from the sponsors is gratefully acknowledged. We
also gratefully acknowledge the effort and dedication from the editorial staff, particularly Mss. Marie-Claude Thibault and
Marie Levesque of FPInnovations and Mr. Jean-Philippe Tremblay-Auclair of Université Laval.

Richard Desjardins Alexander Salenikovich Caroline Frenette

FPInnovations Université Laval cecobois
Conference Chair Technical Program Chair Local Events Coordinator
 CONTENTS
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS
ABS059
FULL FIELD MEASUREMENTS ON SMALL NOTCHED BEAMS BY GRID METHOD - APPLICA-
TION TO LATTICE ELEMENTS
Eric Fournely, Rostand Moutou Pitti, Evelyne Toussaint, Michel Grédiac 19

ABS102
A STUDY ON THE TRANSLUCENCY SEISMIC RETROFITTING WALL WITH THE PUNCHING
METAL SHEET
Katsuhiko Kohara, Mitsuo Fukumoto, Kazuyoshi Koumoto, Danhei Umeda, Shintaro Hagiwara, Mitsuaki
Kanazawa 21

ABS103
A STUDY ON VISCO-ELASTIC DAMPER EFFECT FOR RETROFITTING OF THE LARGE TIM-
BER STRUCTURE
Katsuhiko Kohara, Mitsuo Fukumoto, Kazuyoshi Koumoto, Takeshi Nomura 23

ABS105
DETERMINATION OF THE MODULUS OF ELASTICITY OF VARIOUS WOOD SPECIES ON THE
BASIS OF THE MEASUREMENT OF FREE VIBRATION PARAMETERS
Barbara Misztal 25

ABS114
DAMAGE IDENTIFICATION OF MEMBER IN ANCIENT TIMBER STRUCTURE BASED ON MODAL
STRAIN ENERGY METHOD
Xueliang Wang, Liang Jin, Haibo Li 27

ABS148
STRAIN-SOFTENING BEHAVIOR OF WOOD ESTIMATED IN SINGLE-EDGE NOTCHED BEND-
ING TEST
Koji Murata, Seiichiro Ukyo 29

ABS172
ANALYSIS OF THE PENETRATION OF ADHESIVES AT FINGER-JOINTS IN BEECH WOOD
Thomas Volkmer, Anna Schusser, Bettina Franke 31

ABS175
INVESTIGATION OF EUCALYPTUS GLOBULUS WOOD FOR THE USE AS AN ENGINEERED
MATERIAL
Steffen Franke, João Marto 33

ABS194
END REINFORCEMENT OF WOOD MEMBER USING SHORTCUT CARBON FIBERS
Xiaojun Yang, Meng Gong, Ying Hei Chui, Zeli Que, Youfu Sun 35

ABS206
MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF HISTORICAL BEAMS OF Picea abies WOOD. ASSESS-
MENT BY STATIC BENDING
Javier-Ramón Sotomayor-Castellanos 37

5
ABS247
FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS OF UNIFORMLY PARTIAL COMPRESSION TESTS OF WOOD
Shuhei Mitsui, Aya Hori, Mayuka Uetsuji, Takeshi Kawachi, Kazuo Kondoh 39

ABS257
GLULAM REINFORCED USING PLATES OF DISTINCTIVE LENGTHS - EXPERIMENTATION
AND MODELLING
Gary Raftery 41

ABS309
TIMBER ENGINEERING AND CONSERVATION OF ENDANGERED FOREST SPECIES FROM
THE CONGO BASIN: CONTRIBUTION OF MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS
René Oum Lissouck, Régis Pommier, Louis Max Ayina Ohandja, Denys Breysse, Myriam Chaplain 43

ABS311
AN ENHANCED BEAM MODEL FOR GLUED LAMINATED STRUCTURES THAT TAKES MOIS-
TURE, MECHANO- SORPTION AND TIME EFFECTS INTO ACCOUNT
Sigurdur Ormarsson, Jan Roar Steinnes 45

ABS327
SEISMIC PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF MUD WALLS CONSIDERING REGIONAL CHAR-
ACTERISTICS OF WALL CLAY
Naoki Utsunomiya, Mitsuhiro Miyamoto, Minoru Yamanaka, Manabu Matsushima 47

ABS346
RESULTS OF PENETRATION TESTS PERFORMED ON TIMBER GLT BEAMS
Lenka Melzerová, Michal Šejnoha 49

ABS423
LATERAL TORSIONAL BUCKLING OF WOOD BEAMS: FEA-MODELLING AND SENSITIVITY
ANALYSIS
Qiuwu Xiao, Ghasan Doudak, Magdi Mohareb 51

ABS431
MIXED-MODE FRACTURE PROPERTIES CHARACTERIZATION FOR TIMBER STRUCTURES
THROUGH DIGITAL IMAGE CORRELATION AND FINITE ELEMENT METHOD COUPLING
PROCESS
Mamadou Méité, Frédéric Dubois, Octavian Pop, Joseph Absi, Jérôme Dopeux 53

ABS433
EMBEDDING BEHAVIOUR OF CROSS LAMINATED TIMBER PANELS MANUFACTURED FROM
SUGI
Nobuyoshi Yamaguchi, Shiro Nakajima, Yasuhiro Araki, Atsushi Miyatake, Naoto Ando 55

ABS450
INFLUENCE OF BOUNDARY CONDITIONS IN MODAL TESTING ON EVALUATED ELASTIC
PROPERTIES OF TIMBER PANELS
Jan Niederwestberg, Jianhui Zhou, Ying Hei Chui 57

ABS469
ESTIMATION ON BEARING CAPACITY OF SHELF MADE FROM PLYWOOD SUBJECTED TO
DISTRIBUTED LOAD
Manabu Matsushima, Mitsuhiro Miyamoto, Naoki Utsunomiya 59

6
ABS476
CHARACTERIZATION OF EUCALYPTUS SP. TIES FOR USE IN BRAZILIAN RAILWAYS
Felipe Hideyoshi Icimoto, Fabiane Salles Ferro, Carlito Calil Júnior 61

ABS484
NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF SWELLING AND SHRINKING BEHAVIOUR OF ROUNDWOOD
TRUNKS
Josef Kögl, Georg Stecher, Conrad Brinkmeier, Michael Flach 63

ABS489
BENDING PERFORMANCE AND CREEP OF FLAT SQUARES WITHOUT PITH SAWN UP FROM
SUGI LARGE DIAMETER LOGS - EFFECTS OF LOADING DIRECTION -
Shiro Aratake, Akihiro Matsumoto, Atsushi Shiiba 65

ABS499
BENDING STRENGTH AND FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS OF SOUTHERN PINE COMPOSITE
LUMBER
Bonnie Z. Yang, R. Daniel Seale, Rubin Shmulsky 67

ABS504
WOOD CONSTRUCTION UNDER COLD CLIMATE
Xiaodong (Alice) Wang, Olle Hagman, Bror Sundqvist, Sigurdur Ormarsson, Hui Wan, Peter Niemz 69

ABS513
EFFECT OF HEAT TREATMENT ON PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND WOOD SURFACE OF BRAZIL-
IAN EUCALYPTUS GRANDIS USED FOR STRUCTURES AND FURNITURE
Alexandre Monteiro de Carvalho, Pablo Vieira dos Santos, Ananias Francisco Dias Junior, José Henrique
Pace, João Vicente de Figueiredo Latorraca 71

ABS560
DEVELOPMENT OF A PORTABLE HARDNESS TESTER FOR WOOD USING DISPLACEMENT
TRANSDUCER
Adriano Ballarin, Albert Assis, Hernando Lara Palma 73

ABS568
APPLICABILITY OF VARIOUS WOOD SPECIES IN GLUED LAMINATED TIMBER - PARAME-
TER STUDY ON DELAMINATION RESISTANCE AND SHEAR STRENGTH
Yuan Jiang, Jörg Schaffrath, Markus Knorz, Stefan Winter, Jan-Willem van de Kuilen 75

ABS597
IN-PLANE SHEAR TEST OF FULL SCALE CROSS LAMINATED TIMBER PANELS
Yasuhiro Araki, Shiro Nakajima, Yoshinobu Yamaguchi, Takafumi Nakagawa, Atsushi Miyatake,
Motoi Yasumura 77

ABS606
AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON RESISTANT MECHANISM OF THICK PLYWOOD SUBJECTED
TO LATERAL LOADINGS
Akiko Ohtsuka, Naoto Fukawa, Takumi Ito, Wataru Kambe 79

ABS616
MECHANICAL AND PHYSICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF COMPOSITE BAMBOO-GUADUA
PRODUCTS: PLASTIGUADUA
Hector F. Archila, Caori P. Takeuchi, David J. A. Trujillo 81

7
ABS617
INFLUENCE OF MICRO STRUCTURED SURFACE ON THE BOND QUALITY OF HARDWOOD
Martin Lehmann, Thomas Volkmer 83

ABS645
PROPERTIES OF STRENGTH AND ELASTICITY OF STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS OF ROUND
TIMBER OF AMARU FOR USE IN CIVIL CONSTRUCTION
Felipe Hideyoshi Icimoto, Amós Magalhães de Souza, Caio Victor Fernandes, Fabiane Salles Ferro, Carlito
Calil Júnior 85

ABS685
X-RAY CT TECHNIQUE FOR INVESTIGATING INNER DENSITY DISTRIBUTION OF HISTORIC
WOODEN PROPERTIES
Chul-Ki Kim, Jung-Kwon Oh, HyungKun Kim, Jun-Jae Lee 87

ABS705
PROPERTIES OF CLEAR WOOD AND STRUCTURAL TIMBER OF PSEUDOTSUGA MENZIESII
FROM THE MEDITERRANEAN SPAIN
Eduard Correal-Mòdol, Marcel Vilches Casals 89

TRACK 2: CONNECTIONS
ABS048
MODELLING THE EFFECT OF GRAIN ORIENTATION ON THE LAG SCREW WITHDRAWAL
LOAD FOR TROPICAL HARDWOODS
Cláudio H. S. Del Menezzi, Henrique P. Farias, Milton L. Siqueira 91

ABS060
SELF TAPPING SCREWS WITHOUT PRE-DRILLING FOR BRAZILIAN REFORESTATION SPECIES
Carlito Calil Neto, Francisco Antonio Rocco Lahr, Carlito Calil Júnior 93

ABS082
STUDY ON SINGLE SHEAR STRENGTH OF NAILED JOINTS SUBJECTED TO GRAIN DIREC-
TION
Kiyotaka Terui, Yoshimitsu Ohashi, Kohe Nomoto, Osamu Sumioka 95

ABS094
STUDY ON TIMBER FRAMED JOINTS USING DRIFT PINS AND UV-HARDENING FRP
Shinya Matsumoto, Shuhei Mitsui, Takaaki Ohkubo 97

ABS140
STUDY ON COMPRESSIVE STRAIN OF CLT WALL BOTTOM UNDER THE EXTREME VERTI-
CAL LOAD
Satoshi Oonishi, Hideyuki Nasu, Yasuteru Karube, Masahiro Inayama 99

ABS146
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY AND FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS ON SEISMIC PERFORMANCE OF
WOODEN MORTISE-TENON JOINTS BEFORE AND AFTER REINFORCEMENT
Zheng Wei, Lu Weidong, Deng Daly, Gu Jinjie 101

8
ABS147
BOND BEHAVIOR OF GLUED-IN TIMBER JOINT WITH DEFORMED BAR EPOXIED IN GLU-
LAM
Zhibin Ling, Weiqing Liu, Huifeng Yang, Weidong Lu 103

ABS168
STUDY ON PREVENTION FOR BUCKLING OF COMBINED PILLAR WITH FIBER MATERIALS
OR SCREWS
Hirokazu Namiki, Hideyuki Nasu 105

ABS208
EDGE CONNECTIONS FOR CLT PLATES: IN-PLANE SHEAR TESTS ON HALF-LAPPED AND
SINGLE-SPLINE JOINTS
Masoud Sadeghi, Ian Smith 107

ABS250
AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON THE DUCTILITY OF BOLTED CONNECTIONS LOADED PER-
PENDICULAR TO THE GRAIN
Wataru Kambe, Kei Tanaka, Kotaro Kawano, Takumi Nakahata, Masafumi Inoue 109

ABS256
DEVELOPMENT OF CONNECTING METHOD FOR TIMBER STRUCTURE USING EXPANDING
DENSIFIED WOOD - APPLICATION TO KEYED MORTISE AND TENON CONNECTION WITH
DENSIFIED WOOD
Masaya Kato, Akinori Iwasaki, Kei Tanaka, Masafumi Inoue 111

ABS337
ADHESIVELY BONDED TIMBER JOINTS - TO WHICH EXTENT DO DEFECTS MATTER?
Till Vallée, Simon Fecht, Cordula Grunwald, Thomas Tannert 113

ABS345
EVALUATION ON SHEAR PERFORMANCE OF WOOD-CONCRETE COMPOSITE ANCHORED
WITH STEEL REBAR
Yukyung Shin, Sang-Joon Lee, Kwang-Mo Kim, Moon-Jae Park 115

ABS359
PULL-OUT STRENGTH OF GLUED-IN ROD JOINT FROM LVL
Kazutoshi Ito, Wonwoo Lee, Changsuk Song, Kei Tanaka, Mikio Koshihara, Masafumi Inoue 117

ABS375
EVALUATE BEARING STRESS OF GLULAM USING DIGITAL IMAGE CORRELATION
Gi Young Jeong, Moon-Jae Park 119

ABS400
WOOD-BASED STRUCTURAL-USE PANEL DIAPHRAGMS AND SHEAR WALLS: PROBLEMS
DUE TO MOISTURE EXPOSURE AND RECOMMENDED REPAIRS
Agron E. Gjinolli, Dick Bower 121

ABS478
EFFECT OF WOOD DECAY ON SHEAR RESISTANCE OF DOWEL-TYPE JOINTS WITH STEEL
SIDE PLATES
Kei Sawata, Yutaro Sugano, Ryuya Takanashi, Takuro Hirai, Yoshihisa Sasaki 123

9
ABS492
DEVELOPMENT OF CONTINUOUS COMPOSITE JOINTS ON THE BASIS OF POLYMER MOR-
TAR WITH MATCHED PROPERTIES
Martin Kaestner, Markus Jahreis, Wolfram Haedicke, Karl Rautenstrauch 125

ABS502
REINFORCEMENT OF SHEAR FAILURE WITH LONG SCREW IN MOMENT-RESISTING JOINT
Makoto Nakatani, Hideki Morita, Takuro Mori 127

ABS526
EXPOSURE TEST OF SURFACE-TREATED STEEL PLATES ON PRESERVATIVE-TREATED WOODS
Hiroki Ishiyama, Masao Nakajima, Takuro Mori, Yasunobu Noda, Takahiro Tsuchimoto 129

ABS578
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF PULL-OUT STRENGTH OF A TENON AND MORTISE JOINT
Atsushi Tabuchi, Takamitsu Motoyoshi, Yoko Shiota 131

ABS583
A STUDY ON FAILURE MODE AND STRENGTH ESTIMATION OF TIMBER JOINT USING LAGSCREW-
BOLTS AND DRIFTPINS
Hiroyasu Sakata, Takumi Ohira, Yoshihiro Yamazaki, Hiromichi Ito, Azuma Fujishiro, Ryuki Odani 133

ABS586
DEVELOPMENT OF CLT SHEAR FRAME USING METAL PLATE INSERT CONNECTIONS
Akihisa Kitamori, Shoichi Nakashima, Hiroshi Isoda 135

ABS666
THE QUICK CONNECT MOMENT JOINT FOR PORTAL FRAME BUILDINGS: CASE STUDY
AND DISCUSSION OF DESIGN CHALLENGES AND CONSTRUCTION DETAILING
Felix Scheibmair, Pierre Quenneville 137

ABS679
DESIGN EQUATION FOR WITHDRAWAL RESISTANCE OF THREADED FASTENERS IN THE
CANADIAN TIMBER DESIGN CODE
Shawn Kennedy, Alexander Salenikovich, Williams Munoz, Mohammad Mohammad 139

ABS696
STUDY ON WOOD - STEEL PLATE CONNECTION WITH EPOXY RESIN AND SELF DRILLING
TAPPING SCREWS
Ryota Haba, Akihisa Kitamori, Takuro Mori, Hiroshi Isoda 141

ABS716
DESIGN EQUATIONS FOR EMBEDMENT STRENGTH OF WOOD FOR THREADED FASTENERS
IN THE CANADIAN TIMBER DESIGN CODE
Shawn Kennedy, Alexander Salenikovich, Williams Munoz, Mohammad Mohammad, Derek Sattler 143

TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

ABS087
BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS OF CONVENTIONAL TIMBER FRAME WALL UNDER SEISMIC ACTION :
APPLICATION OF N2 METHOD
Yassine Verdret, Carole Faye, Sidi Mohammed Elachachi 145

10
ABS108
STRUCTURAL PERFORMANCE OF PORTAL FRAME CONSTRUCTED WITH JAPANESE CEDAR
GLULAM
Min-Chyuan Yeh, Yu-Li Lin, Shu-Yu Deng 147

ABS109
BUCKLING OF BLOCKHAUS WALLS UNDER IN-PLANE VERTICAL LOADS
Chiara Bedon, Massimo Fragiacomo, Claudio Amadio, Annalisa Battisti 149

ABS142
STUDY ON DAMPING EFFECT OF WOODEN BEARING SHEAR WALL
Rika Arai, Yuichiro Matsutani, Hideyuki Nasu, Hiroshi Kawase 151

ABS144
STUDY ON THE INFLUENCE OF BEARING SHEAR WALL WITH OPENING
Ryutaro Watanabe, Tatsuya Degura, Hideyuki Nasu 153

ABS231
LOAD-CARRYING CAPACITY OF A BUILT-UP STUD FABRICATED WITH SMALL-DIAMETER
ROUND TIMBER
Guofang Wu, Enchun Zhu, Hejian Zhou, Jinglong Pan 155

ABS244
DEVELOPMENT AND EVALUATION OF CLT SHEAR WALL USING DRIFT PINNED JOINT
Shoichi Nakashima, Akihisa Kitamori, Kohei Komatsu, Zeli Que, Hiroshi Isoda 157

ABS246
STRUCTURAL PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF WOODEN FRAMEWORK WITH JOINTED
COLUMN
Kota Iinuma, Masato Nakao 159

ABS270
MORPHOLOGICAL AND STABILITY RESEARCH FOR TREE-LIKE TIMBER STRUCTURES
Xiaowu Cheng, Jiannan Hao, Weiqing Liu, Weidong Lu 161

ABS273
THE ANALYSIS OF HORIZONTALLY OFFSET DIAPHRAGMS
R. Terry Malone 163

ABS288
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON THE CONTRIBUTION OF GWB TO THE LATERAL PERFORMANCE
OF WOOD SHEARWALLS
Zhiyong Chen, Alex Nott, Ying Hei Chui, Ghasan Doudak, Chun Ni, Mohammad Mohammad 165

ABS314
LIGHT-FRAME WOOD STUD WALLS UNDER BLAST LOADING - AN ASSESSMENT OF THE
CANADIAN BLAST DESIGN STANDARD PROVISIONS
Daniel Lacroix, Ghasan Doudak 167

ABS329
STRUCTURAL HEALTH MONITORING OF WOODEN STRUCTURES BY USING SUBSPACE SYS-
TEM IDENTIFICATION BASED ON SHAKING TABLE TESTS
Takenori Hida, Masayuki Nagano, Toshiaki Sato 169

11
ABS344
SEISMIC PERFORMANCE OF WOODEN HOUSE WETTED BY RAINFALL OR SUBMERGING
IN WATER
Kei Tanaka, Mariko Hara, Toshihiro Kuwano, Ji-young Park, Takuro Mori, Masafumi Inoue 171

ABS355
EXPERIMENTAL AND NUMERICAL INVESTIGATION OF NOVEL STEEL-TIMBER-HYBRID SYS-
TEM
Pooja Bhat, Riasat Azim, Marjan Popovski, Thomas Tannert 173

ABS356
MECHANICAL PERFORMANCES OF TIMBER CONNECTIONS, IMPROVEMENT BY MECHAN-
ICAL PREPARATION OF THE INTERFACES: ITS APPLICATION TO STRUCTURAL MEMBER
Stéphane Girardon, Jean-François Bocquet, Laurent Bleron, Pascal Triboulot 175

ABS360
REINFORCEMENT OF THE SUPPORT AREAS OF GLUED LAMINATED TIMBER STRUCTURES
Damien Lathuilliere, Laurent Bleron, Jean-François Bocquet, François Varacca, Frédéric Dubois 177

ABS363
DEVELOPMENT OF NOVEL POST-TENSIONED GLULAM TIMBER COMPOSITES
Emma McConnell, Daniel McPolin, Su Taylor 179

ABS372
DEVELOPMENT OF BIDIRECTIONAL RAHMEN STRUCTURE USING A WOOD BONDED COM-
POSITE PANELS
Hisamitsu Kajikawa, Haruhiko Ogawa, Noriko Muguruma, Yuka Okada, Hiroyuki Noguchi 181

ABS380
GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF CONSTRUCTION SYSTEMS AND MATERIALS OF TIMBER-
FRAMED HOUSES IN JAPAN
Chikako Tabata 183

ABS435
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON SEISMIC PERFORMANCE OF MORTAR FINISHING EXTERNAL
WALL
Masato Nakao, Yasushi Ono, Masaru Tahara, Masashi Miyamura, Terusato Inoue, Kazuya Koga 185

ABS441
HYBRID WOOD-MASONRY WALL TEST AND VERIFICATION OF TWO-DIMENSIONAL MOD-
ELLING APPROACH
Lina Zhou, Ying Hei Chui, Chun Ni 187

ABS463
LOAD DISTRIBUTION IN LATERAL LOAD RESISTING ELEMENTS OF TIMBER STRUCTURES
Zhiyong Chen, Ying Hei Chui, Mohammad Mohammad, Ghasan Doudak, Chun Ni 189

ABS472
DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY SHEAR WALL WITH THICK PLY-
WOOD SHEATHING FOR LARGE TIMBER CONSTRUCTION
Kenji Aoki, Ken-ichi Sugimoto, Fumio Kamiya 191

12
ABS512
A NEW CONSTRUCTION SYSTEM FOR CLT STRUCTURES
Andrea Polastri, Albino Angeli, Dal Ri Gianni 193

ABS532
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON LATERAL RESISTANCE OF TIMBER POST AND BEAM SYSTEMS
Haibei Xiong, Yingyang Liu 195

ABS570
TORSIONAL INTERACTION OF TWO-STORY TIMBER HOUSES WITH 3D ECCENTRICITY
Kento Suzuki, Hiroyasu Sakata, Yoshihiro Yamazaki 197

ABS610
DEVELOPMENT OF NUMERICAL ANALYSIS METHOD FOR JAPANESE TRADITIONAL WOOD
HOUSES CONSIDERING THE SLIDING BEHAVIOR OF COLUMN ENDS
Takafumi Nakagawa, Mikio Koshihara, Naohito Kawai, Yukio Saito, Yoshiyuki Suzuki 199

ABS654
CONSIDERATIONS REGARDING EARTHQUAKE-RESISTANT DESIGN OF WOODEN RESIDENCES
UTILIZING MEASUREMENT DATA TAKEN WITH SEISMOGRAPH FOR STANDALONE RESI-
DENCES WITH DAMAGE ASSESSMENT FUNCTIONALITY
Hisamitsu Kajikawa, Yuka Okada, Mikihiro Uematsu, Hiroyuki Noguchi 201

ABS655
STUB GIRDER FLOORING SYSTEM FOR TIMBER CONSTRUCTION
Reza Masoudnia, Pierre Quenneville 203

ABS670
STRUCTURAL DETAIL INVESTIGATION AND SEISMIC PERFORMANCE EVALUATION FOR
THREE-STORY TRADITIONAL WOODEN HOUSE IN KANAZAWA URBAN AREA
Tatsuru Suda 205

TRACK 4: BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES

ABS010
STRUCTRURAL PERFORMANCE OF HALF THROUGH ARCH TIMBER HIGHWAY BRIDGE
Hideyuki Honda, Yuuta Nakada 207

ABS062
SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS FOR PROBABILISTIC SEISMIC BEHAVIOUR OF A WOOD FRAME
BUILDING
Jianzhong Gu 209

ABS149
SEISMIC BEHAVIOR OF CYLINDRICAL WOODEN WATER TANK IN VIBRATION TEST
Fukuji Iida, Kuniaki Yamagishi, Toku Nishimura, Masami Gotou 211

ABS150
TIMBER BRIDGES WITH ASPHALT SURFACING - TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS
Florian Scharmacher, Andreas Müller, Maurice Brunner 213

13
ABS210
INFLUENCE OF ARRANGEMENTS OF WALLS AND OPENING ROOFS TO MAXIMUM SEISMIC
RESPONSE OF JAPANESE TRADITIONAL WOODEN HOUSE
Koji Yamada, Yoshiyuki Suzuki, Yukio Saitoh 215

ABS212
THE STUDY AND PROPOSED APPLICATION OF THE MULTI-STOREY HYBRID TIMBER STRUC-
TURAL SYSTEM ON THE DESIGN FLEXIBILITY AND HAZARD PREVENTION
Mengting Tsai, Mikio Koshihara 217

ABS241
APPLICATION OF NON-LINEAR FINITE ELEMENT DYNAMIC ANALYSIS FOR TRADITIONAL
WOODEN STRUCTURE
Atsuo Takino, Atsushi Kunugi, Tomoki Ikeda, Yuji Miyamoto 219

ABS303
REPLACEMENT OF STEEL STRUCTURE FOR WOODEN STRUCTURE IN ENVIRONMENT EX-
POSED TO MARINE AGGRESSIVENESS
Alexandre Wahrhaftig, Ricardo Carvalho, João Dias, Luciana Bezerra 221

ABS338
BUILDING DAMAGES OF MODERN WOODEN ARCHITECTURES IN JAPAN BY THE 2011 OFF
THE PACIFIC COAST OF TOHOKU EARTHQUAKE
Naoyuki Matsumoto, Kaori Fujita 223

ABS347
STRUCTURAL PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT OF THE FIRST VEHICULAR TIMBER BRIDGE
IN KOREA
Yukyung Shin, Kwang-Mo Kim, Sang-Joon Lee, Moon-Jae Park, Ji-Woon Yi, Hyun-Moo Goh 225

ABS407
STRUCTURAL EVALUATION OF TRADITIONAL TOWNHOSE WITH TIMBER THROUGH COL-
UMN IN JAPAN
Hiromi Sato, Mikio Koshihara, Tatsuya Miyake 227

ABS408
COLLAPSING ANALYSIS OF AN OLD TWO-STORY WOODEN-HOUSE AGAINST A STRONG
EARTHQUAKE GROUND MOTION
Tomiya Takatani 229

ABS447
STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES EVALUATION OF UNIQUE BOAT HOUSE USING OBLIQUE NUKI.
Part I: Structural Investigation
Noriko Takiyama, Yasuhiro Hayashi, Chiaki Watanabe, Yasuhiro Nambu, Sunao Kobayashi, Hiroto Yamamoto 231

ABS464
REDUCTION OF SAND PRESSURE TO THE PARTITION WALL USING LOGS IN FISH LADDER
Hideyuki Hirasawa, Jun Tonuma, Daisuke Takahashi, Tetsuya Sato 233

ABS501
SEISMIC DESIGN METHOD OF HYBRID STRUCTURE OF WOOD AND RC
Yoshihiro Yamazaki, Hiroyasu Sakata 235

14
ABS510
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON SEISMIC PERFORMANCE OF WOODEN SCHOOL BUILDING
Mitsuhiro Miyamoto, Naoki Utsunomiya 237

ABS577
A SEISMIC DESIGN OF 3-STORY BUILDING USING JAPANESE “SUGI” CLT PANELS
Kazuyuki Matsumoto, Tatsuya Miyake, Takeshi Haramiishi, Takahiro Tsuchimoto, Hiroshi Isoda, Naohito
Kawai, Motoi Yasumura 239

ABS599
QUANTITATIVE EVALUATION FOR INFLUENCE OF ECCENTRICITY TO DESIGN ASYMMET-
RIC HOUSING STRUCTURE WITH FLEXIBLE RIGIDITY AT FLOORS
Yoichi Mukai, Sanshiro Suzuki, Yoshiyuki Suzuki 241

ABS604
SHAKING TABLE TESTS OF COMPOSITE STRUCTURE OF REINFORCED CONCRETE AND
TIMBER FRAME
Hiroshi Isoda, Manabu Nakagawa, Naohito Kawai, Mikio Koshihara, Yasuhiro Araki 243

ABS626
FULL-SCALE SHAKING TABLE TEST OF TRADITIONAL TIMBER STRUCTURE WITH GABLE
ROOF PLACED FREE ON FOUNDATION
Kyosuke Mukaibo, Yoshiyuki Suzuki 245

ABS628
RACKING PERFORMANCE OF SHEATHED SHEAR WALL FASTENED WITH NAILS AND SCREWS
TOGETHER
Yasunobu Noda, Masahiko Toda, Takuya Fujiwara 247

ABS636
SEISMIC ASSESSMENT OF WOODEN HOUSES FOR TEPHRA FALLS OF KIRISHIMA MOUN-
TAIN (SHINMOEDAKE) IN SOUTHERN KYUSYU, JAPAN
Takeshi Yamamoto, Kei Tanaka, Masafumi Inoue 249

ABS686
THE STRUCTURAL POTENTIAL OF BIDIRECTIONAL RAHMEN STRUCTURE USING A WOOD
BONDED COMPOSITE PANELS METHOD FOR MEDIUM- AND HIGH-HEIGHT STRUCTURES
Hisamitsu Kajikawa, Yoko Miyamoto, Hiroyuki Noguchi 251

ABS688
DISCRETE BRACING OF TIMBER BEAMS SUBJECTED TO GRAVITY LOADS
Anders Klasson, Roberto Crocetti, Eva Frühwald Hansson 253

ABS689
SEISMIC RESPONSE ANALYSIS FOR DAMPED TIMBER STRUCTURE BY SIMPLIFIED SPRING
MODEL
Kazuhiro Matsuda, Kazuhiko Kasai, Hiroyasu Sakata 255

ABS717
SEISMIC PROTECTION OF TIMBER PLATFORM FRAME BUILDING STRUCTURES WITH HYS-
TERETIC ENERGY DISSIPATORS. FEASIBILITY STUDY
Edgar Segués, Francisco López Almansa, Inmaculada R. Cantalapiedra 257

15
TRACK 5: SERVICEABILITY /FIRE SAFETY / REHABILITATION
ABS047
NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF THE TEMPERATURE FIELD IN A WOOD-CONCRETE COM-
POSITE CROSS SECTION IN FIRE
Julio Cesar Molina, Carlito Calil Júnior 259

ABS136
PREDICTION OF FLAME SPREAD ALONG A WOODEN SURFACE OF WALL AGAINST LOCAL-
IZED FIRE
Koji Harada, Noriyuki Hirai, Yuji Hasemi, Kazuhiko Fujita, Masafumi Inoue 261

ABS137
INTERACTIVE VISUALISATION BETWEEN WOOD-MOISTURE RELATIONS AND MOISTURE-
INDUCED DEFORMATIONS
Rafael Novais Passarelli, Luis Carli 263

ABS139
ACOUSTIC PERFORMANCE OF TIMBER AND TIMBER-CONCRETE COMPOSITE FLOORS
Marc Schluessel, Rijun Shrestha, Keith Crews 265

ABS260
ENHANCEMENT OF DEFLECTION SERVICEABILITY PERFORMANCE OF METAL WEB JOIST
TIMBER FLOORS USING STRONGBACKS
Binsheng Zhang, Abdy Kermani, Tony Fillingham, Martin Cullen, Tony Kilpatrick 267

ABS268
INTERMEDIATE-SCALE FURNACE TESTS FOR ENCAPSULATION MATERIALS FOR USE IN
PROTECTING STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
J.Z Su, G.D. Lougheed, N. Benichou, R. Berzin, P-S. Lafrance, P. Leroux 269

ABS320
INFLUENCE OF FIRE EXPOSURE ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD
Chihiro Kaku, Yuji Hasemi, Noboru Yasui, Mizuho Yasukawa, Daisuke Kamikawa, Asami Suzuki, Naohisa
Kameyama, Tetsuro Ono, Mikio Koshihara, Hirofumi Nagao, Ichiro Hagiwara, Shuitsu Yusa 271

ABS365
ESTIMATION OF SHEAR STRENGTH OF NAIL DRIVEN INTO DECAYED WOOD
Takuro Mori, Kei Tanaka, Takumi Nakahata, Kotaro Kawano, Yoshiyuki Yanase, Hiroshi Kurisaki 273

ABS440
FIRE RESISTANCE OF TIMBER FRAMED FLOOR WITH ISOLATED CEILING ASSEMBLY
Joo-Saeng Park, Sang-Joon Lee, In-Hwan Yeo 275

ABS613
STIFFNESS OF SHEATHING-TO-FRAMING CONNECTIONS IN TIMBER SHEAR WALLS - IN
SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATE
Ida Näslund, Helena Lidelöw 277

16
TRACK 6: PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE
ABS020
FUZZY VENTILATION CONTROL FOR WOOD-BASED HOUSES IN TROPICAL CLIMATES
Carmen Riverol, Veronica Pilipovik 279

ABS037
CROSS LAMINATED ROUND-WOOD PANEL: DESIGN GUIDELINES IN THE STATE OF SÃO
PAULO
Rafael Passarelli, Akemi Ino 281

ABS090
TIMBER ARCHITECTURE EDUCATION USING ACTIVE LEARNING METHOD. SHORT-COURSE
CASE STUDY ON UNIVERSITY OF SÃO PAULO, FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE
Rafael Novais Passarelli 283

ABS096
SMALL SCALE MODELS, TIMBER CONSTRUCTION AND THE TEACHING OF ARCHITEC-
TURE: A BRAZILIAN EXPERIENCE
Ivan do Valle, Akemi Ino, Anaïs Guéguen 285

ABS099
THE CONTRIBUITION OF ZANINE CALDAS TO TIMBER CONSTRUCTION IN BRASILIA: FOUR
PROJECTS OF SELF-TAUGHT ARCHITECT
Ivan do Valle, Giselle M. C. Chain, Pedro dos Santos, Matheus Maramaldo 287

ABS285
COMPARISON OF CONSTRUCTION TYPES USING ANALYTIC HIERARCHY PROCESS - CASE
STUDY TIMBER PASSIVE HOUSE
Manja Kitek Kuzman, Milan Šernek, Petra Grošelj, Mirko Kariž 289

ABS328
SEISMIC PERFORMANCE OF AGED AND DETERIORATED WOODEN JOINTS OF JAPANESE
TRADITIONAL TIMBER STRUCTURES
Yu Ooka, Kazuyuki Izuno, Hideaki Tanahashi, Yoshiyuki Suzuki 291

ABS361
HUT EMERGENCY EVACUATION IN THE EVENT OF A DISASTER OF USING THE WOODEN
PANEL
Akito Kikuchi, Hisamitsu Kajikawa 293

ABS496
ANALYSIS OF WESTERN WOODEN STRUCTURE TECHNOLOGY’S INFLUENCE ON YANGZHOU
WOODEN ARCHITECTURE IN MODERN TIMES
Zhang Jianxin, Liu Yan 295

ABS574
VERIFYING THE VALIDITY OF STUDYING AND ARCHIVING DESIGN LANGUAGE BASED ON
TIMBER STRUCTURES FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF ADAPTATION TO ACTUAL CONSTRUC-
TION
Atsushi Tabuchi, Shinsuke Kawai, Shinsaku Munemoto 297

17
ABS590
TIMBER GRIDSHELLS: DESIGN METHODS AND THEIR APPLICATION TO A TEMPORARY
PAVILION
Dragos Naicu, Richard Harris, Chris Williams 299

ABS625
THE UNTAPPED POTENTIAL OF WOOD IN DEVELOPING ENERGY-EFFICIENT LIVING SPACES
Katja Vahtikari, Mark Hughes, Yrsa Cronhjort, Lauri Linkosalmi 301

ABS653
LOW-COST HOUSING WITH PREFAB WOOD-BAMBOO PANELS
Vladimir Rodríguez Trujillo, Gabriella de Angelis, Camila Burgos 303

ABS672
A NEW VERSION OF TIMBER STRUCTURES AT THE CERRADO’S EXCELLENCE CENTRE IN
BRASÍLIA, BRAZIL
Roberto Lecomte, Catharina Macedo, Ana Carolina Salviano 305

ABS719
THIS IS HARDCORE: CNC PROTOTYPES FOR TIMBER CORES - DESIGNING MULTI-STOREY
TIMBER BUILDINGS FROM THE INSIDE OUT
Alex Kaiser, Magnus Larsson, Ulf Arne Girhammar 307

ABS720
AGAINST THE GRAIN: REDEFINING THE LIVING UNIT - ADVANCED SLOTTING STRATE-
GIES FOR MULTI-STOREY TIMBER BUILDINGS
Alex Kaiser, Magnus Larsson, Ulf Arne Girhammar 309

LIST OF AUTHORS

18
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS

FULL FIELD MEASUREMENTS ON SMALL NOTCHED BEAMS

BY GRID METHOD - APPLICATION TO LATTICE ELEMENTS

Eric Fournely1,2, Rostand Moutou Pitti1,2,3, Evelyne Toussaint1,2, Michel Grédiac1,2

ABSTRACT: This study focuses on the mechanical behavior of notched beams. Experiments are carried out with classic
loading device and LVDT measurements as well as with the grid method. Tests are conducted for various orientations of
annual rings of the wood. The evolution of the strain in the zone affected by shear and tension stresses is obtained. These
experimental results are compared to Eurocode formulae for notched beams. Obtained results are then interpreted in order to
take into account failure modes in a lattice beam with thin elements.

KEYWORDS: Notched beam, Grid method, Experimental analysis

1 INTRODUCTION 123 studying the mechanical behaviour of notched beams using

another measurement technique: the grid method [4]. In
In wood material, shear and tension perpendicular to grain particular, the grid method enables one to obtain the
always induce brittle fracture if they are not controlled. evolution of the strain field in the zone affected by shear
This is particularly the case in the area of joints and even and tension stresses.
more when the beam elements are thin; these thin elements The wood specimens and the different orientations of the
can be found for example in lattice beams [1]. annual rings are presented in the first part of the paper. The
Standardized lattice timber beams appear as an efficient experimental procedure, the experimental device and the
solution for economical, ecological and mechanical grid technique are then recalled. The analytical approach
aspects. Many uses of this type of structure can be found in based on the notched effect proposed by Eurocode 5
the field of industrial buildings as well as in small and requirements [5] is applied in order to calculate the shear
collectives’ houses. This study focuses on the stress stress at the support levels. In the last section, experimental
distribution in notched beams specimens cut in chord results are compared with Eurocode formulation.
elements of a timber truss beam previously studied with
various connector or adhesives [2]. Thus, the orientation of
annual rings, the direction of the grain, the knot area ratio
2 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
are important parameters which drive the global
2.1 WOOD MATERIAL AND SPECIMENS
mechanical behaviour of theses beams.
In the literature, few authors have shown the influence of
the connections [1,3] on the global behaviour of structures
and especially timber structures. Digital image correlation
is employed in these cases. The present work is aimed at
1
Eric Fournely, Clermont Université, Université Blaise Pascal,
Institut Pascal, BP 20206, F-63000 Clermont Ferrand, France.
1
Rostand Moutou Pitti, Clermont Université, Université Blaise
Pascal, IP, BP 20206, F-63000 Clermont Ferrand, France. Email:
rostand.moutou.pitti@univ-bpclermont.fr
1
Evelyne Toussaint, Clermont Université, Université Blaise,
Pascal, IP, BP 20206, F-63000 Clermont Ferrand, France.
1
Michel Grédiac, Clermont Université, Université Blaise Pascal,
IP, BP 20206, F-63000 Clermont Ferrand, France.
2
CNRS, UMR 6602, Institut Pascal, F-63171 Aubière, France.
3
CENAREST, IRT, 3332, Libreville, Gabon Figure 1: notched beam specimens
.

19
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS
Figure 1 shows the four specimens considered for the tests.
Each specimen shows a specific orientation of annual
rings: spring and summer woods are easily recognisable in
this figure. The dimensions of the specimens are also given
in figure 1.
2.2 EXPERIMENTAL DEVICE
Figure 2 presents the experimental device employed during
the tests. The wood specimen in bending can be seen as
well as the load sensor and the supports of a classic testing
machine with maximum load of 200 kN.
1'%2+3$*4(5)+$
!""#$%&'()*'+$
!""#$%&'()*'+$
,-)#$
./&&"-0%$
Figure 2: Experimental device with grid
2.3 GRID METHOD AND EXPERIMENTAL
RESULTS
The grid method consists first in depositing a crossed grid
(see figure 2) on the surface under investigation in order to
track the slight change in the grid as loading increases. The
2D displacement and strain fields are deduced from the
images of the grid taken during the test. The grid is
deposited using the procedure described in [4]. The pitch
of the grid is equal here to 0.2 mm along both directions.
Processing images of the grid classically provides phase
and phase derivative change maps of this quasi-periodical
marking. These quantities are directly proportional to the
in-plane displacement and strain components, respectively
[4].
3 COMPARISON WITH ANALYTICAL
APPROACH
The standard dealing with the notch effect proposed by
Eurocode [5] is applied in the current analytical approach
(see figure 3). In this case, the shear stress calculated at the
notched support is obtained using the effective height hef
element as follows
V [5] AFNOR, Eurocode 5. Conception et calcul des
! d = 1, 5* ! kV * fv,d with An = b * href (1)
An
20
Figure 3: Notched beam
/ 1
1
1 " 1,1!i1,5 %
1 kn $1+ ' (2)
and kv = 0 # h &
1 ) x 1 2,
1 h + ! (1( ! ) + 0,8! (! .
12 * h ! -
where An is the area of the notch member (figure 3) and KV
is a reduction factor introducing the notched effect [5].
Note that for solid wood, we have: α =hef/h, and kn = 5.
4 CONCLUSIONS
This paper presents an experimental study on notched thin
beam with thin different configurations. Strength values
obtained in this experimentation study are in a good
agreement with EN1995.1.1 predictions. Grid method
analysis exhibits interesting results in order to give more
information on lattice beams with equivalent cross-section
chord beams. This extension will be completed soon by a
FEM analysis.
REFERENCES
[1] E. Fournely, R. Moutou Pitti, A. Bouchair. Behaviour
of timber lattice beam with semi-rigid joints:
analytical and experimental study. Pro Ligno, 8:19-41,
2012.
[2] AFNOR, NF EN 408. Structures en bois, Bois de
structure et bois lamellé collé, détermination de
certaines propriétés physiques et mécaniques. Mars
2004, p. 32.
[3] R.J. Leichti, R.A. Hyde, M.L. French M, S.G.
Camillos. The continuum of connection rigidity in
timber structures. Wood Fiber Sci., 32:1-19, 2000.
[4] C. Badulescu, M. Grédiac, J-D. Mathias. (2009b)
Investigation of the grid method for accurate in-plane
strain measurement, Measurement Science and
Technology, 20(9):1-17, 2009.
structures en bois – généralités, règles communes et
règles pour les bâtiments, NF EN 1995-1.1, 2005.
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS

A STUDY ON THE TRANSLUCENCY SEISMIC RETROFITTING

WALL WITH THE PUNCHING METAL SHEET

Katsuhiko Kohara1, Mitsuo Fukumoto2, Kazuyoshi Koumoto3, Danhei Umeda4,

Shintaro Hagiwara5 and Mitsuaki Kanazawa6

ABSTRACT: Our study team arranged punching metal utilized in various fields in the wall specifications of the house and
developed the bearing wall which improved specifications with the attachment means and the setting. This bearing wall can
realize lighting, the ventilation and high seismic performance. The performance of the general bearing wall is 5.2kN/m in
the plywood bearing wall and 3.2 kN/m in the brace bearing wall for timber structure. The performance of this translucency
seismic retrofitting wall with the punching metal sheet aims at higher than performance of the general bearing wall. The
seismic performance, lighting characteristics and ventilation characteristics of the existing building are raised by using this
bearing wall system. The performance of this bearing wall realized 5.8-7.8kN/m with standard specifications. Various
expression was enabled by the design by making an aperture shape of the punching variableness. Furthermore, the price of
the translucency seismic retrofitting wall with the punching metal sheet realized 1/2~1/10 in comparison with conventional
glass or resin.

KEYWORDS: Seismic Retrofitting Wall, Timber Architecture, Punching Metal Sheet

1 INTRODUCTION 123 earthquake or the southeast sea earthquake or south sea

earthquake is concerned about in the Tokai district;
“Revised Seismic Promotion Law” was established in inhabitants to the quake resistance of the building is highly
2006. It is an aim in that to assume 90% of earthquake concerned.
resistance rates by 2015. In “the legal training for all
authorized architects” of Japan Federation of Architects & The existing wooden construction architecture needs many
Building Engineers Associations, contents of the repair of structural elements by the earthquake-resistant repair.
the wooden building were included for the first time in Therefore it becomes necessary to choose the showable
2010. In “the earthquake-resistant diagnosis and structural element in earthquake proofing repairs a
reinforcement method of the 2012 revised edition” of the building. We developed the translucency bearing wall
Japan Building Disaster Prevention Association, there is using the punching metal sheet.
the method by the horizontal load bearing capacity
calculation in 2012. A school and a kindergarten are
added to the coverage as well as a house. In addition, the
evaluation method of the wall having a control on
vibration element is included, too. Do it with aftermath of
the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami caused by 2011
Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami generated on March 11,
2011, and a Japanese citizen to the quake resistance of the
building is interested. While the outbreak such as Tokai Figure 1: Image of bearing wall with punching metal sheet

1
Katsuhiko Kohara, Gifu Academy of Forest Science and Culture, 2 CONSTRUCTION METHOD
88 Sodai, Mino City, Gifu, Japan. Email: kohara@forest.ac.jp
2
Mitsuo Fukumoto, Timber Engineering and Design We show below the characteristic of the bearing wall. 1)
Organization / K, Japan This bearing wall enables lighting, the ventilation and
3
Kazuyoshi Koumoto, NPO WOOD AC, Japan enables opening-like space and earthquake-resistant
4
Danhei Umeda, Gifu Academy of Forest Science and Culture, Japan security brightly. 2) As for this bearing wall, finish is
5
Sintaro Hagiwara, H.K OFFICE, Japan unnecessary. The bearing wall is almost simple
6
Mitsuaki Kanazawa, ASAHI TOSTEM EXTERIOR
BUILDING MATERIALS CO., Japan

21
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS
construction only for screw flagging down. 3) As for this 4 Allowable Strength of Loading Tests
bearing wall, the large demolition work at the time of the
existing wall removal is unnecessary with aspects The result of the static loading test is shown in table 1.
materials specifications from floor to a ceiling. 4) This The performance of this bearing wall realized 5.8-7.8kN/m
bearing wall assumes it the proof stress performance that is with standard specifications. The performance of the
higher than plywood for strut and structure. 5) This general bearing wall is 5.2kN/m in the plywood bearing
bearing wall can be equivalent to present situation wall and 3.2 kN/m in the brace bearing wall for timber
specifications of pillar size, a pillar module and the ceiling structure. The performance of this translucency seismic
height. retrofitting wall with the punching metal sheet aims at
higher than performance of the general bearing wall.
Square-shaped
30mm角 Hole 30mm
Beam The Spaces 50
between the Roof
Table 1: The structural performance of bearing wall A &C
and Ceilings Height of Wall Wall
Span of Section of
Ceilings Level Punching Metal Standard Standard
50

Pillars Pillars
Sheet Proof Stress Rigidity
φ30mm mm mm mm kN/m kN/rad/m
Column 50
Round Hole 1) 105 7.8 1010
A-1-1 2270
30mm A-1 600-910
2) 90 7.5 940
(A) 1) 105 7.5 970
A-1-2 1970-2269
50

The Wall with Exposed 2) 90 7.2 900

Punching Metal Sheet Timber Pillars Using 1) 105 7.6 1000
φ30mm A-2-1 2270
50 Corner PipeType 2) 90 7.3 930
t = 1.6 mm Round Hole A-2 911-1000
1) 105 7.4 960
30mm A-2-2 1970-2269
2) 90 7.0 890
Floor Level C-1-1 2300
1) 105 5.4 710
50

The Spaces Underfloor 25 Staggered 2) 90 4.6 540

C-1 600-910
Arrangement (C) C-1-2 2000-2299
1) 105 4.8 510
Groundsill 2) 90 4.0 390
The Wall with Sealed
Figure 2: Bearing wall with punching metal sheet and hole 1) 105 3.6 500
Pillars Type C-2-1 2300
2) 90 3.0 380
shapes of punching metal sheets C-2 911-1000
1) 105 3.1 360
C-2-2 2000-2299
2) 90 2.6 270
3 Overview of Specimens and Tests
The examination body specifications are three kinds of the 5 CONCLUSIONS
(A) the wall with exposed timber pillars using corner pipe Our study team arranged punching metal utilized in
type, the (B) the wall with exposed timber pillars using various fields in the wall specifications of the house and
wooden frame type and the (C) the wall with sealed pillars developed the bearing wall which improved specifications
type. They are shown in figure 3. The bearing wall does it with the attachment means and the setting. This bearing
with the examination body which does not complete aspect wall can realize lighting, the ventilation and high seismic
materials about a floor bottom and the in the ceiling. The performance.
static loading tests of these specimens are carried out.
＋ ←→ －
P,δ Beam-Column： ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Battledore Bolt
Actuator
100kN±300mm Specimen
In this paper our research group use a part of the data in
the 2009 - 2010 subsidies “development on a retrofitting
Sill- Column：
Hold-Down Metal
method using showable design” of The Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism. We especially wish
to express our thanks the students who have helped to
Figure 4: Outline of Static Loading Tests execute these experiments and data processing.

Figure 3: Three typical specimens of bearing wall with punching metal sheets; Type A, Type B and Type C

22
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS

A STUDY ON VISCO-ELASTIC DAMPER EFFECT FOR

RETROFITTING OF THE LARGE TIMBER STRUCTURE

Katsuhiko Kohara1, Mitsuo Fukumoto2, Kazuyoshi Koumoto3,

and Takeshi Nomura4

ABSTRACT: Using a damper and the design tool which our study group developed, we carried out a seismic retrofitting of
the large wooden building. There is the large wooden construction building which does not reach the present earthquake-
resistant standard including shrines, temples architecture and the school building in Japan. We carried out the field work of
these buildings and grasped the state of the existing structural element. Using the design tool which we developed, we
predicted a response of the seismic retrofitting building by time history response analysis method. The maximum story
deformation angle was X direction of 1/94rad (39mm), Y direction of 1/109rad (33mm) in the first story. We predicted a
response of the damper retrofitting building by time history response analysis method. In the maximum story deformation
angle, it was with X direction of 1/115rad (32mm), Y direction of 1/126rad (29mm) in the first story when I installed 41
visco-elastic dampers "TRC-30W" of brace type in the retrofitting building. By the setting of the visco-elastic damper, we
were able to confirm a suppressant effect of the transformation of the buildings in X direction of 18%, Y direction of 13%.

KEYWORDS: Seismic Retrofitting, Timber Architecture, Visco-elastic Damper

1 INTRODUCTION 123 building is interested. While the outbreak such as Tokai

“Revised Seismic Promotion Law” was established in
2006. It is an aim in that to assume 90% of earthquake
resistance rates by 2015. In “the legal training for all
authorized architects” of Japan Federation of Architects &
Building Engineers Associations, contents of the repair of
the wooden building were included for the first time in
2010. In “the earthquake-resistant diagnosis and
reinforcement method of the 2012 revised edition” of the
Japan Building Disaster Prevention Association, there is
the method by the horizontal load bearing capacity
calculation in 2012. A school and a kindergarten are
added to the coverage as well as a house. In addition, the
evaluation method of the wall having a control on
vibration element is included, too. Do it with aftermath of
the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami caused by 2011
Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami generated on March 11,
2011, and a Japanese citizen to the quake resistance of the
1
Katsuhiko Kohara, Gifu Academy of Forest Science and Culture,
88 Sodai, Mino City, Gifu, Japan. Email: kohara@forest.ac.jp
2
Mitsuo Fukumoto, Timber Engineering and Design
Organization / K, Japan
3 the structured model by a field work. We grasped the
Kazuyoshi Koumoto, NPO WOOD AC, Japan
4
Takeshi Nomura, TOKAI RUBBER INDUSTRIES,LTD.,
Japan
earthquake or the southeast sea earthquake or south sea
earthquake is concerned about in the Tokai district;
inhabitants to the quake resistance of the building is highly
concerned. Our research team developed a brace type and
an angle brace type of the visco-elastic damper on seismic-
response controlled structure for timber structure.[1][2] We
performed various dependence evaluations by the materials
examination of the styrene olefin-based visco-elastic body
which we developed newly.[3] The existing large timber
structure needs many structural elements by the
earthquake-resistant retrofitting. Therefore it becomes
necessary to choose the visco-elastic damper in earthquake
proofing retrofitting.
2 OVERVIEW OF FIELD WORK
We can appoint a modulus of elasticity or strength about
the wood to install newly, but a modulus of elasticity and
strength of used existing wood are unidentified now.
Therefore, it is the situation that cannot carry out structure
inspection. As the object that it was important in an
existing part to remain in after repair, we inspected validity
of clarification of the materials strength of the wood and
situation of the grounds, the basics, structural members,
bearing walls, horizontal members and, the joints.

23
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS
In the maximum story deformation angle, it was with X
direction of 1/115rad (32mm), Y direction of 1/126rad
(29mm) in the first story when I installed 41 visco-elastic
dampers "TRC-30W" of brace type in the retrofitting
building. By the setting of the visco-elastic damper, we
were able to confirm a suppressant effect of the
transformation of the buildings in X direction of 18%, Y
direction of 13%.
4 CONCLUSIONS
Using a damper and the design tool which we developed,
we carried out a seismic retrofitting of the large timber
building. We carried out the field work of these buildings
and grasped the state of the existing structural element. By
the setting of the damper, we were able to confirm a
suppressant effect of the transformation of the building.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Figure 1: Overview of field work
In this paper our research group use a part of the data in
3 RETROFITTING EVALUATION BY the 2013 subsidies of The Board of Education of the Ama-
VISCO-ELASTIC DAMPER cho government office in Oki-gun, Shimane. In this paper
our research group use a part of the data in the 2013
We inspected the retrofitting building and the building subsidies of TOKAI RUBBER INDUSTRIES,LTD.. We
which set up braces type control on vibration damper especially wish to express our thanks the students who
"TRC-30W" by time history response analysis method. have helped to execute these experiments and data
The input earthquake vibration was BCJ-L2. The processing.
maximum story deformation angle was X direction of
1/94rad (39mm), Y direction of 1/109rad (33mm) in the REFERENCES
first story. Furthermore, we predicted a response of the
damper retrofitting building by time history response [1] Takeshi Nomura, Satoshi Senda and Katsuhiko
analysis method. Kohara: Development of Visco-Elastic Structural
Control Dampers for Timber Houses - Part 1.
Dynamic Properties of Brace Type -. In: Summaries of
Technical Paper of Annual Meeting Architectural
Beam 105*105 Institute of Japan, 2009. in Japanese
[2] Satoshi Senda, Takeshi Nomura and Katsuhiko
Kohara: Development of Visco-Elastic Structural
Control Dampers for Timber Houses - Part 2.
Dynamic Properties of Structure Corner Type -. In:
Summaries of Technical Paper of Annual Meeting
Column 105*105 Architectural Institute of Japan, 2009. in Japanese
Ground Sill 105*105 [3] Katsuhiko Kohara, Takeshi Nomura and Kazuyoshi
Koumoto: A Development of the Visco-Elastic
Damper for Timber Structure and a Suggestion of the
Figure 2: The visco-elastic damper Technological Design Assistance System. In: 2nd
International Conference on Structural Health
Assessment of Timber Structures, Trento, Italy, 2013.
Story Drift in Y Direction [cm]
Story Drift in X Direction [cm]

Retrofitting Retrofitting
Damper Damper

Time [sec] Time [sec]

Figure 3: Layout of the visco-elastic damper and the results of time history response analysis method

24
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS
DETERMINATION OF THE MODULUS OF ELASTICITYOF
VARIOUS WOOD SPECIES ON THE BASISOF THE
MEASUREMENT OF FREE VIBRATION PARAMETERS
Barbara Misztal1
ABSTRACT: The paper demonstrates how a simple, short and cheap dynamic testing can be used to calculate the
modulus of elasticity of planks made from oak, pine, spruce and larch wood.
KEYWORDS: dynamic, vibration frequency, damping, logarithmic damping decrement, modulus of elasticity,
1 INTRODUCTION 123
The papers [2], [5] called attention to the option of
the selection of wood to construct
a structure on the basis of dynamic vibration. The author
suggests measuring the free vibration parameters of
elements made of wood in order to learn its properties
instead of the commonly used long-term testing. The
recognition of wood features in the dynamic testing yields
unique results. The choice of best planks basing on visual
inspection used to date or the long-term testing is
insufficient. It is worth recommending short dynamic tests
to select the wood necessary to build a structure, also to
detect damaged elements in building facilities already
constructed.
In her research work, the author deals with the
analysis of the fitness of wood and wood-based materials
for the construction of prestigious structures on the
grounds of dynamic testing. This paper describes the
examples of how to determine the stiffness of elements and
the modulus of longitudinal elasticity E out of various
wood species. The testing of the models out of the
following wood species: pine, spruce, larch and oak, and
the determination of their dynamic parameters were
described. The testing was performed on dry models and
after the 24-hour-long soaking in water. The aim of the
testing was to determine the variations of the modulus of
elasticity of various wood species due to the moisture.
1
Barbara Misztal, Phd, Wrocław University of Technology,
Department of Architecture, ul. B. Prusa 53/55, 50-370 Wroclaw,
Poland. Email: barbara.misztal@pwr.wroc.pl
25
2 DESCRIPTION OF THE TESTING
The models of dry and wet planks, of the 10x40mm
section, 1200 mm long, were prepared for the testing.
Before the experiment, the planks were weighed in the dry-
air state. After the dynamic testing of dry planks, they were
soaked in water for 24 hours. After soaking, the planks
were re-weighed, and their humidity by weight was
calculated. The planks loaded bracket-wise, were put in
vibrating movement. The forcing load was applied at the
bracket end perpendicularly to the plane of the beam’s
lower stiffness.
The values obtained and calculated as the result of the
testing: the circular frequency of free vibration ω [˚] and
the damping ρ [1/s] were used to calculate the actual
stiffness and the longitudinal modulus of elasticity of the
tested beams. The results are listed in the tables.
The relationships between the stiffness K, mass -
m, vibration rate ω, and the damping ρ were specified.
Skipping the viscosity η, the local effective stiffness K ef
of the bar can be estimated from the formula:
K ef = mzα 2 (1)
3
K ef l
E= (2)
3J
3 CONCLUSIONS
On the grounds of the vibration parameters the
fitness of wood of the tested models can be classified for
the application in the construction according to the listing:
pine, spruce, larch, oak wood. The least reduction in the
wood’s modulus of elasticity due to the moisture can be
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS
adopted as a criterion of the wood fitness for a long-term
operation in construction.
On the grounds of the dynamic testing of elements
made out of dry and wet wood species, their physical
properties can be forecast, thus their fitness for the
application in construction.
The dynamic testing can be used for various
objectives, including, for instance, to select the planks for
the construction of a structure, especially building facilities
of prestige. The planks of a higher damping should be
rejected and those that show higher frequencies, a lower
damping and a lower logarithmic damping decrement
should be applied when a higher endurance of the structure
is required.

REFERENCES
[1] Banasiak M. Ćwiczenia laboratoryjne
z wytrzymałości materiałów. Praca zbiorowa. Warszawa
1985 PWN, Wydanie III zmienione
[2] Kowal Z., Dynamika nieważkiej belki na
podporach lepkosprężystych, Archiwum Inżynierii
Lądowej 1/1966 – tom XII, s. 29-42.
[3] Kowal Z., Sendkowski J., Walasek A.
Wykrywanie porównawczą metodą dynamiczną elementów
zarysowanych populacji belek strunobetonowych,
Politechnika Rzeszowska, Mechanika Z.5, Rzeszów 1983.
[4] Langer J., Dynamika budowli, PWR, Wrocław
1980.
[5] Misztal B. Comparison of the Vibration
Frequency and Damping of Beam Models Made of Dry
and Wet Pine Wood WCTE 2008 – Miyazaki, JAPAN –
June 2-5,2008.
[6] Misztal B. Kształtowanie kopuł z drewna
jednolitego ( Shaping Domes of solid Wood )
ISBN 978-83-7493-636-1, Copyright by Oficyna
Wydawnicza PWR., Wrocław 2012

26
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS

DAMAGE IDENTIFICATION OF MEMBER IN ANCIENT

TIMBER STRUCTURE BASED ON MODAL STRAIN ENERGY
METHOD

Xueliang Wang1, Liang Jin2, Haibo Li3

ABSTRACT: Chinese ancient timber structure has very high historical, cultural and artistic value. But long-term decay,
shrinkage cracks and other natural erosion make them severely damaged. Therefore scientific conservation of such ancient
timber structures has aroused an urgent concern. But when testing and maintaining in site, it’s difficult to detect the decay
inside structural member as well as damage on the roof and mortise-tenon joints. A damage identification method is
proposed to detect the damage location in ancient timber structure based on modal strain energy method in this paper.
Firstly an undamaged finite element model and a damaged one of an ancient timber structure are built respectively and
analyzed to obtain their first several natural frequencies, modes and element stiffness matrix of structural members.
Secondly the mode strain energy of every element of these two models are calculated and compared to qualitatively
determine possible damage elements and damage location. Finally the damage indicator MSECR of the possible damage
elements is calculated to judge the damage extent of the structural members. The results show that the damage on members
in the ancient timber structure can be identified effectively by the modal strain energy method, which provides a new
method to maintain and preserve the ancient building.

KEYWORDS: ancient timber structure, damage identification, structural member, modal strain energy method

1 BACKGROUND 123
Chinese ancient timber structure is listed in the world's
construction with its unique characteristics, which is a part
of the cultural heritage of all human beings with high
historical, cultural and artistic value. But due to the long
history, the existing ancient timber structures were
damaged more or less. In order to protect these valuable
heritage better, it’s of great significance to identify the
damage location and assess the damage extent of the
ancient timber structure with scientific methods, which
also can provide theoretical basis for protecting and
strengthening ancient timber structure.
Ancient timber structure has been studied from several
points of view including structural mechanics, seismic
performance and strengthening methods. But all the works
about damage detection have to be investigated by
1
Xueliang Wang, Wuhan University of Technology, 122 Luoshi
Road,Wuhan, China. Email: wxllhb@163.com
2
Liang Jin, Wuhan University of Technology, 122 Luoshi Road,
Wuhan, China. Email: whutjl@163.com
3
Haibo Li, Design & Research institute of Wuhan University of
Technology, 122 Luoshi Road, Wuhan, China. Email: lihaibo-
1973@163.com
experience on site. For some special location such as roof,
the mortise-tenon joint and other locations where manual
access could be difficult to achieve, the conventional
methods are beyond their abilities. Therefore, the need of
new method is to identify such damage on ancient timber
structure and consequently evaluate the structural
reliability.
Since the 1970s, various technologies of damage
localization were proposed. But most of these methods are
for large bridge structures, their applications in the timber
structure have not been reported till now. This paper
proposes the method which applies the Modal Strain
Energy Method to damage localization and evaluation of
the ancient timber structure.
2 METHOD
Modal Strain Energy Method has high capability of
positioning local damage, and it is proposed to apply to
ancient timber structures. The technique is as follows:
Firstly, an ancient timber structure is taken as a project
background shown as in Figure. 1, the nonlinear finite
element model of mortise-tenon joint is simulated, and the
finite element model of the timber structure is established
shown as in Figure 2.

27
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS

Finally, the damage extents of the elements are determined

by comparing the value of Modal Strain Energy Change
Ratio (MSECR), which is accurate to detect small damage
of structure.

3 RESULT
The MSECR of all the elements are calculated, and shown
as in Figure 3, the MSECR of the No. 70, 163, 166, 365
and 622 elements have sharp mutation which is in
accordance with the assuming damage locations, and the
MSECR of the adjacent elements also have some change,
but not obvious. It means the MSECR is an effective
Figure 1: Structural elevation damage index for damage identification. It can detect any
damage location in timber structure including column ends,
beam ends and centres, roof and the joint, even the damage
only induces the 5% stiffness loss. Result shows that the
Modal Strain Energy Change of the column bottom is
more obvious than the column top with the same damage
extent.

Figure 2: Model of the ancient timber structure

Secondly the dynamics characteristics of the structure

before and after damage are analyzed assuming some
damage locations in the structure shown as in Figure 2. the
elements corresponding to the damage location is shown as
in Table 1. Meanwhile the element stiffness matrix of the Figure 3: MSECR of all elements
original structure is obtained.

Table 1: Damage location 4 CONCLUSIONS

Element Specific Loss of This paper presented the damage identification method to
Number
No. location stiffness identify damage location and assess the damage extent in
Mortise-tenon ancient timber structure based on modal strain energy
1 622 15%
joint method. The proposed method is numerically validated and
Beam-end its validity for various multiple damage cases in an ancient
2 166 10%
in side span timber structure is investigated. An ancient timber lifted
Column-end beam structure as an engineering background was
3 163 5%
in side span simulated and analyzed to obtain the structural natural
Column-end frequencies and strain modes. Modal Strain Energy
4 70 5%
in midspan Change Ratio was used to identify damage location and
Column bottom assess the damage extent of the structure. The results
5 365 5%
in midspan indicate that the method is capable of identifying a
relatively low extent of damage such as 5% in the column
ends. This is especially useful for the ancient timber
Subsequently, Modal Strain Energy Change of all the structure, where some damages are difficult to detect by
elements in the structure are calculated and designated as conventional methods.
identification index to determine the damage locations of
structure according to the mutation of histogram.

28
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS

STRAIN-SOFTENING BEHAVIOR OF WOOD ESTIMATED IN

SINGLE-EDGE NOTCHED BENDING TEST

Koji Murata1, Seiichiro Ukyo2

ABSTRACT: A single-edge notched bending test was performed to study the fracture of wood as quasi-brittle behavior
perpendicular to the grain. The crack progress was captured by video cameras, and the strain distribution in the fracture area
was obtained using a digital image correlation technique. The stress distributions on the fracture area were estimated by the
equilibrium of the bending moment. The stresses were redistributed repeatedly using the change in strain near the top of the
crack tip. A stress–strain curve with a strain-softening branch was obtained with the iteration method. For some specimens,
the neutral axis appeared near the top of the crack tip, so the strain-softening branch could not be obtained by the iteration
method.

KEYWORDS: quasi-brittle, strain-softening branch, single-edge notched bending

1 INTRODUCTION 123 with a small band saw (Figure 1). The final cut of 1 mm on
top of the starter notch was made using a razor blade.
The fracture behavior of wood perpendicular to a grain is Three specimens were made. The single-edge notched
thought to be quasi-brittle. Ukyo and Masuda [1] or bending (SENB) specimens were kept in the conditioning
Miyauchi and Murata [2] obtained stress–strain curves room (20 °C and 65% RH) for 2 weeks. Black ink was
with a strain–softening branch for wood by redistributing sprayed on the surface of the specimen for analysis using
the stress related to the strain distribution. Murata et al. [3] the digital image correlation technique (DIC).
estimated the width of fracture process zone of wood by
using a stress–strain curve with strain-softening branch.
However, the tensile test is unable to easily reproduce the
stable growth of a crack and does not often obtain the
strain-softening branch frequently. In this study, we
performed a single-edge notched bending test to observe
stable crack growth and tried to obtain the stress–strain
relationship with a strain-softening branch.

2 MATERIAL AND METHODS

2.1 SPECIMEN Figure 1: Specimen in single-edge notched bending test

Air–dried spruce wood (Picea sp.) specimens with
dimensions of 40 mm × 40 mm × 15 mm were cut from a
single board. The density of the spruce material was
approximately 390 kg/m-3. Two spruce support blocks (80
mm × 40 mm × 15 mm) were glued to the specimens. The
starter notch of 24 mm was cut along the fiber direction
1
Koji Murata, Kyoto University, Kitashirakawa Oiwake-cho,
Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, Japan. Email: murata@kais.kyoto-u.ac.jp
2
Seiichiro Ukyo, Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute,
Japan
2.2 SENB TEST
The SENB test was performed using a material testing
machine (Shimadzu AG-I/100kN) that measured the load
and displacement at the center point. The crosshead moved
at rate of 1 mm/min, and the span of the supports was 160
mm. Fracture energy G was calculated by substituting load
P and displacement δ into the following equation [4],
δ0
G = W A , W = mgδ 0 + ∫ Pdδ (1)
0

29
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS

where A  is the cross-sectional area of the ligament, m  is  the function to estimate the neutral axis. Iterative stress
weight of the specimen, δ0   is   the deflection when the redistribution succeeded in producing a stress–strain curve
specimen falls, and g is the acceleration due to gravity. with a strain-softening branch. Figure 3 shows an example
During the bending test, the deformation of the center of of the curve. Sometimes, the neutral axis exited near the
the specimen was continuously recorded using two digital crack tip, and the strain-softening branch was not obtained.
video cameras (IMAGINSOURCE DMK41). The cameras
were positioned to capture the fracture processes on both
flat surfaces simultaneously. The strains on the surfaces
were calculated using in-house DIC software.

2.3 STRAIN-SOFTENING BEHAVIOR

A stress–strain curve with a strain-softening branch was
obtained by redistributing stress similarly to Ukyo and
Masuda [1] and Miyauchi and Murata [2]. In the previous
studies, the researchers assumed that the stresses were
initially distributed equally on the fracture plane. However,
in this study, the stresses were distributed unequally
because of the bending test. On the fracture plane in the
SENB test, the stresses were distributed based on the
Figure 2: Strain distributions on fracture area. The legend
bending moment as shown in Eq. (2):
indicates loads (N).

P L Ytop
⋅ = B ∫ σydy (2)
2 2 −Ybot

where L is the bending span, B is the specimen thickness, σ

is the stress, y is the distance from neutral axis, and Ybot
and Ytop indicate the distances to the crack tip and top of
the specimen, respectively. Since the stress concentration
exits near the crack tip, the stress value near the crack tip
was predicted to deviate from Eq. (2). First, the stresses
were distributed according to Eq. (2); then, the stresses
were calculated nonlinearly in a similar manner to the
previous study in order to resolve the concentration
problem. The neutral axis was determined according to the
strain distribution measured using DIC. The nonlinear
Figure 3: Stress–strain curve with a strain-softening branch.
redistribution of stress was performed using the master
curve, which is the relationship between the measured
strain and the estimated stress in the nearest element to the REFERENCES
crack tip.
[1] Ukyo S. and M. Masuda: Investigation on true stress–
strain relation in shear using the digital image
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION correlation method. Mokuzai Gakkaishi, 50(3):146–
150, 2004 (in Japanese).
3.1 SENB TEST [2] Miyauchi K. and K. Murata, K: Strain-softening
The load–displacement curve form the SENB test did not behavior of wood under tension perpendicular to the
show a rapid decrease in the load, so the crack progressed grain. Journal of Wood Science, 53(6):463–469, 2007.
stably. The maximum loads were 57.8, 51.3, and 53.2 N, [3] Murata K., H. Nagai and T. Nakano: Estimation of
and the fracture energies were 188, 178, and 176 J/m2, width of fracture process zone in spruce wood by
respectively. radial. Mechanics of Materials, 43(7):389–396, 2011.
[4] P.J. Gustafsson: Fracture perpendicular to grain—
3.2 STRAIN-SOFTENING BEHAVIOR structural applications. In: S. Thelandersson and H.J.
Larsen, editors, Timber Engineering, 1st ed., pages
Strains on the fracture plane are shown in Figure 2. The 114–115. John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, UK, 2003.
strain near the crack tip was found to deviate from Eq. (2)
because of the stress concentration. Strain data excluding
the stress concentration area were fitted by a linear

30
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS

ANALYSIS OF THE PENETRATION OF ADHESIVES AT

FINGER-JOINTS IN BEECH WOOD

Thomas Volkmer1, Anna Schusser2, Bettina Franke3

ABSTRACT: Using of hard wood for the production of glued laminated timber as a structural material, the penetrations of
different adhesives are investigated on finger joints. Finger joints are the key element for longitudinal assembling of the
lamellas as known for softwood. For reliable strengths of finger joints, the penetration of adhesives is an important
parameter, because the cell structure of hard wood is different to the ones of soft wood. The first results reached show that
the production parameters, like the application of adhesives, the open and closed time as well as the pressure and pressing
time influence the penetration of the adhesives as well as the reachable strength of finger joints.

KEYWORDS: Hard wood, Adhesives, Penetration, Finger joints

1 INTRODUCTION 1
Current research projects in Europe concentrate on the use
of hard wood as a construction material for timber
structures. On going research projects deal with the
production of glued laminated timber of ash, beech or oak,
[1], [2]. Parallel to the necessary surface gluing, finger
joints are an important element to produce the lamellas
known from soft wood products. It enables the
improvement of wood and the continuous assembly of
lamellas. The finger joints have also an influence on the
final strength of the structural timber elements, because the
mechanical properties of hard wood lead to higher strength
classes than solid wood and the finger joints are more
stressed. Consequently finger joints are a keypoint in the
production of structural timber and the quality must be
ensured.
In Switzerland the hardwood stock has increased since
1995. 31 % of the entire wood stock is hardwood, in which
1
Thomas Volkmer, Bern University of Applied Sciences,
Architecture, Wood and Civil Engineering, Solothurnstrasse 102,
2500 Biel, Switzerland. Email: thomas.volkmer@bfh.ch
2
Anna Schusser, Bern University of Applied Sciences,
Architecture, Wood and Civil Engineering, Solothurnstrasse 102,
2500 Biel, Switzerland. Email: anna.schusser@bfh.ch
3
Bettina Franke, Bern University of Applied Sciences,
Architecture, Wood and Civil Engineering, Solothrunstrasse 102,
2500 Biel, Switzerland. Email: bettina.franke@bfh.ch
the biggest part with 18 % is beech wood [3]. Therefor the
following research results presented concentrate on finger
joints from beech. Different adhesives and there
penetration according to the various production
characteristics were investigated. Hard wood has another
cell structural characteristics than soft wood. Due to
differences in the fibre structure and there assembling the
penetration of the adhesive can be different and leads to an
different composite of the adhesives with the wood, which
again results in different reachable strength classes.
2 MATERIAL AND METHODS
For the experimental test series, beech wood from
Switzerland, the Jura area, was used. The average moisture
content after conditioning was about 10 % in average. The
mean density was about 700 kg/m³. The test program
comprises finger joint lengths from 15 mm and 20 mm and
the adhesives Polyurethane (PUR), Melamine-urea-
formaldehyde (MUF) and Emulsion polymer isocyanate
(EPI). The production was done under both laboratory and
manufactory conditions. The production follows the
regulations of the standard SN EN 385:2001, [4]. The main
characteristics are summarized in Table 1.
The analysis of the penetration behaviour was done with
the lab microscope Leica DMLM. A mercury lamp EL
6000 with emission maximas between 350 and 600 nm
was used for illumination. Before the analysis, the samples
were sanded in different steps in order to get an

31
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS

Table 1: Characteristic of test programme different. On the one side, the glue penetrated more than
Finger 500 µm whereas on the other site almost no penetration
Profile Production Adhesive length Angle could be observed. An accumulation of glue can be seen at
I-15-Profile Industry PUR+H2O 15 mm 5.6º the end of the fingers and from there, the penetration takes
I-15-Profile Laboratory MUF 15 mm 5.6º place into the longitudinal direction of the fibres. The
distribution of the glue in the microstructure shows some
I-15-Profile Laboratory EPI 15 mm 5.6º
specific patterns. Mainly the vessels are filed with the glue.
I-20-Profile Laboratory MUF 20 mm 6.0º Fibres containing glue can be seen only very close to the
I-20-Profile Laboratory EPI 20 mm 6.0º glue line. Very often the glue just covers the inner surface
I-20-Profile Laboratory PUR 20 mm 6.0º of the cell wall, but sometimes fills the whole lumen.
I-20-Profile Laboratory PUR+H2O 20 mm 6.0º
I-20-Profile Laboratory PUR+Primer 20 mm 6.0º 4 CONCLUSIONS
The penetration of glue in hardwoods like beech is defined
by the material properties, glue type and the gluing
process. From the material site, the density, the surface
tension and the microstructure dominate the wetting and
penetration. The composition and the viscosity of the
binder systems define the depth of penetration. The
geometry and the precision of the finger joints in
combination with the process parameter influence possible
accumulation at the end of the finger joints and the macro
distribution of the glue in the glue line.
There are still unsolved open questions concerning the
interaction between glue and wood. Especially, which
parameter is the most important one influencing the
Figure 1: Sketch of finger joint with microscopic macroscopic strength and durability of the bonding. So far
investigated directions marked there is no clear explanation available, how and to which
extend the penetration depths influence the macroscopic
properties.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The research project is proudly supported by the Federal
office for the environment of Switzerland and the industry
partners neue Holzbau AG, Purbond and Corbat Holding SA.
Many thanks also to Grecon Dimter Holzoptimierung Nord
GmbH & Co. KG (Hannover, Germany) for the use of
their production laboratory.

REFERENCES
[1] H.J. Blass, J. Denzler, M. Frese, P. Glos, P. Linsemann:
Biegefestigkeit von Brettschichtholz in Buche,
Publisher University of Karlsruhe, Germany, 2005.
[2] Information on http://www.grupo-gamiz.com/en/0202.html,
Figure 2: Penetration of PUR+H2O, 15 mm finger length,
industrial manufactory
13/02/2013.
[3] Eidgenössische Forschungsanstalt für Wald Schnee
appropriate glossy surface. The images were acquired with und Landschaft. Schweizerisches Landesforstinventar.
a Zeiss camera and saved with the software ImageAccess. Ergebnisse der dritten Erhebung 2004 –2006.
Birmensdorf, 2010
[4] SN EN 385:2001: Keilzinkenverbindung im Bauholz
3 RESULTS – Leistungsanforderungen und Mindestanforderungen
In the most samples, the glue line is hardly visible and an die Herstellung. Schweizerischer Ingenieur- und
relative thin. The wood structure is strongly deformed Architektenverein, Zürich, 2001
which points out a certain pressure during the gluing.
Further the penetration into the two joining wood parts was

32
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS

INVESTIGATION OF EUCALYPTUS GLOBULUS WOOD FOR

THE USE AS AN ENGINEERED MATERIAL

Steffen Franke1, João Marto2

ABSTRACT: The paper presents results of the assessment of the suitability of Eucalyptus globulus Labill. for the use as
structural and non-structural glued laminated timber. Different sawing and drying methods were evaluated. It was concluded
that the best conjugation would be the application of the saw-dry-rip method with a vacuum drying. Furthermore
mechanical and gluing tests were performed to obtain the mechanical parameters and gluing suitability. The samples
presented negative results with respect to the delamination requirements, but were successful with the shear test
requirements. Finally, one method for the processing of Eucalyptus globulus wood for the use as an engineered material will
be proposed.

KEYWORDS: Eucalyptus globulus Labill., Sawing methods, Drying methods, Mechanical tests, Gluing tests

1 INTRODUCTION 1 2 SAWING AND DRYING

The eucalyptus genus is subject of increasing attention
within the wood sector. The exceptional growth properties
made some species of this genus a desirable raw material,
and Eucalyptus globulus is one of them. The aim of this
work has been to assess the suitability of this species for
the production of structural and non-structural glued
laminated timber.
Eucalyptus globulus will be described and an overview of
the characteristics and properties presented. A closer look
is taken upon the particularities of this wood, which affect
the workability, such as growth stresses, spiral grain,
collapse propensity and high mechanical instability.
A bibliographic review of the techniques and best practices
when dealing with Eucalyptus globulus wood is done.
Analysis and discussion were made on all stages of
processing Eucalyptus globulus (silviculture, harvesting,
sawing, and drying), with a special emphasis on the
standard machinery currently used in the industry.
Eucalyptus globulus wood from 20 year-old trees from the
region of Leiria, Portugal, was processed. For producing
the boards, two different sawing techniques (saw-dry-rip,
see Figure 1, and tangential) as well as two different
drying methods (kiln and vacuum) were applied. The
quality obtained was then evaluated for each case.
The results from testing Eucalyptus globulus clearly show
that the saw-dry-rip method allows the production of
boards with lower tendency for mechanical movement
during and after the drying processes. An increased
thickness of the board combined with controlled air‐drying
for a certain period of time allows a relaxation of the
growth stresses. After the ripping stage, the final boards
kept their position and presented less mechanical
movement than the tangential method.

1
Steffen Franke, Prof. Dr., Professor for Timber Constructions,
Bern University of Applied Sciences, Architecture, Wood and
Civil Engineering, Solothurnstrasse 102, 2504 Biel, Switzerland.
Email: steffen.franke@bfh.ch
2
João Marto, Bern University of Applied Sciences, Architecture,
Wood and Civil Engineering, Solothurnstrasse 102, 2504 Biel,
Switzerland.
Figure 1: Saw-dry-rip method (Larson et al. 1983)

33
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS
In the initial stages the drying rate is similar for both
methods (kiln and vacuum drying). A major difference
occurs after the fibre saturation point (around 35%
moisture content). After this point the water movement
occurs primarily by diffusion, which is intensified by the
vacuum, and thus the drying time can be significantly
reduced.
A high percentage of collapse and internal cracks as shown
in Figure 2 was observed after the vacuum drying, mainly
in the boards produced with the tangential method. Here
the higher initial moisture content together with the
unadjusted vacuum drying parameters were the major
cause.
Figure 2: Internal cracks in a tangential board after drying
3 MECHANICAL AND GLUING TESTS
3.1 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Mechanical tests were performed to determine the elastic
and mechanical properties (bending, tension, compression
and shear) and for the characterization of the wood. The
standard EN 408:2010 was applied for the tests, and EN
384:2010 for the calculation of the characteristic values,
which are necessary for assigning the wood to a certain
strength class as specified in EN 338:2009.
Since small, clear and defect‐free specimens for the tests
were used, reduction factors must be applied to achieve a
lower degree of confidence. Thereby the characteristic
values can be determined before assigning the wood to a
strength class as specified in EN 338:2009. In a first
analysis the wood samples were assigned to the D50
strength class. It is important to note that the low number
of tested specimens led to high reduction factors which
significantly influenced some of the results.
3.2 GLUING TEST RESULTS
Finally, gluing tests were performed with two different
one-component PUR adhesives (both free from
formaldehyde and solvent). Structural and non-structural
glulam beams sections were prepared under different setup
conditions: surfaces were either planed or sanded, pressing
times were 75 min or 150 min and a primer was applied to
some sections. The suitability of the selected adhesives in
combination with the particular setup conditions was
investigated and evaluated.
34
In order to assess the integrity and strength of the glue
lines, EN 386:2001 states that both testing standards, EN
391:2001 and EN 392:1995, must be conducted and
delaminations and shear tests were therefore performed.
All sections from these first both structural and
non‐structural tests failed the requirements regarding the
maximum percentage of delamination. However the shear
tests show that some sections, both structural and non-
structural, could meet at least some of the requirements.
This is important, because depending on the type of
application, the glulam element might not be exposed to
such severe moisture content changes.
4 CONCLUSIONS
After an evaluation of all the experimental data, one
process is suggested for efficiently producing Eucalyptus
globulus glulam. A saw‐dry‐rip sawing method followed
by a vacuum drying stage, with an improved schedule, and
a conditioning stage included in the drying, make it
possible to produce wood in a quality that meets the
requirements of raw material for glulam purposes.
Regarding the gluing, the outcome was not completely
successful. However, other, new configurations could be
tested or likewise new adhesive types might be more
appropriate for this species.
5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This presented results are part of the master thesis of Mr. João
Marto. Many thanks to his effort and his family providing and
transporting the wood from Portugal to Switzerland.
REFERENCES
[1] European Committee for Standardization (CEN):
EN 338:2009, Structural timber - Strength classes,
Brussels, Belgium, 2009
[2] European Committee for Standardization (CEN):
EN 384:2010, Structural timber – Determination of
characteristic values of mechanical properties and
densities, Brussels, Belgium, 2010
[3] European Committee for Standardization (CEN):
EN 386:2001, Glued laminated timber – Performance
requirements and minimum production requirements,
Brussels, Belgium, 2001
[4] European Committee for Standardization (CEN):
EN 391:2001, Glued laminated timber – Delamination
of the glue lines, Brussels, Belgium, 2001
[5] European Committee for Standardization (CEN):
EN 392:1995, Glued laminated timber – Shear test of
glue lines, Brussels, Belgium, 1995
[6] European Committee for Standardization (CEN):
EN 408:2010, Timber structures – Structural timber and
glued laminated timber – Determination of some physical
and mechanical properties, Brussels, Belgium, 2010
[7] T. Larson, R. Erikson, H. Peterse: Saw-dry-rip
processing – Taking the crook out of the stud game.
University of Minnesota, Minnesota, 1983
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS

END REINFORCEMENT OF WOOD MEMBER USING SHORT-

CUT CARBON FIBERS

Xiaojun Yang1, Meng Gong2, Y. H. Chui3, Zeli Que4, Youfu Sun5

ABSTRACT: Short-cut carbon fibers were used to adhesively reinforce the end of a wood member. The test specimens
were fabricated with resin content of 250g/m2, pressing pressure of 0.10MPa and pressing time of 24 hours. In addition, the
dispersion degree of short-cut carbon fibers in adhesive was examined. It was found that the dispersion degree increased
with decreasing the fiber length. The tensile strength of short-cut carbon fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP) increased with
increasing fiber length. However, there was not statistically different in the tensile strength of CFRP made of 2mm, 3mm and
5mm long fibres. The tensile strength of wood member with reinforced end was twice higher or more than that of
unreinforced one. It could be suggested that the reinforcement technology of using short-cut carbon fibers was a feasible way
to improve the tensile strength of the end of a wood member.

KEYWORDS: Short-cut carbon fiber, Wood member end, Dispersion degree, Tensile strength

1 INTRODUCTION 123
The transverse tensile strength of wood is far lower than
the axial tensile strength [1], in particular near the end of a
wood member since there is less support. The overhang end
of a wood member is easy to crack and split, and propagate
inward over time, eventually causing failure of the whole
member. Therefore, reinforcement of a member end to
increase its transverse tensile strength is of importance in
design of a wood structure.
There are various methods for reinforcing the end of a
end. Recently, carbon fibers have been used to reinforce
wood [2]. This study was aimed at exploring use of short-
cut carbon fibers to reinforce the end of wood members.
2 EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
2.1 MATERIALS
The test material was pine (Pinus Spp.) in the wood group
of SPF (spruce-pine-fir), which had an air-dry density of
0.581 g/cm and an average moisture content of 13%.
3

wood member, such as metal plates, anti-cracking nails and
rings [1]. In addition, coating such as paraffin wax and
resin is widely used to avoid absorbing moisture from the
1 College of Material Science and Technology, Nanjing Forest
University, Longpan Road 159, 210037 Nanjing, China.
Email: yxj5460@163.com
2 Wood Science & Technology Center, University of New
Brunswick, 1350 Regent St., E3C2G6 NB, Canada.
Email: mgong@unb.ca
3 Wood Science & Technology Center, University of New
Brunswick, 1350 Regent St., E3C2G6 NB, Canada.
Email: yhc@unb.ca
4 College of Material Science and Technology, Nanjing Forest
University, Longpan Road 159, 210037 Nanjing, China.
Email: zelique@gmail.com
5 College of Material Science and Technology, Nanjing Forest
University, Longpan Road 159, 210037 Nanjing, China.
Email: sun@ailin.com.cn
Short-cut carbon fibers were kind of polyacrylonitrile of
tensile modulus of elasticity of 2.4×105 MPa, tensile
strength of 3450 MPa, and ultimate tensile strain of 1%.
The adhesive used was a two-component epoxy, which had
℃5000 mPa • s with a ratio
a mixed initial viscosity at 23 of
of 2:1. The cured adhesive layer had a tensile strength of
50MPa, modulus of elasticity of 2.0GPa, and extensibility
of 2.2%.
2.2 DISPERSION DEGREE TEST
The dispersion degree of short-cut carbon fibers in
adhesive was assessed by flatting them in polyvinyl
chloride film (PVC). The short-cut carbon fiber reinforced
plastic (CFRP) was obtained in 24 hours. CFRP was cut
into strips along the longitudinal and lateral directions,
respectively, to test its tensile strength values. The
difference in strength between longitudinal and transverse
directions was used to reflect the dispersion degree.

35
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS

2.3 PPREPARATION OF COMPOSITE AND condition. The fracture of a reinforced specimen did not
SPECIMENS appear near the pre-sawn cut, suggesting that the ultimate
tensile load was depended on wood material itself.
Short-cut carbon fibers were mixed with epoxy resin,
flatted on the surface of the end of a wood member. The
manufacturing parameters used were resin content of 250g/ 5000
Wood
m2, pressing pressure of 0.10MPa and pressing time of 24 S-Powder
hours. The dimensions of a specimen is illustrated in Figure 4000
J-Powder
S-2mm
1. J-2mm
S-3mm
J-3mm

Load / N
3000
S-5mm
J-5mm

2000

1000
Wood

0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5

Displacement / mm

Figure 2: The load-displacement curves of specimens

tested in tension
Figure 1: Diagram of a specimen of reinforced end using 3 CONCLUSIONS
short-cut carbon fibers (left) and experimental setup (right)
1) The smaller fiber length, the better dispersion degree of
2.4 TESTING short-cut carbon fibers in adhesive.
The experimental setup for tension test is showing in 2) The tensile strength of short-cut carbon fiber reinforced
Figure 1. The loading rate was 5 mm/min. plastic increased with the increasing fiber length. But there
was not statistically different in the tensile strength of
CFRP made of 2mm, 3mm and 5mm long fibres.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3) The tensile strength of wood member with reinforced
2
Table 1: Tensile strength values (N/mm ) of CFRP end was twice higher or more than that of unreinforced
Fiber length powder 2mm 3mm 5mm one. Carbon fibers in bonding layer play a critical role in
connection and shearing action in the end of a wood
Horizontal direction 35.15 43.36 44.08 47.59
member.
Vertical direction 34.23 45.09 46.57 42.38
Difference ratio 2.62% 3.99% 7.40% 12.29% 4) It was found that the short-cut carbon fibers
reinforcement technology developed could be a feasible
way to improve the tensile strength of the end of a wood
Table 1 shows that the tension strength of CFRP increased member.
with the increasing fiber length. The tensile strength of
CFRP made of carbon powder was obviously lower than
others. However, there was not statistically different in the ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
tensile strength of CFRP made of 2mm, 3mm and 5mm This project was supported by the priority academic
long fibres. The difference ratio increased with increasing program development of Jiangsu higher education
fiber length. institutions (PAPD) and the research fund of highest
Figure 2 illustrates the load-displacement curves of the academic qualification (GXL201314).
specimens tested in tension. The load increases linearly
with displacement first, and then drops rapidly after it REFERENCES
reaches the ultimate value, showing a brittle failure mode. [1] Lianbai Gu, Yachi Zhang.: Timber manufacturing
It was found that the fracture location of an unreinfoced technology China Forestry Press, 2011.
wood specimen occurred near the end of a pre-sawn cut. It [2] Teng J. G., Chen J. F.: FRP strengthened RC
was also discovered that the specimen of reinforced end structures. China Architecture & Building Press,
appeared near the hole of metal connection. In addition, the 2004.
ultimate tensile loads of specimens were almost equal
regardless of the fiber length and the end reinforcement
36
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS

MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF HISTORICAL BEAMS

OF Picea abies WOOD. ASSESSMENT BY STATIC BENDING

Javier-Ramón Sotomayor-Castellanos1

ABSTRACT: Five historical full-size structural beams of Picea abies wood were tested in static bending. The static
bending tests were useful to assess the modulus of elasticity and the modulus of rupture in full-size historical beams,
according to the European Standard EN 408. The beams were classified as indicated by the European Standard EN 384 and
their stiffness properties. The results show a similar behavior in beams 1 and 5, and in beams 2 and 3. Only beam 4
presented a different response. The methodology developed in this investigation can be applied to the assessment of other
old wood structures if the prudent adjustments of the particular study are considered.

KEYWORDS: Modulus of elasticity, modulus of rupture, old wood constructions

The specimens were simply supported. The span distance

1 INTRODUCTION 123
The wood that shapes historical buildings has a remarkable
quality; even so the technological condition of the wood
suffers from the influence of time, weather and working
conditions. This frequently found scenario reduces the
magnitude of the nominal properties of the element,
compared to its actual mechanical characteristics.
The procedures and configuration of static bending tests
are well established for timber and full-size wood elements
[2,3]. However, it is challenging to apply this approach
directly in the context of the structural analysis of old
wood structures. It is necessary to have reliable
information of the mechanical properties of wood currently
used in historical buildings.
This paper presents the modulus of elasticity and the
modulus of rupture in static bending of historical beams of
Picea abies wood. The beams had an antiquity estimated
of 100 years performing as structural elements of the
wooden roof of the Prague Masaryk Railway Station,
Czech Republic.
2 METHODOLOGY
Five historical full-size structural beams of Picea abies
wood were tested. The procedure of the static bending tests
adapted the protocol recommended by [2].
1 rupture (MOR) of the beams were computed with the
Javier Ramón Sotomayor Castellanos, Universidad Michoacana
de San Nicolás de Hidalgo, Ciudad Universitaria, 58130.
Morelia, México. Email: madera999@yahoo.com
between the support points was 3000 mm, 11.3 times the
depth of the specimens. The distance between the load
points was 1000 mm and the specimen overhang was 250
mm. The displacement rate was of 2 mm/min (Figure 1).
P P
/ /
1000 2 1000 2 1000
y
1500 1500
250 250
Figure 1: Static bending test configuration. Magnitudes
in millimeters.
The bending load was recorded with a load cell which had
a capacity of 300 kN (Rukov Rumbuk®). The deformation
of the beams was measured in the middle of the bending
span with two potentiometers placed each one in the
central point of the opposite edgewise direction of the
beam, (Figure 1). Data were acquired and treated using a
dynamic switch board Dewe-5000 (TRADMARK data
logger system©).
The modulus of elasticity (MOE) and the Modulus of
formulae proposed by the European Standard EN 384 [3].

37
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS

3 RESULTS The values of the modulus of rupture (MOR) showed in

Table 1 represent the mechanical strength. According to
Table 1 shows the results for the five beams studied. the European Standard EN 384 [4] and their stiffness
properties, the beams were classified as follows: beam 1:
Table 1: Values of moisture content, density, modulus of
C24; beams 2 and 3: C16; beam 4: C14; and beam 5: C22.
elasticity and modulus of rupture from the five historical
beams settings
Beam MC (%) ρH (kg/m3) MOE (MPa) MOR (MPa)
5 CONCLUSIONS
1 13.14 448 11,505 32.37 The beams presented the attributes currently found in
2 11.08 414 8,516 33.94
3 11.79 449 8,940 31.42
historical wood structural elements: heterogeneity of the
4 11.41 366 7,557 16.66 wood tissues, misalignment of the geometry respecting the
5 12.16 433 10,402 31.47 orthotropic axis of wood, presence of cracks and knots,
Mean 11.92 422 9,384 29.18 and traces of weathering. Besides this, the beams were
SD 0.80 34.37 1,570 7.07
mechanically tested with satisfactory results.
COV(%) 6.67 8.15 16.70 24.23
The static bending tests were useful to the evaluation of the
Figures 2 and 3 show the load-deformation diagrams from modulus of elasticity and the modulus of rupture in full-
the static bending tests. size beams of Picea abies wood. The methodology
developed in this investigation can be applied to the
assessment of other old wood structures if the prudent
adjustments of the particular study are considered.
The computed values of the modulus of elasticity and the
modulus of rupture had the usual peculiarities that other
wood mechanical characteristics present: anisotropic
nature, variability among specimens, and different figures
depending of the experimental configuration or technique
applied. Considering the particularities of each test and the
directions for which every modulus was computed, they
can be used as a reference to assess and model historical
wood structures.

Figure 2: Load-deformation diagram for beams 2, 3 and 4

REFERENCES
[1] G. Bonamini and M. Noferi. On-site inspections of
timbers members for the assessment of their condition
and performance. In: Bertolini C, Marzi T, Seip E,
Touliatos P (Editors) Interaction between Science,
Technology and Architecture in Timber Construction.
Proceedings of Culture 2000 Project: Greek,
Norwegian and Italian Actions. Elsevier. France,
2004.

[2] European Standard EN 408 (2003). Timber structures.

Figure 3: Load-deformation diagram for beams 1 and 5
4 DISCUSSION
The data presented in Table 1 suggests that the beams can
be grouped in relation to their modulus of elasticity and
their behavior in the static bending tests: beams 1 and 5
have similar behavior as well as beams 2 and 3, in a
comparable way. Only beam 4 presented a different
response.
Structural timber and glued laminated timber.
Determination of some physical and mechanical
properties. European Committee for Standardization.
Brussels, 2003.
[3] European Standard EN 384 (2004) Structural timber–
Determination of characteristic values of mechanical
properties and density. European Committee for
Standardization. Brussels, 2004.
[4] European Standard EN 338 (1997) Structural timber.
Grading. Requirements for visual strength grading
standards. European Committee for Standardization.
Brussels, 1997.

38
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS OF UNIFORMLY PARTIAL

COMPRESSION TESTS OF WOOD

Shuhei Mitsui1, Aya Hori2, Mayuka Uetsuji3, Takeshi Kawachi4 and Kazuo Kondoh5

ABSTRACT: In analyses of timber frame structures, joints of timber members are generally idealized to the semi-rigid
springs. It is one of the most essential subjects how to establish the characteristics of the springs appropriately. In this paper,
2D-isoparametric finite element analyses of specimen of uniform partial compression test are conducted in order to trace
and examine wooden behaviour of compressive strain inclined to the grain. Some numerical tests are performed and
influence and effect of the material constants and the size of specimen on the wooden behaviour are shown and discussed.
According to the results, close relationship between the shape and the strength or the stiffness of the specimen is confirmed.
Also it is cleared that the slightly strain hardening increases the tangent stiffness of the specimen drastically.

KEYWORDS: Compressive strain inclined to the grain, Isoparametric finite element, Elasto-plastic analysis

1 INTRODUCTION 123 2 OUTLINE OF NUMERICAL TESTS

It is clear that evaluating characteristics of structures by
using finite element method is important in structural
design of buildings. However, it is difficult to estimate
structural property of timber structures by numerical
analysis until now. There are 2 main causes of the above;
firstly, wood is anisotropic material and vary widely in its
material property. Secondly, mechanical characteristics of
joint in timber structures have not clarified enough.
Joints of timber members are generally idealized to the
semi-rigid springs in structural design of timber frame
structures. Thus it is one of the most essential subjects how
to establish the characteristics of the springs appropriately.
The method called as “the theory of compressive strain
inclined to the grain” [1] is the most common way in Japan
for calculating the spring’s property and is commonly used
in designing timber structures. However, the method has
some problems regarding to evaluate plastic property of
the spring or to apply to arbitrary type of timber joints.
In order to overcome the above problem, present authors
have proposed new constitutive model for orthotropic
materials such like wooden materials [2] and shown results
of some numerical tests [3]. In this paper, result of elasto-
plastic analysis of uniform partial compression test is
shown and effects of material constants and size of
specimen are discussed.
1
Shuhei Mitsui, Kure National College of Technology, 2-2-11
Aga-minami, Kure, Japan. Email: mitsui@kure-nct.ac.jp
2
Aya Hori, Fujita Corporation, Japan
3
Mayuka Uetsuji, Hioshima University, Japan
4
Takeshi Kawachi, Shimizu Corporation, Japan
5
Kazuo Kondoh, Hioshima University, Japan
Figure 1 shows the outline of the analysis object. It is
specimen of uniform partial compression test defined by
JIS Z 2101 (Methods of test for woods) [4]. In this test, the
specimen is compressed partially on the upper side surface
using the steel plate. In the numerical tests shown in this
paper, material constants and size of the specimen are
varied. The specimen which has size as shown in Figure 1
is called “standard specimen” in this paper.
Lp Steel plate
Lp
Le Wood specimen
x
z
D
y
B L
B
L
L=45, D=30, B=15, Lp=15 (Unit: mm)
Figure 1: Analysis object (Standard specimen)
Analytical model of the standard specimen is shown in
Figure 2. Numerical test has done considering symmetric
property of analytical condition. New 9-nodes
isoparametric element, having the option functions on
nodes is employed and the number of elements is 360 and
degree of freedom is 2851. Also, contact and/or separation
phenomenon between the specimen and the support plate is
considered on the bottom of the specimen. For more details
of the analytical method, see Reference [2,3,5].

39
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS
Lp In the present numerical tests, tangent modulus and size of
Prescribed displacement the specimens are varied in order to examine their
is applied in compressed area influence on wooden behaviour. Figure 3 shows the
influence of size of the specimen on stress-strain curve. In
the figure, apparent stress is defined by value which
dividing compressive force by square measure of
compressed area. On the other hand, apparent strain is
D defined by value which dividing forced displacement by
x height of the specimen: D. Also, Le is additional length
calculated by subtract width of compressed area: Lp from
z length of the specimen: L. Le/D = 0 means that the
specimen is subjected to compressive stress all over the top
of it. It is confirmed by numerical tests that if Le is not
L equal to zero, strength and stiffness of specimen increase
Figure 2: Mesh division of standard specimen as well as well-known experimental facts.

The wood species of the specimen is assumed to be 4 CONCLUSIONS

Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica) and its material In this paper, the results of numerical test of uniform
constants are set as shown in Table 1 refer to Reference [6]. partial compression test are shown. According to the
Direction of compression is set along to radial axis of results, relationship between the shape and the strength or
wood, so z direction in Figure 2 correspond to longitudinal the stiffness of the specimen is confirmed. Also it is
axis of wood and x direction correspond to radial axis. cleared from the result of another numerical test that if
Values of yield stresses are decided refer to Reference [7] strain hardening is there even slightly, tangent stiffness of
by using ratios among mechanical properties of wood the specimen drastically increase.
which have provided by retrospective experimental study.
REFERENCES
Table 1: Material Constants
[1] Architectural Institute of Japan: Fundamental theory
Direction of timber engineering. Maruzen, 97-103, 2010. (In
Properties
or plane Japanese)
Young’s modulus L 7350 [2] For example, Mitsui, S., Hori, A., Kawachi, T. and
(N/mm2) R 590 Kondoh, K.: Finite element analysis of wooden
Shear modulus behaviour of compressive strain inclined to the grain
LR 637 (part-7) yield criteria and strain hardening rule for
(N/mm2)
orthotropic materials using non-dimensional stress.
Poisson’s ratio LR 0.40 Proceedings of annual research meeting Chugoku
L 24.75 Chapter, Architectural Institute of Japan: 34, 2011.
Yield stress [3] Mitsui, S., Minami, Y., Kawachi, T. and Kondoh, K.:
2 R 2.80
(N/mm ) Finite element analysis of wooden behaviour of
LR 6.40
compressive strain inclined to the grain (Part-1)
outline of the present approach and some numerical
3 RESULTS AND CONSIDERATIONS analyses of uniform partial compression test. Journal
Apparent Stress (N/mm2) of Structural Engineering, 56B: 359-369, 2010.
[4] Japanese Industrial Standards Committee: JIS Z 2101
Methods of test for woods: Japanese industrial
Le/D=1.0-5.0 standard, 2009.
Le/D=0.5
[5] Kondoh, K., Mitsui, S., Tanaka, A., Minami, Y. and
Kawachi, T.: Development of isoparametric finite
Le/D=0.25
elements with the option functions on nodes. AIJ
journal of technology and design: 16(33), 479-482,
Le/D=0.0 2010.
[6] Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute:
Handbook of wood industry, 135, Maruzen, 2004. (In
Japanese)
[7] Mitsui, S., Minami, Y., Kawachi, T. and Kondoh, K.:
Finite element analysis of wooden behaviour of
compressive strain inclined to the grain (part-6)
formulation in elasto-plastic region. Proceedings of
Apparent Strain annual research meeting Chugoku Chapter,
Figure 3: Influence of specimen size on stress-strain curve Architectural Institute of Japan: 33, 2010.

40
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS

GLULAM REINFORCED USING PLATES OF DISTINCTIVE

LENGTHS – EXPERIMENTATION AND MODELLING

Gary Raftery1,

ABSTRACT: This paper describes the development of a novel low-grade glued laminated timber (glulam) beam reinforced
in flexure using fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) plates of distinctive lengths which are anchored by a sacrificial lamination.
The development of such a hybrid section can improve the cost-competiveness of reinforced timber as the length of the
expensive FRP plate is reduced. The performance of beams reinforced using three different plate lengths is experimentally
assessed. In comparison to unreinforced sections the partial length reinforced beams exhibit enhanced stiffness and
improvements in ductility and ultimate moment capacity which are comparable with full length reinforced sections. The
length of the plates was seen to influence the results. The experimental results are compared with predictions from a
numerical model which utilises anisotropic plasticity theory as well as constitutive relationships developed from mechanical
testing of the timber. The predicted behaviour agrees strongly with the experimental findings for load-deflection, stiffness,
ultimate moment capacity, strain profile behaviour and strain measurements along the length of the reinforcing plates. The
model is a useful tool for further optimisation.

KEYWORDS: Low grade timber, FRP plates, Distinctive lengths, Mechanical performance, Strengthening

1 INTRODUCTION 123
In recent times, with increasing emphasis being placed on
sustainability considerable attention is being directed
towards the development of new products and systems
involving the use of wood. Low-grade fast grown
laminated timber can be significantly enhanced by the
addition of reasonable percentages of reinforcement. One
class of materials which is suitable as the reinforcement is
that of FRPs because of their high strength to weight and
good corrosion resistant properties. The use of FRP plate
reinforcement can be easily incorporated into the glulam
manufacturing process. Furthermore the cost
competiveness of a hybrid beam using low-grade material
can be improved by the use of partial length plates.
lengths were examined; the mean theoretical cut-off length
of 1760mm from the midspan and two other lengths, one
which was 240mm longer at either end (2240mm) and
another 120mm shorter at either end (1520mm). Three
replicates for each beam phase were manufactured using
mechanically stress graded spruce laminations and all
beams were initially tested for flexural stiffness in their
unreinforced state. The FRP reinforcement comprised a
2.8mm thick plate. The sacrificial lamination comprised a
25mm thick wood layer which was bonded below the
reinforcement. Strain gauages were placed throughout the
depth of the beams as well as along the reinforcement plate
on the beams as indicated in Table 1 and as shown in
Figure 1. All beam types were tested to failure in
accordance with EN 408.

2 EXPERIMENTAL TESTING Table 1: Test programme

The test programme as detailed in Table 1 comprised nine Reference Reinforcement Length FRP Gauges Timber Gauges
FRP partially reinforced beams in which the reinforcement (mm)
was concentrated in the zone of maximum bending A-1 1520 Yes Yes
moment. Each of the beams comprised five laminations A-2 1520 Yes No
prior to the bonding of reinforcement giving a depth of A-3 1520 Yes No
190mm and had a span of 3420mm. Three reinforcement B-1 1760 Yes Yes
B-2 1760 Yes Yes
1 B-3 1760 Yes No
Gary Raftery, Department of Civil and Environmental
C-1 2240 Yes Yes
Engineering, The University of Auckland, New Zealand/Civil
C-2 2240 Yes No
Engineering, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland
C-3 2240 Yes No

41
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS

Figure 1: Typical reinforced beam with plate of distinctive length showing strain gauge arrangement along reinforcement

3 FINITE ELEMENT MODEL

A nonlinear two-dimensional finite element model was
developed to simulate the behaviour of the experimentally
tested beams which were loaded in four-point bending. A
symmetrical boundary condition was employed to improve
computational time. A linear elastic, perfectly plastic
material model was utilised for the behaviour of the timber
parallel to grain in compression while a linear elastic
brittle material model is employed for timber in tension.
The elements used were 8-noded second-order plane stress
elements having plasticity and large deflection capabilities.
A mesh discretisation study was carried out to determine a Figure 2: Predicted and experimental determined load-
suitable element size. Failure in the model was based on deflection behaviour of reinforced using plate of distinctive
the maximum stress criterion whereby the model was
programmed to deactivate elements when the tension
stresses in the longitudinal direction, at a displacement 5 CONCLUSIONS
step, reached the critical tension failure strengths of the
timber laminations. Simulations were undertaken for ● Low-grade glulam reinforced using partial length plates
unreinforced beams, reinforced beams with failures are associated with gains in stiffness, increase ductility and
associated with in-grade strength (Reinforced 1) and improved ultimate moment capacity in comparison to
failure associated with clear wood strength (Reinforced 2). unreinforced sections.
● The length of plate selected influenced the enhancements
achieved in the hybrid beam.
4 RESULTS
● No plate debonding was experienced during testing. All
The beams tested in the programme were associated with failures replicated full length reinforced beams where the
enhanced stiffness, ductility and ultimate moment capacity. sacrificial lamination fractured at a defect.
The length of the plate influenced the results. Strains ● The experimentally recorded strain readings showed that
towards the end of the reinforcing plates were at a higher the sacrificial lamination assisted in lowering the risk of
level in beams reinforced using shortened length plates. premature delamination of the reinforcement plate.
The use of longer length plates improved utilisation of the ● Predictions from the numerical model showed strong
compressive characteristics of the timber. The finite agreement with the experimental results for load deflection
element model accurately predicted the strain profile behaviour, stiffness, ultimate moment capacity, strain
behaviour, strain measurements along the partial length profile behaviour as well as strain reading along the length
plates and load deflection behaviour of the reinforced of the plate.
beams as can be seen in Figure 2.

42
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS

TIMBER ENGINEERING AND CONSERVATION OF

ENDANGERED FOREST SPECIES FROM THE CONGO BASIN:
CONTRIBUTION OF MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS

René Oum Lissouck1, Régis Pommier2, Louis Max Ayina Ohandja3, Denys
Breysse4, Myriam Chaplain4

ABSTRACT: The aim of this paper is to identify the similarity of the Congo Basin timber aiming at a glulam use. The
mechanical strength and physical properties of tropical timber species are analysed. The Boolean approach allows defining
6 homogeneous clusters. The fuzzy approach yields more clusters in number. Findings may help the development of
engineered tropical wood products (ETWP), namely glulam, while conserving endangered forest species and promoting a
sustainable management of the Congo Basin forest.

KEYWORDS: Similarity, glulam, Boolean approach, fuzzy approach, endangered forest species, sustainable
management. Congo Basin

1 INTRODUCTION 123 radial shrinkage (εr), X7 = tangential shrinkage (εt), X8=

The Congo basin is the second largest tropical forest in the
world. As a result of decades of selective and intensive
logging, many high valued timber species are now
considered as endangered and listed on the IUCN database.
The development of Engineered Tropical Wood Products
(ETWP), namely glulam, is a solution to diversify the
harvest on the timber resource. It may also allow reducing
important timber losses in volume during processing
operations. In this paper, we investigate the proximity of
76 tropical woods from the Congo basin. Our aim is to
identify forest species, which are technologically closed to
endangered ones and could be used as efficient substitutes.
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
The selection is based on a technological database of 76
species of a potential interest for industry. The database is
published by CIRAD [1].
saturation fiber point (SFP). We also examine the
possibility of replacing εr, εt and PSF by the ratios εr/SFP
(X9) and εt/SFP (X10). The selected variables are correlated
with the mechanical performance of glulam and the
physical behavior of glue joints.
2.2 EXPLORATORY DATA ANALYSIS
The D’Agostino-Pearson test [2] is carried out to ensure
the normality of distributions. The Box-Cox [3]
transformations are unsed in the case of non-normal
distribution. The Dixon test is carried out for univariate
outlier detection. The Garett test [4] is realized in order to
sort multivariate outliers. A correlation analysis and a
principal components analysis are achieved thanks to
MINITAB.
2.3 BOOLEAN APPROACH OF
TECHNOLOGICAL PROXIMITY

2.1 TECHNOLOGICAL VARIABLES
Each timber species is represented with the following
variables : X1 = density; X2= modulus of elasticity (MOE),
X3= ultimate axial resistance in compression (Rcomp);
X4= mechanical strength (MOR), X5=hardness (hard), X6 =
1
René Oum Lissouck, CNRS, 351 Cours de la Libération, 33400
2
Régis Pommier, University of Bordeaux 1, France
3
Louis Max Ayina Ohandja, The University of Yaounde 1,
Cameroon
4
University of Bordeaux 1, France
The timber species are described by the mean value of
each variable. The Euclidian distance is used. The number
of clusters is evaluated thanks to the Ward aggregation
distance [6]. The Ward hierarchical clustering based on the
mean value of each property is realized. Each species can
belong to only one cluster. The substitution of endangered
species is identified in each cluster.
2.4 FUZZY APPROACH OF TECHNOLOGICAL
PROXIMITY
In this approach, we simulated the effect of wood
properties’ variability on technological clustering. This

43
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS

effect is characterized by the degree to which every timber Table 1: Examples of fuzzy clusters
species belongs to the 6 clusters. The “fuzzy belonging” Fuzzy clusters Forest species
property is quantified thanks to 131 Monte-Carlo Hybrid (G4)/Hybrid (G5)/ -Awoura (Julbernardia
simulations. The uncertain character of all wood properties Peripheral (G3) pellegriniana)
is considered. The post-processing consisted in analyzing -Doussie (afzelia pachyloba)
the stability of the clustering for each species. Centre (G3)/ -Ebiara (Berlinia bracteosa)
Hybrid/(G4)/Peripheral (G2)/ -Tchitola (Oxystigma
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION oxyphyllum)
3.1 BOOLEAN APPROACH
Heart (G6) -Eveuss (Klainedoxa
gabonensis)
Six optimal groups were defined and numbered
-Alep (Desbordesia
according to their increasing technological performance glaucescens)
(Fig.1).
The fuzzy substitution of endangered species is identified
2,0 koto
by considering 4 proximity levels to archetypal individuals
1,5
zingana CLUSTERS
2
: “strongly close”, “close”, “slightly close” and “low
w enge
3
1
close”. For instance, bomanga (brachystegia laurentii) is
1,0 aielé ekoune
akossika 6
5
close to kosipo (entandrophragma candollei) and low close to
Second Component

moabi

fromager
ilomba abura kekele lati
lotofa
4 tola (gossweilerodendron balsamiferum). Kosipo and tola are
ekaba
0,5 kondroti
tiama igaganga bilinga
dabema afrormosia mukulungu endangered.
nieuk
emien landamakore
faro andoung
gombeizombe
ako frake ebiara
ay ous ov oga onzabili tchitola ey ong bodioa
aw oura alep
0,0 dibetou iroko bubinga ev euss
framire bete
bomanga ozigo limbali tali

-0,5
acajou
tola
olon aningre
sipo
naga sapelli
kanda
mov ingui
okan azobé
4 CONCLUSIONS
kosipo bosse pao rosa
oboto
essia kotibe
iatandza
padouk
longhi
Tropical timbers of the Congo basin can be technologically
-1,0
doussié difou clustered into 6 homogeneous groups. Inside a same group,
niov e

-1,5
two series of glulam may have closed mechanical and
-5,0 -2,5 0,0 2,5 5,0 physical properties. The Boolean approach ensures a
First Component
timber species can just belong to one group. Thus, it is
Figure 1: Clusters and species proximity representation possible to attach directly to each endangered species one
or many substitutes inside a group. The fuzzy approach
Results show that azobe (lophira alata), an endangered allows defining degrees of belonging to a group and
species (“Vulnerable A1cd” [2]) of the group 6, can be presents a more refined and progressive picture of species
technologically replaced by alep (Desbordesia substitution by considering the uncertain character of
glaucescens). These major trends of substitution are properties.
confirmed by ITTO [6].

3.2 FUZZY APPROACH

REFERENCES
We defined four types of timber species in a given cluster [1] CIRAD. Tropix 7.0 : Synthèse des Caractéristiques
technologiques de 245 essences tropicales
(Fig.2)
(Technological Characteristics of 245 tropical
species). 2011.
[2] d’Agostino, B., R, Belanger, A., J. d’Agostino, B., R.,
Jr. 1990. A suggestion for using powerful and
informative tests of normality. The American
statistician. Vol.44.
[3] Sakia, R. M. 1992. The Box-Cox Transformation
Technique: A Review. The Statistician. Vol. 41, No. 2
pp. 169-178
[4] Garett. R.G. 1989. The chi-square plot: A tool for
multivariate outlier recognition. Journal of
Geochemical exploration. Vol. 32. 319-341.
Figure 2: degrees of belonging and intra-typology of timber [5] SHARMA S. 1996. Applied multivariate techniques.
species in a cluster John Wiley & Sons. Inc.
[6] International Tropical Timber Organisation. 2001.
The result of this approach is the definition of 39 fuzzy
Tropical Timber database.
clusters of wood essences. Some examples of such clusters
are presented in the table 1. Archetypal individuals of each
group (heart or centre) are identified.

44
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS

AN ENHANCED BEAM MODEL FOR GLUED LAMINATED

STRUCTURES THAT TAKES MOISTURE, MECHANO-
SORPTION AND TIME EFFECTS INTO ACCOUNT

Sigurdur Ormarsson1, Jan Roar Steinnes2

ABSTRACT: There is a need of more advanced analysis for studying how the long-term behaviour of glued laminated
timber structures is affected by creep and by cyclic variations in climate. A beam theory is presented able to simulate the
overall hygro-mechanical and visco-elastic behaviour of (inhomogeneous) glulam structures. Two frame structures
subjected to both mechanical and cyclic environmental loading are analysed to illustrate the advantages the model involved
can provide. The results indicate clearly both the (discontinuous) inhomogeneity of the glulam products and the variable
moisture-load action that occurs to have a significant effect on deformations, section forces and stress distributions within
the frame structures that were studied.

KEYWORDS: Wood, moisture-related stresses, mechano-sorption, creep, FE-simulation, beam element

1 INTRODUCTION 123 2 MOISTURE VARIATION IN TIMBER

Wood is a non-isotropic and inhomogeneous material
concerning both modulus of elasticity and shrinkage
properties. It is also a hygroscopic and moisture-sensitive
material. In stress calculations associated with timber
designs even of ordinary types, these matters are often not
dealt with properly, primarily because of the stress
distributions encountered in inhomogeneous glulam
structures exposed to mechanical actions of different sorts,
together with the climatic conditions that are present, being
extremely difficult to predict by any simple means.
Accordingly, advanced numerical simulations are often
needed in studying cyclic climate related stresses in glulam
structures. An incremental beam model able to predict the
stress history as a whole at an arbitrary location within the
beam is employed. The model and the extended beam
theory associated with it, dealing with the elastic, the
shrinkage, the mechano-sorption and the visco-elastic
behaviour of the material involved, were implemented here
in the finite element program CALFEM (2004). For a more
detailed account then provided here of the theory and of
the implementation procedure employed, see [1] and [2].
1
Sigurdur Ormarsson, Department of Civil Engineering,
Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby,
Denmark, Email: sor@byg.dtu.dk
2
Jan Roar Steinnes, Norcunsult AS, Vestfjordgaten 4, 1338
Sandvika, Norway
STRUCTURES
In the Nordic countries, RH values typically vary from
about 90% in the winter to about 65% in the summer each
year. When a timber structure is exposed to natural
climatic variations, the question arises of the extent to
which moisture changes and moisture gradients will be
generated in the wood material. In order to gain insight
into this, a transient moisture flow simulation was
performed for a glued laminated cross section having
dimensions 100x300 mm; see Fig. 1.
Figure 1: Moisture-content profiles for a timber cross
section having dimensions of 100x300 mm.
In timber structures exposed to moisture gradients such as
shown in Fig.1 considerable stresses both longitudinal and
perpendicular to the grain direction will occur.
3 NUMERICAL EXAMPLES
A rather simple beam-column structure was employed for
studying how different parameters affect the hygro-
mechanical long-term deformations and stresses that
develop. Figure 2 shows the structure in question.

45
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS
Figure 2: The geometry of the structure, variations found in
the E-modulus and in the moisture content over the beam
cross section, and moisture history on the upper surface.
The figures that follows illustrates how the presence of a
dominant mechanical load q, together with a cyclically
varying moisture load shown in Fig. 2, affects the
deformations and the stresses in the structure. Figures 3
and 4 show how the displacement varies along the beam
and how the normal stress varies over a cross section.
Figure 3: Deflections of the beam A-B-C.
The deflection increases markedly over time due both to
creep and to the mechano-sorption phenomenon. The
maximum degree of deflection occurs during the summers,
its increasing from 1.6 to 2.9 mm during years 1-50.
Figure 4: Variations in stress over the cross section at
point B for (a) pure climate loading and (b) combined
mechanical and climate loading during the summertime.
It can be clearly seen in Fig. 4 that the stresses caused by
the combination of mechanical and climate loading vary
markedly, both over a given year and over time, whereas
the moisture-related stresses are practically independent of
time. The second numerical example is a large arch
structure shown in Fig. 5. It is composed of two slightly
curved beams, there being a number of vertical columns
connecting the upper and the bottom chords.
46
Figure 5: Structural geometry and mechanical and
moisture loading acting on the upper chord.
The structure is subjected here to both mechanical and
climate loading. Figure 6 shows displacement and stress
curves both for separate moisture and snow loads and for
combinations of these.
Figure 6: Deformation of the arch structure and stress
profiles for the centre cross section of the upper chord.
Figure 6 (left) shows the structure in a deformed state, the
largest deflection being in the centre of the structure. For
pure moisture loading, the centre of the structure was
found to bend upwards by about 23 mm. When the snow
load acted alone, there was a maximum downward
deflection of 151 mm. The figure also shows there to be
normal stress variations in the cross section in the centre of
the upper chord where the moisture loading has a relatively
strong effect on the normal stress that develops. The
changes in moisture content have an unfavourable effect
on the strongest stresses found in the cross section, the
compression stress increasing from about 7 to 10 MPa at
the top edge of the upper chord.
4 CONCLUSIONS
The major conclusion to be drawn on the basis of the
simulation results is that the moisture loading (either cyclic
or constant) had a strong effect on the deformations and
the stresses found in the timber structures that were
studied. A final conclusion that can be drawn is that
climate loading should best be treated as a separate load
case in connection with future design codes for timber
structures that are exposed to natural variations in climate.
REFERENCES
[1] Ormarsson S, Dahlblom O.: Finite element modelling
of moisture related and visco-elastic deformations in
timber beams. Engineering Structures 49:182-189,
2013.
[2] Steinnes J. R.: Finite element modelling of a special
designed beam element for simulation of lateral
buckling driven by mechanical and moisture related
stresses. Master thesis, Technical University of
Denmark, Department of Civil Engineering, 2014.
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS

SEISMIC PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF MUD WALLS

CONSIDERING REGIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WALL CLAY

Naoki Utsunomiya1, Mitsuhiro Miyamoto2, Minoru Yamanaka3 and Manabu Matsushima4

ABSTRACT: Mud walls resist the lateral force during an earthquake by compressive or shear strength of wall clay. So the
seismic performance of mud walls is decided by the mechanical characteristics of wall clay. In this study, the objective is to
clarify the mechanical characteristics of wall clay, which is used for mud walls in each region of Japan, based on the results
of material tests and to evaluate the seismic performance of mud walls considering the regional characteristics of wall clay.

KEYWORDS: Mud wall, Soil mechanics, Cohesion, Angle of internal friction, Unconfined compression test

1 INTRODUCTION 123 which varies according to each region of Japan. In this

Mud walls consist of wooden frame, lattice substratum
made of bamboo etc. and viscous soil mixed with straw.
Mud walls resist the lateral force during an earthquake by
compressive or shear strength of wall clay. So the seismic
performance of mud walls is decided by the mechanical
characteristics of wall clay. We have conducted the study
on the estimation of relationship between lateral loading
and deformation of mud walls. We have proposed the
mechanical model to estimate the relationship between
lateral loading and deformation of mud walls with initial
failure in shear, considering the mechanical characteristics
of wall clay such as cohesion and angle of internal friction.
Compared with full-scale test results, the accuracy of
estimation results is examined. In Japan, there is no
description of the concrete mechanical characteristics of
wall clay in the regulation about the seismic performance
evaluation or material preparation of mud walls. So the
seismic performance of mud walls are evaluated without
considering the mechanical characteristics of wall clay
1
Naoki Utsunomiya, Assoc. Prof., Dept. of Residential
Environment, Shikoku Polytechnic College, Gungecho 3202,
Marugame City, Kagawa Prefecture, Japan. Dr. Eng. Email:
utsunomiya@shikoku-pc.ac.jp
2
Mitsuhiro Miyamoto, Research Assoc., Dept. of Safety Systems
Construction Eng., Kagawa Univ., Hayashicho 2217-20,
Takamatsu City, Kagawa Prefecture, Japan, Dr. Eng. Email:
miyamoto@eng.kagawa-u.ac.jp
3
Minoru Yamanaka, Assoc. Prof., Dept. of Safety Systems
Construction Eng., Kagawa Univ., Hayashicho 2217-20,
Takamatsu City, Kagawa Prefecture, Japan, Dr. Eng. Email:
yamanaka@eng.kagawa-u.ac.jp
4
Manabu Matsushima, Prof., Dept. of Safety Systems
Construction Eng., Kagawa Univ., Hayashicho 2217-20,
Takamatsu City, Kagawa Prefecture, Japan, Dr. Eng. Email:
matusima@eng.kagawa-u.ac.jp
study, the objective is to clarify the mechanical
characteristics of wall clay, which is used for mud walls in
each region of Japan, based on the results of material tests
and to evaluate the seismic performance of mud walls
considering the regional characteristics of wall clay.
2 EVALUATION METHOD
To examine the mechanical characteristics of wall clay
such as cohesion and angle of internal friction, wall clay is
extracted from 17 places. We performed unconfined
compression tests with the circle test pieces of wall clay.
The dimension of test pieces is 125mm in diameter and
250mm in height. From the results of material tests, the
relationship between lateral loading and deformation of
mud walls is estimated based on the reference [1]. From
the results of estimation, unit multiplier of each mud wall
is calculated based on the reference [2]. In addition, the
deformation angle when it is 0.8 times the maximum load
Pmax is defined as ultimate deformation angle. From the
relationship between unit multiplier and ultimate
deformation angle, the seismic performance of mud walls
is evaluated. Table 1 shows the evaluation rank of mud
walls. Unit multiplier of mud walls with 55 mm in
thickness is defined as 0.5 in Japan. So the classification
for unit multiplier is defined by 0.5 and 1.0. The
classification for ultimate deformation angle is defined by
1/20 rad considering the large deformation of mud walls.
3 STRENGTH CHARACTERISTICS OF
WALL CLAY
Figure 1 shows the relationship between compressive
stress and strain from the results of unconfined
compression tests. As the maximum compressive stress
increases, the compressive stress decreases rapidly after

47
 TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS

the maximum compressive stress. So the deformation 0.18 to 0.49 and angle of internal friction is from 4 to 17.
capacity deteriorates. Figure 2 shows the relationship So the range of these mechanical characteristics is suitable
between maximum compressive stress and cohesion. The for wall clay of mud walls. It is possible that wall clay in
maximum compressive stress increases as the cohesion the range of rank B is changed into rank A by increasing
increases; they are proportional. It is found that the the thickness of mud walls.
mechanical characteristics of wall clay is different
according to its extraction place. REFERENCES
4 EVALUTION RESULT [1] Utsunomiya N., Miyamoto M., Yamanaka M. and
Matsushima M., “Proposal of Mechanical Model for
Figure 3 shows the samples of estimated relationship
Estimation of Relationship between Strength and
between lateral loading and deformation of full-scale mud
Deformation of Mud Wall Based on Soil Mechanics”,
walls. It is found that this relationship is influenced by the
Journal of Structural and Construction Engineering,
curve form shown in Figure 1. Figure 4 shows the
AIJ, Vol.78 No.684, pp.363-368, February, 2013. (in
relationship between unit multiplier and ultimate
Japanese)
deformation angle calculated by the relationship between
[2] Editorial committee for technical manual, “Technical
lateral loading and deformation of mud walls in each
Manual for Unit Multiplier of Mud Walls, Timber
region of Japan. The ultimate deformation angles of Fukui
Grille Walls and Wooden Siding Walls”, Japan
1, Fukui 2, Aichi, Kagawa 2, Hyogo and Kumamoto are
Housing and Wood Technology Center, pp.83-91,
over 1/10 rad. 9 places are rank B, 5 places are rank C, 1
February, 2004. (in Japanese)
place is rank D and 1 place is rank E, respectively. It is
found that unit multiplier and deformation capacity of mud
walls are different according to the extraction place of wall
clay. Figure 5 shows the mechanical characteristics of wall
clay for each extraction place. The mechanical
characteristics of rank B is as follows; cohesion is from

1.2 1.2
FUKUI 2 KUMAMOTO
GIFU
Compressive Stress σc (Ｎ/mm2)
Compressive Stress σ (Ｎ/mm2)

HIROSHIMA
1.0 1.0
KUMAMOTO SAITAMA AICHI
HYOGO
Table1: Definition of evaluation rank 0.8 0.8 YAMAGUCHI 1
GIFU KYOTO
TOKUSHIMA
Ultimate shear 0.6 0.6 YAMAGUCHI 2 SAGA
KAGAWA 2
Unit multiplier N deformation angle R u MIYAZAKI KAGAWA 1
0.4 0.4 FUKUI 1
KOCHI
1/20 > R u 1/20 ≦ R u FUKUI 2
0.2 0.2
1.0 < N A
C
0.5 ≦ N ≦ 1.0 B 0.0 0.0
0.5 > N E D 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60
Compressive Strain εc Cohesion c (N/mm2)
Figure 1: Relationship between Figure 2: Relationship between
compressive strain and compressive compressive stress and cohesion
stress

12 1.5 45
KUMAMOTO GIFU FUKUI 2 Rank C Rank A RankB
40
Angle of internal friction φ ( °)

10 RankC
35 KOCHI RankD
HIROSHIMA
Estimate load P (kN)

HIROSHIMA RankE
Unit multiplier N

8 1.0 KYOTO 30
YAMAGUCHI 1 Rank B MIYAZAKI
YAMAGUCHI 1
GIFU HYOGO 25
SAITAMA
6 TOKUSHIMA
SAITAMA

KAGAWA 2, KUMAMOTO
20 YAMAGUCHI 2
YAMAGUCHI 2
KAGAWA 1 GIFU
4 0.5 KOCHI
15 TOKUSHIMA
FUKUI 1 KAGAWA 1
MIYAZAKI SAGA, AICHI 10 HYOGO KUMAMOTO
2 FUKUI 1
KYOTO
FUKUI 2 5 FUKUI 2
Rank E Rank D KAGAWA 2 SAGA AICHI
0 0.0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60
Shear deformation angle γ (×10-3 rad) Ultimate shear deformation angle Ru (×10-3rad) Cohesion c (N/mm2)

Figure 3: Relationship between Figure 4: Relationship between unit Figure 5: Relationship between angle
estimated lateral load and deformation multiplier and ultimate deformation of internal friction and cohesion
angle angle

48
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS

RESULTS OF PENETRATION TESTS PERFORMED ON

TIMBER GLT BEAMS

Lenka Melzerová1, Michal Šejnoha2

ABSTRACT: The paper concentrates on the determination of local elastic moduli of timber in the fiber direction. To that
end a single commercially produced glued timber beam was subjected to 3600 penetration measurements. The beam was
first covered by a regular grid of monitoring points at which the depth of indentation was measured. The pin was shot into
the wood with a given energy (Pilodin 6J). We expect the measured elastic moduli to serve as an input for advanced finite
element simulations on the bases of stochastic analysis. In such a case the local measured moduli represent in a given
segment of each lamella an ensemble of data characterized by a selected probability distribution. These distributions are
then employed in the LHS based stochastic simulation to provide probability distribution of the maximum deflection for a
given load level. Apart from that it appears meaningful to compare independently the probability distributions of the elastic
moduli for segments of the lamella (these may considerably differ owing to the specifics of the production of structures
made from glued lamella timber) with statistical data from the whole beam. Based on the measured data the correlation
matrix relating statistical dependence of individual segments can be estimated thus improving the quality of the stochastic
model.

KEYWORDS: Modulus of Elasticity, Non-destructive Tests, Glued Laminated Timber

1 INTRODUCTION 123 representative beam to directly acquire the needed moduli

The behaviour of glued lamella timber (GLT) beams
loaded in bending is predominantly covered by the
modulus of elasticity measured in the direction of fibers.
However, for GLT beams this value is not constant.
Individual segments of layered and glued lamellas are
during manufacturing mutually connected by saw joints.
The elastic modulus for two adjacent segments produced
from the same type of wood but having different quality
may considerably differ. It is therefore reasonable to
consider a different modulus for each segment usually as
an average value for a given region. More reliable results
are expected when accepting a random nature of the
material directly in numerical simulations. The analysis
then typically involves finite element method (FEM)
combined with the Latin Hypercube Sampling (LHS)
method. Both approaches with constant segment moduli or
with variable moduli represented by suitable statistical
distributions are in principal independent of the number of
local measurements. Nevertheless, their significant
qualitative difference is evident. In the present study, 3600
penetration measurements were performed for a
1 Lenka Melzerová, CTU in Prague, Thákurova 7, Prague 6,
E to be used in simulations.
2 STATISTICAL EVALUATION OF
LOCAL MODULI OF ELASTICITY
The selected beam was manufactured from eighteen
segments having a random length. The modulus E was
statistically evaluated for each segment. An average value
was used for the first computational model assuming
constant moduli in individual segments [2]. The second
model considers apart from the mean value also the
calculated standard deviation thus adopting the Gaussian
probability distribution for all moduli E. The resulting
distributions appear in Figure 1. The averages of E range
from the minimum value of 10,84 (GPa) in segment No. 13
to the maximum value of 13,59 (GPa) found in segment
10. The aver all average from all measurements is 11,79
(GPa). Even if using the calculated averages of E only the
differences between the maximum and minimum values
from segment to segment are relatively large
(approximately one quarter of the average value). Such
differences thus should not be disregarded in numerical
simulations.

Czech Republic. Email: melzerov@fsv.cvut.cz

2 Michal Šejnoha, CTU in Prague, Czech Republic

49
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS
statistical dependence can be reflected in our case by
0.7
S1
S2
18x18 correlation matrix.
S3
0.6 S4
S5
S6
4 CONCLUSIONS
S7
0.5 S8
S9 A lamella glued timber beams were subject of
S10

0.4
S11
S12
investigation. Considerable attention was accorded to the
Density

S13
S14
S15
0.3
S16
S17
S18
SUM
0.2
0.1
6 8 10 12
E (GPa)
14 16 18
Figure 1: Probability density functions of the elastic
modulus E for 18 regions, ensemble of all measurements
(SUM) and distributions with the maximum (S10) and
minimum (S13) mean values are highlighted
3 COMPUTATIONAL MODELS OF GLT
BEAMS
The considered beam was subjected to a four-point
bending test. The maximum deflection at the center of the
beam together with the local moduli measured at selected
points using strain gauges were recorded. The loading was
represented by two concentrated forces applied at one third
of the beam span equal to 4,2m. Based on the previously
performed extensive experimental study on twenty GLT
beams the maximum load level the beam can reliably
sustain was set equal to 24 (kN) for each force [4]. This
loading scheme was adopted for both computational
models. The two models were compared on the basis of
central beam deflection. Unlike the second computational
model, the first model considers constant moduli only and
as such it is essentially deterministic providing only a
single value of the deflection equal to 18,9 mm. In the
more advance (stochastic) model, which draws on the
application of LHS simulation method, the actual
deflection depends on the selected probability distribution
function and number of simulations to acquire its statistical
parameters [1]. The analysis was performed for both
Normal (Gaussian) and Log-normal probability
distributions. The results provided by the two distributions
are, however, almost negligible. Thus only the results
pertinent to the Gaussian distribution are presented. The
mean value was found equal to 18,22 mm and the standard
deviation equal to 0,644. In comparison to the
deterministic model the average deflection is by 0,7mm
smaller, which is a significant accuracy improvement.
Even higher proportional improvement can be expected for
extreme loading close to the beam failure. This, however,
goes beyond the present scope. The stochastic
computational model may further exploit the knowledge of
correlation between moduli corresponding to individual
segments. The manufacturing process typically adopts
wood from the same source. It is therefore expectable that
segment properties will not be entirely independent. This
determination of local moduli of elasticity in the fiber
direction. The adopted method is non-destructive and well
suitable for the present class of timber beams allowing also
for a simultaneous measurement of moisture important
particularly for exterior beams. The numerical analysis
adopted two computational models, the deterministic one
and the stochastic one based on the LHS simulation
method [5]. The resulting comparison promoting
importance of properly accounting for timber variability in
its local properties was performed on the basis of
maximum deflection only. Nevertheless, other quantities
such as local stresses and strains can also be investigated
both experimentally and numerically [3].
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This outcome has been achieved with the financial support
of the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of the
Czech Republic, project No. LD12023 advanced methods
for design, strengthening and evaluation of glued
laminated timber.
REFERENCES
[1] L. Melzerová, P. Kuklík and M. Šejnoha: Variable
Local Moduli of Elasticity as Inputs to FEM-based
Models of Beams made from Glued Laminated
Timber. Technische Mechanik, 32 (2-5): 425-434,
2012.
[2] L. Melzerová and P. Kuklík: Statistical Research of
Mechanical Properties of Glued Laminated Timber
Beams. Metallurgy, 49 (2): 376-380. 2010.
[3] L. Melzerová and P. Kuklík: Variability of Strength
for Beams from the Glued Laminated Timber. In:
Experimentální Analýza Napětí 2010, 257-260, 2010.
[4] L. Melzerová and P. Kuklík: Non-destructive Tests of
Modulus of Elasticity for the GLT Beam. In:
Proceedings of the 50th Annual Conference on
Experimental Stress Analysis, 271-276, 2012.
[5] L. Melzerová, P. Kuklík and M. Šejnoha:
Specification of FEM Models of Glued Laminated
Timber with Variable Local Modulus of Elasticity. In:
World Conference on Timber Engineering, 208-213,
2012.

50
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS

LATERAL TORSIONAL BUCKLING OF WOOD BEAMS:

FEA-MODELLING AND SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS
Qiuwu Xiao1, Ghasan Doudak 2, Magdi Mohareb3

ABSTRACT: A finite element model was developed for glue-laminated wood beams modelled as an orthotropic material
and comparisons with the classical solution as well as experimental results were made. The model was able to capture the
buckling response and capacity of such cases and was extended to assess the influence of orthotropic constitutive properties
on the lateral torsional buckling capacity of wooden beams.

KEYWORDS: Lateral torsional buckling, timber beam, orthotropic material, finite element

width, by 600mm in depth and 5000mm in span. The

1 INTRODUCTION 123 dimensions were selected specifically to ensure that elastic
lateral torsional buckling takes place and are thus
Lateral torsional buckling (LTB) is a failure mode that independent of the strength properties of the beam material.
occurs when the member is bent about the major axis of The beams were assumed to be simply supported,
the cross-section where simultaneous lateral displacement restrained laterally and torsionaly at both ends without
and twist take place suddenly. For large span unsupported intermediate lateral bracing along the beam span. Linear
members, the resistance based on LTB may be less than elastic Eigen value finite element analysis were conducted
that based on material failure. Theoretically, the lateral for various scenarios of loading, including; a) concentrated
buckling resistance of a beam with a rectangular cross- load applied at mid-span, b) equal end moments inducing
section is given by uniform moments c) uniformly distributed load. The C3D8
eight-noded brick element was used from the Abaqus

M cr  Cb EI y GJ (1) library of elements to model the problem with three
Lu degrees of freedom were used [2]. The element dimensions
where Cb is equivalent moment gradient factor, Lu is were 10mm in width and depth and 20mm in length;
unbraced length, E is modulus of elasticity, Iy moment of therefore, there were 8 elements along the width, 60
inertia about weak axis, G is shear modulus, J is torsion elements along the depth and 250 element along the span
constant. The current study aims to obtain critical moment of the beam.
for glue-laminated beams through experimental testing and A comparison between the results of the FE model and the
finite element modelling. classical lateral torsional buckling solution is presented in
Table 1. Model input for the finite element model were
2 MATERIAL DESCRIPTION based on published values taken from CSA Standards O86-
09 Engineering design in wood [3] and the Wood
Wood can be considered as an orthotropic material. For the Handbook [4].
purpose of modelling, mechanical property along the
grains and perpendicular to the grains are obtained through Table 1: Comparison of FE model and Classical Equation
testing following the ASTM D198-09 Standard [1].
Uniformly
Constant Concentrated
distributed
3 MODEL DESCRIPTION AND moment
load
loadat center
mlVALIDATION AGAINST CLASSICAL Classical
mlLTB SOLUTION LTB 67.85kNm 76.67kNm 91.60kNm
A finite element model was developed to investigate the solution
lateral torsional buckling capacity of Pine lodgepole glue- FE
67.91kNm 76.60kNm 90.86kNm
laminated beams, the beams cross-sections were 80mm in model
FEA/Cl
1 1.001 0.999 0.992
Qiuwu Xiao, University of Ottawa, 161 Louis Pasteur, Ottawa assical
，Canada. Email: qxiao062@uottawa.ca
2 Ghasan Doudak, University of Ottawa, Canada
3 Magdi Mohareb, University of Ottawa, Canada

51
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS

The FE model was able to predict the capacity of the
beams as determined by the well accepted classical
solution. Figure 1 shows the buckled configuration for a
beam subjected to uniformly distributed load as predicted
by the FE model.
keeping other parameters unchanged. The ratio between
the resulting critical moment and that based on the
reference case are shown in Table 3. The results show that
the critical moments are affected by the modulus of
elasticity EL along the longitudinal direction, and the shear
modulus GT along transverse. In contrast, the modulus of
elasticity ET, Poisson’s ratio ƲT along transverse, Poisson’s
ratio ƲRT and shear modulus GRT about radial and
tangential axes have a negligible effect on critical moment.

Table 3: Proportions of critical moments based on the

reference case and those based on changing the input
value of the constitutive parameter
Mcr by 1.5 times Mcr by 0.5 times
Parameter of parameter/(Mcr of parameter/(Mcr
varied reference) reference)
Figure 1: ABAQUS model of LTB
EL 1.2430 0.6964

4 COMPARAISON OF FE MODEL WITH GT 1.2022 0.7343

LTB EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS ET 1.0012 0.9980
ƲT 1.0004 0.9998
To verify the accuracy of linear elastic Eigen value finite
element analysis, a comparison was made between ƲRT 1.0003 0.9999
experimental programs and the numerical analysis. Shown GRT 1.0053 0.9884
here is an example from a testing program by Hooly and
Madsen’s test [5]. It can be seen that the model is able to
capture the beam behaviour under different loading
configurations. 6 CONCLUSIONS
A finite element model was developed for glue-laminated
Table 2: Comparison of FE model and Experiment results wood beams modelled as orthotropic material.
Test Test results FE model Comparisons were made with the classical solution for
FE model/test lateral torsional buckling as well as experimental results.
number (kNm) results(kNm)
1 0.542 0.559 1.031 The model was able to capture the buckling response and
capacity of such cases and was extended to assess the
2 0.514 0.551 1.072 influence of orthotropic constitutive properties on the
3 0.466 0.443 0.951 lateral torsional buckling capacity of wooden beams.

4 0.508 0.457 0.900 REFERENCES

Comparison between the model and results from an
experimental program conducted at the University of
Ottawa’s structural lab will also be presented in the full
length paper.
5 SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS RESULTS
mlAND CONCLUSION
The effect of the various mechanical properties on the
critical moment was systematically investigated by varying
the magnitude of the constitutive parameters of the
orthotropic material model.
Presented here, as an example, is the case for uniform
moment. Based on the reference parameters (Young
modulus in the longitudinal direction EL=10300MPa, shear
modulus in the transverse direction GT=473.8MPa) for
Pine lodgepole glue-laminated beam, the critical moment
was 67.91kNm. The magnitude of the input constitutive
parameters were changed by a factor of 1.5 and 0.5 while
[1] ASTM Designation D198-09 Standard: Standard Test
Methods of Static Tests of Lumber in Structural Sizes,
2009.
[2] ABAQUS: ABAQUS analysis user’s manual (Version
6.11), 2011.
[3] Canadian Standards Association: CSA Standards O86-
09, Engineering design in wood, 2010.
[4] Forest Product Society: Wood Handbook, Wood as an
Engineering Material, Page5-1, 2010.
[5] Hooley, R. F. and Madsen, B. Lateral Buckling of
Glued Laminated Beams. Journal of Structural
Engineering Division, ASCE, Vol. 90, No. ST3. June
1964.

52
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS

MIXED-MODE FRACTURE PROPERTIES

CHARACTERIZATION FOR TIMBER STRUCTURES
THROUGH DIGITAL IMAGE CORRELATION AND FINITE
ELEMENT METHOD COUPLING PROCESS

Mamadou Méité1, Frédéric Dubois2, Octavian Pop2, Joseph Absi2, Jérôme

Dopeux3

123
ABSTRACT:  

This paper develops a new method based on a strong

coupling between experimental full-fields information of
Digital Images Correlation (DIC) and numerical modeling
by Finite Element Method (FEM) to analyse in another
way, fracture problems in Timber structure subjected to
complex loading of mixed-mode in service conditions.
To better apprehend wood material fracture behavior,
cracked specimens were made of Douglas fir and undergo
complex loading in tension for different mixity ratio β
Figure 1: Experimental test
(for instance β = 0° ,15°, 45° ,L ,90° ) involving the crack
to be therefore likely under mixed-mode (I+II) loading at Because DIC technique is used for full-fields displacement
the crack tip (Fig.1). measurement on specimen’s surface, and for this technique
to work well, a grey scale random pattern is needed on the
wood specimen surface. Then, both LVDT sensor and
loading cell record the specimen behavior, while
successive images of the sample surface before and after
the deformation were recorded at each time step using a
high resolution digital CCD camera. The CCD camera is
rotated to make its coordinates axis to be coincided to the
one of the crack tip in order to appropriately measure the
displacement fields in opening and in shear modes as can
be shown in fig.1.
1 Correla Software developed by PEM team of Pprim of
Mamadou Méite, ENISE, 58, rue Jean Parot, 42023 Saint
Etienne, France. Email: mamadou.meite@enise.fr University of Poitiers was used to select study zone
2
Frédéric Dubois, Group Studies of heterogeneous Materials, subdivided into subsets of 32 by 32 pixels to make
Civil Engineering and Durability, University of Limoges, 19300 displacement fields analysis for each mixity ratio β .
Egletons, France. Email: frederic.dubois@unilim.fr Because of experimental noises making the displacement
2
Octavian Pop, Group Studies of heterogeneous Materials, Civil data obtained from an experiment to include measurement
Engineering and Durability, University of Limoges, 19300 error, it is very difficult to accurately analyze stress and
Egletons, France. Email: ion-octavian.pop@unilim.fr
2 strain fields from raw displacement data. In addition, real
Joseph Absi, Group Studies of heterogeneous Materials, Civil
deformation fields of the crack tip and its location, and the
Engineering and Durability, University of Limoges, I.U.T allée
andré Maurois 87065 Limoges cedex, France. Email: crack face are also difficult to be precisely obtained from
joseph.absi@unilim.fr DIC. Thus, in these conditions, crack tip parameters
3
Jérôme Dopeux, PFT Bois-Construction du Limousin19300 predicted from experimental raw displacement data are
Egletons, France. Email: jerome.dopeux@unilim.fr inaccurate. As a consequence, optimization procedure is
achieved to circumvent those difficulties. So, this

53
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS

optimization process consists in substituting the measured
field by an analytical field whose parameters are optimized
with respect to the experimental fields into a residual
minimization algorithm. Indeed, Kolosov-Muskhelishvili’s
mixed-mode analytical field’s solution also call Williams
series described in the mathematical series has been chosen
to capture displacement fields of any point located near
and far from the crack tip by developing series expansion.
Crack tip coordinates are precisely localized for each
mixity ratio β using the Newton-Raphson iterative
algorithm based on the nonlinear least square method. In
addition, rigid body motion terms, included into
experiment, are also determined.
Now, crack tip parameters are analyzed through the
optimized field instead of raw field. This optimized field is
one of the Williams series solution used to obtain the best
fit experimental displacement field.
Hence, by this first step, mixed-mode crack opening
intensity factors are characterized through a new
expression obtained from the kinematic approach of DIC.
This expression is proportional to the first coefficients of
Williams’s series expansion for each fracture mode.
In the second step, numerical model based on the Finite
Element Method is used to modeling the experimental tests
into complex loading configuration. Real boundary
conditions and loading values apply to samples are well
used. The synchronization process in experimental tests
allows determining those loading values. Hence, the
numerical modeling can be shown in fig.2.
real SIFs for each fracture mode (mode I and II) separation
is accomplished by the M θ integral.
To do that, it can be observed that the M θ integral is
strongly proportional to material mechanical properties.
Thus, an arbitrary elastic law behavior is chosen to observe
both M θ integral and the SIFs evolutions. Results show
that SIFs for mode I and II are still being unchanged
whatever the orthotropie law behavior used. That mean
that, SIFs are non dependant to material orthotropie
behavior and then, the SIFs values are less influenced by
the orthotropie ratio.
Finally, when combining crack opening intensity factors
obtained from experimental of DIC to stress intensity
factors determined from static approach of numerical
modeling, one can identified in the same time, the exact
material orthotropie mechanical properties needed to
accurately predict fracture property such as the energy
release rate in each loading configuration.

0°

Arcan fixtures

Cracked specimen

90° C90

Crack

C0

Figure 2: Numerical modeling

Different mixity ratio β are obtained into complex

loading area comprised between 0° (mode I pure) and 90°
(mode II pure) and its corresponding boundary conditions
are comprised between C0 and C90 . The load is applied to
the specimens by means of Arcan Fixtures.
The crack tip parameters to compute in this numerical
model are Stress Intensity Factors (SIFs). This
computation of SIFs is achieved by using mixed-mode
integral invariant concept, namely the M θ integral. Thus

54
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS

EMBEDDING BEHAVIOUR OF CROSS LAMINATED TIMBER

PANELS MANUFACTURED FROM SUGI

Nobuyoshi Yamaguchi1, Shiro Nakajima2, Yasuhiro Araki3, Atsushi Miyatake4,

Naoto Ando5

ABSTRACT: Rocking of narrow wall panels/columns causes embedding forces on the floor panels during earthquakes. In
plain/out of plain compression tests and out of plain embedding tests of CLT panels were conducted. Compression and
embedding strengths of in plain/out of plain strengths of Sugi CLT panels were obtained. These strengths of CLT panels
with /without edge-glues were compared. Out of plain embedding strength loaded at the corner of CLT panels was fairly
less than the normal embedding strength, and it was around the middle of the normal embedding and compression strengths.

KEYWORDS: Strength, Compression, Embedding, Embedding position, Edge-glue, In plain, Out of plain

1 INTRODUCTION 123
Seismic design is required to CLT buildings in Japan.
Embedding performance of joints is significant to maintain
ductility of timber structures during earthquakes. CLT wall
panels are installed on the CLT floor panels, and narrow
wall panels and columns make rocking on the floor panels
during earthquakes. Both edges of the wall panels apply
embedding forces on the floor panels. Tension behaviour
of the joints between wall and floor panels is dominated by
those of connecters, etc. Compression behaviour of the
joints depends on the embedding behaviour of in plain/out
of plain CLT panels of walls and floors. In plain/out of
plain compressions, out of plain embedding and rotational
embedding performance of CLT panes are required to be
clarified. In plain/out of plain compression tests and out of
plain embedding tests of CLT panels are conducted.
Effects of edge-glue of CLT panels are also analysed.
2 METHOD
2.1 SPECIMENS
300 x150 x3000 mm CLT panels of SUGI with 5 ply
laminas were prepared. 150(W) x150(L) x150(H) mm, 300
1
Nobuyoshi Yamaguchi, Building Research Institute,1 Tachihara,
Tsukuba, Ibaraki-pref., Japan. Email:yamaguch@kenken.go.jp
2
Shiro Nakajima, Building Research Institute, Japan
3
Yasuhiro Araki, Building Research Institute, Japan
4
Atsushi Miyatake, Forestry and Forest Products Research
Institute, Japan
5 embedding and corner embedding.
Naoto Ando, University of Tokyo, Japan
x300 x150mm and 125 x925 x150mm specimens were cut
off from them. Average MOE of the laminas was 6.0Gpa,
and the average MOR of them were supposed to be 30MPa.
Average density of them was 0.41g/cm3, average moisture
contents in air-condition was 14.4% by moisture meters.
The laminas were glued with aqueous polymer isocyanate
adhesive (API). Both of CLT panels with and without
edge-glue were prepared.
2.2 EXPERIMENTS
2.2.1 Compression test
Compressions were applied for both of in plain/out of plain
of CLT specimens (150 x 150 x 150mm). Loading areas
were full area of the specimens (150 x 150mm). Loading
directions of the specimens were strong and weak axes of
the CLT specimens. Specimens have three longitudinal and
two transvers laminas (3L+2T) in case of strong axis
loading, and have two longitudinal and three transverse
laminas (2L+3T) in case of weak axis loading. Loading
plate and base plate of metals were greater than the size of
specimens.
2.2.2 Embedding test
Metal plates of 150 x 150 x 20mm were used for applying
embedding forces for out of plain directions of the CLT
specimens. Figure 1 indicates embedding positions and
specimens. CLT specimens of 125 x925 x150mm were
used for embedding-6H (normal embedding) test, which
means length of specimens is greater than six times of the
height (H) of the specimens. 300 x300 x150mm specimens
were used for out of plain embedding tests of centre

55
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS
Figure 2 shows out of plain compression strengths of 150
x150 x150mm CLT specimens with/without edge-glues.
Both strengths of with/without edge-glues were close at
20mm displacement.
(a) embedding-6H (b) centre (c) corner
Figure 1: Embedding position and specimen 3.2.2 Embedding position and strength
Figure 3 (a) and (b) indicate embedding and compression
strengths of with/without edge-glues. Both of figures show
2.2.3 Apparatus and measuring method test results in case of out of plain embedding tests loaded
Both of compression and embedding tests were conducted at the centre or the corner of 300 x300 x150mm specimens.
using universal loading apparatus. Rate of loadings were Compression strengths of 150 x150 x150mm specimens
almost constant, and periods of the loading until the with/without edge-glues are also shown in Figure 3 (a) and
maximum loads or 20mm displacement were several (b). Figure 3(a) includes embedding strengths of
minutes. Loads applied for specimens and displacements embedding-6H (normal embedding strength) without edge-
of loading table were measured. The maximum loads or glue. Embedding strengths loaded at the corner of CLT
loads at 20mm displacement were evaluated as strengths. panel were fairly less than the normal embedding strength,
and it was around the middle of the normal embedding and
compression strengths of them. Table 2 summarizes out of
3 RESULT AND DISCUSSIONS plain embedding strengths of -6H, -centre, -corner and
compression strengths of CLT specimens.
3.1 IN PLAIN STRENGTH
3.1.1 Compression Table 2: Embedding and Compression strength
Table 1 summarises in plain compression strengths of 150
x150 x150mm specimens. CLT(3L+2T) specimen of three Strength (N/mm2) Ratio
Test Edge-glue Edge-glue
longitudinal and two transvers laminas is stronger than that without with without with
of CLT(3T+2L). Longitudinal (L) and transvers (T) Embedding-6H 9.05 - 2.34 -
compression strengths of laminas calculated from Embedding-Centre 6.78 7.61 1.75 1.80
measured strengths of CLTs are shown in Table 1. Embedding-Corner 6.14 5.60 1.59 1.32
Calculated transvers strengths of laminas were almost one Compression 3.87 4.23 1 1
tenth of longitudinal strengths of them.

Table 1: Compression in plain

Strength(N/mm2) Ratio
Member Edge-glue Edge-glue
without with without with
CLT(３L+2T) 16.97 19.24 1.00 1.00
CLT(３T+2L) 12.48 13.94 0.74 0.72
Lamina L 25.95 29.84 1.00 1.00
Lamina T 3.50 3.34 0.13 0.11
(a):without edge-glue (b):with edge-glue
3.2 OUT OF PLAIN STRENGTH
Figure 3: Embedding and compression strength
3.2.1 Compression

4 CONCLUSIONS
Compression and embedding strengths of in plain/out of
plain Sugi CLT panels were obtained. These strengths of
CLT panels with/without edge-glue were compared. Out of
plain embedding strength loaded at the corner of CLT
panels was fairly less than the normal embedding strengths,
and it was around the middle of the normal embedding and
compression strengths. Position of the embedding on CLT
panels affected their out of plain embedding strengths.

Figure 2: Compression with and without edge-glue

56
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS

INFLUENCE OF BOUNDARY CONDITIONS IN MODAL

TESTING ON EVALUATED ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF
TIMBER PANELS

Jan Niederwestberg1, Jianhui Zhou2, Ying Hei Chui3

ABSTRACT: Cross laminated timber (CLT) has the potential to play a major role in timber construction as floor and wall
systems. In order to meet specific design needs and to make the use of CLT more effective, property evaluation of
individual CLT panels is desirable. Static tests are time-consuming and therefore costly, and for massive products such as
CLT practically impossible to implement. Modal testing offers a fast and more practical tool for the property evaluation of
CLT and timber panels in general. This paper presents a comparison of different boundary conditions in modal testing in
terms of accuracy, calculation effort and practicality. Single-layer timber panels as well as scaled CLT panels were
fabricated. Three elastic properties of the panels were evaluated using modal testing methods with different boundary
conditions (BCs). The results were compared with results from static test.

KEYWORDS: Cross laminated timber, Modal testing, Boundary conditions, Elastic properties

1 INTRODUCTION 123 makes static tests time-consuming and therefore costly.

Cross laminated timber (CLT) is an engineered wood
product made from layers of timber pieces. Due to the
layered glue-up with alternating grain directions of
adjacent layers, CLT forms a stiff and strong orthotropic
plate structure. The stiff structure shows high potential in
shear wall and flooring applications, domains that are
dominated by reinforced concrete in large structures. CLT
has the potential to replace reinforced concrete in these
applications up to a certain point. Unlike reinforced
concrete elements, which are designed based on the
structural needs, CLT elastic properties used for design
purposes are based on the build-up of the panels and on
assumed elastic constants of the component material. The
elastic properties of individual CLT panels can be
evaluated by static tests. From these static test methods
only one elastic constant can be evaluated at a time, which
1
Jan Niederwestberg, Faculty of Forestry and Environmental
Management, University of New Brunswick, 28 Dineen Drive,
Fredericton, NB, Canada. E3B 5A3, Email: j.nwb@unb.ca
2
Jianhui Zhou, Faculty of Forestry and Environmental
Management, University of New Brunswick, 28 Dineen Drive,
Fredericton, NB, Canada, E3B 5A3. Email: jh.zhou@unb.ca
3 the property evaluation while others require the use of
Ying Hei Chui, Faculty of Forestry and Environmental
Management, University of New Brunswick, 28 Dineen Drive,
Fredericton, NB, Canada, E3B 5A3. Email: yhc@unb.ca
Static test methods also have an inherent risk of causing
structural damage within the panel during testing.
Moreover for massive panels, it is practically difficult to
test the full-size panels from production lines, using static
test methods. Modal testing methods show potential to be
adopted for non-destructive evaluation of elastic properties
of CLT. In modal testing, the structure is exposed to a
controlled excitation and the natural frequencies are
measured. The natural frequencies and their order within a
response spectrum are influenced by the dimensions and
the density of the structure as well as the boundary
conditions (BCs) and the elastic properties of the structure.
Therefore the elastic constants of a structure can be
evaluated if its dimensions, density, the BCs and the
response spectrum are known.
While modal testing appears to be a more efficient test
method compared with static test, especially for massive
panels, research is still required before the model test can
be adopted widely. One technical challenge is the choice of
boundary condition. As mentioned before, BCs affect the
natural frequencies and the response spectrum of a
structure. Also, some BCs offer close-form solutions for
cumbersome iterative numerical procedures. Furthermore,
different BCs show different levels of practicality. The

57
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS
objective of this study is to compare modal testing
methods with different BCs in terms of accuracy of
evaluated elastic properties, calculation effort and
practicality.
2 METHODOLOGY
2.1 SPECIMEN DESCRIPTION AND GENERAL
PROCEDURE
Single-layer panels have been produced from conditioned
(moisture content 13%) spruce laminates. The single-layer
panel elastic constants, namely the modulus of elasticity
parallel to the grain (E11), the modulus of elasticity
perpendicular to the grain (E22) and the in-plane shear
modulus (G12), have been evaluated using different test
methods. The single-layers were face-glued to form 3- and
5-layer CLT panels after the single-layer panel tests were
completed. The elastic constants (E11, E22 and G12) of the
CLT panels were evaluated using the same test methods as
for the single-layer panels. The results of the different test
methods were compared with each other.
2.2 MODAL TESTING METHOD
The elastic properties of the single-layer panels and the
CLT panels were evaluated using modal testing methods
with different BCs. In the method by Sobue and Katoh [1]
the layer is simply supported on one edge while the other
edges have free BCs (SFFF). The three elastic constants,
E11, E22 and G12, were calculated based on three natural
frequencies and simple equations. The method by Larsson
[2] is based on free-free BCs (FFFF) and has no closed
form solution. Here E11, E22 and G12 were determined in an
iterative process using finite element analysis. In the
process, the three elastic constants were adjusted
successively until experimental and analytical natural
frequencies matched. Further modal test with BCs of two
simply supported opposite edges and the other edges free
(SFSF) were undertaken. Tests were performed for the two
directions, span parallel- and perpendicular to the grain.
Based on Leissa [3], natural frequencies were determined
and the elastic constants E11 and E22 were evaluated. G12
cannot be determined with these BCs. In addition modal
tests with BCs of all four edges simply supported (SSSS)
were performed. For SSSS BCs a closed form solution
exists. For these BCs the three elastic constants, E11, E22
and G12, can be calculated directly with three
experimentally determined natural frequencies as stated in
Leissa [3] and Hearmon [4].
2.3 STATIC TESTING METHODS
Static tests have been performed to evaluate the elastic
constants (E11, E22 and G12) of the single-layer panels and
the CLT panels. The elastic constants E11 and E22 were
evaluated by single-span three-point bending tests based
on ASTM test procedure [5]. The test procedure for the
evaluation of the in-plane shear modulus G12 was based on
58
ASTM test procedure [6]. The elastic properties evaluated
in static tests were used as reference values in the
comparison of those measured using modal test method
under different BCs. As a control mechanism static tests
were performed on the CLT panels with BCs SSSS. In an
iterative process the elastic properties in a finite element
model were adjusted successively until experimental and
analytical deformation matched.
3 RESULTS AND CONCLUSION
At the time of the submission of this abstract, single-layer
modal tests with BCs SFFF, FFFF, SFSF have been
conducted and the elastic properties have been evaluated.
Modal tests with BCs SSSS are in progress. E11 and E22 of
the single-layer panels have been evaluated in static tests.
It is expected that results from the modal and static test of
the all single-layers and CLT panels will be included in the
final paper.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research was supported through funding by Natural
Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada
(NSERC) to the Strategic Network on Innovative Wood
Products and Building Systems. The authors would like to
thank Dr. Lin Hu, FPInnovations for her technical
guidance.
REFERENCES
[1] Sobue N., Katoh A.: Simultaneous Determination of
Orthotropic Elastic Constants of Standard Full-Size
Plywoods by Vibration Method. Japan Wood Research
Society, 1992. Internet resource.
[2] Larsson, D.: Using Modal Analysis for Estimation of
Anisotropic Material Constants. Journal of
Engineering Mechanics. 123:222-229, 1997
[3] Leissa. A. W.: Vibration of plates. U.S. National
Aeronautics and Space Administration Washington,
D.C., 1969.
[4] Hearmon, R. F. S.: The Fundamental Frequency of
Vibration of Rectangular Wood and Plywood Plates.
Proceedings of the Physical Society. 58(1):78, 1946.
[5] ASTM: Standard Test Methods of Static Tests of
Lumber in Structural Sizes. Designation D198. West
Conshohocken, Pa: ASTM International, 2010
[6] ASTM: Standard Test Method for Shear Modulus of
Wood-Based Structural Panels. Designation D3044.
West Conshohocken, Pa: ASTM International, 2006
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS

ESTIMATION ON BEARING CAPACITY OF SHELF MADE

FROM PLYWOOD SUBJECTED TO DISTRIBUTED LOAD

Manabu Matsushima1, Mitsuhiro Miyamoto 2, Naoki Utsunomiya3

ABSTRACT: This document provides the method to estimate the bending capacity of shelf made of plywood. The section
of shelf consists of two materials, such as thin surface material (MDF material) and the block material inside. The block
material consists of wood pieces with long and narrow width and the each piece is jointed in longish side with glue. In this
study, the material properties are obtained by inverse analysis using the results of bending tests. It is proposed that the
method to estimate the bending capacity of shelf.

KEYWORDS: Plywood Shelf, Bending Capacity, Inverse Analysis, Composite Structure

1 INTRODUCTION 123 The test parameter is the thickness of block material. The
thickness 15mm, 20mm and 27mm are prepared. Four
The target plywood shelf subjected to distributed load specimens are prepared at each thickness in experiment.
consists of the thin surface material (MDF material) and Figure 2 shows the relationship between load and
the block material inside. The bending capacity of single displacement of experiment. Red circle indicates the yield
MDF material is pretty smaller than the one of point of bearing capacity. Yield point is obtained using
composition material made of MDF material and block general yield method. According to the results of
material. The block material consists of wood pieces with experiments, the thickness of block material increases with
long and narrow width. Each piece are jointed in longish the bearing capacity of plywood. Uncertainty of bearing
side with glue, but not jointed in narrow side. The weak capacity increases with the increasing of thickness of
points exist in joints between pieces. Since the stress specimen.
transfers to the whole from the weak points of block
material through glue between MDF material and block
material, the bearing capacity of composition material is
pretty larger than the one of single block material.
The method to estimate the bending capacity is described
in this paper. The equivalent material property is obtained
by inverse analysis using the results of bending tests of
plywood material. The bearing capacity of plywood
material obtained using the equivalent material property
obtained by inverse analysis coincide with the results of Figure 1: Loading tests of plywood material
experiments with small error. 7000 27mm

6000 Yield Point

2 BENDING TESTS 5000

The bending tests are carried out as shown in Figure 1.

Load P（N)

4000 20mm
Block material inside is failed at first and the surface 3000
material (MDF material) is failed after that. The bending
2000
capacity is governed by the failure of block material inside. 15mm
1000
Elastic Stiffness Ke
1
Manabu Matsushima, Kagawa University, 2217-20, Hayashi, 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Takamatsu, Japan. Email: matusima@eng.kagawa-u,ac.jp Displacement δ（mm）
2
Mitsuhiro Miyamoto, Kagawa University, Japan
3 Naoki Utsunomiya, Shikoku Polytechnic College, Japan Figure 2: Results of experiment

59
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS
8000

Block material

Yield bearing capacity Py(N)

7000
6000
6000

4000 Mean Value：6049.6N/mm2

5000

Young’s Modulus E(N/mm2)

S.D.：566.3N/mm2
4000 MDF material C.O.V.：0.09
2000

3000
0
10 15 22 平均値：3024.8N/mm2
2000
Thickness of block material h(mm) 標準偏差：283.2N/mm2
1000 変動係数：0.09
Figure 3: Uncertainty of bearing capacity
0
15mm 20mm 27mm
Thickness of plywood H(mm)
3 INVERSE ANALYSIS
Figure 4: Young’s modulus obtained by inverse analysis
Equivalent material property is obtained using inverse
analysis from the results of experiment in order to consider 35

Yield Stress of Block material σBｙ

the glue strength between block material and MDF 30
material. The flowchart of inverse analysis in order to 24.38 25.44 25.74
25
obtain the material property shows in Figure 4. The

（N/mm2）
equivalent material property EB, EM and σB are obtained 20

by inverse analysis using the results of bending test and 15

Mean value：25.19N/mm2

theorical analysis. Young modulus ratio EM/EB assumes to 10

S.D. ：0.71N/mm2

be 0.5 from investigating the failure mode of experiments. C.O.V.：0.03

Since failure is governed by the strength of block material, 5

the yield stress of MDF material needs not to obtain in 0

15mm 20mm 27mm
order to estimate the capacity of shelf. Material property is
obtained to compare the result of bending tests Pye, Ke to Thickness of plywood H(mm)

Theorical elastic stiffness Kc, Moment of equivalent inertia Figure 5: Yield stress of block material obtained by
of section Ie. Figure 5 shows young’s modulus obtained by inverse analysis
inverse analysis. Young’s modulus of block material and
15

MDF material indicate 6049.6N/mm2 and 3024.8N/mm2 10000

9000
respectively as mean value. C.O.V of estimation indicates
8000
10% and under as shown in Figure. Yield stress of block
7000
material indicates 25.19N/mm2. Error of estimation Py=5840N
Load P(N)

6000 H=27mm
indicates small, too. 5000Kc= 1609N/mm
Figure 6 shows the comparison with estimation and 4000 Py=3221N
experiment. Dark line indicates the load-displacement of 3000
Kc= 605N/mm
H=20mm
Py=1862N
experiments. Black circle indicates the yield point of 2000
H=15mm
experiment. Load-displacement estimated using material 1000

property obtained by inverse analysis coincides with the 0

0 2 4
Kc= 233N/mm
6 8 10 12 14 16
results of experiments with small error. DIsplacement δ（mm）

Figure 6: Comparison with estimation and experiment

Experiment Material property
Young’s modulus ratio
Yield Stress of
Yield Capacity Pye Block material
σBy
3 CONCLUSIONS
The method to estimate the bending capacity is described
Young’s modulus Moment of equivalent
Elastic Stiffness Ke
EB,EM inertia of section Ie in this paper. The equivalent material property is obtained
by inverse analysis using the results of bending tests of
Computed elastic stiffness plywood material. The bearing capacity of plywood
KC material obtained using the equivalent material property
obtained by inverse analysis coincide with the results of
Figure 4: Inverse analysis method experiments with small error.

60
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS

CHARACTERIZATION OF EUCALYPTUS SP. TIES FOR USE

IN BRAZILIAN RAILWAYS

Felipe Hideyoshi Icimoto1, Fabiane Salles Ferro 2, Carlito Calil Júnior3

ABSTRACT: In 2012 the Brazilian federal government announced a package of concessions with the private sector for
construction of 10,000 km of railways. Among the woods already used to sleepers in Brazil are: maçaranduba, ipe,
jacarandá and aroeira. Due to the shortage of these traditional species, arose the need to use new materials and other woods
to serve this demand, such as the Eucalyptus wood of planted forests. In 1904 the extinct Paulista Railroads Company began
the growing of Eucalyptus developed by Edmundo Navarro de Andrade with the aim of supply the need of firewood, poles
and sleepers to this company. The aim of this study was the characterization of sleepers of five species of the genus
Eucalyptus for use in Brazilian railroads, comparing the results with the values established by ABNT NBR 7511/2013:
Wooden Sleepers - Requirements and test methods. The results obtained from species studied show that the of Eucalyptus
paniculata has reached the values for class I, the species Eucalyptus cloeziana, urophilla and grandis have reached values
for class II and Eucalyptus rostrata has not reached minimum strength for use as railway sleepers.

KEYWORDS: Wood sleepers, Planted forests species, Eucalyptus sp.

1 INTRODUCTION 123 2 MATERIALS AND METHODS

In 2012 the Brazilian federal government announced an
investments plan in logistics with the private sector to the
value of R$133 billion; this package of concessions
included the construction of 10,000 km of railways. [1].
Between the woods already used to sleepers in Brazil are:
maçaranduba, ipê, jacarandá and aroeira. Due to the
shortage of these traditional species, arose the need to use
new materials and other woods to serve this demand, such
as the wood of Eucalyptus planted forests. In 1904 the
extinct Paulista Railroads Company began the growing of
Eucalyptus developed by Edmundo Navarro de Andrade
with the aim of supply the need of firewood, poles and
sleepers this company [2]. In 2008 the length of the
Brazilian railway network was 28.538 km [3]. The aim of
this study was the characterization of sleepers than five
species of the genus Eucalyptus for use in Brazilian
railroads, comparing the results with the values established
by ABNT NBR 7511/2013: Wooden Sleepers -
Requirements and test methods [4].
The experimental program included the evaluation of the
performance of sawn wood sleepers using Eucalyptus
cloeziana (EC), grandis (EG), paniculata (EP), rostrata
(ER) and urophilla (EU), with dimensions corresponding
to metric gauge sleeper: 2000 mm x 160 mm x 220 mm.
The sleepers were characterized following the
methodology of ABNT NBR 7511/2013: Wooden Sleepers
- Requirements and test methods. The mechanical
properties investigated were: Modulus of Elasticity (MOE)
and Modulus of Rupture (MOR), Rail Seat Compression
(fc90,p), Single Tie Lateral Push (Ra0), Screw Pullout (Ra90)
and Janka Hardness (fH0). The results were compared with
the values of this standard.
3 RESULTS
The standard ABNT NBR 7511/2013: Wooden Sleepers -
Requirements and test methods establishes two grades for
resistance to wooden sleepers. A Table 1 shows the results
obtained to mechanical properties investigated and the
standard values.

1
Felipe Hideyoshi Icimoto, University of São Paulo, Av.
Trabalhador São Carlense 400, São Carlos, São Paulo, Brasil
Email: icimoto@usp.br
2
Fabiane Salles Ferro, University of São Paulo, Brasil
3
Carlito Calil Júnior, University of São Paulo, Brasil

61
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS

Table 1: Results obtained and their standard values [2] ANDRADE, E.N. (1961). The eucalyptus tree. 2.ed.
Investigated properties History. São Paulo. p. 49-64. (in Portuguese).
MOE MOR fc90,p Ra0 Ra90 fH0 [3] CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY
MPa MPa MPa kN kN MPa (CIA). (2013). Country comparison: railways.
EC 12608 124 6,4 14 89 87 Available in:
EG 10000 96 6,4 18 47 72 <https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-
EP 18193 118 6,4 13 80 98 factbook/rankorder/ 2121rank.html#top>. Access in:
ER 9370 66 6,4 13 46 47 18 may 2013.
EU 11726 107 6,4 16 69 71 [4] BRAZILIAN ASSOCIATION OF TECHNICAL
NBR GI 13000 50 5 10 30 40 STANDARD. (2013). NBR 7511: Wood sleepers –
7511 GII 10000 40 4 8 25 35 Requirements and tests methods. Rio de Janeiro. (in
Portuguese).
The species EP reached standard values for grade I. The
sleepers with others tested Eucalyptus species reached the
standard values for grade I in practically all properties
except the flexural modulus of elasticity (MOE).

As we can observe in table 1 MOE is the limiting

mechanical property for most of the species tested reached
the grade I established by ABNT NBR 7511/2013:
Wooden Sleepers - Requirements and test methods.

4 CONCLUSIONS
The sleepers made by the Eucalyptus paniculata species
reach the standard values established for grade I.
The Eucalyptus cloeziana, Eucalyptus grandis e
Eucalyptus urophilla species reached values for grade II to
sleepers. The sleepers made by the Eucalyptus rostrata did
not reach the minimum strength for use as railway
sleepers.
The property modulus of elasticity (MOE) is the limiting
property for the tested Eucalyptus species reached the
grade I established by ABNT NBR 7511/2013: Wooden
Sleepers - Requirements and test methods.
The sleepers visual analysis also showed the importance to
first make the visual characterization of the wood before
the mechanical tests.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors express their gratitude to CNPq for providing
Scholarship, the Interdisciplinary Program of Materials
Science and Engineering and the Laboratory of Wood and
Wooden Structures USP São Carlos that made possible the
development of this study.

REFERENCES
[1] PORTAL BRASIL. Concessions of highways and
railways will result in investments of R$ 133 billion.
[S.l.], 2013. Available in:
<http://www.brasil.gov.br/noticias/arquivos/2012/08/1
5/concessoes-de-rodovias-e-ferrovias-resultarao-em-
investimentos-de-r-133-bi>. Access in: 05 sep. 2012.
(in Portuguese).

62
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS

NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF SWELLING AND SHRINKING

BEHAVIOUR OF ROUNDWOOD TRUNKS

Josef Kögl1, Georg Stecher2, Conrad Brinkmeier3, Michael Flach4

ABSTRACT: Wood is nature´s versatile building material. It has minimal environmental pollution and a range of excellent
technical properties. Therefore it is obvious to use wood for the construction of wind power plants in order to improve their
sustainability and profitability.
The idea is to use locally grown roundwood-trunks for the wind tower construction without using long distance transport. In
this case the roundwood is exposed to harsh weather with alternating moisture and temperature conditions. To reduce cracks
caused by shrinking some manipulations like relief grooves can be applied on the roundwood-trunks. Also the structural
connections can be affected due to swelling and shrinking behaviour of roundwood. To develop suitable connections for
service class 3 constraints from swelling and shrinking have to be avoided. For this reason a numerical calculation model is
set up to estimate the swelling and shrinking behaviour of roundwood and roundwood connections.
This paper presents numerical simulations with the finite element method (FEM) to estimate the stress in roundwood-cross-
sections caused by shrinking. First a roundwood-cross-section without machining (reference) is calculated and checked for
plausibility. Then three machined roundwood-cross-sections are calculated and compared with the reference.

KEYWORDS: round-wood, swelling, shrinking, finite element method, numerical simulation, relief groove, cracks

company “Technik Wille”, the small wind power plant

1 INTRODUCTION 1234
The International Engineering Office “BERNARD
Ingenieure” launched a research project to develop wind
power plant towers of round-wood-trunks. The aim is to
use the locally grown logs for the wind tower construction
without long distance transport. Moreover, wood is a
renewable material that offers high strength with low
weight and together with short transport distances wood
provide an optimal CO2 balance.
By using wood in outdoor area (service class 3) large
differences of moisture can occur. These differences
induce stress that often results in cracks.
The focus in this paper will be on the numerical simulation
of stresses in the cross-section of round wood caused by
alternating moisture contents. Three machined round-
wood-cross-sections are calculated and compared with the
reference.
2 PROJECT DESCRIPTION
The research project “HOLZWIND” is a Cooperation of
the company “BERNARD Ingenieure”, the technology
1 supports. The plane strain condition is approximated by
Josef Kögl, Innsbruck University, Technikerstraße 13,
Innsbruck, Austria. Email: josef.koegl@uibk.ac.at
2
Georg Stecher, Innsbruck University, Austria
3
Conrad Brinkmeier, FS1-Fiedler-Stöffler ZT-GmbH, Austria
4 expansion coefficient to the differential shrinkage rate. The
Michael Flach, Innsbruck University, Austria
manufacturer “Silent Future Tech” and the University of
Innsbruck. The project is funded by the Austrian Research
Promotion Agency (FFG) powered by climate and energy
funds.
The project consists of the following three work packages:
• WP1: development of a suitable connection system
• WP2: computational calculations and simulations
• WP3: experimental investigations.
This paper describes the computational simulations of the
shrinking behaviour of roundwood which is part of WP2.
The development of the connection system and the
experimental investigations cannot be shown in this article
due to patent rights.
3 NUMERICAL SETUP
To investigate the swelling and shrinking behaviour of
round wood, numerical investigations with the FE program
“RFEM” are carried out. The analysis is performed on a
rotationally symmetric system with 30 cm diameter. The
nodes of the FE model are fixed with in plane displaceable
setting the Poisson's ratio to zero. The swelling and
shrinking behaviour are simulated using a temperature
change in the cross section by adapting the temperature

63
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS
analysis is performed with orthotropic, linear elastic
elements, i.e. using the expansion coefficient and elastic
modul for radial and tangential direction. To approximate
realistic moisture fluctuation a moisture reduction of 4% in
the sapwood and 1% in the heartwood is applied.
A total of four numerical investigations are carried out (see
Figure 1). First, the roundwood-cross-section is simulated
without any machining (reference). Then a relief groove is
applied to the centre of the roundwood-cross-section. Next
four relief grooves in the sapwood are applied. At last the
heartwood is removed totally.

Figure 4:Stress
Stress in tangential
in tangential direction (one relief groove)
di ection
Figure 1: The reference (left) and the three machined logs
achined
In Figure 5 four relief grooves are applied. The results
4 RESULTS illustrate the reduction of the tensile stress in the outer
The pictures bellow shows the stress in tangential parts of the cross-section.
direction. The yellow areas are tension stress the blue areas
are pressure stress.

Figure 5: Stress tangential

in tangential direction (four relief grooves)
di ection

A complete comparison of the three different machined

Figure 2: Stress in tangential direction
(refer (reference)
nce)
In Figure 3 the tensile stress in the outer parts and - to
reach equilibrium condition - the compression stress in the
inner parts of the roundwood can be seen.
roundwoods with the reference will be made in the final
paper.
5 CONCLUSIONS
With appropriate machining of roundwood, the cracking
caused by shrinkage tensile stress can be reduced
significantly. But not all machining reduce the tensile
stress in the same dimensions. More detailed conclusions
will be made in the final paper.

Figure 3: Stress along a centrically(refe

cut ence)
(reference)
In Figure 4 one relief groove is applied. The stress in the
outer parts decreased significantly compared to the
reference.

64
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS

BENDING PERFORMANCE AND CREEP OF FLAT SQUARES

WITHOUT PITH SAWN UP FROM SUGI LARGE DIAMETER
LOGS – EFFECTS OF LOADING DIRECTION-

Shiro Aratake1, Akihiro Matsumoto2,Atsushi Shiiba1

ABSTRACT: For the purpose of examining the performance as a structural material of flat squares without pith sawn up
from sugi (Cryptomeria japonica D.Don) large diameter logs, effects of loading direction on bending performance and
creep behaviour were investigated. Two flat squares without pith were sawn up from one log as specimens (34 pairs in total).
The sawing direction to gain long sides was from pith to face side so that the one narrow side mainly contains juvenile parts
while the other side mainly contains mature parts. As a result, the values of bending strength and Young’s modulus in
bending when the specimens were loaded from the core side were much higher than those when they were loaded from the
face side. On the other hand, the behaviour of bending creep when the specimens were loaded from the face side was more
stable than that when they were loaded from the core side.

KEYWORDS: Sugi, Large diameter logs, Flat squares, Bending performance, Bending creep

1 INTRODUCTION 123 used as a beam required to have sufficient bending strength

In the situation that sugi (Cryptomeria japonica D.Don)
has been one of the leading species as a construction
material in Japan, number of log with the tip end diameter
of higher than 30cm (so called “Taikeizai” in Japan) has
been increasing recently. This means plural members with
no pith can be obtained from one log, which must be a
reasonable sawing method in terms of efficiency. However,
there has been a sort of stereotype among relevant
industries, saying the lumber without pith has less
mechanical performance than lumber with pith. This must
be serious hindrance to promote sugi as structural members.
From this background, authors have been investigating
performances of several types of lumber without pith sawn
up from sugi large diameter logs. As a result, the obtained
data showed this kind of lumber is strong enough to be a
structural member, satisfying the characteristic value
stipulated by Notification No.1452 of the Ministry of
Construction in Japan. As issue left unfinished, in case of 4
square timbers obtained from one log, values of bending
performance when the specimens were loaded from the
face side were much lower than those when they were
loaded from the core side[1]. This could be a critical factor
when flat squares are sawn up with the similar method and
1
Shiro Aratake, Miyazaki Prefectural Wood Utilization Research
Center, 21-2 Hanaguri Miyakonojo-shi, Miyazaki, 885-0037,
Japan. Email: t690825990@yahoo.co.jp
2
Akihiro Matsumoto, Miyazaki Prefecture Central Agriculture
And Forestry Promotion Bureau, Japan
3
Atsushi Shiiba , Miyazaki Prefectural Wood Utilization
Research Center, Japan.
and less creep deflection in particular. In order to get
relevant information, effect of loading directions on
bending performance and creep behaviour was investigated
by using two flat squares without pith obtained from one
log as specimens.
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
Logs used for the experiment were grown in Miyazaki,
Japan (30 for the bending test and 4 for the creep test). The
length was 4 meter and the range of tip end diameter was
39.4-44.2cm for the bending test, while 51.5-59.1cm for
the creep test, and those of density and moduli of elasticity
due to longitudinal vibration were 0.454-0.834 g/cm3, 5.4-
7.7kN/mm2 for the bending test and 0.642-0.696 g/cm3,
3.85-4.88kN/mm2 for the creep test respectively.
First, two flat squares without pith, of which sawing
direction to gain long sides was from pith to face side,
were sawn up from all logs as specimens (68 in total). Half
of them were sawn parallel to the edge of logs (taper rule
sawing), while the rest were sawn by either taper rule
sawing or centre rule sawing. The dimensions of them
were 12×17cm for the bending test, while12×23cm for
the creep test.
After sawing, specimens (except for 4 creep test
specimens) were dried by 2-week kiln-drying treatment
with the initial dry bulb temperature of 80℃ (wet bulb
depression: 5℃) and the final bulb temperature of 100℃
(wet bulb depression: 25℃). Then the bending test for 60

65
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS
dried specimens, and the creep test for 4 dried and 4 green
specimens were conducted with 4-point loading conditions.
In order to confirm the effects of loading direction on
bending performance and creep behaviour, one of the two
specimens obtained from one log were loaded from the
face side while the other one was loaded from the core side.
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
3.1 BENDING PERFORMANCE
Table 1 shows the comparisons of specimens’ properties
and results of bending test between two different loading
directions. From this table, modulus of rupture (MOR) and
that of elasticity (MOE) when the specimens were loaded
from the core side are much higher than those when they
were loaded from the face side (approx. 16-20 per cent
difference). In the case of face side loading, juvenile wood
tends to occupy most of the tensile side and tends to have
spike knots there. Those traits must have caused the
difference of properties between two loading conditions.
However, since most of the values of MOR were over the
characteristic value for bending (22.2N/mm2) stipulated by
Notification No.1452 of the Ministry of Construction in
Japan regardless of loading directions, there must be few
practical problems to use this kind of lumber as a structural
member.
Table 1: Specimens’ properties and results of bending test
in terms of loading directions
MC Denscity
Loading Sample （％） (g/cm 3 )
direction size Before After Before After
lumber sawn by taper rule sawing contains less juvenile
wood than the lumber sawn by centre rule sawing, the
influence on the mechanical properties could be negligible.
3.2 CREEP BEHAVIOUR
Figure 1 shows the changes of relative creep and moisture
content of specimens sawn by taper rule sawing (load was
685kg and loading directions were face to core side or core
to face side). In the case of green lumber in this figure, the
deflection loaded from the face side rapidly increases when
the moisture content reaches around fibre saturation point.
On the other hand, the deflection loaded from the core side
increases when the moisture content (MC) reaches about
16-17%, which is extremely lower value than that. Then,
when both MCs reach around air dried condition (12-13%),
tendencies become nearly opposite with each other.
In the case of dried lumber in this figure, the deflection of
face side loading after initial rapid increase decreases from
around 200 to 400 hours, while that of core side loading
increases during the period. Mainly for it, the deflection of
face side loading is clearly lower than that of core side
loading. This tendency is almost the same as that of green
lumber after MC reaches around air dried condition
mentioned above. It seems that there had been some
influence of difference shrinkage anisotropy due to drying
as it is hard to explain this tendency by only creep and
mechanosorptive behaviour. In any event, when this sort of
member is used as a beam, it should be better to place the
face side top in terms of long term deflection.
MOR MOE
(N/mm 2 ) (kN/mm 2 )
After
2.0 Dried lumber 2.0 Green lumber
Relative creep (mm)

After drying core side loading

drying drying drying drying drying 1.8 core side loading 1.8
Avg. 126.3 12.4 0.67 0.35 28.4 5.3
1.6 1.6
Face to Max 169.6 19.4 0.79 0.40 36.6 7.6
15 Face side loading
core side Min 66.3 8.3 0.48 0.31 22.7 4.3 1.4 1.4
CV 20.1 24.2 12.3 7.16 15.4 15.4
Avg. 123.0 13.3 0.67 0.36 34.2 6.2 1.2 1.2
Face side loading
Core to Max 172.8 18.7 0.83 0.40 41.8 8.2 1.0 1.0
15
face side Min 80.1 8.4 0.51 0.32 21.1 4.3 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
CV 20.4 25.8 14.0 6.00 16.9 16.5 105 105
5/18 8/26 12/4 3/14 6/22 5/18 8/26 12/4 3/14 6/22
Moisture content (％)

90 90
MC: Moisture content measured by oven drying method, core side loading
75 75
MOR: modulus of rupture in bending, MOE: modulus of core side loading
60 60
elasticity in bending 45 Face side loading 45 Face side loading
30 30
Table 2 shows the comparisons of specimens’ properties 15 15
and results of bending test between two different sawing 0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
methods. From this table, there are few differences of
Time (days)
MOR and MOE between the specimens sawn by taper rule
Figure 1: Changes of relative creep and moisture content
sawing and centre rule one. Though it seems that the
of specimens loaded from opposite sides. Note: Moisture
content was measured by a radio-frequency type moisture
Table 2: Specimens’ properties and results of bending test
meter, Specimens were sawn by taper rule sawing.
in terms of sawing methods
MC Denscity MOR MOE
Sawing Sample （％）
3
(g/cm ) (N/mm 2) (kN/mm 2 ) REFERENCES
methods size Before After Before After After
After drying
drying drying drying drying drying
Avg. 101.7 10.9 0.62 0.36 34.3 5.8
[1] Aratake S, Shiiba A, Morita H, Oda H and Matsumoto
Centre A: Bending performance of square lumber without
Max 145.1 18.4 0.81 0.42 53.4 7.3
rule 15
sawing
Min 43.1 8.0 0.47 0.31 25.3 4.6 pith sawn up from sugi (Cryptomeria japonica) large
CV 35.5 28.0 14.3 8.52 19.1 11.3
Avg. 103.3 11.1 0.61 0.36 32.9 5.5 diameter logs(in Japanese). In: Abstracts of the 42th
Taper
rule 15
Max 153.6 19.4 0.84 0.42 47.8 6.5 annual meeting of the Japan Wood Research Society,
Min 40.0 8.0 0.46 0.30 18.7 3.7 p 92, 2012
sawing
CV 36.0 30.0 15.8 7.83 19.8 13.3

66
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS
BENDING STRENGTH AND FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS OF
SOUTHERN PINE COMPOSITE LUMBER
Z. Bonnie Yang1, R. Daniel Seale2, Rubin Shmulsky3
1 BACKGROUND
Attempts to reinforce wood and wood-based materials such
as lumber, plywood, and particleboard have been
successfully developed in the laboratory in order to
improve product performance. Alternative materials such
as steel, aluminum, or fiberglass-reinforced with polymers
(FRP) are often used as reinforcements (Fiorelli, 2003).
However, the relatively high costs of these reinforced
materials have limited their commercial construction use.
Reinforced wood/non-wood hybrid materials are generally
expensive to fabricate, the relative cost of the reinforcing
materials is high, the manufacturing steps required by the
manufacturing process are complicated, and the
construction of industrial facilities are expensive.
Unlike reinforced wood hybrid composites, engineered
wood composites are widely used. They offer stiffer and
stronger properties and/or sizes then solid-sawn lumber.
These highly engineered materials include laminated
veneer lumber, glue laminated timber (glulam), parallel
strand lumber, and oriented strand lumber. The
requirement for high-grade raw material of these lumber
products translates into high performance products with
better allowable size, and typically superior strength and
stiffness as compared to the constituent raw material.
The principals behind reinforcing lumber are technically
and economically sound and thus there are market
opportunities if relatively low cost products can be made
from lower grades of lumber. One such area would be for
residential construction where the design loads and spans
are both well known and generally limited to that available
from solid-sawn dimension lumber. Solid sawn 38x236mm
and 38x287mm lumber is widely used for residential floor
joists and rafters; the lumbers used in these beams are
primarily visually graded (US Census Bureau 2012). The
visual grading process allows for larger center knots than
edge knots but for this application the increase in allowable
center knots is likely not accurate given that defects located
near the neutral axis have relatively low importance in
bending (SPIB).
1
Z. Bonnie Yang, Mississippi State University, PO Box 9820,
MS State Univ. MS 39762-9820 Email: byang@cfr.msstate.edu
2
R. Daniel Seale, Mississippi State University, USA
3 approximately 20° Celsius for 24 hours.
Rubin Shmulsky, Mississippi State University, USA
67
The objective of this study, therefore, is to design,
manufacture and determine the mechanical performance of
a series of composite lumber products, which have
relatively low raw material and manufacturing costs.
Three-dimensional finite element analysis method will be
applied to investigate the bending strength of the
composite lumber products, thus to direct further design. It
is believed that these products could be technically and
economically feasible products for use in applications such
as floor joists, treated decks, headers, beams or light
commercial/multi-occupant housing structures where wood
I-joists may not be favorable due to fire codes.
2 EXPERIMENTAL TEST METHODS
2.1 MATERIALS
The research specimens for experimental test were
constructed from different grades of solid-sawn southern
pine (SP) lumber. High-grade SP lumber, used as the
tensile reinforcement material (chord lumber) was glued to
the visually graded No. 3 grade SP dimension lumber
(control lumber). The moisture content of chord lumber is
12% (COV: 8%) and of control lumber is 13% (COV:
19%).
Four groups of SP specimens, with 28 pieces of lumber in
each group, were investigated. There are three groups of
lumber that had reinforcement attached to base lumber, and
a group of control lumber. The three types of tension chord
were: MSR solid 2.0E full length; MSR solid 2.0E finger-
jointed at mid-length, and No. 1 visual grade finger-jointed
at mid-length. These different tension materials were used
as the reinforcement piece that was attached to the base
lumber on the tensile edge.
2.2 MANUFACTURING PROCESS
Liquid phenol resorcinol formaldehyde and resin hardener
in powder form were used to adhere the base and
reinforcement lumber. Redundant clamps at 318mm
spacing were used to ensure adequate and uniform pressure
between the tension chord and base lumber. The clamps
were loaded to 690 Pa pressure using a torque wrench; 30
minutes after the initial clamp the glue clamps were re-
torqued to 690 Pa to account for possible pressure
relaxation per the guidance of the adhesive system.
Following clamping the material was allowed to cure at
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS

3 EXPERIMENTAL TESTING RESULTS compare with whole piece reinforcement, finger joint
reinforcement could lower the flexure strength of end
All specimens were tested in four-point bending, with a products.
span to depth ratio of 17 to 1 following ASTM D 198-08.
3.1 MOE AND MOR VALUES Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) test, at a 5% level of
Modulus of elastic (MOE) and modulus of rupture (MOR, significance, was conducted to characterize the MOR
also flexure strength) were calculated based on equations values within the composite lumber groups, and between
from ASTM 198. Statistic results of MOE and MOR composite lumber groups and control. The test result of
values are listed in Table 1. MOR indicated that there is a significant difference (p-
value = 0.0068) between the mean of three composite
Table 1: Summery statistics of MOE and MOR lumber groups. Consequently, it is concluded that there
Specimen Mean COV Mean was a significant difference between MOR values of
(%) Increase composite lumber with three different reinforcement
Rate lumbers. MOR values of all composite lumber and control
No. 3 Control 9.6 24 -- lumber were also significantly different (p-value = 0.0018)
MOE MSR Solid 12.4 15 30% than each other.
(GPa) MSR FJ 11.9 15 25%
No. 1 FJ 12.6 15 32% 4 CONCLUSIONS
No.3 Control 35.9 46 -- The experimental test results indicate that No.3 lumber,
MOR MSR Solid 47.6 21 33% which has relatively low value and low design values, can
(MPa) MSR FJ 39.9 20 10% be up graded into a higher strength and stiffness product
No. 1 FJ 43.3 18 21% with relatively low technology. With the higher-grade
lumber reinforcements, the COV value of composite
lumber decreased and the 5th percentile values were
3.2 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS substantially greater than the control lumber.
Mean MOE values of all TCL increased, compared with
the control chord lumber. Mean increase for MOE of the The results suggest that composite lumber manufactured
TCL as compared to the control lumber is on the order of with finger-jointed lumber had comparable properties to
25~32%. The MOE results of MSR finger-jointed those manufactured with non-finger jointed lumber. This
reinforcement and No. 1 finger-jointed reinforcement were finding indicates that it would be more economical to use
similar, and decreased only at about 5% compared with finger-jointed tensile chord in order to reduce raw material
MSR whole piece reinforcement. This indicates that the costs. Additionally, the No. 1 finger-jointed reinforcement
finger-jointed lumber reinforcement received comparable material performed comparably to the MSR material.
MOE values compared with whole piece lumber Given that No.1 lumber is more readily available and
reinforcement. relatively cheaper than MSR material, it would likely be
more economical to produce composite lumber that uses
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), at a 5% level of No. 1 lumber as the raw materials for the tensile chord than
significance, was conducted to characterize the MOE than MSR lumber.
differences within the composite lumber groups, and
between the composite lumber groups and control. The test Further study is required to investigate the most
result indicated that there is no statistically significant economical method for this relatively low manufacturing
difference (p-value = 0.3993) between the mean of three cost composite lumber material. Three-dimensional, linear
composite lumber groups. Consequently, it is concluded elastic, orthotropic finite element model will be built using
that there is no significant difference on MOE value of Abaqus software, to investigate the bending strength
composite lumber with all three different reinforcement distribution along the beam length and provided a
lumbers. MOE values of all composite lumber were similar comparable result to experimental findings. It is hope that
and significantly (p-value = 7.109 x 10-8) higher than the with the model, bending strength of composite lumber with
control chord lumber. different sizes and manufacture methods will be well
evaluated and compared.
The results of MOR shown that with reinforcement lumber,
composite lumber has better strength performance
compared with the control lumber. Composite lumber with
MSR full-length lumber reinforcement received the highest
strength increase rate (32.6%), compared with composite
lumber with MSR Solid 2.0E finger joint lumber
reinforcements (9.5%) and composite lumber with No. 1
finger joint reinforcements (20.7%). It is indicated that,

68
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS

WOOD CONSTRUCTION UNDER COLD CLIMATE

Part one: Impact of cold temperatures on the shear strength of different adhesives
glued wood joints of Norway spruce and Scots pine

Xiaodong (Alice) Wang1, Olle Hagman1, Bror Sundqvist2, Sigurdur Ormarsson3, Hui Wan4,
Peter Niemz5

ABSTRACT: As wood constructions increasingly use engineered wood products worldwide, concerns arise about the
integrity of the wood and adhesives system. The glueline stability is a crucial issue for engineered wood application,
especially under cold climate. In this study, Norway spruce (Picea abies) and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) joints (150mm x
20mm x 10mm) were bonded with seven commercially available resins (PUR, PVAc, EPI, MF, MUF1, PRF and MUF2)
and tested at six temperatures (20, -20, -30, -40, -50 and -60 °C), respectively. Generally, for both species, temperature
changes significantly affected shear strength of wood joints. As temperature decreased, the shear strength decreased. PUR
resin resulted in the strongest shear strength at all temperatures tested. MF resin responded to temperature changes in a
similar ways as the PUR resin. The shear strength of wood joints with EPI resins was sensitive to temperature change.
MUF, PRF and PVAc resins demonstrated different characters with Norway spruce and Scot pine. At room temperature, all
types of adhesive showed relative stability, in terms of shear strength variation. While at low temperature, the shear strength
varied considerably. More specimens need to be tested in further work to more completely present the issue. The EN 301
and EN 302 may need to be specified based on wood species.

KEYWORDS: Engineered Wood Products, Glueline Stability, Cold Climate, Shear Strength.

1 INTRODUCTION 123 bondlines to temperature changes will affect the integrity

The building industry is increasingly using engineered
wood products such as glued-laminated timber (glulam),
laminated veneer lumber (LVL), structural-composite
lumber (SCL), and cross laminated timber (CLT).
Engineered wood applications in bridges are also common
in Europe and North America. With no doubt, adhesive
qualities and the bondline integrity are the key parts of
these engineered wood products and play an important role
in the performance of these products. The response of
1
Xiaodong (Alice) Wang, Luleå University of Technology,
Forskargatan 1, SE-931 87 Skellefteå, Sweden. Email:
alice.wang@ltu.se
1
Olle Hagman, Luleå University of Technology, Forskargatan 1,
SE-931 87 Skellefteå, Sweden. Email: olle.hagman@ltu.se
2
Bror Sundqvist, SP Technical Research Institute of Sweden, SP
Wood Technology, Skeria 2, SE-931 77 Skellefteå, Sweden.
3
Sigurdur Ormarsson, Department of Civil Engineering,
Technical University of Denmark, Denmark.
4
Hui Wan, Forest Products Department, Mississippi State
University, USA.
5
Peter Niemz, Department of Civil Engineering, ETH zurich,
Switzerland.
5
Peter Niemz, Department of Civil Engineering, ETH zurich,
Switzerland.
of a wood structure. The knowledge of the integrity is
important in the regions and countries like Scandinavia,
Greenland, Alps, Canada, Alaska, Russia, Mongolia, North
China and North Japan. Wood constructions in these areas
are frequently exposed to low temperatures for quite a long
time period each year. In addition to that, thermal effects
are usually not considered in the design and service life of
wood constructions. Different properties between wood
and adhesives, such as thermal properties may lead to
performance problems when the wooden construction is
exposed to large temperature changes. Relatively, the
performance of bondlines at elevated temperatures is quite
well documented. Not much information is available on
the stability of bondlines at low temperatures and
especially under extremely cold conditions.
The objective of the whole project is to determine how
engineered wood product reacts when exposed to
temperatures from 20 to -60°C. But in this paper (Part I - it
is the first step of the whole project), the shear strength of
Norway spruce and Scots pine wood joints bonded with
seven commercially available adhesives was tested at the
selected temperatures, according to EN 302-1 (2011).

69
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS

2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1 MATERIALS
The wood components used for the tests in this study were
Norway spruce (Picea abies) and Scots pine (Pinus
sylvestris) with the average density of 450 and 470 kg/m3
and equilibrium moisture content (EMC) of 12%. The
growth ring angle (angle between growth rings and glued
surface of the specimen) of the wood was between 30 and
90°. The seven different commercially available adhesives
from different producers were chosen. They are:
• One-component polyurethane resin (PUR)
• Poly(vinyl acetate) resin (PVAc)
• Emulsion-polymer-isocyanate resin (EPI)
• Melamine-formaldehyde resin (MF)
• Melamine-urea-formaldehyde resin (MUF1)
• Phenol-resorcinol-formaldehyde resin (PRF)
• Melamine-urea-formaldehyde resin (MUF2)
2.2 METHODS
The shear strength tests were conducted according to EN
302-1. To investigate the influence of the temperatures on
shear strength, 15 specimens of each test set were
tempered in a special climate chamber (Vötsch
industrietechnik vcv7120-5) (at the Department of Civil
Engineering at Technical University of Denmark) for
twelve hours at -20, -30, -40, -50 and -60°C, respectively.
The tests were executed on a universal testing machine in
the climate chamber (Figure 1) at the designed
temperature. The tests were performed in a position-
controlled model with a feed speed of 2 mm/min. After the
shear strength test, the wood failure percentage of each
tested specimen was estimated visually in a graded scale of
5%-steps, as recommended in EN 302-1.
Figure 1: Climate chamber, shear test machine and test
specimens
3 RESULTS
Presented in Figure 2 are the shear strength of Norway
spruce and Scots pine bondlines and control samples at
different temperatures. The general trend was that as
temperature decreased, the shear strength of wood joints
with and without adhesives decreased. Shear strength
variations also changed with temperature. Compared to
20°C, the shear strength tested at -30°C had greater
variation, indicating that a good quality control of bondline
for low temperature application was more challenging than
for normal temperatures.
(1)
(2)
Figure 2: Bondline shear strength of tested wood
specimens with different types of glues at different
temperatures (1) Norway spruce (2) Scots pine
4 CONCLUSIONS
Following conclusions can be drawn:
1. Generally, for both species, temperature changes
significantly affected shear strength of wood joints. As
temperature decreased, the shear strength decreased.
2. PUR resin resulted in the strongest shear strength at all
temperatures tested. MF resin responded to temperature
changes in similar ways as the PUR resin. The shear
strength of wood joints with EPI resins was sensitive to
temperature change. MUF, PRF and PVAc resins
demonstrated different characters with Norway spruce
and Scots pine.
3. At room temperature, all types of adhesive showed
relative stability, in terms of shear strength variation.
While at low temperature, the shear strength varied
considerably. More specimens need to be tested in
further work to more completely present the issue.
More formulations should be tested to represent those
entire classes of wood adhesives.
4. Since the data created through the experiment mostly
did not meet the shear strength requirement of EN 301
and EN 302, especially at low temperatures. It suggests
that the influence of diminished shear strength of
bondlines at low temperature on load carrying capacity
of glulam should be studied to develop new design
methods of products.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are grateful for the technical support from Mr.
Per Anders Fjellström and Mr. Urban Häggström at SP
Wood Technology, Skellefteå, Sweden, and the
technicians at the Department of Civil Engineering,
Technical University of Denmark, Denmark.

70
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS

EFFECT OF HEAT TREATMENT ON PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

AND WOOD SURFACE OF BRAZILIAN EUCALYPTUS
GRANDIS USED FOR STRUCTURES AND FURNITURE

Alexandre Monteiro de Carvalho1, Pablo Vieira dos Santos2, Ananias Francisco

Dias Junior3, José Henrique Pace4, João Vicente de Figueiredo Latorraca5,

ABSTRACT: The present study had as objective to evaluate the effect of heat treatment on physical properties and surface
finish quality of Eucalyptus grandis wood, which has been used in Brazil for structural use in construction, furniture and
other segment. The samples has been treated with heat processes under different conditions of time and temperature
(160°C/2 hours, 180°C/2 hours, 180°C/4 hours, 200°C/2 hours and 215°C/4 hours) . Tests were made of dimensional
instability, surface evaluation and testing of the samples after surface finishing using two kinds of varnishes.

KEYWORDS: wood machinability, wood roughness, wood surface finishing.

1 INTRODUCTION 123
The heat treated wood is obtained by the thermo
degradation of a part of its constituents, generally in the
absence of oxygen. The process may be considered a
controlled pyrolysis, stopped before the level of
exothermic reactions that occur near 280°C.
The present study had as objective to evaluate the effect of
heat treatment on physical properties and surface finish
quality, roughness and adhesion of varnish in heat treated
samples of Eucalyptus grandis Hill ex Maiden.
2 MATERIAL AND METHODS
The trees used in this study were sampled in commercial
plantations of Eucalyptus grandis Hill ex Maiden in the
region of Piraí, state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, with about
twenty-three years old. Were felled six trees with a
minimum diameter of 30 cm and varying heights.
From the wood of the trees were produced small pieces of
300mm x 125mm x 25mm. Were produced sixty small
samples that constituted the specimens for the tests, being
twelve from each tree sampled.
2.1 HEAT TREATMENT
The heat treatment of the wood samples involved two
different steps, outdoor conventional drying in a covered
place for about three months, and heat thermal process,
performed in a laboratory kiln at temperatures of 160oC,
180oC, 200oC and 215oC, and time periods of 2 and 4
hours.
2.2 TESTS
The specimens for evaluation of the physical properties
were made after the heat treatment observing the
description of the ABNT NBR 7190:1997 [1] standard.
The machining tests were conducted based on ASTM D
1667-87. [2] Were performed planning test, sanding,
drilling, rip and cleavage by nails.
An example of the test specimen is shown in Figure 1.

1
Alexandre Monteiro de Carvalho, Forest Products Department,
Rural Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, BR 465, km 07,
Seropédica/RJ, Brazil, Email: amcarvalho.ufrrj@gmail.com
2
Pablo Vieira dos Santos, Rural Federal University of Rio de
Janeiro, Brazil
3
Ananias Francisco Dias Junior, Rural Federal University of Rio
de Janeiro, Brazil Figure 1: Specimen of the machinability tests. Dp =
4 planing; Fd = boring for hinge; Fc = boring for peg; Rg =
José Henrique Pace, Rural Federal University of Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil tear; Fp = nail insertion; Lx = sanding.
5
João Vicente de Figueiredo Latorraca, Rural Federal University
of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

71
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS

After the tests, were conducted a visual qualification of the Table 2. Averages of the roughness parameter (Ra) in
specimens and assigning grades 1 to 5. Later the Eucalyptus grandis
machinability tests, proceeded up the readings of the Ra [µm]
roughness of the parts with a needle roughness meter Temperature regular direction (grain) opposite direction (grain)
Controle 9,00 b 24,00 b
system. In the roughness test was evaluated the Ra 160°/4h 14,91 a 25,66 b
parameter - Equation 1. 180°/2h 11,99 a 18,19 a
180°/4h 12,75 a 8,33 d
200°/2h 14,75 a 19,03a
Equation 1 215°/4h 10,49 b 35,44 c
Means followed by the same letter do not differ statistically from each other, according to the Tukey test at 5% probability.
being: Ra = average roughness; Yi = Profile deviations
The results of the adhesion test of nitrocellulose-based
Were conducted testes of surface finish based on NBR varnish and polyurethane are shown in Table 3.
11003 (2009) - Paint - Determination of adhesion [3]
Brazilian normative document. Were applied and assessed Table 3. Evaluation of approved pieces in the test of
adherence with varnish to the nitrocellulose base and
two types of varnishes based on polyurethane (PU) and
poliuteran.
nitrocellulose.
Heat treatment % approved parts
temperature and time Treatment 1 Treatment 2
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Controle 100 100
160°C - 4h 90 95
Table 1 shows the results of the physical properties.
180°C - 2h 100 100
Table 1. Medium Values of equilibrium humidity, apparent 180°C - 4h 100 100
density, basic density and volumetric variation for the 200°C - 2h 100 100

appraised treatments 215°C - 4h 90 95

Treatment
Equilibrium
humidity (%)
Apparent density
(g/cm3)
Basic density
(g/cm3)
∆ Volumetric
(%)
4 CONCLUSIONS
Reference 14,76 (3,10) a 0,58 (12,19) ab 0,45 (10,33) bc 12,62 (9,73) ab
The equilibrium moisture content and dimensional stability
were directly influenced by the severity of heat treatment,
160/2 13,09 (1,66) ab 0,47 (7,03) bde 0,42 (2,09) c 11,16 (14,55) abcd
showing that this procedure interfered heavily in
180/2 10,02 (18,35) de 0,52 (2,72) abcde 0,46 (2,80) bc 10,10 (10,76) abcd hygroscopicity and increase stability of the studied
180/4 9,76 (5,96) e 0,50 (6,65) bcde 0,44 (5,48) bc 12,22 (38,88) abc
samples;
200/2 9,60 (4,93) ef 0,47 (4,42) e 0,42 (3,11) c 11,30 (14,12) abcd In the machinability tests, the sanding test and the tear tests
215/4 8,25 (15,06) fg 0,59 (4,32) a 0,54 (12,14) a 9,23 (18,79) bcd
at higher temperatures had higher percentages of approval,
* Values in parentheses refer to the coefficients of variation. Means followed by the same letter do not differ statistically
however in the nails tests high temperatures showed poorer
from each other, according to the Tukey test at 5% probability. results;
In the planning test the notes awarded for defects (torn The heat treatment showed no significant effects on the
grain and fuzzy grain) for non-heat treated wood and for adhesion of coatings evaluated in the study.
the heat treated wood (at different temperatures and time),
in favor or against the grain were less than 3, noting that ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
the Eucalyptus grandis wood showed good performance
against this operation. The authors thank Carlos Chagas Research Foundation of
the State of Rio de Janeiro and UFRRJ for financial aid
In the sanding test can observe a regular behavior with through scholarships awarded.
respect to the control samples (without heat treatment), in
which 80% of the pieces exhibited Note 3, occurring REFERENCES
defects such as grain fluffy and striping.
[1] Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas. Projeto de
In the test of tearing and drill the holes of 6 mm was better Estruturas de Madeira: NBR 7190. Rio de Janeiro,
than 10 mm which in turn was better than 8 mm. In the test ABNT, 1997. 107p.
for splitting nails, unlike some tests, it was observed that [2] American Society for Testing and Materials. ASTM
the heat treatment procedure has a detrimental effect, D-1666-87: Standard Method for Conducting
higher temperatures decreased ability of the timber to Machining Tests of Wood and Wood Base Materials
accept nails. (reapproved 1994). Philaldelphia, 1995. P. 226 - 245.
[3] Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas. NBR
In Table 2 are arranged the averages of Ra obtained in the 11003 - Tintas - determinação aderência. Rio de
tests of Eucalyptus grandis specimens. janeiro, ABNT, 1990. 9p.

72
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS

DEVELOPMENT OF A PORTABLE HARDNESS TESTER FOR

WOOD USING DISPLACEMENT TRANSDUCER

Adriano Ballarin1, Albert Assis2, Hernando Lara Palma3

ABSTRACT: Hardness is largely used in material specifications. Specifically for timber, Janka hardness is traditionally
performed. More recently, international studies have reported the use of Brinell hardness for timber quality assessment in
field conditions, especially due to the lower magnitude of the involved force. Two generation of portable equipment with
these purposes were already developed by the Research Group on Forest Products from FCA/UNESP, Brazil for dynamic
evaluation of hardness. This paper presents results obtained in the development of the third generation of this equipment,
which uses displacement transducer in order to automate the indentation evaluation in wood. Functional tests of the
equipment were carried out using seven species of Eucalyptus. Results already obtained revealed strong correlation to Janka
hardness and confirmed the potential of the equipment in the classification of wood.

KEYWORDS: Janka Hardness, Brinell Hardness, portable equipment, displacement transducer

This paper presents results obtained in the development of

1 INTRODUCTION 1 the third generation of this equipment – DPM 3 - which
uses displacement transducer in order to automate the
Hardness is largely used in material specifications. Among indentation evaluation in wood.
the major strength properties of wood, hardness reveals its
potentialities (good correlation to other mechanical
2 MATERIAL AND METHODS
properties and quickness of results) and can be used as a
non-destructive tool in the characterization of species from The Portable Hardness Tester - DPM-3 (Figure 1) –
reforestation [1,2]. patents pending - is an electro-mechanical equipment
whose operating principle is similar to Brinell hardness
For evaluation of hardness in wood, considering its
test, i.e., a cap with spherical format and known diameter
viscoelastic properties, especially its resilience, and its low
is indented into wood using a known energy. In this case,
elastic modulus to yield stress ratio (E/Y) perpendicular to
energy mobilized to promote indentation is obtained by the
the grain, one can easily note greater appropriation of
free fall of a mass and the hardness value is determined by
Janka hardness when compared to Brinell hardness.
the relationship between the energy used and the area of
Despite the major appropriation of Janka hardness to wood
the spherical surface that will be printed on the material
measurements several researchers have suggested Brinell
evaluated (indentation) according to the expression:
method for the evaluation of hardness in wood [3,4] in
field condition, considering the lower magnitude of the
E
forces involved in the indentation and the additional H (1)
difficulty to control, the depth of the metal sphere  .D.h
indentation required on Janka hardness method.
where H is hardness strength (kJ.m-2), E is the energy resulted
Two generation of portable equipment with these purposes
from the fall of the mass (kJ), D is the diameter of the metal
were developed by the Research Group on Forest Products
sphere (m) and h is the deep of the indentation (m).
- FCA/UNESP, Brazil for dynamic evaluation of hardness
in wood - Portable Hardness Tester for wood - DPM. The measurement of the indentation is made by a
displacement transducer connected to an electronic circuit
responsible for signal processing, calculation and
1
Adriano Ballarin, Agronomic Sciences College, Sao Paulo State immediate display of hardness. Seven species of
University, P.O. Box 237, Botucatu-SP, Brazil. Email: eucalyptus were used to perform the experimental tests.
awballarin@fca.unesp.br
2 Sixteen specimens (5cm x 5cm x 15cm) for each species
Albert Assis, Grad. Student, Sao Paulo State University, Brazil
3
Hernando Lara Palma, Sao Paulo State University, Brazil
were obtained, totalizing 112 specimens.

73
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS
Figure 1: Portable Hardness Tester – DPM 3
The Janka hardness tests were performed in the direction
perpendicular to the grain of wood on a universal testing
machine EMIC, model DL 30000, following Brazilian
Standards. Hardness H was estimated alternatively by the
Portable Hardness Tester – DPM3 using Equation 1.
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Using the displacement transducer, the Portable Hardness
Tester DPM-3 promoted fast and easy readings, revealing
consistent values of indentation. Immediately after the
indentation, the value of hardness H (Equation 1) provided
by the software was displayed.
The indentation was determined under load (and not on
unloading), avoiding the influence of the recovery.
Furthermore, by measuring the indentation instead of the
indented area, the DPM3 avoided “sinking in” phenomenon
effects. Both, recovery and “sinking in” effects were
reported by Doyle and Walker [5] as limitations of the
conventional Brinell hardness tests for wood.
Table 1 presents descriptive statistics of the measurements
of Janka and Portable Hardness Tester – DPM3 hardness.
It is observed lower coefficient of variation (CV) of the
results obtained from the Portable Hardness Tester (17.83).
Table 1: Descriptive Statistic of hardness measurements
Descrip. Hardness Janka H – DPM 3
Stat. (MPa) (kJ.m-²)
Mean 68.53 41.69
Sd 24.34 7.43
CV 35.53 17.83
N 112 112
The determination coefficient (R2) in Figure 2 expressed
moderate to strong association between hardness H
(DPM3) and conventional hardness Janka.
Figure 2 shows a greater dispersion of the results for
higher levels of hardness, that may be attributed to the
74
rational function [f(x) = k.x-1] that governs Brinell
hardness and particularly the hardness H (Equation 1). In
fact, for higher levels of hardness (lower indentations
levels, in other words) minor variations in the indentation
promote large variations in the hardness value.
Figure 2: Hardness Janka versus Hardness H – DPM3
4 CONCLUSIONS
The following main conclusions can be pointed:
• The Portable Hardness Tester – DPM3 promoted fast,
easy and reliable readings of the indentation, as well as
evaluation of hardness H;
• Classical problems of Brinell hardness of the “sinking in”
phenomenon and the recovery of indented area were solved
by the equipment using under loading measurement of the
indentation (and not of the indented area);
• Hardness H measured from the equipment revealed
moderate to strong association to conventional Janka
Hardness (R2=0.86).
REFERENCES
[1] INSTITUTO BRASILEIRO do MEIO AMBIENTE e
dos RECURSOS RENOVÁVEIS. Amostragem e
propriedades físico-mecanicas de madeiras
amazônicas. Brasília: IBAMA, 1993, Coleção Meio
Ambiente – Serie estudo floresta, nº 1.
[2] R. A. Colenci. Qualificação mecânica de madeiras
para uso como dormente ferroviário. Botucatu,
UNESP, 2002, 90 p. Dissertação (Mestrado em
Agronomia – Energia na Agricultura) – FCA/UNESP
– Brazil, 2002 (in portuguese).
[3] R. A. Colenci. Desenvolvimento de equipamento para
avaliação em campo da dureza de madeiras para
dormente ferroviário. Botucatu, UNESP, 2006, 83 p.
Tese (Doutorado em Agronomia – Energia na
Agricultura) – FCA/UNESP – Brazil, 2006 (in
portuguese).
[4] I. Bektas, M.H. Alma, N. As. Determination of the
relationships between Brinell and Janka hardness of
eastern beech (Fagus orientalis LIPSKY). Forest
Products Journal, 51(11/12):.84-87, 2001.
[5] Doyle, J.; Walker, J.C.F. Indentation hardness of
wood. Wood and Fiber Science. 17(3): 369-376.
1985.
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS
APPLICABILITY OF VARIOUS WOOD SPECIES IN GLUED
LAMINATED TIMBER - PARAMETER STUDY ON
DELAMINATION RESISTANCE AND SHEAR STRENGTH
Yuan Jiang1, Jörg Schaffrath2, Markus Knorz2, Stefan Winter2, Jan-Willem van
de Kuilen2
ABSTRACT: In a current research project the gluability of various soft- und hardwood species and their applicability in
glued laminated timber are investigated. The influence of the processing parameters on the delamination resistance and
shear strength of the glue lines are presented in this work.
KEYWORDS: gluability of soft- and hardwood, glued laminated timber, shear strength, delamination test
1 BACKGROUND 123
Our forests are severely affected by ongoing climate
change. In Germany, many forests which mainly consist of
uniformly structured stands of conifers such as pine and
spruce suffer from calamities like storms, fire and insects
(e.g. [1]). Under this circumstance, the forest conversion
has become an important topic in German forestry. The
forest conversion programmes aim at turning the
monocultures into species-rich, adaptable and climate
tolerant mixed forests [2]. For instance, according to the
results of the second national forest inventory, the share of
broadleaved trees has increased noticeably [3]. Therefore,
the raw material supply from the forest is expected to
change in the near future.
To adapt and respond to these changes, the woodworking
industry on one hand needs to adjust their production. On
the other hand, industry could take advantage of those
changes by developing new and improved wooden
products. Moreover, bonding of wood species with higher
strength and/or durability will lead to benefits for
engineered wood products. In this context, the bonding
technology is a key factor for the production of engineered
wood products.
However, experience shows that bonding of timber without
sufficient technical knowledge and accuracy can lead to
serious damages. Investigations after the collapse of the
Bad Reichenhall ice rink in 2006 showed that damages in
1
Yuan Jiang, Technische Universität München, Chair of Timber
Structures and Building Construction, Arcisstr. 21, D-80333
München, Germany. Email: yuan.jiang@tum.de
2
Jörg Schaffrath, Markus Knorz, Stefan Winter, Jan-Willem van
de Kuilen, Technische Universität München
75
structural elements made of glued laminated timber (GLT)
are often caused by delaminated glue lines [4, 5, 6].
Today, in Central Europe GLT is almost exclusively made
of spruce or pine [7, 8]. However, in the recent past,
research and industry have shown increasing interest in
using hardwoods such as beech. At present, for the first
time a building with GLT made from beech as structural
element is built in Germany. In Switzerland, where
building regulations are less restrictive, more experience
with GLT made of hardwoods such as ash and beech has
been gained in the last decades.
The bonding forces, which are necessary for the integrity
of a glue line, act in the interface within a distance that
varies from nanometers to micrometers. The parameters
that may have significant influence on the bonding strength
and durability of adhesive joints are numerous and depend
on the type of wood, adhesive and processing conditions.
2 METHODS
A current research project “Bonding of various wood
species and studies about their applicability in glued
laminated timber” focuses on the gluability of five
different soft- and hardwoods. Systematic examinations
are carried out with the wood species ash, beech, Douglas
fir, larch and, as reference, spruce. Furthermore, three
rather newly developed adhesive systems (EPI, MUF and
PUR) and one established system (PRF) are investigated.
First of all, in different test series various physical and
chemical properties of the wood species are analyzed in
combination with the four selected adhesives. The data
achieved on a laboratory scale have been used as an input
for the parameter studies regarding delamination behavior
and shear strength.
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS
To perform the parameter studies, for each selected
combination of wood/adhesive, four test beams are
produced with varying processing parameters. Processing
parameters, e.g. surface preparation, surface aging and
closed assembly time, were chosen based on the results of
the test series mentioned above. The dimensions of the test
beams are in accordance with EN 302-2 [9]. From each
test beam, two specimens for delamination tests according
to EN 391, Method A [9], six specimens for shear tests
according to EN 392 [10] and two specimens for
microscopic analysis are taken (see Figure 1).
Figure 1: Geometry of test beams (in mm)
Not only the percentage of delamination (see Figure 2) or
the breaking load, but also the quality of the glue line,
which is examined by means of microscopy, are taken as
indicators for the reliability of a bonded joint. This yields
valuable information about the influence of various
processing conditions on the delamination resistance and
shear strength of the glue lines.
Figure 2: Device of shear tests
76
Furthermore, with the knowledge of the best performing
processing conditions, the applicability of the wood
species in glued laminated timber will be verified by long-
term testing. Thereby, larger test beams under load will be
subjected to various climate conditions.
3 CONCLUSIONS
Within this current research study, detailed information
about the possibilities of surface gluing of various
promising wood species shall be investigated. The study
will contribute to an increased knowledge of bond
durability in combination with the wood species referred
to. Furthermore, deeper insight into the influence of
processing conditions on the quality of the glue lines will
be provided.
REFERENCES
[1] P. Elsasser, H. Englert and J. Hamilton: Landscape
benefits of a forest conversion programme in North
East Germany: results of a choice experiment. Annals
of forest research, 53(1): 37-50, 2010.
[2] Bayerische Staatsregierung: Klimaprogramm Bayern
2020. Minderung von Treibhausgasen, Anpassung an
den Klimawandel, Forschung und Entwicklung, 2007.
[3] Bundeswaldinventur 2, viewed June 10 2009,
http://www.bundeswaldinventur.de.
[4] H. J. Blaß and M. Frese: Schadensanalyse,
Schadensursachen und Bewertung der Standsicherheit
bestehender Holzkonstruktionen, Forschungsbericht
der Universität Karlsruhe, Lehrstuhl für
Ingenieurholzbau und Baukonstruktionen, 2007.
[5] P. Dietsch, S. Winter: Assessment of the Structural
Reliability of all wide span Timber Structures under
the Responsibility of the City of Munich. In: 33rd
IABSE Symposium Proceedings, Bangkok, Thailand,
September 9-11, 2009.
[6] A. Wolfrum, S. Winter: Evaluierung geschädigter
Hallentragwerke aus Holz. Ergebnisbericht für
Holzabsatzfonds - Absatzförderungsfonds der
deutschen Forst- und Holzwirtschaft, unpublished.
[7] H. Mack: Der europäische Markt für Brettschichtholz
(BSH), In: Wiener Leimholz Symposium, 2006.
[8] D. Ohnesorge, M. Henning, and G. Becker:
Bedeutung von Laubholz bei der
Brettschichtholzherstellung. Holztechnologie 50:47-
49, 2009.
[9] EN 302-2:2004-07, Adhesives for load-bearing timber
structures - Test methods - Part 2: Determination of
resistance to delamination; German version
EN 302-2:2004.
[10] EN 391:2001-04, Glued laminated timber -
Delamination test of glue lines; German version
EN 391:2001.
[11] EN 392:1995-04, Glued laminated timber - Shear test
glue lines; German version EN 392:1995.
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS

IN-PLANE SHEAR TEST OF FULL SCALE

CROSS LAMINATED TIMBER PANELS

Yasuhiro Araki1, Shiro Nakajima 2, Yoshinobu Yamaguchi3, Takafumi

Nakagawa4, Atsushi Miyatake5, Motoi Yasumura6

ABSTRACT: The in-plane shear specimens of full scale CLT panels are tested. From the test results, about the
failure behaviour, if there is finger joint near the shear plane, cracks are tended to progress along the joint was
confirmed. About the maximum shear unit stress was about 3N/mm2, and shear stiffness was about 600GPa
calculated as the total cross section effective.

KEYWORDS: Cross laminated timber made of Japanese cedar, Full scale in-plane shear wall test, Shear unit stress

1 INTRODUCTION 123
CLT is composed of longitudinal layers and cross layers.
When the CLT is used as shear wall, it is important to
understand the in-plane shear performance in order to
control the structural performance of wall and joints and
the collapse mechanism. Therefore, the in-plane shear
specimens of full scale CLT panels are tested.
2 SPECIMEN AND LOADING PLAN
For the purpose of understanding the in-plane shear
performance of the full scale CLT panel, the specimens
were set to the shape of “H” as shown in Figure 1. The
specification of the test specimen is shown in Table 1. The
parameters of the test specimen are as follows;
(ⅰ) The thickness and the layers of the panel,
(ⅱ) the direction of the lamina of outermost layer
(ⅲ) modulus of elasticity (MOE).
(ⅳ) Shape of the constricted part
In order to apply shear force to the specimens, specimens
were loaded by the testing device which refers to the test
equipment RC columns.
3 TEST RESULTS
3.1 FAILURE BEHAVIOR
1
Yasuhiro Araki, Building Research Institute,1 Tachihara,
Tsukuba, Ibaraki-pref., Japan. Email:araki@kenken.go.jp
2
Shiro Nakajima, Building Research Institute, Japan
3
Yoshinobu Yamaguchi, Building Research Institute, Japan
4
Takafumi Nakagawa, NILLIM, Japan
5
Atsushi Miyatake, FFPRI, Japan
6
Motoi Yasumura, Shizuoka University, Japan
With the progress of the deformation, constricted part was
sheared, and cracks were generated on the lamina of all
specimens. Moreover, if there are finger joints near the
shear area, it was confirmed that the crack progresses
along the finger joint (Photo 1).
3.2 SHEAR STIFFNESS / SHEAR UNIT STRENGTH
Figure 2 shows the shear unit stress and shear resistance
angle relationship of the specimens. Table 2 shows the two
kind of maximum shear unit stress and the three kind of
shear modulus calculated by the test results. From the
Table 2, τmax1 was about 2.8 to 3.4 N/mm2, G1 was about
450 to 750 N/mm2. Regardless of the differences in the
direction of the outermost layer lamina, thickness of the
lamina and the number of layers, τmax1 and Gst was similar
in any specimen.
4 CONCLUSIONS
(1) About the failure behaviour, if there is finger joint
near the shear plane, cracks are tended to progress
along the joint.
(2) Regardless of the differences in the direction of the
outermost layer lamina, thickness of the lamina and
the number of layers, τ and G from the total cross-
sectional area was similar in any specimen. τmax1 is
about 3N/mm2, Gst is about 1000N/mm2.
(3) The maximum shear load of full scale CLT panel is
roughly predictable from the shear strength of the
lamina.
Note
This study was conducted as part of the research subject of
Building Research Institute in Japan and a part of the
project on 'Technology development for circulatory food

77
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS

Table 1: Parameter of Specimens

Direction of Outermost Layer Size of shear area MOE of lamina Number of
Thickness
(To the pressing force direction) (Height×Width:mm) (kN/mm2) specimen
Type1 30mm×3 layer perpendicular 900×1000 (layer1,3,5) 6.0-8.0 2
Type2 27mm×5 layer perpendicular 900×1000 (layer 2,4) 3.0-6.0 2
Type3 25mm×5 layer perpendicular 612×816 1
(layer1,5) 7.42-11.91
Type4 25mm×5 layer parallel 612×816 1
(layer2,3,4) 3.1-6.0
Type5 25mm×5 layer perpendicular 612×1224 1

Figure 1: Test Specimens (Type1) Photo 1: Failure behaviour of the specimen(Type1)

Table 2: Maximum shear load, maximum shear unit stress, Shear modulus * Type5 : Load limit of the test device
Pmax tgross tnet τmax1 G1 τmax2 G2 Gst Pmaxcalc Pmax
(kN) (mm) (mm) (N/mm2) (Mpa) (N/mm2) (Mpa) (Mpa) (kN) / Pmaxcalc
Type1-1 267 90 30 2.97 447 8.90 1341 1006 309 0.86
Type1-2 255 90 30 2.83 513 8.50 1539 998 309 0.83
Type2-1 456 135 54 3.38 611 8.44 1528 802 463 0.98
Type2-2 427 135 54 3.16 669 7.91 1673 1064 463 0.92
Type3 314 125 50 3.08 607 7.70 1518 906 350 0.90
Type4 298 125 50 2.92 637 7.30 1593 917 350 0.85
Type5 456* 125 50 2.98* 748 7.45 1870 892 525 0.87*

4
3.5
production systems responsive to climate change'
supported by Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and
3 Fisheries, Japan.
（N/mm2）

2.5
2 REFERENCES
1.5 [1] Brandner R, Bogensperger T and Schikhofer G, In
plane Shear Strength of Cross Laminated Timber
1
(CLT): Test Configuration, Quantification and
0.5 influencing Parameters (2013), CIB-W 18/ 46 - 12 - 2,
0 Vancouver, Canada
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 [2] M. Flaig, H. J. Blaß, Shear strength and shear stiffness
γ(rad.) of CLT-beams loaded in plane: Test Configuration,
Quantification and influencing Parameters (2013),
Type1-1 Type1-2 Type2-1 Type2-2
CIB-W 18/ 46 - 12 - 3, Vancouver, Canada
Type3 Type4 Type5
Figure 2: Shear unit stress and strain relationship

78
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS

AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON RESISTANT MECHANISM

OF THICK PLYWOOD SUBJECTED TO LATERAL LOADINGS

Akiko Ohtsuka1, Naoto Fukawa2, Takumi Ito3, Wataru Kambe4

ABSTRACT: Authors have proposed the plywood panel - steel composite member. The composite member is consisted
that the steel member is sandwiched with two sheets of plywood. The vertical loading test has conducted as the pilot test
study, and the composite effects against to lateral buckling have been observed experimentally. The next, the seismic
resistant mechanism and performance of this composite system are investigated. However, the fundamental studies for
plywood subjected to lateral loads have not been reported. So in this paper, it aims to clarify the resistant mechanism and
performance of thick plywood subjected to lateral load.

KEYWORDS: Plywood, Composite structure, Lateral loading test, Bolt connection

1 INTRODUCTION 123 2 SUMMARY OF RESISTANT

In recent years, in the field of wood industry, especially in
Japan, it is required that planed raw materials switch from
import materials to domestic lumber and development of
new usage suitable for domestic lumber is strongly
demanded. To promote and increase the demand of
domestic cedars, the various types of products or buildings.
Authors suggested the sandwich panel[1] that consists of
steel members and plywood as shown in Figure 1. It is
desired that the combined effect of plywood and steel
member contribute the seismic resistant performance of
this system. And then, it is assumed that the resistant
mechanism of plywood in this hybrid structural system is
shown in Figure 2. However, the experimental studies on
resistant mechanism and performance of plywood itself
subjected to lateral loadings have not been reported. In this
research, the resistant mechanism and structural
performance of thick plywood subjected to lateral loadings
are examined.
MECHANISM UNDER LATERAL
LOADING
Authors have proposed the hybrid structural system as
shown in Figure 1, and it consists of steel members and
two sheets of thick plywood. It is assumed that the
resistant mechanism of plywood in this structure under the
lateral loads is shown in Figure 2. That is, the bearing
pressure is introduced around the bolt joint after the inner
steel members are deformed. And it is predicted that the
compression and tensile stress field in the diagonal
direction, so called as braced mechanism, will be occurred.
plywood
bolt-hole

plywood

1
AkikoOhtsuka, Dept. of Architecture, Faculty of Eng., Tokyo bolt
steel frame
University of Science, 6-3-1,Niijuku, Katsushika-ku, Tokyo,
Japan, 125-8585, Email:ohtsuka.akiko@gmail.com
1
Naoto Fukawa, Dept. of Architecture, Faculty of Eng., Tokyo
University of Science, Japan, Email:na.a.dombm@gmail.com Figure 1: Proposed composite member[1]
2
Takumi Ito, Dept. of Architecture, Faculty of Eng., Tokyo
University of Science, Japan, Email: t-ito@rs.kagu.tus.ac.jp
4
Wataru Kambe, Dept. of Arch. And Env. Design, Kanto
GakuinUniversity, Japan, Email: wkambe@kanto-gakuin.ac.jp

79
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS

Steel
Lateral load

Steel (jig)

Bolt

Plywood h H
Bolt

Plywood
Figure 2: The load-proof mechanism under lateral load

3 OUTLINE OF LATERAL LOADING

TESTS
Herein, the resistant mechanism and performance of
plywood subjected to lateral loads are investigated
experimentally. So then, the test setup is shown in Fig.3.
The inner steel members are considered as rigid herein,
and the steel column is set as jig with pin-supported. The
plywood is fastened with high-tension bolts.
In this paper, the bolt layout, the relation of the h – b, are
considered as the important parameters. In addition, the
effects of the thickness of plywood and clearance are
investigated. And the height H and width B of plywood are
unified. The test parameters are summarized Table 1.
During lateral loading test, the lateral load and
displacement are measured. And also, to observe the
resistant mechanism of the stress field in the diagonal
direction, the strain gauges are arranged.
From the test results, the inelastic behaviour during lateral
loading is observed and the effects of each parameter are
studied. Furthermore, the strength and rigidity are
compared with each parameter.
4 CONCLUSIONS
In this paper, the lateral loading test on the thick plywood
is conducted to clarify the resistant mechanisms and
structural performance.
From the experiments, the inelastic behaviour during
lateral loading is found. It helped that the resistant
mechanism and structural performance of thick plywood
subjected to lateral loadings are clarified. And the inelastic
behaviour during lateral loading is observed and the effects
from the strength and rigidity are compared. It is assumed
that the resistant mechanism of plywood and the role of
plywood in this structure under the lateral loads are
clarified.
b
B
Figure 3: Setup diagram of lateral loading test
Table 1: Test parameters
thickness of Plywood t=24(mm)
layout of bolts b=0.2～0.5b
h=0.2～0.5h
Clearance 1～10(mm)
REFERENCES
[1] Ito T, Kambe W, Kondo S, Takahasi S(2012), An
experimental study on compression resistant
mechanism of sandwiched panel of structural
playwood and steel member,Journal of Structural and
Construction Engineering, Journal of architecture and
building science.No18-40,pp.941-946, October 2012
(in Japanese).
[2] Wataru Kambe, Sumiya Takahashi, Takumi Ito and
Kenji Aoki (2013), An experimental study on
compression resistant performance with thick plywood
sheathing as an axial member, Trans. of AIJ, Vol.78,
No.684, pp.355-362 (in Japanese).
[3] BS EN383: Determination of embedment strength and
foundation values for dowel type fasteners，2007.
[4] Architectural Inst. of Japan：Quality of wood
structure design standard, commentary - permissible
stress degree, permission proof stress design law -－
p.233，2006.12.

80
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS

MECHANICAL AND PHYSICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF

COMPOSITE BAMBOO-GUADUA PRODUCTS:
PLASTIGUADUA

Hector F. Archila1, Caori P. Takeuchi2, David J. A. Trujillo3

ABSTRACT: The bamboo species Guadua angustifolia Kunth (Guadua) were subjected to different fibre extraction
processes, bleached and used in combination with a set range of polymers to form composite materials. Polyester and epoxy
resins, natural latex and other synthetic binders were used as matrixes. The extracted short and long fibres, veneers and
woven mats were used as reinforcement for the composites. Experimental work was undertaken on different fibre
treatments, concentrations and orientations to form flat sheets. With the aim of assessing the physical and mechanical
properties of these sheets, two configurations were chosen: Plastiguadua L and Plastiguadua P. The former was a laminated
material with a 1:1 ratio by weight of thin veneers of Guadua and thermoset polyester resin. The latter had a 2:3 ratio by
weight of short fibre bundles and resin content respectively. For the mechanical characterization, bending, tensile and
impact-Izod tests were undertaken. Rockwell hardness, UV, condensation and water absorption were carried out to assess
their physical properties.

KEYWORDS: Bamboo, Guadua angustifolia Kunth, composite materials, mechanical properties.

1 INTRODUCTION 123 development and seeking standardization [4]. However,

Bamboo resources have been recently listed as Non Wood
Forest Products (NWFP) and wood substitute at FAO’s
(Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations)
last Forest Resource Assessment 2010 [1]. Bamboo’s self-
renewability, high biomass production and fast growth rate
offer key environmental advantages together with a high
carbon sequestration above and below ground –which has
been compared to that of fast growing trees- [2]. Among
other bamboos Guadua angustifolia Kunth (Guadua) a
species endemic to South and Central America has the
highest tonnage of carbon fixed per hectare, per year with
the lowest rotation period [3]. Guadua is widely used for
construction and the utilization of round culms for one and
two storey buildings have been standardized under
building codes in countries such as Colombia and Peru.
Engineered bamboo and Guadua products such as glue
laminated beams and cross laminated panels are also under
1
Hector Fabio Archila-Santos, Department of Architecture and
Civil Engineering, University of Bath, BA2 7AY, Bath, United
Kingdom. Email: H.F.Archila.Santos@bath.ac.uk
2
Caori Patricia Takeuchi-Tam, Universidad Nacional de
Colombia, Avenida Carrera 30 N° 45-03 Edificio 453 (Aulas de
Ingeniería) Of. 406-301, Bogotá D.C., Colombia.
E-mail: cptakeuchit@unal.edu.co
3 products manufactured by mixing DG with polymers and
David Jorge Alexander Trujillo, Civil Engineering, Architecture
and Building (CAB) Faculty of Engineering and Computing,
Coventry University, Priory Street, CV1 5FB, Coventry, United
Kingdom. Email: David.Trujillo@coventry.ac.uk
either during traditional construction with round culms or
manufacturing of engineered Guadua products with
rectangular strips, about 40% of the material is discarded
due to natural defects and irregularities in diameter,
thickness or length [4]. When possible part of the
remaining material is used to power furnaces, but usually it
becomes waste. Therefore, Guadua features such as its
high fibre content and high tensile strength are not fully
exploited.
A research project at the National University of Colombia
(Universidad Nacional de Colombia) explored different
alternatives for converting the discarded Guadua material
(DG) into by-products with improved characteristics.
Composite materials techniques were used to exploit
Guadua’s fibrous content which mixed with bonding
agents provided embedment and protection against weather
and bio-deterioration, humidity and insects attack. The
project explored different alternatives for combining DG
with synthetic resins (polyester resin and epoxy resins),
polystyrene, polyurethane, and latex trough different
manufacturing processes. Flat sheets were developed and
physical and mechanical properties of some of them were
characterized.
Overall, the research project showcased a range of by-
assessed its performance. The project focused on a holistic
approach to the use and manufacture of bamboo products
as wood substitutes.

81
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS

2 EXPERIMENTAL WORK 3 CONCLUSIONS

The composite materials developed were labelled as
Plastiguadua followed by a letter that indicates the process
used for the configuration of the composite. Although, a
wide range of composites were developed, just two were
used for testing. Plastiguadua L is a fibre reinforced
laminate that used veneer-like fibres embedded on
polyester resin. Plastiguadua P used short fibre bundles
mixed with polyester resin. Both were manufactured as flat
sheets to facilitate the production of testing samples.
Although the absorption of moisture by the fibres is
minimized in the composite by polymer encapsulation [5],
chemical modification with NaOH (sodium hydroxide)
was undertaken to reduce moisture uptake.
Samples were cured at room temperature for a period of 20
days and conditioned prior to test at 27o C ± 2o C and 70 ±
5 % relative humidity in a conditioning room. NTC and
ASTM standards were used for the assessment of the
mechanical and physical properties of both Plastiguadua L
and P.
Table 1: Mechanical and physical testing programme.
Test Samples
Plastiguadua P
Bending (two point)
Plastiguadua L
Plastiguadua P
Tensile
Plastiguadua L
Plastiguadua P
Izod-impact
Plastiguadua L
Plastiguadua P
Rockwell hardness
Plastiguadua L
Raw material and
UV and condensation
Plastiguadua L and P
Water absortion Plastiguadua P
Table 1 list the test undertaken on each of the samples and
Figure 1 shows bending samples after testing.
Figure 1: Two point bending test samples.
The versatility of the material was demonstrated
throughout the development of multiple Guadua
composites (Plastiguadua). Material that usually is
considered waste product was converted into by-products
with improved physical and mechanical properties.
However, high energy was embedded on the extraction of
fibre bundles and veneers for manufacturing Plastiguadua
P and L, respectively. Furthermore, particularly high
amounts of polymer resins were used due to the
complicated manoeuvrability of the coarse extracted fibres.
Thus, further chemical processing will be required to
soften the fibre bundles and facilitate the impregnation of
the fibres with the resin.
It is also concluded that new ways of using the material
need to be investigated. More appropriated manufacturing
technologies with lower embodied energy that make a
more efficient use of the whole material are required if
Guadua is to become a mainstream and substitute product
to timber. Technologies such as acetylation, and
densification used on timber to modify the cell structure
and improve its physical and mechanical properties could
be applied to Guadua and bamboos in general. These can
contribute to tackle common issues associated with the use
of bamboo such as bio-deterioration, natural irregularity
and short life span.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The first author is grateful to Amphibia Group Ltd for
providing financial support to the research project and the
National University of Colombia (Universidad Nacional de
Colombia) where the project was set.
REFERENCES
[1] FAO-Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations. Global forest resources assessment 2010,
Country report, China, Rome, Italy, 2010.
[2] Y. Lou, Y. Li, K. Buckingham, H. Giles, G. Zhou,
Bamboo and Climate Change Mitigation Bamboo: a
comparative analysis of carbon sequestration.
Technical Report No. 32. INBAR, China, 2010.
[3] H. F. Archila- Santos, M. P. Ansell, P. Walker, Low
carbon construction using Guadua Bamboo in
Colombia. Key Engineering Materials, 517, 127, 2012
[4] H. F. Archila- Santos, M. P. Ansell, P. Walker, Elastic
properties of thermo-hydro-mechanically modified
bamboo (Guadua angustifolia Kunth) measured in
tension. Accepted to Key Engineering Materials,
2013.
[5] R. M. Rowell, A.R. Sanadi, D.F. Caulfield, and R.E.
Jacobson. Utilization of Natural Fibers in Plastic
Composites: Problems and opportunities.
Lignocellulosic - Plastics Composites. University of
Wisconsin, Madison, E.U., 1997.

82
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS

INFLUENCE OF MICRO STRUCTURED SURFACE ON THE

BOND QUALITY OF HARDWOOD

Martin Lehmann1, Thomas Volkmer2

ABSTRACT: The state of the art requires a closed waiting time of about one hour for the beech glulam production. This
has a negative influence on the production costs. Micro structured surfaces showed good performance in combination with
coatings. The authors have performed tension-shear and delaminating test in order to investigate the influence of micro
structured surfaces on the bond quality of hardwoods. The results are very promising and show clearly improved delaminat-
ing resistance for all tested adhesive. No closed waiting time was needed to achieve satisfying results using MUF in combi-
nation with beech.

KEYWORDS: hardwood glulam, micro structured, bond quality, planing

1 INTRODUCTION 12 investigate the relationship between important surface

In central Europe especially in Switzerland spruce timber
(Picea Abies) is a limited resource and due to the fact that
in non-alpine region hardwoods are native the availability
of beech timber (Fagus Silvatica) increases dramatically
on the marked. Currently beech wood is only rarely used
for structural proposes. This is mainly due to the low bio-
logical resistance, the low dimensional stability and the
difficulty to produce adhesively bonded timber products
such as glulam or CLT. This is mainly due to bond quality
issues. However its mechanical properties are superior to
many other species. Furthermore its recourses are not used
efficiently and a large quantity is used as wood fuel.
The micro structuring of wood surfaces is not new, but so
far it was only applied in the field of hand craft to influ-
ence the roughness of wood surfaces (Lohmann 2003).
During the last decade a cutter block was developed to use
this method on an industrial scale (European patent EP
07405340, 30.11.2007) and at the moment this technology
is utilized for soft wood as a pre-treatment for coating.
Using this procedure the wood cells on the surface gets
less destroyed compared to the traditional planing and
sanding. This influence the sorption and wetting behaviour
and results in a better adhesion of the coating on the wood.
Based on this idea the presented research was started to
1
Martin Lehmann, Bern University of Applied Sciences, Archi-
tecture, Wood and Civil Engineering, Solothurnstrasse 102 CH-
2504 Biel, Email: martin.lehmann@bfh.ch
2
Thomas Volkmer, Bern University of Applied Sciences, Archi-
tecture, Wood and Civil Engineering, Solothurnstrasse 102 CH-
2504 Biel, Email: thomas.volkmer@bfh.ch
parameters on the adhesion strength between glued hard-
woods.
2 STATE OF THE ART
Schmid et al. [1] presented a bonding process based on
MUF adhesive and a closed waiting time of about 1 hour
for structural glulam. The long closed waiting time is nec-
essary to achieve satisfying results in the delaminating
tests following the high temperature process as stated in
EN 302-2. Based on the research carried out by the “Karls-
ruher Institut für Technologie” and “Holzforschung Mün-
chen” an approval for the German construction marked
was issued in 2009. The approval recommends the use of
EN 391 process C as production control and therefore
limits the use of beech glulam to climate class I which
means indoor applications only. A few other hardwood
species such as oak (Querkus) and chestnut (Castanea) did
also get an approval lately. However even the use of glu-
lam produced using such durable specis is limited to cli-
mate class I. In Switzerland ash (Fraxinus excelsior) is
used to produce high strength glulam up to the class GL48.
However no research is published about the process pa-
rameter. The producer undertook quite a comprehensive
study on the production parameter in order to achieve the
needed strength. However the results are not published and
classified as industrial secret.
3 MATERIAL AND METHODS
In a first phase of the research three different species,
beech (fagus sylvatica), ash (fraxinus exscesior) and spruce
(picea abies) were tested with standard planed surface and

83
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS
planed using the knew knife resulting in a micro structured
surface. Furthermore three adhesive types melamine urea
formaldehyde (MUF), one component polyurethane (PUR)
and emulsions polymer isycionate (EPI) were investigated.
All three adhesives are classified as adhesive for structural
purposes along EN 301 and can be used for glulam produc-
tion using spruce. In this phase tension shear tests along
EN 302-1 were carried out. Due to the production facilities
for micro structured surfaces the thickness of the boards
used for the specimens production was 20 mm instead of 5
mm. Numerous microscopic investigations were undertak-
en in order to classify the micro structured surface and
compare it with a standard planed surface. Finally the
wettability of the different surfaces was investigated using
contact angle measurements. In this phase always both
surfaces of the adhesive line were micro structured.
In a second phase delaminating tests following the EN
302-2 standard were carried out. Again due to the produc-
tion facilities the dimension of the single lamella had to be
altered to 20mm by 70mm. Considering the literature a
positive influence on the results can be expected. However
in order to ensure comparability control specimen using
lamellas with the same dimension and ordinary planed
surfaces were produced and tested. In this phase only
beech was used. Two different adhesives types (PUR and
MUF) were investigated. Adhesive lines with both surfaces
micro structured and such with only one surface micro
structured and one planed using standard knives were test-
ed. The closed opening time was varied for the MUF in
order to investigate the influence and clarify if the micro
structured surface allows avoiding the closed waiting time
and therefore a more economical production of beech glu-
lam.
4 RESULTS
The analyses of the micro structured surface using micro-
scopes showed that the structure has a depth of about 40
µm which is more or less the thickness of a human hair.
The tension-shear tests results do not show a significant
influence of the micro structured surface on the maximal
shear stress. In addition to the failure stress the location of
the failure was also analysed. It was distinguished between
three different failure locus: Adhesive failure, timber fail-
ure and mixed failure. Within the specimens produced
using MUF only one adhesive failure did occur in the se-
ries beech control. Otherwise the micro structured surface
seems to have no significant influence on the location of
the failure. For the series produced using EPI a clear ten-
dency towards higher mixed failure is visible for the hard-
wood specimens with micro structured surface. For the
beech specimens produced using PUR a significant influ-
ence of the micro structured surface on the failure location
could be detected. 85% of the control specimens failed due
to adhesive failure. No adhesive failure did occur with in
the specimens with micro structured surfaces and 76.5%
had timber failure.
84
Figure 1: Overview of the tension-shear test results of
the series produced using PUR adhesive
The results of the delaminating tests clearly show a posi-
tive influence of the micro structured surface on the bond
quality of all tested adhesive types. The best performance
was achieved for MUF if only one of the two surfaces was
micro structured. Most specimens of these series had no to
only little delamination and passed the requirements of EN
301 without any problems. However the series with a long
closed waiting time did fail if the high temperature process
was applied. The control specimens with MUF showed a
negative influence of a closed waiting time on the perfor-
mance. The same tendency was detected for the specimens
with micro structured surfaces. For PUR the delamination
was significantly reduced with micro structured surfaces.
The best results were achieved if both surfaces were micro
structured. However the percentage was still fare above of
the requirements.
5 CONCLUSIONS
The results clearly show that a micro structured surface has
positive influence on the bond quality of beech. If only one
of the two surfaces is micro structured and MUF adhesive
is used it seams that no closed waiting time is needed in
order to pass the requirements of the delaminating test. For
PUR it seems that the micro structured surface is not
enough to avoid the use of a primer in combination with
hardwoods. As this was only a primary study the results
have to be confirmed with larger series.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors like to acknowledge the engineering students,
B. Favre, M. Föhn, T Mathis and S. Rittmann for their
contribution to the research in the frame of student pro-
jects. Furthermore the authors acknowledge Kälin und Co
AG for the support and the free delivery of the timber.
REFERENCES
[1] M. Schmidt, P. Glos and G Wegener: Verklebung
von Buchenholz für tragende Holzbauteile. Eur. J.
Wood Prod., 68:43–57, 2010
[2] U. Lohmann: Holzlexikon, DRW Verlag, 2003
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS

PROPERTIES OF STRENGTH AND ELASTICITY OF

STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS OF ROUND TIMBER OF AMARU
FOR USE IN CIVIL CONSTRUCTION

Felipe Hideyoshi Icimoto1, Amós Magalhães de Souza2, Caio Victor Fernandes3,

Fabiane Salles Ferro4 Carlito Calil Júnior5

ABSTRACT: The use of timber structural elements in Brazil has grown over the past few years due to researches
conducted in order to make it more competitive compared to other materials used in structural function, such as steel and
concrete. Considering the need to find alternative economically-viable materials that meet the requirements of sustainable
construction, the constructions with round timber, used in civil construction, rural buildings, bridges, pedestrian bridges,
fendering and electricity transmission line poles appear as an option to this major challenge to reconcile aspects of social,
economic and environmental. The strength of round timber, its low weight, low power consumption for processing, its
availability and easiness in handling make it become a material highly competitive and sustainable. This study aims to
determine the properties of strength and elasticity in bending, compression parallel to grain, tension parallel to grain, shear,
moisture and density in round timber structural elements of the clone of Eucalyptus called AMARU developed by a
Brazilian company, based in the recent review of the Brazilian Standard of the timber in force NBR7190/1997 - Design of
timber structures – that proposes the methodology of mechanical tests of structural elements. The values obtained are the
basis for engineers and architects to design structures using AMARU wood specie.

KEYWORDS: Round timber, Eucalyptus Amaru species, Mechanical properties, reforestation species, Eucalyptus sp.

1 INTRODUCTION 123 processing, its availability and easiness in handling make it

The use of timber structural elements in Brazil has grown
over the past few years due to researches conducted in
order to make it more competitive compared to other
materials used in structural function, such as steel and
concrete. In 2011, the area occupied by planted Eucalyptus
and Pinus in Brazil was 6,515,844 ha, being 75%
Eucalyptus and 25% Pinus [1]. Considering the need to
find alternative economically-viable materials that meet
the requirements of sustainable construction, the
constructions with round timber, used in civil construction,
rural buildings, bridges, pedestrian bridges, fendering and
electricity transmission line poles appear as an option to
this major challenge to reconcile aspects of social,
economic and environmental. The strength of round
timber, its low weight, low power consumption for
1
Felipe Hideyoshi Icimoto, University of São Paulo, Av.
Trabalhador São Carlense 400, São Carlos, São Paulo, Brasil
Email:icimoto@usp.br
2
Amós Magalhães de Souza, University of São Paulo, Brasil
3
Caio Victor Fernandes, Paulista State University, Brasil
4 of 40 units of Eucalyptus clone with dimensions of
Fabiane Salles Ferro, University of São Paulo, Brasil
5
Carlito Calil Júnior, University of São Paulo, Brasil
become a material highly competitive and sustainable [2].
Considering the growing demand of this product, the
Brazilian company Plantar developed a Eucalyptus clone
named AMARU, aiming the building industry,
agribusiness, landscaping, furniture and high decoration,
with characteristics of low incidence of fractures, low
tortuosity and high mechanical strength [3]. The recent
review of the Brazilian Standard of the timber in force
NBR7190/1997 - Design of timber structures - proposes
the methodology of mechanical tests of structural elements
[4]. This study aims to determine the properties of strength
and elasticity in bending, compression parallel to grain,
tension parallel to grain, shear, moisture and density in
round timber structural elements of the clone of Eucalyptus
named AMARU developed by a Brazilian company, based
in the new standard with the purpose of proposing the
values of the features of this specie for calculating timber
structures using this material.
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
The experimental program consists of the characterization
diameter 130 mm and length 2500 mm. The mechanical

85
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS

tests were based on the test method for visual and Department, School of Engineering of São Carlos. (in
mechanical grading for timber structural elements Portuguese).
proposed for the NBR 7190/2012 – Design of timber [3] PLANTAR GROUP (Brazil). Produtos Florestais
structures. The moisture and density tests were based in (amaru). Available in:
NBR7190/1997 – Design of timber structures. <http://www.plantar.com.br/negocios/produtos-
florestais/?&lang=pt>. Access in: 01 jun 2013. (in
Portuguese).
3 RESULTS [4] BRAZILIAN STANDARD TECHNICAL
The table 1 shows the average results obtained for the ASSOCIATION. (1997). NBR7190/1997 – Design of
properties of strength and stiffness in bending (MOR e timber structures. Rio de Janeiro. (in Portuguese).
MOE),strength and stiffness in the compression parallel [5] BRAZILIAN STANDARD TECHNICAL
the grain (fc0 e Ec0), shear strength (fv), moisture (%), ASSOCIATION. (draft 2012). NBR7190/2012 –
density (ρ) and number of samples (S). Design of timber structures. Rio de Janeiro. (in
Portuguese).
Table 1: Physical and mechanical properties of AMARU.
Standard CV
Properties Average S
deviation (%)
ρap (kg/m³) 770 39 5 40
MOE 11565 1603 14 40
Ec0 17931 9854 55 40
MOR (MPa) 68 12 17 57
fc0 34 5 14 57
fv 6 2 35 65

4 CONCLUSIONS
Aiming the utilization of renewable materials from an
environmental perspective, the initiative of Plantar
company is very well regarded and of great value to the
future of wood in construction. The use of round timber
that consumes less energy in its production compared with
sawn wood brings guarantee of the species at the purchase.
Planting a clone brings homogeneity and reliability for use
of this species. The values are the basis for engineers and
architects to design structures using AMARU wood specie.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors express their gratitude to CNPq for providing
scholarship, the Interdisciplinary Program of Science and
Materials Engineering and the Laboratory of Wood and
Wooden Structures USP São Carlos that made possible the
development of this study.

REFERENCES
[1] BRAZILIAN ASSOCIATION OF PRODUCERS OF
PLANTED FORESTS. (2012) Statistical Yearbook of
ABRAF 2012 year base 2011. Brasilia: STCP Design
Engineering. (in Portuguese).
[2] CALIL JUNIOR, C.; BRITO, L. D. (2010). Manual of
design and construction with round timber of wood of
reforestation. 1.ed. São Carlos: Structures Engineering

86
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS

X-RAY CT TECHNIQUE FOR INVESTIGATING INNER DENSITY

DISTRIBUTION OF HISTORIC WOODEN PROPERTIES

Chul-Ki Kim1, Jung-Kwon Oh2, HyungKun Kim3, Jun-Jae Lee4

ABSTRACT: For investigating inner density distribution of historic wooden properties, portable x-ray apparatus were used
to reconstruct density CT image. Soft x-ray from portable x-ray apparatus was also used to apply in the site of a historic
wooden members. From the results of soft x-ray attenuation characteristic, of which mass attenuation coefficient decreased
as penetrating depth in wood increased, normal radiographs were convert to density radiographs. And it was confirmed that
accuracy of density CT image using converted density radiographs was improved when estimated density from the density
CT image was compared with real air-dry density. The root mean squared error (RMSE) for an entire small specimens
which were made to know real air-dry density of a round timber was 41 kg/m3. And the RMSE for the midsection, exterior
of the round timber was 12, 54 kg/m3, respectively.

KEYWORDS: Mass attenuation coefficient, portable x-ray apparatus, Soft x-ray, Attenuation, Density x-ray CT image

1 INTRODUCTION 123 ray attenuation in wood have been done for several
decades. However, the behavior of attenuation for soft x-
Historic wooden properties which had been deteriorated by ray is different from hard x-ray which had been used
wood-ratting, termite, ultraviolet ray and moisture became previous study. Attenuation of soft x-ray is governed by
social problem in Korea. Because not only historic value penetrating depth of object as well as its density, because
but their structural stability could be destroyed by soft x-ray from portable apparatus is continuous
deterioration which was developed surface or inner part of wavelength x-ray. The longer wavelength part tends to be
wood. attenuated by scattering rather than absorption, and in
Non-destructive testing and evaluation using acoustics has thinker object, attenuation is more likely to be affected by
been attempted to investigate inner state of wood. scattering.
Although they could be detected successfully a size of
deterioration or location of that, those acoustic techniques
are not enough to investigate wooden properties. Because
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
those techniques could be damaged to generate stress wave 2.1 MATERIALS
or ultrasonic at historical wooden properties.
From the reason, soft x-ray for CT image was used to Two sets of specimens were prepared in this study; the first
investigate inner state of wood in this study. Compared set was for determination of mass attenuation coefficient,
and the second set was for validation of reconstructed CT
with those acoustic techniques, x-ray has higher resolution
image. 4 clear wood species (cedar, larch, pitch pine and
and it has advantage with contactless way when evaluating
red pine) were prepared for the first set, and Table 1 shows
inner state of wood. Moreover, it could be investigated
the size, density and moisture content. The species for the
inner density distribution of historic wooden member.
To evaluate inner state of wood, behavior of attenuation second set was pitch pine round wood, and its air-dry
for soft x-ray according to penetrating depth in wood and density and moisture content were 430 kg/m3 and 12 %,
respectively.
verification of CT image for inner density distribution was
also presented. To verify wood density, researches about x- Table 1: Details of clear wood for soft x-ray attenuation
1 Chul-Ki Kim, Seoul National University, 599 Gwanak-ro, Size (mm) Density (kg/m3) MC
Species
Gwanak-gu, Seoul, Korea. Email: aries8924@hanmail.net T R L Aver. S.D. (%)
2 Jung-Kwon Oh, Research Institute for Agriculture and Life
Cedar 31.51 33.37 328.07 40.66
Sciences, Seoul National University, Korea Larch 32.87 38.58 460.93 74.70
3 HyungKun Kim, Seoul National University, Korea 80.00 12
4 Jun-Jae Lee, Research Institute for Agriculture and Life
Pitch pine 31.50 33.58 505.11 26.63
Sciences, Seoul National University, Korea
Red pine 32.90 39.95 410.11 37.13

87
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS

Portable x-ray apparatus with x-ray tube (K-4) and digital coefficient decreased as penetrating depth in wood
detector (NX 06) were used to determine of mass increased, as shown in Figure 2. It means that quantity of
attenuation coefficient and to reconstruct CT image. Those transmitted soft x-ray increased as penetrating depth in
portable x-ray apparatus were set up at CT installation wood increased. From these results, it thought that it is
which have been made for laboratory scale test. necessary to make the equation of mass attenuation
coefficient according to penetrating depth in wood
2.2 METHODS
as   0.214ln(t )  0.7251 . The coefficient of determination
Based on an experience of inspection on heritage building, (R2) of the equation was 0.98.
the intensity of soft x-ray was chosen as 37 kV and 2 mA.
Digital detector was exposed to radiation during 5 seconds.
2.2.1 Mass attenuation coefficient with penetrating
depth
As penetrating depth of clear wood was changed,
transmitted intensity of soft x-ray was measured to find
characteristic attenuation. It was reported that the intensity
of transmitted x-ray decreases exponentially according to
Beer’s law. Although soft x-ray which was used in this
study has continuous wavelength distribution, Beer’s law
was used to derive mass attenuation coefficient of soft x-
ray. Figure 2: Mass attenuation coefficient according to
penetrating depth
2.2.2 Reconstruction of density CT image and
verification of its accuracy 3.2 VERIFICATION OF DENSITY CT IMAGE
To reconstruct CT image, 180 radiographs were taken as ACCURACY
round wood were turned every 2 degrees on the CT
installation. Using the mass attenuation coefficient Two kinds of density CT image were reconstructed as
according to penetrating depth in round wood, 180 shown in Figure 1b and c. In density CT image using
radiographs were converted into density radiographs. After constant mass attenuation coefficient, air-dry density in
that, density CT image was reconstructed by filtered back midsection of specimen was underestimated while the
projection (FBP) algorithm using 180 density radiographs. density of exterior parts was overestimated. In case of
The round wood was cut into disk with 24 mm height. As using the equation of mass attenuation coefficient, RMSE
shown in Figure 1a, the disk was cut into 30 small for estimating air-dry density was 41 kg/m3. This value
specimens once again to measure air-dry density by was much smaller than using constant mass attenuation
dimension method. Estimated values of density in coefficient. It also confirmed that Figure 3 shows.
reconstructed CT image were compared with air-dry
density of 30 small specimens to verify accuracy of CT
image.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1: Location of small specimens measured by
dimension method in top of disk (a) and reconstructed
density CT image using constant mass attenuation
coefficient (0.1844) (b) and equation of mass attenuation
coefficient (c)
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 CHARACTERISTIC ABSORPTION OF SOFT
X-RAY
Mass attenuation coefficient for the whole penetrating
depth was 0.1844, but it seemed that mass attenuation
Figure 3: Comparison between air-dry density and
estimated value in each density CT image
4 CONCLUSION
The present study aimed at investigating the effects
penetrating depth on attenuation of soft x-ray to
reconstruct density CT image and apply x-ray CT
technique in field. Although digital detector couldn’t
measure attenuation of soft x-ray passing short penetrating
depth in exterior part of specimen, the CT technique using
soft x-ray could be further developed to be used in field.

88
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS

PROPERTIES OF CLEAR WOOD AND STRUCTURAL TIMBER

OF PSEUDOTSUGA MENZIESII FROM THE
MEDITERRANEAN SPAIN

Eduard Correal-Mòdol1, Marcel Vilches Casals2

ABSTRACT: Douglas fir is originary from the western coast of North America and provides an excellent structural timber.
This is the main reason why it has been spread worldwide. Some plantations were introduced in North-Eastern Spain. This
study characterizes the properties of the clear wood and the timber of this new provenance with Mediterranean climate. The
tests were done according the standards series UNE 56 and the UNE-EN 14081-1:2006+A1:2011. The clear wood has no
significantly different properties from other provenances. The visually graded timber according the Spanish standard for
coniferous reaches C30 when ME-1, C22 if ME-2 and C27 when is graded as MEG.

KEYWORDS: Pseudotsuga menziesii, Clear wood, Structural timber, Wood properties characterization, Strength class

1 INTRODUCTION 123
Pseudotsuga menziesii is a conifer of the family pinaceae
which is commonly known as Douglas fir, Oregon pine, or
Douglas spruce. Native specie from North America its
original distribution is concentrated along the west coast of
the continent from Canada to Mexico and also in the States
of New York and western Pennsylvania. Nowadays it is
found worldwide in countries with humid and fresh
climates: Great Britain, France, Germany, Belgium, the
Netherlands, Italy, Portugal, Spain, Romania, New
Zealand, eastern Australia and Chile among others. It Is
expected that the expansion will continue. The reasons are
the high productivity of the species and the good quality of
the timber (Kleinschmit & Bastien, 1992). In Catalonia the
distribution of Douglas fir is concentrated in the mountains
with humid and fresh climate of the Montseny and
Guilleries . Usually it is found in private woods where the
species has been introduced to improve the performance
and quality of the local timbers.
The Douglas fir is little durable and little permeable, but is
dimensionally stable, has a high bending and compression
strength, is very stiff, and has a medium resistance to
shock loads. It is the main world source of wood for
plywood and is used to produce veneers, decorative panels
and plywood. Beams with large section are used in heavy
construction, as well as interior and exterior carpentry,
edge-glued panels, work bays and harbours, marine pillars,
ships, mining, railway sleepers, boots, packaging and pulp.
On the UNE-EN 1912:2012 (AENOR, 2012) the Douglas
fir timber has been assigned a wide range of strength
classes among C14 and C35 depending on the grading
criteria applied. The goal of this study is to characterize the
physical, mechanical and structural properties of the
Douglas fir that are grown in the Mediterranean area of
Spain according to the Spanish standards.

1 2 MATERIALS AND METHODS

Eduard Correal Mòdol, Wood Catalan Institute (INCAFUST),
H2 PCiTAL, Lleida. Spain. The timber was from the Montseny Massif, a mountain of
Email: eduard.correal@incafust.org 1712 m high located at 60 km at the north from Barcelona
2
Marcel Vilches Casals, Wood Catalan Institute (INCAFUST), that is part of the Catalan Pre-Coastal Range. The annual
H2 PCiTAL, Lleida. Spain.
growth goes from 3 to 10 mm/year with an average near to
Email: marcel.vilches@incafust.org
6 mm/year. The annual growth of the trees was sometimes

89
TRACK 1: MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS

irregular and varies from 3 to 10 mm/year with an average Table 2: Physical and mechanical clear wood properties
by 6 mm/year.
Property x Sn-1 P5
Density (kg/m3) 524.79 49.86 446.05
Shrinkage (%) 8.63 1.94 5.40
The material was characterized at two scales so to make a
Shrinkage coefficient (%) 0.34 0.06 0.23
comprehensive study: clear wood and structural timber.
Higroscopicity (kg/m3) 0.0035 0.0004 0.0029
Clear wood test samples were made according to UNE
Hardness (mm-1) 3.96 0.99 2.50
56528:1978 (AENOR, 1978) and afterwards conditioned at
Axial compressive strength
20ºC and 65% of relative air humidity until they reached 480.51 65.77 361.95
(kg/cm2)
12% of moisture content. The properties analyzed are
Bending strength (kg/cm2) 912.51 169.23 619.43
described in the Table 1.

Table 3: MOR, MOE and density for visual graded timber

Table 1: Clear wood properties studied
Property ME-1 ME-2 MEG
Clear wood Test samples Beams tested 115 128 133
UNE norms
properties mm n x 63.14 43.49 56.84
MOR
Density 56531:1977 20×20×30 75 2 Sn-1 13.40 11.88 15.66
(N/mm )
Shrinkage 56533:1977 20×20×40 75 P5 42.34 28.90 35.02
Hygroscopicity 56532:1977 20×20×40 75 x 12,011.85 10,342.38 11,647.75
Hardness 56534:1977 20×20×40 75 MOE
2 Sn-1 1,909.70 1,982.65 2,130.16
(N/mm )
Compression strength 56535:1977 20×20×60 75 P5 9,009.57 7,046.48 8,408.34
Bending strength 56537:1979 20×20×300 75 x 505.65 473.28 502.28
Density
S 35.97 32.03 50.18
(kg/m3) n-1

500 beams were tested. In the Spanish visual grading P5 448.27 421.15 423.87
standards for coniferous timber, the beams are classified
whether their thickness is greater or less than 70 mm. The
Table 4: Characteristic values according to UNE-EN
first batch had 300 test samples of 50×100×2000 mm and 384:2010
was graded according to the ME-1 and the ME-2 criteria of
the UNE 56544:2011. The second and the third batch had Property ME-1 ME-2 MEG
100 beams each, their sections were 75×120×2500 mm and MOR (N/mm2) 33.46 23.12 29.02
75×100×2000 mm, and they were classified following the MOE (N/mm2) 12,925.40 10,755.09 12,452.08
MEG criteria. Density (kg/m3) 448.27 421.15 427.08
Strength class C30 C22 C27

The bending tests were done according to UNE-EN

408:2011. The experiment design and the characteristic
values calculation followed the norm UNE-EN 384:2010.
The strength class was assigned in agreement of the UNE-
EN 338:2010 standard.
3 RESULTS
The results are shown below both for clear wood (Table 2)
and the structural timber (Tables 3 and 4). The clear wood
of the Spanish Mediterranean area showed average values
on density and bending strength, low values on shrinkage
and compression strength, and average high figures on the
hardness.
In the 300 beams batch 57 samples were rejected. In the
batch with beams of 2500 mm length 39 out of 100 were
not suitable for MEG quality. In the other batch of 100
beams only 28 beams were discarded.
4 CONCLUSIONS
The properties of the clear wood of the Douglas fir grown
in el Montseny are not significantly different to other
provenances. The structural timber classified according to
the UNE 56544:2011 has low rejection moreover the
strength modulus (MOR) is balanced with the stiffness
(MOE) and the density. ME-1 is assigned C30, ME-2 C22,
and MEG C27.
REFERENCES
[1] AENOR: UNE 56540:1978. Madrid, 1978.
[2] AENOR: UNE 56544:2007. Madrid, 2007.
[3] AENOR: UNE-EN 14081-1:2006+A1. Madrid, 2006.
[4] AENOR: UNE-EN 338:2010. Madrid, 2010.
[5] AENOR: UNE-EN 384:2010. Madrid, 2010.
[6] AENOR: UNE-EN 408:2011+A1 2012. Madrid, 2011.
[7] Kleinschmit, J.; Bastien, J. Ch.: IUFRO’s role in
Douglas-Fir (Pseudotsuga Menziesii ) Franco tree
improvement. Silvae genetica, 41(3): 161-173, 1992.

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TRACK 2: CONNECTIONS

MODELLING THE EFFECT OF GRAIN ORIENTATION ON

THE LAG SCREW WITHDRAWAL LOAD FOR TROPICAL
HARDWOODS

Cláudio H. S. Del Menezzi1, Henrique P. Farias2, Milton L. Siqueira3

ABSTRACT: This paper aimed at studying the effect of the wood grain orientation on the lag screw withdrawal loading for
two heavy tropical hardwoods: Dipteryx odorata (cumaru) and Pouteria oblanceolata (tuturubá). Five wood grain angles
(0º, 22.5º, 45º, 67.5º and 90º) were studied and the experimental results were modelled according to four well-known
equations: Hankinson, Karlsen, Keylwerth and Sine. It was found that load capacity was consistently reduced from
perpendicular (90º) to parallel (0º) to the grain. The exponents η varied from 1.81 to 1.89 (Hankinson), 1.40-1.58 (Karlsen),
2.15-2.35 (Sine) and 2.15-2.36 (Keylwerth). It was found that Hankinson equation led to the lowest difference between
predicted and observed values for both hardwoods, followed by Karlsen´s and Keylwerth´s equation, while Sine equation
did not present reliable results. Additionally, it was found that experimental values were consistently higher than those
obtained through Hankinson model, which was considered an advantage in the point of view of the structural safety.

KEYWORDS: Dipteryx odorata, Hankinson equation, Lag screw, Pouteria oblanceolata.

1 INTRODUCTION 123
The effect grain orientation on strength of wood is
relatively well studied. It is known that mechanical
properties are significantly affected by the grain
orientation and usually there is a reduction of strength
values from parallel (0º grain angle) to perpendicular
direction (90º). The most common equation to describe this
behaviour is the Hankinson equation, proposed almost one
century ago. Nevertheless, there are other equations that
have been proposed, for instance Karlsen and Keylwerth.
The utilization of screws as connectors in a wood structure
is quite common since there are several types, dimensions
and functional abilities. Lag screw is a type of mechanical
fastening which can be used where is not possible or is
even undesirable goes through the full width of the wood
member [1]. An example of this situation is the connection
between top and bottom chords of the first node of a Howe
truss. When using this type of connector, a key factor to be
known is the perpendicular withdrawal load, which is
primarily affected by screw diameter, screw threaded
length and wood density, as can be seen in the equation
presented by [2-3].
1
Cláudio Del Menezzi, Dept. Forest Engineering, University of
Brasília, Brazil. Email: cmenezzi@unb.br
2
Henrique Farias, Dept. Forest Engineering, University of
Brasília, Brazil
3
Milton Siqueira, Dept. Mechanical Engineering, University of
Brasília, Brazil.
In the above mentioned example, firstly the lag screw
penetrates perpendicularly the top chord and then
obliquely the bottom chord. In this situation the critical
issue is to know the load required to withdrawal the lag
screw in the bottom chord. In this context, the paper aimed
at modelling the effect of slope of grain on the withdrawal
load of lag screws in two tropical hardwoods.
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
Lumber material from Dipteryx odorata (cumarú; ρ: 1014
kg/m3) and Pouteria oblanceolata (tuturubá; ρ: 935 kg/m3)
were obtained in a local trade company and small samples
were taken to be anatomically identified. Afterwards, 35
specimens measuring 51 mm x 110 mm x 10 mm (width x
length x thickness) were cut for each species.
The mechanical test was conducted according to [4]
procedures to determine the maximum screw withdrawal
load. The steel lag screw presented the following
characteristics: 9.5 mm diameter, 100 mm length and 56
mm threaded length. A 7.6mm-diameter hole was pre-
drilled before the insertion of the lag screw. For both
species, five slopes of grain were tested: 90º
(perpendicular), 67.5º, 45º, 22.5º and 0º (parallel) and for
each one 7 specimens were tested, totalizing 70 specimens.
The observed values were employed to determine the
exponents η of the equations 1, 2, 3 and 4, which are
known as Hankinson´s equation, Karlsen´s, Keylwerth´s
and Sine [5], respectively.

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TRACK 2: CONNECTIONS

The exponent for Keylwerth´s equation was also primarily

f w0 º f w90 º
f wθ = (1) proposed as being 2, and the results found here are slightly
f w0 º Sen θ + f w90 º Cosηθ
η higher. Contrarily, the exponents found for Karlsen´s
equation were significantly lower than that proposed: η=3.
It is also clear that for both wood species that the
f w0 º
f wθ = confidence interval (CI) range and the standard error (SE)
⎛ f w0 º ⎞ (2) of the exponents are much lower for Hankinson´s in
1 + ⎜⎜ − 1⎟⎟ Senηθ comparison with the two other equations. The mean value
⎝ f w90 º ⎠
of coefficient of determination (R2) was also higher for
Hankinson´s equation.
f w0 º
f wθ =
⎛ f ⎞ f (3) 26000
⎜⎜ Cosηθ − w0 º Senηθ ⎟⎟Cos 2θ + w0 º Senη 2θ Experimental
⎝ f w 90 º ⎠ f w 45 º 24000 Hankinson
22000
f wθ = f w0 º − ( f w0 º − f w90 º ) Senηθ (4)

Load (N)
20000

where θ = angle, fw0 = screw withdrawal load at 0º, fw45 = 18000

screw withdrawal load at 45º, fw90 = screw withdrawal load 16000
f w0º ⋅ f w90º
at 90º. 14000 f wθ =
f w0º ⋅ Sen1.891θ + f w90º ⋅ Cos1.891θ
3 RESULTS 12000
0 22,5 45 67,5 90
Table 1 presents the maximum withdrawal load for both Angle θ
wood species according to the slope of grain. It can be seen
that contrarily from that found for others wood strength Figure 1: Variation of the screw withdrawal load according
properties, increasing values are observed from 0º to grain angle and the respective Hankinson equation fitted
(parallel) to 90º (perpendicular). for tuturubá wood.

Table 1: Mean value and standard deviation of the

withdrawal load (N) according to the grain orientation. Figure 1 shows graphically the data variation and expected
values according to the Hankinson´s equation. Most of the
Species 90º 67.5º 45º 22.5º 0º experimental data is above the line’s equation leading to a
Cumaru 24113 21995 17548 13055 13644 certain level underestimation, which is positive in the
(2.53) (7.93) (17.92) (4.97) (13.61) structural safety point of view.
Tuturubá 22659 21672 19625 20819 15894
(5.62) (3.67) (4.71) (8.56) (6.36) 4 CONCLUSIONS
The exponents η calculated for the models are presented in Four equations were studied and it was found that
Table 2. It can be seen that exponents for the Hankinson´s Hankinson´s equation best explained the data variation
using exponents close to 2. The results for Karlsen and
equations were quite close to that proposed (η=2) for both
Keylwerth´s equations were also significant, but the
wood species. Sine model did not present reliable data.
residues were higher. Sine equation did not yield a reliable
Table 2: η exponents parameters estimates for the models model.
and wood species tested.
REFERENCES
Model Parameter Cumaru Tuturubá
Hankinson η 1.812 1.891 [1] B. Madsen: Structural Behavior of Timer. Timber
95% CI η 1.694-1.931 1.825-1.957 Engineering Ltd New York, 1992.
SE 0.058 0.032 [2] Forest Products Laboratoty: Wood Handbook – Wood
R2 0.721 0.802 as Engineering Material USDA/FS, 2010.
Karlsen η 1.404 1.579 [3] T. E. McLain: Design axial withdrawal strength from
95% CI η 0.776-2.031 0.864-2.294 wood: I. wood screws and lag screws. For. Prod. J.,
SE 0.308 0.351 47(5): 77-84, 1997.
R2 0.748 0.735 [4] American Society for Testing and Materials: Standard
Keylwerth η 2.354 2.155 test methods for mechanical fasteners in wood. ASTM
95% CI η 1.381-3.328 1.224-3.086 D1761, 2006.
SE 0.479 0.457 [5] N. B. Logsdon, Z. Finger, J. M. H. Jesus: Influência
R2 0.752 0.737 do ângulo entre o esforço aplicado e a direção das
fibras da madeira sobre o módulo de elasticidade.
Sine η 2.362 2.155
Floresta, 40: 837-848, 2010.

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TRACK 2: CONNECTIONS

SELF TAPPING SCREWS WITHOUT PRE-DRILLING FOR

BRAZILIAN REFORESTATION SPECIES

Carlito Calil Neto1, Francisco Antonio Rocco Lahr2, Carlito Calil Junior3.

ABSTRACT: Wood is a renewable source of structural material with high relative strength/weight, low energy production,
which kidnaps and stores carbon in its production. The large use of wood is due to its special qualities as raw material for
other products manufactured in residential construction or major works such as bridges, has been widely used in roofing for
industrial and commercial buildings. Commercially there are limitations on the length of the wood, resulting from the
extraction of tree trunks, thus requiring the adoption of binding elements is the use of self-tapping screws efforts required by
side and which can be axial, shear, tensile or compression. Whereas in Brazil does not yet exist and the promising future of
the product, this paper aims to study the behavior of self-tapping screws together with Brazilian reforestation species of
Pinus Oocarpa, Lyptus (softwood and hardwood). Besides the technical and scientific literature in the area, performance
analysis will be carried out based on the normative documents: Brazilian Standard NBR 7190:1997; European EN 26891-
1983, EN 28970-1991 and EN 1995:2004; North American ASTM D1761-2006, ISO 261:1998, ISO 262:1998; Chilean
NCH 1198 to 2006 and the German DIN 1052:2004.

KEYWORDS: screw, self-tapping; pre drilling; structural.

1 INTRODUCTION 123
According to Negrão and Faria (2009), self-tapping screws
for wood or engineered wood products are manufactured in
a wide variety of types and sizes. The most common
structural applications are the hexagonal (coach screws or
lag screws) although they may also embed or round head.
Current uses are in fixing appliances indirect support
(joist-hangers), in conjunction with nails. The smooth
portion of the screw corresponds to approximately 40% of
its total length. Although they are produced in a variety of
materials, depending on the particular characteristics
desired, are more common in stainless steel or common
steel with zinc anti-corrosion. The hex screws are designed
specifically to structural applications with diameters
ranging from 8 mm to 20 mm and lengths up to 300 mm.
The rest are used to secure the secondary elements or non-
structural, reaching its diameter in the range of 4 to 8 mm.
Nominal diameter of the screw corresponds to the plain
defined by the shank or the outer edge of the thread.
1
Calil Neto, University of Sao Paulo, Brazil. Email:
netousp@gmail.com
2
Rocco Lahr, University of Sao Paulo, Brazil
3
Calil Junior, University of Sao Paulo, Brazil
Self-tapping screws are inserted into timber pieces by rotation
imposed by a screw or nut, depending on head shape.
One advantage of bolts in relation to nails is the connection
reversibility. The screws can be removed and reapplied, with
virtually no loss of resilience. There are several
classification standard screws, but are the ISO with higher
acceptance worldwide. ISO 261:1998 - ISO General Plan
numbers all the dimensions in the plan production for
general applications. ISO 262:1998 - "General purpose
metric screw threads - Selected sizes of screws, bolts and
nuts" sets, from the full range of dimensions, a subset of
production and specifications preferred. In addition to the
diameter, thread pitch is another parameter which
characterizes screw type. For some diameters, manufactures
provide screws with different pitch than normal.
2 OBJECTIVE
The main objective of this work is to establish the
proposed criteria of resistance and application of self-
tapping screws type without pre-drilling with reforestation
species Pinus oocarpa and Lyptus ® and thus create the
necessary support for their use based national assessments
proposed by national researchers, and the International
Codes: Brazilian NBR7190: 1997; European EN 26891-
1983, EN 28970-1991 and MS 1995:2004; American

93
TRACK 2: CONNECTIONS

ASTM D1761-2006, ISO 261:1998, ISO 262: 1998; For comparison will be also evaluated the bond strength
Chilean NCh 1198-2006 and German DIN 1052:2004 according to American and European standards which call
the bond strength as being, or rupture, or displacement
3 MAIN TEXT between elements of 15 mm, the lowest being adopted.
The torx type (tapping screws) self-tapping screws are To do this analysis two tests types with self-tapping
manufactured with slender stems, small diameter, large screws, screws inclined at 45 degrees and perpendiculars
and varying lengths for each diameter. Blass and second to the grain. Its going to be tested six specimens for each
Bejtka (2001), the maximum dimensions of these screws test, a total of 36 specimens of each species as represented
are found to diameter of 12 mm and length 600 mm. The
steel used in pins manufacture is high flow resistance and
breakage. They can be found total or partial threaded along
the length, and also for various types of spikes hurricane.
The screw model VGZ Rothoblaas Company is different
from other models screw tapping screw. This type of screw
is made of high strength steel and special waxing surface
to reduce friction during the screw which ensures more
efficient connections. Its own head screwdriver Torx
screwdriver is suitable for use for a better grip. At its tip
end has a fillet with fine tip, like a drill, not requiring pre
hurricane and also decreasing the rupture chips. This screw
is available in different lengths for the same diameter,
facilitating its use in fixing any structural element of wood.
Figure 2: Screw 45 / 90 degrees
Experimental research is a critical phase once allows direct
observation of the phenomena under study and is an 4 CONCLUSIONS
indispensable tool for the verification of all the theoretical
models used to represent a particular behaviour. Conclusions should briefly state the author’s viewpoint
over the problem and the most important propositions.
Study of physical model is therefore a necessary step for They can also include the perspectives for new
identifying the behaviour of systems in numerical analysis developments as well as for new applications from the
theory. This is of even greater significance in view of the results.
considerable anisotropy of wood structures of the material.
Experimental research conducted in this thesis aims REFERENCES
analyze a connection made with self-tapping screws, which [1] ROTHOBLASS 2012 , Corso fixing safe house,
ensures high rigidity and excellent ductility. This research Couso Progettazione Connessioni: Cortaccia, Italia.
was conducted by performing shear tests and seeking the 2012. 234p.
best available connectors. [2] ALBINO A. Indagine Sperimentale su elementi lignei
For the development of this work will be used: species a comportamento ultimo duttile o pseudoduttile.
from planted forests: Pinus oocarpa (conifer) and Lyptus Defesa de mestrado. Universita degli studi di Trento,
(hardwood) and two diameters self-tapping screws that 247p, 2004. Orientador Prof. Dr. Maurizio Piazza.
require no pre hurricane, commercial model VGZ 9 mm
and 11 mm (diameter) and 200 mm (length) of Rothoblaas.

Figure 1: Screw type

94
TRACK 2: CONNECTIONS

STUDY ON SINGLE SHEAR STRENGTH OF NAILED JOINTS

SUBJECTED TO GRAIN DIRECTION

Kiyotaka Terui 1, Yoshimitsu Ohashi2, Kohe Nomoto3, Osamu Sumioka4

ABSTRACT: To produce the equation for estimating the shear strength of the wooden horizontal diaphragm considering
the influence of the fibrous direction of the beams and plywood on nailed Joints, were collected data make single shear
tests of the nail joints. In the single-shear examination of the nail which made the fibrous direction of a beam or plywood
the parameter, it was able to be shown clearly that the single shear capacity of a nail has a difference by a fibrous direction.
It was possible to create a model of the multi-linear with the load-displacement relationship obtained in the experiment.

KEYWORDS: Single shear tests, Fibrous direction, Wooden horizontal diaphragm

in consideration of individual specificity of the quality of

1 INTRODUCTION 123 material. Moreover, plywood also cut out the specimen of
19 patterns from one piece of plywood
This study is intended to produce the estimate equation
of the shear strength of wooden horizontal diaphragm
using the single shear tests on nailed Joints considering the 6 15
fibrous direction. Since the single shear tests on nailed 7 16 14
Joints as a parameter to fibrous direction beam and 8 13
plywood was performed in a series of studies, it reports. 9
10. 11 12 Fibrous
direction of the
3 beam
4 2
2 SPECIMENS 5 1
Sliding direction of nail are the parallel direction, the right- Fibrous
Fibrous
direction of the
angled direction, and the direction of 45 degrees for the plywood direction of the
beam
fibrous direction of a beam and plywood. The parameters
of the specimen in the single shear tests on nailed Joints
are 19 patterns varying in a combination of sliding
direction of nail and fibrous direction of plywood and 19
.
fibrous direction of the beam in wooden horizontal
diaphragm as shown in figure 1. The relations of the 18
position of beam and plywood in the single shear tests on 17 Fibrous
direction of the
nailed Joints imitated the relations of the position beam beam
and plywood of the floor posture. The distance of the nail
and the edge of plywood in specimens is 15 mm. The beam
Fibrous
of the specimen cut out 19 patterns from the same material Fibrous direction of the
direction of the beam
plywood
1
Kiyotaka Terui, Polus R & D Center of Life-Style Inc.,
SAITAMA, JAPAN. Email: 01452terui-sz@polus.co.jp
2
Yoshimitsu Ohashi , Tokyo City University, TOKYO, JAPAN. Figure 1: The 19 patterns in the sliding direction of the nail
Email: ohashi-y@tcu.ac.jp
3
Kohe Nomoto, Polus R & D Center of Life-Style Inc.,
SAITAMA, JAPAN. Email: 04385nomoto-mf@polus.co.jp
4
Osamu Sumioka, Polus R & D Center of Life-Style Inc.,
SAITAMA, JAPAN. Email: 03958sumioka-vj@polus.co.jp

95
TRACK 2: CONNECTIONS

3 THE METHOD OF AN EXPERIMENT

The method of an experiment is shown in Figure 2.
Specimen of the experiment is the shape that the sliding
direction of the nail turns to the direction of the load given
with a testing machine. Specimens of the experiment fixed
a beam to the table of the testing machine and connected
plywood to the crosshead of the testing machine. Plywood
is not fixed in the direction which is at a right angle to the
load given with a testing machine.

The load-displacement relationship of experimental result

Loading Loading

Plywood

Plywood
Displacement
transducer

Beam
Beam
Displacement
The load-displacement relationship of Multi-linear model
transducer

Figure 3: The load-displacement relationship

Figure 2: Test set-up of experimental result and Multi-linear model

4 THE RESULT OF THE EXPERIMENT 5 CONCLUSIONS

As for the result of the experiment, the difference in the
fibrous direction of a beam and plywood showed that the
performance of the Single Shear Tests on nailed Joints had
a difference. In addition, it was revealed that some patterns
could gather the experimental result of 19 patterns. The
load-displacement relationship obtained from the
experiment was able to model multi-linear as shown in
figure 3.
It could be modeled by the multi-linear performance of the
shear of the nail joints by a combination of different
fibrous direction of the beam and plywood. The estimate
equation of the shear strength of wooden horizontal
diaphragm is built from now on using a model of the
multi-linear obtained.

96
TRACK 2: CONNECTIONS

STUDY ON TIMBER FRAMED JOINTS USING DRIFT PINS

AND UV-HARDENING FRP

Shinya Matsumoto1, Shuhei Mitsui2, Takaaki Ohkubo3

ABSTRACT: The joints are very important structural element in timber framed structures. The purpose of this study is to
develop the high-strength and high-ductility beam-column joint for timber structure. In this study, steel plate fastened with
drift pins and paste the ultraviolet-ray hardening Fiber Reinforced Plastics (FRP) on the surface of the member section. The
wood is the anisotropic material of which the strength characteristic greatly differs according to the direction of the fiber.
The strength of the fiber direction is high, but the strength of the fiber orthogonal direction is low. Also, the splitting failure
is caused in the fiber orthogonal direction, and there is a case in which strength and toughness extremely lower. It is
necessary to consider the weak point of such woody material for the case in which the wood is used as a structural element
for timber framed structure. It is very important to be ensured the earthquake-proof safety of the building, and prevent a
building collapse for the great earthquake. This study reinforces weak point on the strength of woody material by using the
ultraviolet-ray hardening FRP. Then, timber framed joint of the high-strength and high ductility is developed as a structural
element. In this study, the verification experiment is carried out for the joint element specimens of the large section wood.

KEYWORDS: Composite material, Column beam joints, UV-hardening, FRP

1 INTRODUCTION 123
The wood is the anisotropic material of which the strength
characteristic greatly differs for the direction of the fiber.
Though the strength of the fiber direction is high, the
strength is low for the fiber orthogonal direction. Also,
the splitting failure is caused in the fiber orthogonal
direction, and there is a case in which strength and
toughness extremely lower. It is necessary to consider the
weak point of such woody material for the case in which
the wood is used as a structural element for timber framed
structure.
Recently, the development of engineered wood such as the
structural glued laminated wood advances. The market is
supplied with the lumbering of which the quality is high as
an industrial product. The technology which artificially
controls the material dispersion is widely used. However,
they also worry about the possibility of causing fracture
event in the design by the large earthquakes etc. It is very
important to be ensured the earthquake-proof safety of the
1
Shinya Matsumoto, Kinki University, 1 Takaya-Umenobe,
Higashihiroshima, Japan. Email: matsumoto@hiro.kindai.ac.jp
2
Shuhei Mitsui, Kure National College of Technology, 2-2-11,
Agaminami, Kure, Japan. Email: mitsui@kure-nct.ac.jp
3
Takaaki Ohkubo, 1-4-1, Kagamiyama, Higashi-Hiroshima,
Japan. Email: ohkubotk@hiroshima-u.ac.jp
building, and prevent a building collapse for the great
earthquake. This study reinforces weak point on the
strength of woody material by using the ultraviolet-ray
hardening FRP. It is a basic research with the aim of
further upgrading of past earthquake-proof technology.
This study reinforces weak point on the strength of woody
material by using the ultraviolet-ray hardening FRP. Then,
timber framed joint of the high-strength and high ductility
is developed as a structural element. In this study, the
verification experiment is carried out for the joint element
specimens of the large section wood.
2 OUTLINE OF EXPERIMENTS
Figure 1-3 shows specimens of joint element for loading
test. In this figure, Model A is column base model, and
Model B is symmetry column-beam joint model. Model C
is asymmetry column-beam joint model. The loading was
made to be the positive and negative repeated-load, and the
rotation angle of the joint was made to be 1/500, 1/350,
1/250, 1/175, 1/120, 1/85, 1/60, 1/45, 1/30, 1/20, and final
cycle for ultimate.

97
TRACK 2: CONNECTIONS

① ②

：工場施工 Prefabrication
Figure 1: Model A (Column base)

① ②

Photo 1: Ultimate situation for Model A (Non-FRP/FRP)

③ ④

Prefabrication
：工場施工 ：現場施工
Site fabrication Photo 2: Ultimate situation for Model B (Non-FRP/FRP)
Figure 2: Model B (Symmetry column-beam joint)

① ②

③ ④

Photo 3: Ultimate situation for Model C (Non-FRP/FRP)

3 CONCLUSIONS
Prefabrication
In this study, we proposed the joint for wooden frame
：工場施工 ：現場施工 Site fabrication
structure using UV-hardening FRP. The characteristics of
the reinforcing effect to FRP are shows by the timber
Figure 3: Model C (Asymmetry column-beam joint) framed joints loading tests. As a result, improvement for
maximum strength and ductility was confirmed by FRP.
Table 1 shows the characteristic values for loading test. In
this table, upper are values for FRP non-reinforced model, ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
and lower are values for FRP reinforced model. These
values show the improvement for maximum strength and This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI 23686080.
ductility by FRP.
Table 1 Characteristic values for loading test REFERENCES
[1] Julio F. Davalos, Youngchan Kim, Ever J. Barbero : A
Characteristic values Model A Model B Model C layerwise beam element for analysis of frames with
Yield rotation angle 0.007 0.014 0.019 laminated sections and flexible joints, Finite Elements
θy (rad) 0.007 0.014 0.012 in Anslysis and Design 19, pp.181-194, 1995
Ultimate moment 89.2 91.1 70.4 [2] Architectural Institute of Japan : Design Manual for
Mu (kNm) 105.2 110 96.9 Engineered Timber Joints. Maruzen, 2009.(In
2/3Mu 59.5 60.7 47.0 Japanese)
(kNm) 70.1 73.2 64.6
[3] Shinya Matsumoto, Takaaki Ohkubo, Yasuaki
Stiffness 8132 4340 2452
Watanabe, Etsuo Kajita, Development of The High-
K (kNm/rad) 10052 5180 5308
Upper : FRP non-reinforced, Lower : FRP reinforced
strength and High-ductility Timber Framed Joints
using Drift Pins and Fiber Reinforced Plastics, WCTE
The ultimate situations for each model are shown in Photo World Conference on Timber Engineering 2012,
1-3. pp.223-226, 2012.7

98
TRACK 2: CONNECTIONS

STUDY ON COMPRESSIVE STRAIN OF CLT WALL

BOTTOM UNDER THE EXTREME VERTICAL LOAD
Satoshi Oonishi1, Hideyuki Nasu2, Yasuteru Karube3, Masahiro Inayama4

ABSTRACT: High-rise building made of CLT increases significantly its own weight. Therefore, the collapse of the wall
bottom is concerned. Main purpose of this study is to verify the effect of the reinforcement with screws for avoiding the
collapse of the CLT wall bottom by extreme vertical load. Test pieces of CLT wall bottom were reinforced by screws. As a
result, we got better structural result with screw reinforcement than without screw. From these experimental results, the
reinforcement of CLT wall bottom using screw at perpendicular angle to the fiber direction is effective in workability
because it does not need seat-dig hole.

KEYWORDS: CLT, Collapsed wall bottom, Extreme vertical load, Screw for wood, WCTE 2014

1 INTRODUCTION 123
CLT buildings can be expected to improve structural
performance and the sound insulation, also promote the
use of domestic timber. However, significant weight
increase of the building gives rise to extreme vertical load,
there is a concern that the collapse of the wall bottom takes
place. We have discussed and verified the effects of screw
reinforcement from differences in behaviour of the
collapse of the wall bottom by extreme vertical load.
2 EXPERIMENTAL SUMMARY
The experiment was done on test pieces of a total 26
bodies of 16 types including test pieces of CLT wall
bottom and small test pieces. As the pre-experiment, we
did a compression experiment on small test pieces. The
parameters in this experiment were the amount of vertical
fiber, the presence or absence of reinforcement, and the
difference in the fiber direction of the reinforcing portion
of the test pieces (fig. 1). We used the driver drill and
impact driver for examining the difference of the internal
destruction of the wood due to the difference of the tool.
200
7
25φ
8
The experiment of the small test pieces was conducted in
100t Amsler testing machine using two displacement
gauges. Then we produced test pieces that were assumed
the wall bottom made of CLT (Fig. 2). From the results of
the pre-experiment, we decided the reinforcement position
of the test pieces of CLT wall bottom. We have developed
special screws for reinforcement (Fig. 3). Feature of the
screw is that it has a large flat head as a portion in contact
with the concrete foundation. This is because of reducing
the damage and protecting the concrete foundation from
destruction. The experiment of the CLT wall bottom test
pieces was conducted in 200t Amsler testing machine. We
got experimental results by using two displacement gauges
and data logger.
Vertical fiber 100% Vertical fiber 62% Vertical fiber 0%
Figure 1: Test pieces due to the difference in
the vertical fibre content.
Normal

Reinforcement screws and fibre is perpendicular

Figure 3: Original developed large head screw

for reinforcement Useing the driver drill Useing the impact driver
Reinforcement screws and fibre is parallel
1
Graduate school, Nippon Institute of Technology, 4-1
Gakuendai, Miyashiro-machi, Saitama Pref., 345-8501, JAPAN.
Email: satosioonisi.nit.architecture@gmail.com
2
Prof. Dr. Engineer, Nippon Institute of Technology, JAPAN.
3 Useing the driver drill Useing the impact driver
Graduate school, Univ. of Tokyo, JAPAN.
4
Prof. Dr. Engineer, Univ. of Tokyo, JAPAN. Figure 2: Test pieces of CLT wall bottom

99
TRACK 2: CONNECTIONS

3 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS Test pieces of CLT wall bottom were reinforced by

The results of the small test pieces are shown in Fig. 4-5
and Table 1. “V” means the “Vertical”. Number after the v
indicates the percentage of vertical fibers. “D” means the
driver drill. “I” means the impact driver. The results of
CLT wall bottom are shown in Fig. 6-7 and Table 2. “Pe”
means the perpendicular relationship of the screw and fiber.
“Pa” means the parallel relationship of the screw and fiber.
4 CONCLUSIONS
Small test pieces reinforced with the screws did not occur
buckling at the bottom. We considered reinforcement
effect of screws has appeared (Fig.8).
↓Compression↓ ↓Compression↓
Without reinforcement There reinforcement
Figure 8: Difference of collapse due to reinforcement
Reinforcement position requires a free end dimensions
enough. Otherwise, performance is not exhibited enough.
screws. As a result, we got better structural result with
screw reinforcement than without screw, in the three points
such as initial stiffness, maximum strength and energy
absorbing capacity. Reinforcement with the screws is
considered that the buckling of the parallel portion fiber
was suppressed. Test pieces reinforced with screws along
the fiber were inferior than test pieces without
reinforcement in the point of initial stiffness and energy
absorbing capacity. We considered as follows. The
buckling we have carried out lowered initial stiffness. The
force transmitted to the inside through the screws became
the power to split the fibers of the wood (split force) and
was reduced the energy absorbing capacity. From these
experimental results, the reinforcement of CLT wall
bottom using screw at perpendicular angle to the fiber
direction is effective in workability because it does not
need seat-dig hole.
5 BIBLIOGRAPHY OR REFERENCES
Hideyuki Nasu, Keiichi Tsubouchi, Anders Gustafsson,
Hiroyuki Noguchi:Experimental Study for Big Screw Joint
with Cross Laminated Panel, Part 1 Summary and
Experiment 1, 梗概集 C-1 分冊, pp. 383-384,2008.9

Figure 4: Small test pieces destruction property Figure 6: CLT wall bottom test pieces destruction property

Figure 5: Small test pieces Load – displacement curve Figure 7: CLT wall bottom test pieces Load – displacement
curve
Table 1: Experimental results of small test pieces Table 2: Experimental results of CLT wall bottom test pieces
Displacement Initial Maximum Displacement at Energy absorbing
Initial Maximum Test pieces
Test pieces at maximum Energy absorbing capacity stiffness load maximum load capacity
stiffness load name
name load (kN･mm) (kN/mm) (kN) (mm) (kN･mm)
(kN/mm) (kN) (mm) 0-0-0-1 336.32 1065.00 4.60 5939.56
V-100 181.27 127.10 1.74 563.19 0-0-0-2 262.90 1098.34 5.13 4774.66
V-100-D 185.55 134.10 2.79 1730.21 0-0-0-3 354.37 1155.22 4.13 5379.43
V-100-I 233.91 138.83 1.26 169.53 200-Pe-D-1 415.50 1168.95 3.94 4656.28
V-0 5.46 9.25 4.31 119.31 200-Pe-D-2 330.86 1070.89 4.95 5407.21
V-0-D 3.16 15.95 15.38 191.64 200-Pe-D-3 341.26 1182.68 5.39 6360.49
V-0-I 5.17 12.57 18.69 194.05 200-Pa-D-1 414.77 1184.64 4.57 4289.02
V-62 112.83 89.86 1.78 350.90 200-Pa-D-2 306.10 1100.31 4.86 5204.82
V-62-Pe-D 109.29 75.43 1.70 260.20 200-Pa-D-3 416.11 1190.53 4.22 5465.93
V-62-Pe-I 100.78 71.31 1.81 225.83 200-Pe-I-1 378.97 1117.96 4.16 5838.95
V-62-Pa-D 88.93 68.76 1.49 445.59 200-Pe-I-2 417.90 1225.83 5.25 5513.47
V-62-Pa-I 73.94 71.10 1.69 137.07 200-Pe-I-3 300.13 1092.46 5.10 6423.96
200-Pa-I-1 323.59 1198.37 5.68 6492.88
200-Pa-I-2 276.92 1139.53 5.22 5563.33
200-Pa-I-3 289.31 1161.11 4.74 5492.34

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TRACK 2: CONNECTIONS

EXPERIMENTAL STUDY AND FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

ON SEISMIC PERFORMANCE OF WOODEN MORTISE-TENON
JOINTS BEFORE AND AFTER REINFORCEMENT

Zheng Wei 1, Lu Weidong 2, Deng Daly 3, Gu Jinjie 4

ABSTRACT: Firstly, the test for six mortise-tenon joints under pseudo-static load is made to study the seismic
performances of the joints. Then, the specimens used in the test are reinforced by cramp, carbon fiber, steel pegs, U-flat iron
angle bar, angle steel and curved soft steel plate, respectively. The comparisons between the seismic performance
parameters of specimens before and after reinforcement are carried out. The test results demonstrate that the seismic
performance level of a joint after reinforcement can reach that of the specimen before damaged, but the reinforcement effect
of the joints reinforced by angle steel and curved soft steel plate is more obvious. For the case using the curved soft steel
plate, the finite element software ABAQUS is used to simulate the seismic performance of the joints. The parameterized
analyses have been made, which provide a theoretical basis for the reinforcement design of joints

KEYWORDS: Mortise-tenon joints, Seismic performance, Pseudo-static tests, Parameterized analyses

1 INTRODUCTION 123 The results could provide the theoretical basis for the
design method of reinforcement on mortise-tenon joints.
From the failure modes of Chinese traditional wooden
frame buildings in various earthquakes, it can be seen that
the main seismic damages consist of the destruction of
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
supporting members and walls, the failure of joints, the
destruction of roof and the global tilt of buildings [1]. 2.1 PSEUDO STATIC TEST OF MORTISE-TENON
Among them, mortise-tenon joint is the most common and JOINTS
the joint has the greatest damages,such as tenon drawing, 6 mortise-tenon joints in accordance with the prototypes
tenon folding and damage of mortise. based on the type timber frame in Southwest China were
At present, the traditional reinforcements are still tested and numbered J1~J6 （ figure 1 ） . Then, the
commonly used for the mortise-tenon joints, such as iron specimens in the subsequent tests were reinforced by
castings reinforcement, nails reinforcement, bolts cramp, carbon fiber, steel pegs, U-flat iron angle bar, angle
reinforcement and so on [2, 3]. They completely depend on steel and curved soft steel plate respectively, which are
construction experience, and mostly aim at improving the numbered from J1-R to J6-R.
stiffness of joints and structure integrity without energy
dissipation and plastic deformation.
In this paper, traditional typical mortise-tenon joints before
and after reinforcements would be tested and analyzed
under the pseudo-static load in order to investigate the
seismic performance of mortise-tenon joint. Among them,
the most effective reinforcement would be simulated with
finite element software ABAQUS for parametric analysis.

Figure 1: Mortise-tenon joint

1
Zheng Wei, Nanjing University of Technology, 30 Puzhu South
Street, Nanjing, China. Email: zw077927@163.com 3 TEST RESULTS
2
Lu Weidong , Nanjing University of Technology, China
3
Deng Daly, Nanjing University of Technology, China Severe pinching phenomenon is observed in the hysteretic
4
Gu Jinjie, Nanjing University of Technology, China curves of mortise-tenon joints before reinforcement. It

101
TRACK 2: CONNECTIONS
means that there is an obvious slippage between mortise
and tenon. The superior seismic performance of
timberwork exactly depends on its energy dissipation.
Through the tests of 6 mortise-tenon joints with different
reinforcement methods, it is observed that their seismic
performances are better than those before reinforcement.
Among these reinforcement methods used, specimens
reinforced with angle steel (J5-R) and steel curved plate
(J6-R) are more effective than the others. They have bigger
initial bending stiffness and their hysteretic loops is full.
Moreover their accumulated energy dissipations increase a
lot, comparing to those before reinforcement. Therefore,
the angle steel and steel curved plate reinforcements are
two of the best strengthening methods for mortise-tenon
joints.
4 ANALYSIS AND COMPARISON
Considering the final strengthening effect and easy
construction of reinforcements for mortise-tenon joints,
steel curved plate reinforcement is one of the best methods.
In the following study, the finite element simulations were
made with software ABAQUS [4].
Hysteresis curves, envelope curves, energy dissipation and
displacement ductility ratio of joints before and after steel
curved plate reinforcement were compared. The results
indicated that steel curved plate reinforcement is an
effective strengthening method to mortise-tenon joint.
The effect of steel curved plate reinforcement was
seriously affected by the quantity and length of the steel
curved plate, because energy dissipation of this
reinforcement greatly depended on the plastic deformation
of the plates. For optimizing the effect of steel curved plate
reinforcement, parametric analysis was made in detail.
Reinforcement effects on single side and double side of
joint were compared when the curvature radius was
400mm. Then the different curvature radius conditions:
200mm, 400mm and 600mm were considered. The results
of parametric analysis are given in Table1.
Table 1： Parameterized analysis results of mortise-tenon joint
Type Load capacity(kN·m)
Before reinforcement 13.44
Reinforcing on single side 28.03
Reinforcing on double side 42.32
r=200mm 35.63
r=400mm 28.03
r=600mm 24.72
102
5 CONCLUSIONS
Through pseudo-static load tests on mortise-tenon joints
and finite element analysis on steel curved plates
reinforcement, some conclusions can be obtained. Pinching
phenomenon with the Z shape is obvious in the mortise-
tenon joints before reinforcement what means the slippage
between mortise-tenon. The hysteretic curves have no
obvious descending stage. Comparing to the traditional
reinforcement methods, mortise-tenon joints reinforced
with angle steel and steel curved plate have the bigger
initial bending stiffness. ethods have good effects on
reinforcement. Considering the final effect and easy
construction of reinforcement, steel curved plate
reinforcement is thought to be one of the best methods,
which is the most effective method when the curvature
radius takes as 400mm and the plates are arranged at the
double sides of the joint.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This study was financially supported by Technology Pillar
Program of China (Grant NO. 2009BAJ28B02 and NO.
2011BAJ08B04). Their support is sincerely appreciated by
the writers.
REFERENCES
[1] Xie Qifang: Experiment Study and Theory Analysis
on Strengthening for Chinese Ancient Timber
Buildings. Department of Civil Engineering, Xi'an
University of Architecture and Technology, Xi'an,
2007.
[2] Daly Deng: Experimental Study on Seismic
Performance and Reinforcement Performance of
Damaged Wooden Structures. Department of Civil
Engineering, Nanjing University of Technology,
Nanjing, 2011.
[3] KE Jipeng: Study on the Seismic Capacity and the
Reinforced Method of Ancient Buildings. Department
of Civil Engineering, Beijing University of
Technology, Beijing, 2004.
[4] Hibbitt, Karlsson and Sorensen: ABAQUS Theory
Manual. Berkeley California, 2000
Energy dissipation（kJ） Ductility ratio
4.03 2.68
8.61 3.54
17.63 3.74
7.31 2.56
8.61 3.54
12.45 3.79
TRACK 2: CONNECTIONS

BOND BEHAVIOR OF GLUED-IN TIMBER JOINT WITH

DEFORMED BAR EPOXIED IN GLULAM

Zhibin Ling1, Weiqing Liu2, Huifeng Yang3, Weidong Lu4

ABSTRACT: This paper describes the test program of glued-in deformed bar timber joint conducted in pull-pull
configuration, which aims to investigate the bond behavior of glued-in deformed bar systems in glulam. The varying
parameter are bar slenderness ratio and glue-line thickness. In order to obtain the bond stress distribution along the
anchorage length, special deformed bar with strain gauges attached internally were designed. Test results show that both the
bar slenderness ratio and glue-line thickness have obvious influence on withdrawal strength and bond behavior of glued-in
deformed bar joint. Failure modes of specimens are also analyzed in this paper. Ductile failure modes of glued-in rod timber
joint could be realized with reasonable design.

KEYWORDS: Glued-in rod joint, Deformed bar, Bond behavior, Withdrawal strength, Pull-Pull tests

1 INTRODUCTION 123
Glued-in rod technology began to be used in timber
structures since the 1970s. At the beginning, glued-in rod
was used as to prevent premature failures due to tension
perpendicular to the grain in glulam timber elements [1].
Glued-in rod was also used in repairing the existing timber
structures which have been decayed by insects and natural
erosions [2]. Currently, glued-in rod timber joint are
widely used in modern timber structures due to its
lightweight, high loading capacity and high joint stiffness.
In addition, glued-in rod timber joints can offer great
aesthetic appearance and fire-resistance ability [3-7].
2 TEST PROGRAM
The adhesive used in the joint was two-component epoxy
resin.
2.2 DESIGN OF SPECIMENS
Figure1 shows the design and configuration of the tested
specimens. All the specimens were designed with one end
(the supporting end) more resistant than the other end (the
tested end). For the supporting end, the anchorage length lc
equals to 1.2la, and the bar diameter Dr equals to 1.25dr.
In order to obtain the bond stress distribution along
anchorage length, attached strain gauges internally
deformed bars were designed. The details of layout of
strain gauges were shown in Figure2.
Tested end Supporting end

2.1 MATERIALS grain

a

dr Dr
Timber blocks were cut from glued laminated timber made
a la lb lc
of 30mm thickness North America Douglas fir lamellas l
glued together with resorcinol resin adhesive. Bars glued
in timber were HRB335 grade deformed bars with ultimate Figure 1: Pull-pull specimen
strength fu=556N/mm2 and yield strength fy=362 N/mm2.
Opened bar
Strain gauges
interval(13-30mm) Folded bar
1
Zhibin Ling, Southeast University, P. R. China. Email:
lzb-10410055@163.com
2
Corresponding author: Weiqing Liu, Nanjing Tech University, Strain gauge
P. O. Box 8020-32, Nanjing211816, P. R. China. Email: outgoing line
Filled with silica gel
wqliu@njut.edu.cn Groove(2mm×4mm) (4mm×4mm)
3
Huifeng Yang, Nanjing Tech University, P. R. China. Email:
yhfbloon@163.com Figure 2: Layout of strain gauges
4
Weidong Lu, Nanjing Tech University, P. R. China. Email:
concrete@163.com

103
TRACK 2: CONNECTIONS
2.3 TEST SETUP AND MEASUREMENTS
All specimens were tested on a universal testing machine
with 1000kN capacity. The rate of loading was set as
2.0mm/min and was kept constant during the whole
process of loading based on Broughton and Hutchinson
[8]. The main recorded data were the load, the relative slip
between timber and glued-in deformed bar at the loaded
end, and the strain distribution of the deformed bar during
loading.
3 TITLES, AUTHORS, ABSTRACT AND
KEYWORDS
3.1 FAILURE MODES
Four types of failure modes mainly occurred during
testing, which are pull out failure of bar, timber shear
failure, splitting of timber and yielding of bar. It is obvious
that failure modes are significantly related to the anchorage
length. It should be noted that for those specimens with bar
slenderness ratio of 12.5, most of them failed in bar
yielding, although the final failure modes were splitting of
timber blocks, however, this is in the final stage. It can be
concluded that ductile failure of glued-in rod timber joint
can be realized with reasonable design.
3.2 STAIN DISTRIBUTION
Figure 3 illustrated the bar strain distribution of one group
of specimens at different loading level. Three specimens
were included in each group. It can be observed that at the
lower loading level, the strain of steel bar was mainly
developed near the loaded end and decreased toward the
support end progressively. With the external load
increased, the strain near the loaded end were fully
developed and the development of strain transferred from
the loaded end to the anchorage end gradually.
1600
1400
1200
Steel strain / µε
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0 20 40 60 80
Distance from loaded end /mm
Figure 3: Strain distribution of glued-in deformed bar
along anchorage length
3.3 BOND STRESS DISTRIBUTION
The bond stress distribution at bar/adhesive interface is not
uniform, but rather accentuated near both the loading end
and the anchorage end, which confirmed the Volkersen
theory (1938). Bond stress is sensitive to the glue-line
thickness especially at the double end of along the
anchorage length. Appropriately increasing of glue-line
thickness is beneficial to the decreasing of peak value of
bond stress.
4 CONCLUSIONS
Bar slenderness ratio and glue-line thickness have an
obvious effects on the withdrawal strength and bond
behavior of glued-in deformed bar joint. Bond stress
distribution along anchorage length is not uniform, but
rather concentrated near both the loading and the
anchorage end. Appropriately increasing of glue-line
thickness is beneficial to the bond behavior of glued in rod
joint. The parameter of glue-line thickness is sensitive to
the initial joint stiffness. Ductile timber joint with glued-in
rod could be realized by proper design.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research was supported by National Natural Science
Foundation for young scholar of China/NSFC (Grant No.
51108233). The support of NSFC is gratefully
acknowledged.
REFERENCES
[1] Johansson C. J. Glued-in bolts. In: βlass HJ, editor,
Structural Timber Education Program. Lecture, C14,
Part 1, Netherlands: Almere, 1995.
[2] Broughton J.G., Hutchinson A.R. Review of relevant
materials and their requirements for timber repair and
restoration, LICONS (low intrusion conservation
systems for timber structures, CRAF-1999-71216,
Task 2.2, 2003.
[3] Aicher S, Herr J. Investigations on high strength
glulam frame corners with glued-in steel connectors.
In: 5th World conference on timber engineering,
pages 273-280. Montreux, Switzerland, 1998.
0.2Pu(Exp.)
0.4Pu(Exp.) [4] Guan Z.W. Structural behaviour of glued joints using
0.6Pu(Exp.)
0.8Pu(Exp.)
FRP. In: 5th World conference on timber engineering,
1.0Pu(Exp.) pages 261-265. Montreux, Switzerland, 1998.
Fitted Results
[5] Kuhlmann U, Aicher S, Lippert P. Rigid frame
corners with glued-in rods, Joints in timber structures.
In: Proceedings of the international RILEM
symposium, pages 343-352. Stuttgart, Germany, 2001.
[6] Buchanan A.H., Barber D.J. Fire resistance of
epoxied steel rods in glulam. In: Proceedings, 1994
100 120 pacific timber engineering conference, pages590-598.
Gold Coast, Australia, 1994.
[7] Connolly T, Mettem C. J. Development of Eurocode-
type design rules for axially loaded bonded-in rods.
Report for project LICONS: 2008, 29.
[8] Broughton J. G., Hutchinson A. R. Pull-out behavior
of steel rods bonded into timber. Materials and
Structures 2001, 34(2): 100-109.
104
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STUDY ON PREVENTION FOR BUCKLING OF COMBINED PILLAR WITH

FIBER MATERIALS OR SCREWS
Hirokazu Namiki1, Hideyuki Nasu2

ABSTRACT: The purpose of this study is to examine a prevention method of combined pillar buckling. The aramid fiber,
glass fiber and small screws were adopted as reinforced materials. The prevention method of buckling bundled up with
these fiber materials or screws to four pillars of common dimensions. Four narrow pillars using reinforce material were
effective in prevention for buckling. The effect is different according to reinforce material, interval and construction quality.
The longer pillars gets, the lower unity of pillar gets. However, the strength itself is improved effectively.

KEYWORDS: Heavy Timber Structure, Combined Pillar, Buckling, Screw, Glass Fiber, Aramid Fiber

1 INTRODUCTION 12 Reinforce interval Aramid Fiber

50mm Loose
25mm Tight
The purpose of this study is to examine a prevention Glass Fiber
method of buckling. It is to improve strength of pillar used Loose
Tight
Japanese common dimension and local timber. It is
expected that the needs of the large section wooden
6cm×6cm×1m 3cm×3cm×1m 3cm×3cm×1m 3cm×3cm×1m
construction building increase in Japan in the future. ×1pillar ×1pillar ×4pillars ×4pillars,
(Screw reinforce) (Fiber reinforce)
However, the great sectional pillar necessary for a large
scale wooden construction building has a problem with
cost and transportation. We carried out a study to solve
these problems.
2 EXPERIENT OUTLINE
The prevention method of buckling bundled up with fiber
materials or screws to four pillars of common dimensions.
They consider structural performance of pillars that a
larger cross-section of apparent. This study wants to
inspect the 6m pillar that assumed a building. However,
our facilities cannot perform experiment. Therefore we
9cm×9cm×3m 6cm×6cm×2m 3cm×3cm×1m 3cm×3cm×2m 3cm×3cm×2m,
experiment with 1/3 scale model. In addition, I compare it ×1pillar ×1pillar ×1pillar ×4pillars ×4pillars
(Screw reinforce) (Fiber reinforce)
to find consistency whether we can assume a true size
Figure 1: Test piece list (aramid fiber, glass fiber and screws)
experiment from a scale model and test it. The examination
body produced the examination body of 17 kinds 78 in T
Table 1: Specifications of each test piece
total with 5 kinds, combined pillar 12 kinds in pillar
Butt end Length Reinforce
Number dimensions Reinforce interval Looseness Number
materials of one (I call it a single pillar as follows) to find of
Test piece name of pillar (mm) material test piece
(mm) (mm)
the consistency of the comparison with combined pillar 1-90×90×3000 1 90×90 3000 - - - 6
and scale model. The reinforce screw uses all screw course 1-60×60×1000 1 60×60 1000 - - - 6
1-60×60×2000 1 60×60 2000 - - - 6
thread 51mm. It performs a comparison by the difference 1-30×30×1000 1 30×30 1000 - - - 6
in casting distance. Reinforcing fibers are compared using 1-30×30×2000 1 30×30 2000 - - - 6
4-30×30×1000-C51-50 4 30×30 1000 Screw 050 - 6
glass fiber and aramid fiber. We compare construction 4-30×30×1000-C51-25 4 30×30 1000 Screw 025 - 6
quality of fiber by either loose or tight. 4-30×30×1000-A-L 4 30×30 1000 Aramid Fiber 250 Loose 3
4-30×30×1000-A-T 4 30×30 1000 Aramid Fiber 250 Tight 3
4-30×30×1000-G-L 4 30×30 1000 Glass Fiber 250 Loose 3
1 4-30×30×1000-G-T 4 30×30 1000 Glass Fiber 250 Tight 3
Hirokazu Namiki, Graduate Student, Nippon Institute of 4-30×30×2000-C51-50 4 30×30 2000 Screw 050 - 6
Technology, 4-1 Gakuendai, Miyashiro-machi, Minamisaitama- 4-30×30×2000-C51-25 4 30×30 2000 Screw 025 - 6
gun, Saitama Pref., Japan. Email: hirokazu.namiki@gmail.com 4-30×30×2000-A-L 4 30×30 2000 Aramid Fiber 250 Loose 3
2 4-30×30×2000-A-T 4 30×30 2000 Aramid Fiber 250 Tight 3
Hideyuki Nasu, Prof. Dr. Engineer, Nippon Institute of 4-30×30×2000-G-L 4 30×30 2000 Glass Fiber 250 Loose 3
Technology, Japan. Email: nasu.hid@nit.ac.jp 4-30×30×2000-G-T 4 30×30 2000 Glass Fiber 250 Tight 3

105
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We use 200t Amsler testing machine for experiment. We 4 CONCLUSIONS

measure displacement and maximum load using data
logger TDS-530 and displacement meter SDP-100CT Expected by 1/3 scale model is possible in this experiment.
made by Tokyo Sokki Kenkyujo Co.,Ltd. We grasp the Four narrow pillars using reinforce material were effective
structure performance of combined pillar from a in prevention for buckling. The effect is different
destruction property and maximum load. according to reinforce material, interval and construction
quality. The longer pillars gets, the lower unity of pillar
3 EXPERIMENTAL RESULT AND gets. However, the strength itself is improved effectively.
mlEXAMINATION
3.1 INSPECTION OF SCALE MODEL Table 2: Experimental results (average)
If the slim ratio of the examination body which I compared Test piece name Maximum load (kN) Inclusion (%)※1 Rate of strength increase (%)※2
1-90×90×3000 134.87 - -
is the same, the ratio of biggest strength becomes same as 1-60×60×1000 85.18 100.00(4pillar) -
1-60×60×2000 55.48 100.00(4pillar) -
the ratio of the cross section. Difference was less than 1% 1-30×30×1000 15.89 0.00(4pillar) 100.00(4pillar)
from the comparison of consistency. Therefore we think 1-30×30×2000 4.29 0.00(4pillar) 100.00(4pillar)
4-30×30×1000-C51-50 70.83 033.60(4pillar) 111.44(4pillar)
assumption of experiments with scale model that's possible 4-30×30×1000-C51-25 85.94 103.51(4pillar) 135.21(4pillar)
4-30×30×1000-A-L 63.68 000.50(4pillar) 100.18(4pillar)
(Table 3). 4-30×30×1000-A-T 66.42 013.21(4pillar) 104.51(4pillar)
4-30×30×1000-G-L 67.27 017.14(4pillar) 105.84(4pillar)
3.2 COMPARISON OF REINFORCE INTERVAL 4-30×30×1000-G-T
4-30×30×2000-C51-50
97.81
28.50
158.42(4pillar)
029.56(4pillar)
153.88(4pillar)
166.09(4pillar)
LLLFOR SCREW 4-30×30×2000-C51-25
4-30×30×2000-A-L
44.03
18.57
070.11(4pillar)
003.63(4pillar)
256.60(4pillar)
108.22(4pillar)
Reinforce interval 25mm is higher strength than reinforce 4-30×30×2000-A-T 30.22 034.05(4pillar) 176.12(4pillar)
4-30×30×2000-G-L 29.44 032.00(4pillar) 171.54(4pillar)
interval 50mm (Figure 2). The stiffening effect is high 4-30×30×2000-G-T 48.14 080.83(4pillar) 280.52(4pillar)
※ 1 Inclusion (%) ･ ･ ･ Percentage who are close to one equivalent of 6cm angle from four
because the number of screws has increased by double. equivalent of 3cm angle
Tended splitting of wood resulting from defects due to Calculation formula
Maximum
Maximum load
load of
ofcomparative
comparative test
test piece
piece
- Maximum load of 3cm amgle×4 ×100
screw failure behavior is (Figure 3). I thought is reinforced of inclusion (%)
Maximum load of 6cm angle - Maximum load of 3cm amgle×4
by screws require verification of optimal solution cost and ※2 Rate of strength increase (%)･･･Percentage increased maximum strength of pillars bundle
pouring interval, from workability. based on four equivalent 3cm angle
Calculation formula Maximum load of comparative test piece
3.3 COMPARISON OF FIBER MATERIALS of Stiffening effect (%) Maximum load of 3cm amgle×4
×100

There is strength of glass fiber than aramid fiber in all 100.0

1m 2m
parameters. We considered reinforcement effect is 80.0
Load(kN)

different by material. The destructiveness of the glass fiber 60.0

and aramid fiber was different in a tendency. We carried 40.0
out an additional experiment partially in order to inspect 20.0
the reason. It is thought that affinity with rigidity and the 0.0
Aramid Fiber

Glass Fiber
3cm×3cm×4pillars

(Reinforce interval

(Reinforce interval

6cm×6cm×1pillar
length of the fiber or the resin may influence binding force.

Glass Fiber
Aramid Fiber

(Tight)

equivalent of
(Loose)
equivalent of

(Tight)
(Loose)

3.4 COMPARISON OF CONSTRUCTION QUALITY

50mm)

25mm)
Screw

Screw

FOR REINFORCED FIBER

As a result of comparing presence or absence of loosening
caused by temporary fixing, specimens there loosening
showed lower strength than the specimens with no
Figure 2: Relationship of combined pillar with single pillar
looseness at all parameters. Showed lowest strength in the
specimens there loose aramid fibers, the reinforcing effect Table 3: Comparison of integrated
T
was almost 0%. It is necessary to do construction of tight
Sectional area Maximum load Area ratio Maximum load ratio
fiber at reinforce time because reinforce effect is not got Test piece name
(mm2) (kN) (%) (%)
when loose fiber. 1-90×90×3000 8100 134.87
11.11 11.78
1-30×30×1000 900 15.89
3.5 COMPARISON OF EFFECT OF LENGTH OF
LLLTIMBER
The screw of reinforce interval 25mm and tight glass fiber
have high unity at all parameters (Table 2). Further, the 1m
materials have higher unity than 2m materials. We Fiber
Fiber
considered for deviation of pillars each other due to
deformation of bending than 2m material is small, unity is Figure 3: Splitting Figure 4: Figure 5: Rupture
failure of the reinforcing Delamination fracture destruction of fiber
high 1m materials. The 2m materials have higher rate of portion (Screw) of fiber (Aramid fiber) (Glass fiber)
strength increase than 1m materials in all parameters
(Table 2). Rate of strength increase of combined pillar is Table 4: Difference in strength by length of member
high because of 2m materials have higher difference of Maximum load of four Maximum load of one Difference of strength
Length (mm)
maximum load of 3cm × 3cm × 4pillars and 6cm × 6cm × equivalent 3cm×3cm (kN) equivalent 6cm×6cm (kN) (%)
1000 63.56 85.16 033.98
1pillar than 1m materials (Table 4). 2000 17.16 55.48 223.31

106
TRACK 2: CONNECTIONS

EDGE CONNECTIONS FOR CLT PLATES: IN-PLANE SHEAR

TESTS ON HALF-LAPPED AND SINGLE-SPLINE JOINTS

Masoud Sadeghi1, Ian Smith2

ABSTRACT: A crucial aspect of fully realising the potential of cross-laminated-timber (CLT) as a structural material is
ability to interconnect it to similar and dissimilar materials. This paper primarily reports in-plane shear tests on half-lapped
and single-spline joints that make edge-to-edge connections between CLT panels using screws. A novel aspect of the study
is investigation of how placing washers under screw heads alters stiffness and strengths of joints. Subsidiary axial load tests
on screws assisted explanation of the shear joint results. Conclusions include the importance of accounting for large
displacement effects on how screws transfer forces across joint-planes, and need to improve current generation joint design
methods so that they account for effects of eccentricities that result from construction arrangement and detailing decision.

KEYWORDS: Connections, Cross-Laminated-Timber, Lateral load, Self-Tapping Screws, Shear, Washers, Withdrawal

1 INTRODUCTION 123
CLT products have particular characteristics that need to
be considered when addressing design and construction of
joints in them. As the name implies, CLT has pieces of
lumber placed in layers that cross-reinforce one another,
with adjacent layer faces bonded using mechanical
fasteners or adhesives. This overcomes what has proven to
be the primary weakness of most other types of EWP, and
that has limited their usage as general purpose structural
materials. To activate toughening against splitting caused
by laterally loaded fasteners, it necessary that fasteners
penetrate sufficiently deeply into CLT to be anchored into
at least lamination that cross-reinforces a face lamination.
Proprietary self-tapping screws are a common choice of
fastener because they are available in suitably large lengths
and their threads cause them to anchor properly in CLT.
Preferences also commonly favour use of relatively small
diameter self-tapping screws (~ 10mm) because that
mitigates proneness to intra-lamination splitting when
lateral forces on screws makes them embed into CLT.
The lateral load resistance of dowel-type fasteners (nails,
screws, plain dowels, bolts, etc.) is widely taken to be
adequately explained by the European Yield Model
(EYM). Various timber design codes use the EYM to
predict the yield load (Py) as the basis of design strengths
of joints, while others supplement those capacities with an
allowance for rope effect resistance which develops at high
1
Masoud Sadeghi, University of New Brunswick, Bailey Dr,
Fredericton, Canada. Email: m.sadeghi@unb.ca
2
Ian Smith, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, Canada
deformation of joints. When the rope effect is included the
estimated strength approximates the maximum load (Pm).
This paper discusses and interprets tests on half-lapped and
single-spline CLT connections made using self-tapping
screws. Specimens were subjected to in-plane shear forces
that simulated force flows that would occur in edge-to-
edge CLT plate connections within CLT slabs that perform
diaphragm or shear wall functions. Supplementary screw
withdrawal and pull through tests were carried out to
facilitate explanation of the shear force test results.
2 METHOD
Shear force test specimens were designed to simulate
antisymmetric lapped joints and non-symmetric single-
spline joints as occur in connections in CLT slabs. As
shown in Figure 1 the panel element on the left side of a
specimen was pushed down relative to the piece on the
right side, with the apparatus constraining other
distortions. The CLT used was 180mm thick Nordic X-
Lam manufactured in Canada, having five equal thickness
laminations and an average density of 513kg/m3. The self-
tapping screws used had nominal shank diameters of 6mm,
were 160mm long and thread to 70mm from the tip. The
splice elements in single-spline tests were 19mm thick
Douglas fir plywood. For each type of joint two fasteners
situations were considered, with those being use of only
self-tapping screws and use of self-tapping screws with
washers placed under their heads. Washers used were flat
shaped steel with a thickness of 3mm, and having outer
and inner diameters of 19mm and 7mm respectively.

107
TRACK 2: CONNECTIONS
Figure 2 shows axial load tests carried out with intend that
they represent behaviours of self-tapping screws subjected
to longitudinal shearing surface forces similar to those
developed due to initial eccentricities or large
deformations in joints/connections.
Figure 1: Shear test Figure 2: Axial test
apparatus configurations
3 PRIMARY RESULTS
Test data were analyses to determine engineering
parameters that quantify the stiffness, strength, ductility,
and energy absorption characteristics of joints or screws.
Figure 3 shows average load versus deformation responses
of half-lapped and single-spline joints without washers
inserted under screw heads. In rough terms, half-lapped
CLT plate edge-to-edge joints were is 50% superior to
single-spline joints subjected to shear flows. This is
attributed to combined effects of using relatively thin
plywood as the head-side member and eccentricities that
complicate force flows in single-spline joints.
Figure 3: Average load- Figure 4: Effect of washers
displacement curves for on average load-
shear tests: half-lapped and displacement responses of
single-spline joints without half-lapped joints
washers
Examination of plastically deformed screws from failed
joint specimens revealed that half-lapped and single-spline
joints failed by type IV and type III mechanisms
respectively when there were no washers. This agreed with
the EYM theory, but does not mean that that type of design
level model accurately predicts observed joint capacities.
Comparisons of Eurocode 5 EYM equation predictions
with test results indicated substantial discrepancies exist in
predictions of either Py or Pm.
Figure 4 compares average load-displacement responses
for half-lapped joints with and without washers placed
under the heads of screws. Addition of washers had only
slight effect on itiial stiffness of a joint, increased strength,
and decreases the post-yield point ductility. However
adding washers did not create a non-ductile response.
Inclusion of washers changed the deformation and failure
mechanisms after the response exceeded the small
108
deformation regime. Figure 5 shows examples of residual
deformations in lapped-joint speciments with and without
washers placed under screw heads. In both instances the
failure mechanism involved plastic bending deformation of
the screw on either side of the joint plane. The greatest
bending distortion occured in either instance on the side of
the joint where the screws were most effectively anchored
into the CLT. When there were no washers the anchoring
was most effective on the point-side of the joint, and
therefore development of axial forces in screws was
controlled by pull-through resistance of the head-side
portions of screws. By contrast, when there were washers
the screws were anchored most effectivey on the head-side
of the joint, with development of axial forces in screws
controlled by withdrwal resistance of threaded portions of
screws. This is entirely consistent with results of axial load
tests on screws.
a) without washers b) with washers
Figure 5: Residual deformations in half-lapped joints
Adding washers also significantly altered the responses of
single-spline joints, with the reasons once again relating to
alteration of the axial load response of screws. Plus in that
instance there was alteration of deformation and failure
mechanisms. Also again, significant discrepancies existed
between EYM model predictions and test results.
As discussed in the full length version of this paper, data
and observations from axial load tests on screws were
consistent with and helped explain findings from shear
tests.
4 CONCLUSIONS
Primary conclusions from the presently reported study are:
 Half-lapped self-tapping joints are about 50% stronger
and stiffer than single-spline joints when acting as
plate edge-to-edge in-plane shear connections in CLT
slabs.
 Placing washers in under heads of self-tapping screws
can significantly increase the capacities of either half-
lapped or single-spline shear joints in CLT slabs.
 It is important to consider eccentricities that affect the
behaviour of shear joints in CLT slabs, as can occur
for example when single-spline connections are
employed.
 Some inadequacies exist in contemporary European
Yield Model type methods for calculating design
capacities of self-tapping screw joints in CLT.
TRACK 2: CONNECTIONS

AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON THE DUCTILITY OF BOLTED

CONNECTIONS LOADED PERPENDICULAR TO THE GRAIN

Wataru Kambe1, Kei Tanaka2, Kotaro Kawano3, Takumi Nakahata4 and Masafumi Inoue5

ABSTRACT: The fracture characteristics and deformation ability in timber engineering is very important criteria for
structural design. However those fracture patterns are complex and confusing, so the quantitative evaluation is very difficult.
In our past study, we could see the three fracture types and defined them the brittle, ductile and inter-mediate type with
bolted connections loaded perpendicular to the grain. This definition isn’t enough because it’s not clear definition and we
couldn’t study the deformation ability or ductility factor.In this study, for those connections, we would apply the evaluation
method proposed by Ian et al. In this evaluation method, fracture pattern would have relevance to ductility factor. And the
evaluation methods proposed by us, AIJ code and Ian et al would be compared.

As a result, it is confirmed that fracture pattern based on mechanical calculation proposed by Ian could be agree with the
pattern based on our video observation. Then proposed method would be useful for structural design.

KEYWORDS: Bolted connections, Ductility factor, Loaded perpendicular to grain, Database

1 INTRODUCTION 123
As considering of the structural performance and its
fracture characteristics in timber engineering, the abilities
of connections would be a criterion for the whole
structures. In these days, some higher and large-scale
buildings with timber members have been built, for
example apartment house or buildings for the offices. Then
the adequate structural design has been more important in
timber engineering.
Architecture Institute Japan (AIJ) published the design
code[1] or design example[2] of timber structure in these
years. In these articles, we could realize that the ranks of
the deformation ability of the connections have been set [1,
2] and these definition would be based on its specification.
However the range of deformation couldn’t be listed and
cleared, so we couldn’t calculate the deformation ability of
the timber frame with those connections. Additionally for
the structural design of ultimate strength for steel and RC
structures, the ductility factor is the most important factor.
However the ductility factor for structural design in timber
engineering wouldn’t be enough.
In our past studies[3-8], we conducted loading tests with
bolted connections loaded perpendicular to the grain and
studied the fracture pattern of wooden members. And we
proposed the calculation method with FEM or simple
equation. These methods would be useful for estimation of
the brittle fracture strength or the crack-initiation-strength
for single or multiple bolted connections（Fig.1,2）.
In this study, we would calculate the ductility factor with
proposed method by Ian et al, and compared with the
evaluation results based on our video observation. For the
estimation method of ductility, Mohammad studied
proposed appreciate method for bolted connections, then
that method would applied. Additionally the ductility
factor, u, could be ranked by Ian et al (Table 1) [10].

1
Table 1: Proposed ductility ranks for connections [10]
Wataru Kambe, Dept. of Architecture and Environment Design,
Faculty of Eng., Kanto Gakuin University, 1-50-1 Classification Average ductility factor
Mutsuurahigashi, Kanazawa-ku, Yokohama 236-8501 Japan, Brittle u≦2
Email: wkambe@kanto-gakuin.ac.jp
2
Kei Tanaka, Dept. of Architecture, Faculty of Eng., Oita Univ., Low ductility 2<u≦4
Japan, Email: kei@oita-u.ac.jp Moderate ductility 4<u≦6
3
Kotaro Kawano, Taisei Corporation, Japan,
High ductility 6<u
Email: kwnkut00@pub.taisei.co.jp
4
Takumi Nakahata, Faculty of Eng., Oita Univ., Japan, 2 PREVIOUS TEST METHODS
Email: v13e6020@oita-u.ac.jp
5
Masafumi Inoue, Dept. of Architecture, Faculty of Eng., Oita In our past studies, single bolted connection (Fig.1) and
Univ., Japan, Email: inoue@oita-u.ac.jp multiple bolted connections (Fig.2) would be tested with

109
TRACK 2: CONNECTIONS
glulam made of Japanese Larch, Scots Pine and Japanese fracture (based on E1) would be calculated from 2 to 6, the
cedar. In these tests, we measured the strength and relative connection which ductility factor is from 2 to 6 would be
displacement as shown these figures. ranked “Low-ductility” or “Moderate-ductility” in Ian’s
method. In another word, it is confirmed that Fracture
grain pattern based on mechanical calculation could be agree
direction with the pattern based on the video.
h 25
e2 wood species Ductile
bolt diameter
e1 20 Not Brittle
6 Brittle
grain 15

number
direction
E1
h
10 10 (our observation)
e2
5
e1 5 3
grain 0
direction
1
0<µ≦2 2<µ≦4 4<µ≦6 6<µ
2
e2
Low- Moderate- High-
3 5
Brittle
h Ductility Ductility Ductility
4 6

reinforcing
e1 plywood 7

b L
E3(proposed by Ian et al )
Figure 1: Test methods for single bolted connections [4] Figure 3: A sample of histogram with ductility
P P factor evaluated by E1 and E3
9
1 2
REFERENCES
3 4
[1] Architectural Institute of Japan, Standard for Structural
Design of Timber Structures, Maruzen, 2006 (in Japanese).
5 6 [2] Architectural Institute of Japan, Design Practice for
Engineered Timber Joints, Maruzen, 2012 (in Japanese).
7 8
[3] W. Kambe, T. Nakagomi, Y. Ikura. A Study on brittle
fracture of bolt joints with Japanese larch glulam loaded
P
perpendicular to the grain based on local fracture approach,
P P
Trans. AIJ, No. 611: 111-118, 2007 (in Japanese).
[4] W. Kambe, N. Itagaki, Y. Iijima. An experimental study on
embedment strength for bolted connections loaded
perpendicular to the grain, Trans. AIJ, Vol. 75, No.
657:1991-1999, 2010 (in Japanese).
[5] Y. Kamakura, M. Hirosue, W. Kambe, T.Nakagomi. A study
on fracture mechanics on crack propagation behaviour about
mode I fracture with Japanese larch glulam, Journal of
Structural Engineering, Vol.57B: 329-334, 2011(in
90
Japanese).
[6] W. Kambe, T. Fujioka, Y. Kamakura, T. Nakagomi. An
experimental study on crack initiation in bolted connections
loaded perpendicular to the grain by two bolts, Journal of
P

Figure 2: Test methods for multiple bolted connections
[6,7,8]
3 EVALUATION RESULTS OF DUCTILITY
FACTOR
In this study, with loading test results in our past articles,
we would calculate the ductility factor based on proposed
method and compared with our definition based on video
observation. The former is called E1 and the latter is called
E3 in this study. Those results would be shown like Fig. 3.
The ductility factor of specimens observed its brittle
fracture (based on E1) would be calculated under 2, the
connection which ductility factor is under 2 would be
ranked “brittle” in proposed method by Ian et al (E3) .
And the ductility factor of specimens observed its ductile
Structural Engineering, Vol.58B: 271-276, 2012 (in
Japanese).
[7] W. Kambe, K. Tanaka, K. Kawano, T. Nakahata, M. Inoue.
An experimental study on fracture characteristic on grid-
bolted connections loaded perpendicular to the grain, AIJ
journal of technology and design, Vol.19, No. 43: 897-902,
2013 (in Japanese).
[8] W. Kambe, K. Tanaka, T. Nakagomi. An experimental study
on crack initiation strength of rowed-bolted connections
loaded perpendicular to the grain, Summary of AIJ, 2013(in
Japanese).
[9] M. Mohammad, W. M. Toro, P. Quenneville and A.
Salenkinovich. Stiffness and ductility of bolted connections,
Proceedings of WCTE: 2010.
[10] I. Smith, A. Asiz, M. Snow, Y.H. Chui. Possible Canadian /
ISO Approach to Deriving Design Values from Test Data,
Proceedings of the international Council for Research and
Innovation in Building and Construction: 2006.

110
TRACK 2: CONNECTIONS

DEVELOPMENT OF CONNECTING METHOD FOR TIMBER STRUCTURE

USING EXPANDING DENSIFIED WOOD - APPLICATION TO KEYED
MORTISE AND TENON CONNECTION WITH DENSIFIED WOOD

Masaya Kato1, Akinori Iwasaki2, Kei Tanaka1 and Masafumi Inoue1

ABSTRACT: In recent year, for rubbish disposal and waste problem, the segregation of wood and the metal are difficult
problem to be solved. The problem will be solved to use the wood based connector such as densified wood connector
instead of metal connector at joints in timber structures. In this study, the densified technique is adopted for sugi. The usage
of densified sugi lead to improve recycling rate because the segregation is not necessary. The strength characteristics of
keyed mortise and tenon connection with key made from densified sugi was unveiled by the tension test of joint. From the
test results, the key made of 70% densified ratio without steam treatment is suitable for keyed mortise and tenon connection.

KEYWORDS: Densified wood, Sugi, Expanding, Keyed mortise and tenon connection, Tension test

1 INTRODUCTION 1 with mortise and key. This is a traditional detail

of connection in Japan.
In recent year, the rubbish disposal and waste problem
should be solved in all industry. The technology to
promote the recycling of construction waste is not yet
established. Especially, for the construction waste, the
recycling ratio is lower than that of other industry. One of
the reason for this problem is that the segregation of wood
and the metal are difficult. It is preferable to substitute the Beam
metal connector to wooden connector in timber structures.
The hardwoods are generally used for the connector in Tenon
timber structures such as dowel. However, the percentage
of hardwood in the wood resource is few. Sugi is typical
Mortise
artificial softwood in Japan. On the other hand, the Column
resource of sugi is huge in Japan. The densified technique
is adopted for sugi. The usage of densified sugi leads to
improve recycling rate because the segregation is not
necessary. The strength characteristics of keyed mortise
and tenon connection with key made from densified sugi
was unveiled by the tension test of joint.

2 OVERVIEW OF KEYED MORTISE AND Key

TENON CONNECTION
Figure 1 shows the detail of a keyed mortise and tenon
connection. The keyed mortise and tenon connection Figure 1: Detail of a keyed mortise and tenon connection
is composed of beam with long tenon, column
3 DENSIFIED METHOD
The outline of method of densification was shown as
1
Masaya Kato, Kei Tanaka, Masafumi Inoue, Oita University, below. The densified woods are compressed to the
700, Dan-noharu, Oita, Japan. E-mail: v13e6007@oita-u.ac.jp, direction perpendicular to fiber. Only sugi materials are
kei@oita-u.ac.jp, inoue@oita-u.ac.jp
2
compressed. The sugi materials are pressed by cold-press
Akinori Iwasaki, Kumagai Gumi Co.,Ltd, Tokyo,Japan.

111
TRACK 2: CONNECTIONS
after microwave treatment by high frequency oven for one specimens used non-densified key key,, initial stiffness are
minute. The sugi materials were fixed about 3 days after almost the same values. Compared to the difference of
compressed. Steam treatment is used to expand densified densified ratio, specimens for 50% of densified ratios are
sugi in artificial expanding method. the highest values. At the difference of steam treatment
The definition of densi
densification
fication ratio is shown Eq.(1). time, specimens without steam treatment are the highest
stiffness. Initial stiffness decreases gradually to steam
A− B treatment time becomes longer.
Densificat ion ratio ＝ × 100 　(%) (1) 　　
　
A
Initial stiffness (kN/mm)
14
Non-densified 30%,50% 70%
where A=thickness before densification, B=thickness after 12 wood
densification. Average

10

4 TENSION TEST OF JOINT 8

6
4.1 TESTING METHOD
4
The list of specimens is shown in table 1. The parameters
2
of this test are species of the key, difference of densified
ratio of the key, and difference of steam treatment time at 0
NPJ-S NPJ-H NPJ-K NPJ- NPJ- NPJ- NPJ- NPJ- NPJ-
Cw-S- Cw-S- Cw-S- Cw-S- Cw-S- Cw-S-
the densified sugi. The parameters of the species of the key 30-S3 50-S3 70-N 70-S1 70-S3 70-S5

are sugi, hinoki and oak. Difference of densified ratio at

the keys are 0%, 30%, 50% and 70%. And difference of Figure 2: Initial stiffness
steam treatment times at densified sugi are 0min, 1min,
3min and 5min. 4.2.3 Maximum load
All specimens are loaded by monotonous tension loading. Maximum loads
loads of all specimens are shown in figure 3. In
specimens used non-densified key, maximum load is
Table 1: List of specimens in tension test increased to density becomes higher. Compared to the
difference of densified ratio, specimens used key for 70%
Density（×103 kg/m3 ） Steam
Name Species
Densified
treatment
Number of of densified ratios are the highest values. At the difference
ratio（％） sample
Before densification After densification time
of steam treatment time time,, specimens without steam
NPJ-S Sugi 0.34～0.38
treatment are the highest values. Maximum load decreases
NPJ-H Hinoki 0.44～0.48
gradually to steam treatment time becomes longer.
NPJ-K Oak 0.76～0.83

NPJ-Cw-S-30-S3 0.38～0.42 0.39～0.56 30

3min Each
Maximum load (kN)
NPJ-Cw-S-50-S3 0.35～0.40 0.52～0.60 50
3 samples
14
Non-densified 30%,50% 70%
NPJ-Cw-S-70-N 0.39～0.41 1.03～1.05 0min wood
Sugi 12
NPJ-Cw-S-70-S1 1min
0.90～1.05 70
NPJ-Cw-S-70-S3 0.35～0.41 3min 10
NPJ-Cw-S-70-S5 0.90～1.04 5min
8

6
4.2 TEST RESULT Average
4
4.2.1 Failure mode
Photo 1 and 2 shows typical failure mode. Final failure 2

modes are fracture of key in all specimens. 0

NPJ-S NPJ-H NPJ-K NPJ- NPJ- NPJ- NPJ- NPJ- NPJ-
Cw-S- Cw-S- Cw-S- Cw-S- Cw-S- Cw-S-
30-S3 50-S3 70-N 70-S1 70-S3 70-S5

Figure 3: Maximum load

5 CONCLUSIONS
The
T he following conclusions obtained from the results of
tension test. Key made of 70% densified sugi without
steam treatment have higher initial stiffness and maximum
load than oak. Initial stiffness and maximum load
Photo 1 and 2: Failure mode decreases gradually to the time of steam treatment
becomes longer.
4.2.2 Initial stiffness Therefore, the key made of 70% densified sugi without
Initial stiffness of all specimens are shown in figure 2. In steam treatment is suitable for keyed mortise and tenon
connection.

112
TRACK 2: CONNECTIONS

ADHESIVELY BONDED TIMBER JOINTS — TO WHICH

EXTENT DO DEFECTS MATTER?

Till Vallée1,a, Simon Fecht2,a, Cordula Grunwald3,a, Thomas Tannert4

ABSTRACT: Although adhesively bonded timber joints have proven their suitability as a structural joining method, often
yielding in better mechanical performance, practitioners remain reluctant to consider them as a substitute for traditional
mechanical fasteners. Among the reasons invoked, the quality control with regard to defects in the adhesive layer remains
the most challenging. Little research has been put into the evaluation of the effect of defects, respectively to which extent
they really influence the capacity of bonded joints. This research sheds new light on that topic by presenting experimental
evidence completed by numerical calculations, showing that the issue of defects on joint capacity is usually overestimated.

KEYWORDS: Adhesively, bonded, joints, capacity, experimental, numerical, defects.

1 INTRODUCTION 123 sufficiently close to the end of the overlap, stresses can be
affected as much as 25%. Logically, the most critical stress
Adhesively bonded timber joints in which adhesives are state occurs at the extreme of the overlap. More
considered substitutes for traditional mechanical fasteners, specifically [4] concludes that: “for adherends that do not
are increasingly in the focus of research. Practitioners, yield, the reduction in strength, as the defect size
however, often remain sceptical because of the increases, is not proportional for small defect sizes”.
uncertainties related to the quality of the bonded joint. A
The objective of this paper is to present experimental
major concern is the presence of defects, e.g., voids,
evidence followed by numerical investigations to shed
porosity, micro-cracking in the adhesive and lack of
light on the relationship between defects and joint
adhesion which are generated by inadequate preparation of
capacity. For this purpose artificial defects have been
the joint or by environmental degradation of the interface.
inserted in adhesively bonded timber joints.
This issue is mostly addressed by trying to detect defects
before servicing the corresponding joints. Due to the large
variety of defects [1], non-destructive-tests (NDT) have 2 EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS
been developed for that purpose, e.g. in the context of 2.1 MATERIALS AND SPECIMENS
composite materials [2]. These techniques have proven to
detect defects with different success [3]. Besides All tests were performed on single lap shear specimens
warranting the absence of defects using NDT, or at least consisting of beech samples (100mm x 25mm x 5mm)
aiming to do so, research was also devoted to investigate, bonded together using a 2C epoxy adhesive (Henkel Hysol
respectively quantify, the effects of defects on the capacity 9492) with an overlap length of 25mm and a thickness of
of bonded joints. 0.5mm. Thus the total bonded surface amounts to 625mm².
Defects were simulated using precisely calibrated circular
The general conclusion of investigations related to flaws Teflon patches of different diameters.
and defects in bonded joints is that that stresses are
essentially unaffected far from the void. If the void is Two series were defined: S1, cf. Fig. 1, in which the size
of the centrally placed defect was varied from 5mm to
1
Till Vallée, Email: till.vallee@ifam.fraunhofer.de 20mm, in steps of 5mm, corresponding to defects of 3% to
2 50% of the bonded surfaces; and S2, cf. Fig. 2, in which
Simon Fecht, Email: simon.fecht@ifam.fraunhofer.de
3 defects (5mm) were arranged in different patterns (1x1,
C. Grunwald, Email: grunwald@ifam.fraunhofer.de
a 2x2, and 3x3). All results were compared to a defect-free
Fraunhofer Institute for Manufacturing Technology and
configuration. Testing was performed on a UTM, load-
Advanced Materials IFAM, Wiener Straße 12, 28359
Bremen/Germany.
displacements and joint capacities were recorded.
4
T. Tannert, Assistant Professor, Departments of Wood Science
& Civil Engineering, The University of British Columbia, 2424
Main Mall, Vancouver, Canada. Email: thomas.tannert@ubc.ca

113
TRACK 2: CONNECTIONS
Figure 1: Specimens of series S1, different defect sizes
Figure 2: Specimens of series S2, different defect patterns
2.2 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
After being tested, all specimens of both series S1 and S2
exhibited failure inside the timber, failure never occurred
in the adhesive layer. When no defect was artificially
inserted, capacity amounted for around 3.56 kN (with a
variance of 22%); this value is subsequently taken as the
reference value for all joints with defects. For series S1, as
shows Fig. 3, increasing the defect area reduces the joint
capacity; this reduction, however, is relatively limited; it
amounted for less than 30% when the defect was set to
10mm (corresponding to a “loss” of the bonded surface of
50%). For series S2, as displayed in Fig. 4, the effect of
defects is even less pronounced, with almost no reduction
in joint capacities even for the quite severe defect pattern
3x3 (reduction of the bonded area of around 28%).
Figure 3: Capacity of specimens of series S1 – plotted
against defect size
114
Figure 4: Capacity of specimens of series S2 – plotted
against defect pattern
3 CONCLUSIONS
The influence of defects on the capacity of adhesively
bonded joints was found to be by less pronounced than
commonly assumed by practitioners, which at least allows
questioning the severe reservations formulated towards the
issue of poorly bonded connections. Furthermore, using
numerical modelling (not presented in this abstract, but
fully developed in the paper) it is possible to correctly
evaluate the effect of defects on the mechanical behaviour
of bonded joints.
REFERENCES
[1] R.D. Adams, P. Cawley, A review of defect types and
non-destructive testing techniques for composites and
bonded joints, NDT International, Volume 21, Issue 4,
August 1988, Pages 208-222.
[2] R.D. Adams, The nondestructive evaluation of bonded
structures, Construction and Building Materials,
Volume 4, Issue 1, March 1990, Pages 3-8.
[3] C.J. Brotherhood, B.W. Drinkwater, S. Dixon, The
detectability of kissing bonds in adhesive joints using
ultrasonic techniques, Ultrasonics, Volume 41, Issue
7, September 2003, Pages 521-529.
[4] E.F. Karachalios, R.D. Adams, Lucas F.M. da Silva,
Strength of single lap joints with artificial defects,
International Journal of Adhesion and Adhesives,
Volume 45, September 2013, Pages 69-76.
TRACK 2: CONNECTIONS

EVALUATION ON SHEAR PERFORMANCE OF WOOD-

CONCRETE COMPOSITE ANCHORED WITH STEEL REBAR

Yukyung Shin1, Sang-Joon Lee1, Kwang-Mo Kim1, Moon-Jae Park1

ABSTRACT: The wood-concrete composite can be a structural member with improved performance, and widely use in
structural engineering field. Related researches have been done, but are not enough to fundamental studies on shear
performance. This study is performed for evaluating shear performance with anchored steel rebar. Yield mode and reference
design value were derived with EYM, and proved results using shear test. Finally, finite element analysis was conducted to
validate failure mode shapes.

KEYWORDS: Wood-concrete composite, Shear performance, Anchored steel rebar, EYM, Finite element analysis

1 INTRODUCTION 1 2.2 WOOD-CONCRETE COMPOSITE

Wooden members are widely using in structural The shape and size of wood-concrete composite were
engineering due to interests of environment friendly referred to previous research (Jutila and Salokangas, 2010;
material. Upgrading structural performance, wood- Lee et al., 2012). The details were shown in Figure 1. The
concrete composite is developed so that compressive and anchorage length as fixed in wood part and 8 anchorage
bending strength is improved. It is considered one of the lengths were used in concrete part to verify the effect of
main issues for wood engineering (Lee et al., 2011). anchorage length.
Yeoh (2011) pointed out that one of the effective designs
for wood-concrete composite was high composite action.
Therefore, this study researched on shear performance of
wood-concrete composite. Composite model was assumed
to be connected wood block and concrete block by steel
rebar (Jutila and Salokangas, 2010). It was one of the
simplest models for shear performance evaluation. To
calculated shear performance, European Yield Model
(EYM), shear test, and finite element analysis were
conducted.
Figure 1: Wood-Concrete Composite Model
2 MATERIALS AND METHOD
3 EVALUATION ON THE SHEAR
2.1 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE
The species of wood for manufacturing the wood-concrete
composite was pinus koraiensis Sieb. and moisture content 3.1 EUROPEAN YIELD MODEL (EYM)
and oven-dried density were 13.5±2.04% and 0.43±0.04 European yield model (EYM) was a prediction method of
g/cm3 respectively. Concrete was ready-mixed type which shear performance without field test. It could determine
was made by Korean standard (KSF 4009). Design target reference design values (Z) that represented yield modes of
strength of concrete was 21 MPa. Steel rebar was used as a the wood composite, and predict the yield loads and
shear connector, and its yield strength was more than 294 deformation shapes.
MPa.

1
Yukyung Shin, Department of Forest Products, Korea Forest
Research Institute, Seoul, Korea. E-mail: skys28@naver.com

115
TRACK 2: CONNECTIONS
3.2 SHEAR TEST
Shear test was performed using Universal Testing Machine
(UTM) (Instron co. ltd, USA). The test was referred to
previous research (Lee et. al., 2012).
3.3 FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS
Finite element analysis was applied for verifying shear
performance of wood-concrete composite with finite
element program ANSYS WORKBENCH 14.0. Each part
of the composite model was designed as a solid element
(SOLID 186, 187) to consider local deformation and
connection between wood and concrete was assumed
frictionless.
from shear test. While the concrete part showed brittle
failure, the wood part represented deformation.
Stress was focused on steel rebar, which signified steel
rebar was charged the most of shear stress (Figure 2 (a)).
Also, strain was concentrated on wood, which meant wood
part was deformed due to shear load (Figure 2 (b)). It was
different from the result of shear stress. It might be
because analysis was not performed up to failure of the
model. If the analysis continues and load increases,
concrete would have cracking and wood would remain
deformed shape due to ductile property.

4 RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 YIELD MODE AND REFERENCE DESIGN
VALUE (Z)
The results of EYM were shown in Table 1. Yield mode
Figure 2: Stress and Strain Distribution
and reference design value (Z) were determined due to
anchorage lengths of steel rebar.
5 CONCLUSIONS
Table 1: Result of EYM
Anchorage Reference This study was performed to evaluate shear performance of
Yield Mode wood-concrete composite. First, EYM was applied for the
Length (mm) Design Value (N)
5 Is 2,100 preliminary prediction and yield mode. As the anchorage
10 Is 4,200 length was short, Is mode was calculated meaning failure
15 IV 5,945 in sliding part. The others broke out IV mode with plastic
20 IV 5,945 hinge in shear plane. Second, shear test proved failure
40 IV 5,945 mode of EYM and yield load showed 7,932±1,266 N.
60 IV 5,945 Finally, with FE analysis shear performance was validated.
80 IV 5,945 However, the deformation shape of FE analysis was
different from one of shear test. The result of FE analysis
4.2 YIELD AND MAXIMUM SHEAR LOAD showed bending of steel rebar and bearing stress of wood.

Shear test results were represented in Table 2. Failure REFERENCES

shapes showed concrete cracking and steel rebar bending
that indicated the plastic hinge at the shear plane. [1] A. Jutila and L. Salokangas: Wood-Concrete
Composite Bridges – Finnish Speciality in the Nordic
Table 2: Result of Shear Test
Countries. Proceedings of International Conference on
Anchorage Yield Load Maximum Load Timber Bridges, Lillehammer, Norway, pp.383-392,
Length (mm) (N) (N) 2010.
20 mm 7,527 10,602 [2] Architectural Institute of Korea: Korea Wood Design
40 mm 7,956 26,985 Manual, 2008.
60 mm 9,652 27,403 [3] D. Yeoh, M. Fragiancomo, M. De Franceschi, and K.
80 mm 11,728 32,055 H. Boon: State of the Art on Timber-Concrete
100 mm 10,558 27,569 Composite Structures: Literature Review. Journal of
120 mm 9,808 29,148 structural Engineering 137(10), pp.1085-1095, 2011.
140 mm 10,144 29,802 [4] S. Lee, C. EOM, and K. Kim: Shear Performance of
160 mm 11,956 25,807 Wood-concrete Composite I. Journal of Korean Wood
Science and Technology 40(3), pp.186-193, 2012.
4.3 DEFORMATION AND STRESS/STRAIN [5] S. Lee, C. EOM, and K. Kim: Shear Performance of
Finite element analysis was performed to verifying shear Wood-concrete Composite II. Journal of Korean
test. Model which considered orthotropic wood properties Wood Science and Technology 40(5), pp.327-334,
was used and applied maximum load from shear test to the 2012.
normal direction of wood part. The results were different

116
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PULL-OUT STRENGTH OF GLUED-IN ROD JOINT FROM LVL

Kazutoshi Ito1, Wonwoo Lee 2, Changsuk Song 2, Kei Tanaka1,

Mikio Koshihara 3 and Masafumi Inoue1

ABSTRACT: Recently, the Japanese government enacted a new law in order to promote large wooden building. As a result,
the momentum in the construction of large wooden building especially multi-stories wooden buildings in local area has been
growing rapidly. In order to achieve these buildings, the higher structural performances than that by usual technique are
required.GIR joint system is widely adapted for the joint part of wooden structures. Glued in rod joint-system(GIR) have
high strength and high rigidity compared to existing joint-system. On the other hand, the structural LVL with the flexibility
performance of cross-section and high structural performance is expected as a material for multi-stories wooden building.
So, in this study, the pull-out tests of GIR joints inserted to structural LVL are carried out. And structural characteristics of
this type of joint is discussed. Maximum strength and allowable load for temporary loading obtained by pull-out tests are
presented.

KEYWORDS: Metal connector, Adhesive, LVL, Pull-out test

11 INTRODUCTION 123
In large wooden building, large span construction such as
gymnasium, museum and domed stadium exist. For these
buildings, it is difficult to carry out structural design. But,
recently, the Japanese government enacted a new law in
order to promote large wooden building. As a result, the
momentum in the construction of large wooden building
especially multi-stories wooden building for local area has
been growing rapidly. In order to achieve these buildings,
higher structural performances than that by usual technique
are required.
1
Kazutoshi Ito, Kei Tanaka, Masafumi Inoue, Faculty of
Engineering, Oita University, 700 Dan-no-haru, Oita, Oita,
JAPAN.
Email: v13e6003@ oita-u.ac.jp, kei@oita-u.ac.jp, inoue@oita-
u.ac.jp
2
Wonwoo Lee, Changsuk Song, National LVL Association,
Shinkiba1-7-22,Koto-ku, Tokyo,Japan.
Email: w_lee@key-tec.co.jp, c_song@key-tec.co.jp
3
Mikio Koshihara, Institute of Industrial Science, The University
of Tokyo, Komaba 4-6-1, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, Japan.
Email: kos@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp
The structural LVL with the flexibility performance of
cross-section and high structural performance is expected
as a material for multi-stories wooden building. On the
other hand, glued in rod joint-system(GIR) have higher
strength and rigidity than that of existing joint-system. So,
in this study, the pull-out tests of GIR joints inserted to
structural LVL are carried out. From test result, structural
performance of the GIR joint will be discussed.
2 SPECIMENS
Table 1 shows the list of specimens. Figure 1 shows the
shape of specimens. The LVL is classified as 120E in
Japanese Agricultural Standard. It is made from larch.
Metal connector with hollow full thread bolt (φ24) is used.
Embedded directions of the metal connectors are parallel
and orthogonal to grain. Embedded length and the number
of connector are shown in table1. Also, 2 types layout of
connectors are fabricated (cf. table 1).The adhesive used in
the GIR joints is epoxy resin adhesive. Curing period of
adhesive is for 14days. Number of specimen is 6 in each
types.

117
TRACK 2: CONNECTIONS
Table 1: List of specimens 51 MAXIMUM STRENGTH AND ALLOW-
specimen name
embedded layout of
embedded
length
number of number of ABLE LOAD FOR TEMPORARY
direction connector connector specimen
P-A1-100
（mm）
100
LOADING
P-A1-200 200 1
P-A1-300 300 Figure 2 shows the maximum strength and the allowable
P-A2a-200
parallel
to grain
load for temporary loading(To). Allowable load for
A‐direction
200 2
6
（Total 60 ）
temporary loading are given from the lower limit values
P-A2b-200
B‐direction
2/3 of the maximum strength.
O-A1-100 100 In maximum strength of O-A1 series, as can be seen from
orthogonal
O-A1-200
O-A1-300
to grain
200
300
1
Table 2 and Figure 2, it is showed value of relative to
embedded length. In maximum strength of P-A2 series, the
metal connector for
pull-out test(M24) metal connector(M24)
B-direction values are higher 1.2 times than the A-
800 direction values. In allowable load for temporary loading,
embedded
length it is shown similar behavior with maximum load. However,
120

700 as can be seen from Figure2 , in the specimens embedded

connector for set up to
embedded length testing machine(M24)
300mm, value of orthogonal to grain are higher than that
of parallel to grain.
connector for set up to strength（kN）
800 testing machine(M24) 250
parallel:maximum strength
A B
orthogonal:maximum strength
150
60

200 parallel:allowable load for temporary loading

200 orthogonalallowable load for temporary loading

metal connector for 150

pull-out test(M24)

Figure 1: Shape of specimens(unit in

mm) 100

3 TEST METHOD 50

Monotonic tensile loading is applied to specimens by the 0

2000kN universal testing machine. Loading speed is 0 100 200 300 400
0.5mm/min. embedded length（mm）
strength（kN）
250
4 FAILURE MODE
200
Photo 1 and 2 show the failure mode in each series
specimens. In the case of parallel to grain, specimens a 150
shear failure in timber. In some of the two metal
connectors placed A-direction, shear failure in timber 100
occurred with LVL between the metal connectors. (cf.
photo 1). 50
maximum strength
allowable load for temporary loading
In case of orthogonal to grain, all specimens shown similar 0
P-A2a-200 P-A2b-200
failure mode. That is surface of base material of specimen specimens name
is lifted up with metal connector. Inside of the LVL, failure
that adhesive is peeled is showed at interface between the Figure 2: Maximum strength and allowable
adhesive layer and the wood (cf. photo 2). load for temporary loading

6 CONCLUSIONS
In this study, the pull-out tests of GIR inserted to structural
LVL are carried out. And structural characteristics of this
type joint was discussed.
Maximum strength and allowable load for temporary
loading obtained by pull-out tests were presented. In
maximum strength of P-A2 series, the B-direction values
are higher 20% than the A-direction values. In allowable
Photo 1: Failure mode Photo 2: Failure mode
load for temporary loading, it is shown similar behavior to
(parallel to grain) (orthogonal to grain)
the maximum strength.

118
TRACK 2: CONNECTIONS

EVALUATE BEARING STRESS OF GLULAM USING DIGITAL

IMAGE CORRELATION

Gi Young Jeong1, Moon Jae Park2

ABSTRACT: The goal of this study is to evaluate the effect of different sizes of drift pins (12mm, 16mm, 20mm, 30mm)
and six orientations of glulam associated with pin positions (RL, TL, LR, TR, LT, RT) on bearing stress and strain
distributions of glulam using digital image correlation (DIC). Different bearing stresses, strain distributions, and fracture
behaviours associated with the orientation of the glulam and pin sizes were observed. As the diameter of drift pins increased,
the bearing strength increased regardless of the orientation. However, the trends of failure behaviours did not change by the
pin size.

KEYWORDS: Bearing stress, Glulam, Digital image correlation

1 INTRODUCTION 123 16mm, 20mm, 30mm) were used to analyze the effect of
the pin size on the bearing strain distribution and strength.
The structural weak point in wood frame building is the
joint area. The design value of the joint area could help for
architects and contractors to select proper connections.
Drift pine type joints are one of the most common
connectors used in wood frame building. Wood as an
orthotropic material showing the three distinctive
properties according to the longitudinal, radial, and
tangential directions. With the directional dependent
property of wood, the way of the pin aligned with glulam
creates six different combinations of loading cases.
Therefore, design values for pin connection in glulam
should require bearing stress from the six different oriented
specimens.

2 MATERIALS AND METHODS

Figure 1 shows six different oriented specimens (RL, TL,
LR, TR, LT, and RT) prepared to measure the bearing
strength and strain distribution of pin connection. The first
letter indicates the length direction of a pin aligned with
the fiber direction in glulam. The second letter indicates
the applied loading direction associated with a pin to the
fiber direction in glulam. Different sizes of pins (12mm,

1
Gi Young Jeong, Chonnam National University, 77
Yongbongro Bukgu, Gwangju 500-757, South Korea
Email: gjeong1@jnu.ac.kr
2
Moon Jae Park, Korea Forest Research Institute, 57 Hoegiro, Figure 1: Six differently oriented glulam associated with pin
Dongdaemoon-gu, Seoul 130-712, South Korea positions
Email: mjpark@forest.go.kr

119
TRACK 2: CONNECTIONS
Figure 2 shows the 3-dimentional digital image correlation specimen were mostly govern by strain y distribution,
set up with two cameras and universal test machine. Before whereas fracture behaviours of the RT and TR specimen
load applied, the dimensions of all specimens were were mostly govern by shear strain distribution.
measured and speckle pattern was applied to the surface of
the front side of the specimen. The loading rate was
1mm/min. During the load applied, a series of images was
captured at ten frame rates to compute the strain
distributions.

a) Strain x distribution from DIC

Figure 2: Digital image correlation set up for bearing stress

test

3 RESULTS b) Strain y distribution from DIC

3.1 BEARING STRENGTH
Comparing the bearing strength of glulam with a 12mm
pin, the highest bearing strength of 24.78 MPa with a
coefficient of variation (cov) of 9% was observed from the
RL specimen, whereas the lowest bearing strength of 7.71
MPa with a cov of 29% was observed from the LR
specimen. The average bearing strength of 23.42 MPa,
17.66 MPa, 14.14 MPa, 8.62 MPa from the TL, RT, TR,
and LT specimens were observed, respectively. For the
design bearing strength, it can be suggested that the RL
and TL, the RT and TR, and the LR and LT could be
c) Shear strain distribution from DIC
combined as three different groups. Figure 3: Different stress distribution from DIC and failure
behaviours

3.2 STRAIN DISTRIBUTION AND FAILURE 4 CONCLUSIONS

BEHAVIOR
Figure 3 shows the strain distribution from DIC and failure
behaviour of glulam. Different strain distributions occurred
in the main member. Figure 3a shows the stress x
distribution. Maximum strain x occurred the main member
near the pin. The failure behaviour shows that cracks
propagate in the x direction at the hole. Figure 3b shows
the strain y distribution from DIC and failure behaviour of
glulam. Much higher strain y value was observed the area
near the pin. As the distance away from the area near pin,
the magnitude of strain y value is averaged out. It is
strongly related with the design value for the bearing
strength. Fracture behaviours of the RL, TL, LT, and LR
Different bearing stress, strain distributions, and failure
behavior of pin connection were observed using DIC. The
bearing stress of the differently oriented specimen was
found to be directional dependent. The strain distribution
from DIC was highly related with the failure behavior of
the connection. It could be used for the connection design
including the end and edge distance related to the glulam
orientation and the pin size.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This study was financially supported by Chonnam
National University and Korea Forest Research Institute,
2013.

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WOOD-BASED STRUCTURAL-USE PANEL DIAPHRAGMS AND

SHEAR WALLS: PROBLEMS DUE TO MOISTURE EXPOSURE
AND RECOMMENDED REPAIRS

Agron E. Gjinolli1 and Dick Bower2

ABSTRACT In North America diaphragms and shear walls, constructed with oriented strand board (OSB) and plywood
provide the primary lateral load resisting system in residential construction and are very popular in low-rise light-
commercial buildings. The ability of these assemblies to resist and transfer shear loads is greatly dependent on the strength
and behaviour of sheathing-to-framing connections. A case study describing an investigation technique and testing of shear
wall and plywood floor diaphragm problems associated with prolonged exposure to rain is provided. The repair technique,
including recommended steps taken for correcting problems related to fastener nailhead embedment and improving glue
bond durability problems for plywood panels, is presented.

KEYWORDS: OSB, plywood, diaphragms, shear-walls, delamination, embedded nail-heads

1 INTRODUCTION 123
In the United States, wood structural panels must be
manufactured in conformance with U.S. Department of
Commerce Voluntary Product Standard, PS 1,
Construction and Industrial Plywood [6], or PS 2,
“Performance Standard for Wood-Based Structural-Use
Panels” [7]. In Canada, plywood structural panels are
manufactured in accordance with Canadian Standards
Association Standards CSA O121-M1978 Douglas Fir
Plywood, CSA O151-04 Canadian Softwood Plywood or
CSA O153-M1980 Poplar Plywood, and CSA Standard
O325 “Construction Sheathing.
These standards establish minimum performance criteria
based on the intended end-use application for the product
and have worked well for ensuring satisfactory
performance of panels used in typical sheathing
applications. As with any building product, however,
performance problems can and do occur. Performance
problems with wood-based structural-use panels, as with
any building materials, can occur during construction of
the building or after the building has been completed and
occupied. The most common problems associated with
wood-based structural-use panels are related to
1 results of the testing are presented in testing section of this
Agron E. Gjinolli, P.E., Universal AET, 1925 Hwy 50 and 132,
Stoughton, WI 53589, USA. Email: agjinolli@universalaet.com
2
Dick Bower, TECO, Certification and Testing Division, Sun
Prairie, Wisconsin, USA
dimensional changes of the installed panels after they have
been exposed to moisture. A summary of a case study
involving structural plywood performance problems
related to nailhead embedment and face veneer
delamination due to prolonged exposure to the rain is
provided, including the recommended steps taken to
correct the problems.
2 CASE STUDY
The observed structure was a two-story addition to a
school building located in Southern California. The
building under construction utilized light-framed wood
construction. The L-shaped footprint of the structure is 43
meter in the north/south direction and 16.5 meter and 8.5
meter, respectively in the east/west direction.
2.1 EXAMINATION METHODS AND
PROTOCOL
The floor and roof structure were visually examined for
outward signs of moisture exposure, installation issues and
possible glue-bond problems. Two samples of the floor
plywood sheathing were also removed from selected areas
to investigate the panel glue bond and sheathing fastener
connection. Observation of the removed samples and the
paper. Selected areas of the floor panels were tested for
moisture content using digital moisture meter.

121
TRACK 2: CONNECTIONS
2.2 TESTING OF STRUCTURAL PLYWOOD
DIAPHRAGM PANELS
Since the building was located in a high seismic region of
Southern California, plywood floor diaphragms and shear
walls of this structure provide the primary lateral load
resisting system. The capacity of these assemblies to resist
and transfer shear loads is appreciably dependent on the
strength and behaviour of sheathing-to-fastener
connections. In order to predict the potential for reduction
in shear capacity of sheathing connections, a nail lateral
resistance testing according to section 7 of PS 2-09 [6] was
conducted on two (2) sets of test specimens removed from
the floor assembly.
Figure 1: Nail lateral load test in accordance with PS
2-09(top) and CASHEW program output; load-
displacement response from monotonic pushover
analysis (MIDDLE) and cyclic load analysis (bottom)
3 CONCLUSIONS
Wood-based structural-use panels are the primary
structural sheathing components used in many types of
light-frame low-rise wood structures built in North
America. In comparison with other sheathing products,
wood structural panels offer many advantages and have a
122
well-established record of reliability. Most performance
problems associated with wood structural panels are
related to moisture exposure. In addition, fastener heads
can become embedded in the panel due to thickness swell
of the panels caused from prolonged exposure to the wet
weather. A summary of a case study describing an
investigation method for a plywood floor diaphragm and
shear wall problems associated with prolonged exposure to
rain is provided. A step by step field repair procedure for
damaged plywood panels due to embedment of fastener
nailheads and problems associated with plywood glue
bond durability was provided.
REFERENCES
[1] Wood Frame Construction Manual (WFCM) for One-
and Two Family Dwellings. American Forest and
Paper Association (AFPA) and American Wood
Council (AWC), USA, 2012.
[2] Guideline for structural condition assessment of
existing buildings; Structural Engineering Institute of
the American Society of Civil Engineers, SEI/ASCE
11-9. USA, 1999.
[3] Fernando S. Fonseca, Johnn P. Judd. , Effect of
Overdriven-Nail-Depth Combinations on Wood Shear
Walls. Proceedings of the 8th World Conference on
Timber Engineering, June 14-17, Lahti, Finland ,
2004.
[4] Folz, B., Filiatrault, Andre. CASHEW (A Computer
Program for Cyclic Analysis of Wood Shear Walls),
CUREE. University of California, San Diego, USA,
2000.
[5] Gjinolli, A., Vogt, J., In Service Moisture Problems
and Structural Performance of OSB Panels
Proceedings of the 9th World Conference on Timber
Engineering, August 6-10, Portland, Oregon, USA,
2006.
[6] U.S. Department of Commerce, National Institute of
Standards & Technology, 1995. Voluntary Product
Standard PS 1-09, Structural Plywood. Washington,
DC, USA
[7] U.S. Department of Commerce, National Institute of
Standards & Technology, 2004. Voluntary Product
Standard PS 2-10, Performance Standard for Wood-
Based Structural-Use Panels. Washington, DC, USA
[8] Vogt, J.J. & Gjinolli, A.E. 2005. Investigation of
problems involving wood structural panels, 3rd
International Conference on Forensic Engineering,
Diagnosing Failures and Solving Problems,
Institution of Civil Engineers, London, United
Kingdom
TRACK 2: CONNECTIONS
EFFECT OF WOOD DECAY ON SHEAR RESISTANCE OF
DOWEL-TYPE JOINTS WITH STEEL SIDE PLATES
Kei Sawata1, Yutaro Sugano2, Ryuya Takanashi3, Takuro Hirai4,
Yoshihisa Sasaki
KEYWORDS: Brown rot fungus, Main member thickness, Load-displacement curve
ABSTRACT 123
Wood is affected by environmental degradation during its
service life. It is well known that biological factors,
particularly wood fungi and termites, pose significant risk
to the integrity of timber structures. The timber joints
degraded by biological factors may have largely effect on
safety and serviceability of timber structures, because the
structural resistance of the joints often have an influence
upon that of structures.
Several studies on strength degradation of wood have been
reported to date, in which compressive strength, tensile
strength, bending strength, and shear strength were
examined. However, little data has been collected on shear
resistance of timber joints exposed to wood-decaying
fungus. The present study focused on the shear resistance
of dowel-type joints decayed by brown rot fungus.
The shear tests were conducted on the dowel-type joints
with steel side plates. The main member and side plates
was connected with a dowel with diameter (d) of 12 mm.
The end and edge distance were 7d and 4.3d, respectively.
The shear resistance of dowel-type joints was determined
from two main member thickness (t), which was set 2.5d
and 8.75d.
Specimens of dowel-type joints with t/d of 2.5 were
prepared from Spruce (Picea Abies) solid lumbers with
length of 420 mm. Control samples and the samples after
1
Kei Sawata, Research Faculty of Agriculture,
Hokkaido University,N9W9, Sapporo, Japan.
E-mail: ksawata@for.agr.hokudai.ac.jp
2
Yutaro Sugano, Graduate School of Agriculture,
Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan.
3
Ryuya Takanashi, Graduate School of Agriculture,
Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan.
4
Takuro Hirai, Research Faculty of Agriculture,
Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan.
5
Yoshihisa Sasaki, Research Faculty of Agriculture,
Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan.
123
decay procedure were immersed in a water bath for 1
week. Average wood density was 475 kg/m3 (standard
deviation, 25.6 kg/m3), and average moisture content was
76.0 % (standard deviation, 19.5 %).
Specimens of dowel-type joints with t/d of 8.75 were
prepared from Todomatsu (Abies Sachalinensis) solid
lumbers with length of 290 mm. Control samples and
samples after decay procedure were immersed in a water
bath for 3 weeks. Average wood density was 398 kg/m3
(standard deviation, 32.2 kg/m3), and average moisture
content was 102 % (standard deviation, 24.0 %).
This study assumed the case of wood decay occurring at
the dowel lead hole of dowel-type joints. The samples
were sterilized by heating to 120°C for 60 min. Then, the
dowel lead hole was filled up the sawdust covered with the
mycelium. The sawdust from Ezomatsu (Picea jezoensis)
and Todomatsu was inoculated with a small piece of
Fomitopsis palustris mycelium mat. Samples with t/d of
2.5 were incubated at 26°C and 98% relative humidity for
35, 56 and 77 days. Four groups, which were the control
sample group and three groups for different decay periods,
of 12 replicates each were used in the tests. Samples with
t/d of 8.75 were incubated at 26°C and 80% relative
humidity for 60, 90 and 120 days. Four groups of 8
replicates each were used in the tests.
Dowel-type joints under lateral loads parallel to the grain
were tested by monotonic tensile loading and reversed
cyclic loading. The cycle loading protocol was defined in
terms of average yield displacement obtained from the
monotonic tensile tests. Initially, one cycle was applied for
each displacement level, which was 25% and 50% of the
yield displacement. Then, the step of the cyclic test was
repeated three times to produce 75%, 100%, 200% and
400% of yield displacement. Displacement between the
steel plate and the sample was measured with two
displacement transducers. Tests were terminated when the
load decreased to 80% of the maximum load.
TRACK 2: CONNECTIONS

The yield mode of dowel-type joints differed with t/d, that

is, the dowel of joints with t/d of 2.5 showed the rigid
deform and the yielding of dowel appeared in the joints
with t/d of 8.75. Even if the main member was decayed,
the dowel of joints with t/d of 8.75 showed the residual
bending deformation. However, the residual bending angle
of dowel of joints exposed to decay fungus was smaller
than that of control specimens.
The control specimens with t/d of 2.5 (Fig. 1(a)) showed
the load-displacement curves which were similar to perfect
elasto-plastic curve. However, the shape of load-
displacement curve for the decayed specimen differs
significantly, having an uncertain yield point on the load-
displacement curve. In the case with t/d of 8.75 (Fig. 1(b)),
the control specimens showed almost constant load near
the ultimate load. Some of decayed specimens showed that
the load was gradually increased until maximum load, and
then was rapidly decreased.

25
Blue lines, control specimens
20 Red lines, decayed specimens

15
Load(kN)

10

5
(a) t/d=2.5
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Displacement(mm)

25

20

15
Load(kN)

10

5
(b) t/d=8.75
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Displacement(mm)

Figure 1: Load-displacement curves of

dowel-type joints.

124
TRACK 2: CONNECTIONS

DEVELOPMENT OF CONTINUOUS COMPOSITE JOINTS ON

THE BASIS OF POLYMER MORTAR WITH MATCHED
PROPERTIES

Martin Kaestner1, Markus Jahreis2, Wolfram Haedicke3, Karl Rautenstrauch4

KEYWORDS: polymer mortar, polymer concrete, concrete, rigid bond, shear test, pull-out test

ABSTRACT 123 The 2-component resins used reveal a high adhesive

For demanding applications with increased requirements in
terms of load-carrying capacity and long spans, the High-
Tech Timber Beam® (HTB) – a hybrid composite beam
made of glulam and high-performance materials – was
developed at the Bauhaus University in cooperation with a
local SME [1]. The applicability of the High-Tech Timber
Beam® for TCC constructions (Timber-Concrete-
Composite) is examined in ongoing research. In former
investigations several studies with new technologies and
materials for rehabilitation and strengthening of historic
timber structures were carried out at the Bauhaus
University [3]. Within those studies, several formulations
of glue-mortar based on epoxy resin and mineral fillings
(hereinafter also referred to as PC – polymer concrete)
were developed to implement a direct and continuous bond
between timber and reinforcing materials or elements (for
instance LVL, CFRP lamellas, bars made of GFRP or
steel). The different mixtures of PC were adjusted to their
application purposes through a range of modifications to
the composition and detailed material analysis.
potential for many materials, especially for wood,
minerals, glass and steel. Hence it is very well suited to
provide rigid bonds between those materials. Furthermore,
the shrinkage of these resins during the chemical reaction
is low. Thus, it can be used for grouting or to glue rods
into holes. In the presented investigations, pure epoxy-
systems were used with different mineral fillings from rock
flour to gravel with specific grain-size curves. The
properties of the different mixtures of PC were adjusted to
the application purpose – in most cases this was done by a
modification of the gradation and the amount of
aggregates. Additionally, the processability depends on the
type of hardener used. In several material tests the
properties of the different PCs were determined. These are
characterized by high strength in compression
(90…142 MPa), tension (16…36 MPa) and shear
(25…>35 MPa). A new shear test configuration was
developed to detect the shear strength and stiffness of the
different PC formulations (Figure 1).

1
Dipl.-Ing. Martin Kaestner, Dep. of Timber and Masonry
Engineering, Bauhaus-University Weimar, Marienstr. 13A,
D-99423 Weimar, Germany.
Email: martin.kaestner@uni-weimar.de
2
Dipl.-Ing. Markus Jahreis, Dep. of Timber and Masonry
Engineering, Bauhaus-University Weimar, Marienstr. 13A,
D-99423 Weimar, Germany.
Email: markus.jahreis@uni-weimar.de Figure 1: Shear tests on different PC formulations
3
Dipl.-Ing. Wolfram Haedicke, Dep. of Timber and Masonry
Engineering, Bauhaus-University Weimar, Marienstr. 13A,
D-99423 Weimar, Germany. In particular, the bond-behaviour of PC with wood (here
Email: wolfram.haedicke@uni-weimar.de the load capacity is usually limited by the shear strength of
4
Univ.-Professor Dr.-Ing. Karl Rautenstrauch, Dep. of Timber the wood) as well as with steel, CFRP, GFRP was analysed
and Masonry Engineering, Bauhaus-University Weimar, using pull-out tests (Figure 4) and special composite shear
Marienstr. 13A, D-99423 Weimar, Germany. tests, partly according to the shear test for wood described
Email: karl.rautenstrauch@uni-weimar.de

125
TRACK 2: CONNECTIONS
in DIN EN 408 (Figure 2 and 3). The benefit of the latter
test setup is the very uniform shear stress distribution
(Figure 2). Because of the high stiffness of the PC
(MOE 10000…> 42000 MPa) all continuous connections
are usually rigid connections.
Figure 2: PC-steel composite shear test – setup, shear-
stress distribution and associated transverse stress
distribution (right) in the center axis of the PC-layer, MPa
Figure 3: Configuration of PC-wood and PC-concrete
composite shear test (here: PC-concrete specimen)
Additionally, composite shear tests of PC-concrete
specimens were arranged in order to assess the
applicability of the continuous bond for TCC-constructions
(Figure 3). As opposed to previously investigated bonding
methods, it is possible to ensure the necessary tolerance-
compensation for this connection on the building site,
because of the mineral filling of the glue-mortar (PC).
Different pre-treatments of the concrete surface were
tested, e.g. sandblasted, grinded or washed-out finish. In
the PC-concrete shear tests, bond strengths of
6.3…9.3 MPa have been determined. Here, the load-
capacity was limited by the shear strength of the concrete.
126
In addition to traditional measurement equipment, contact-
free measurement with industrial close-range
photogrammetry (CRP) was used [4]. The CRP technique
enables measuring of the progression of deformations,
cracks and deteriorations during loading and unloading of
a specimen by computer controlled high resolution
cameras. The results of CRP measurements are very
helpful for the calibration and verification of FE models.
By inverse FE simulation based on photogrammetric data,
the complete analysis and graphic capacities of
commercial finite element software can be used for
processing and visualization purposes (Figure 4).
Figure 4: Pull-out test of casted-in steel rod, inverse FE
simulation based on CRP-measurement; left: shear stress
distribution in the adjacent wood before bond-failure at the
end-grain, MPa; right: final failure
REFERENCES
[1] K. Rautenstrauch, M. Kaestner, M. Jahreis, W.
Haedicke: Entwicklung eines Hochleistungsverbund-
traegersystems für den Ingenieurholzbau. In
Bautechnik, 90 (1): 18-25, 2013.
[2] M. Jahreis, M. Kaestner, W. Haedicke, K.
Rautenstrauch: Development of a high-performance
hybrid system made of composites and timber (High-
Tech Timber Beam®). In: Proceedings of RILEM
Timber Structures Conference 2013, Stuttgart,
Germany, 2013.
[3] K.-U. Schober: Untersuchungen zum Tragverhalten
hybrider Verbundkonstruktionen aus Polymerbeton,
faserverstaerkten Kunststoffen und Holz, Doctoral
thesis, Bauhaus-University Weimar, Germany, 2008.
[4] S. Franke: Zur Beschreibung des Tragverhaltens von
Holz unter Verwendung eines photogrammetrischen
Messsystems. Doctoral thesis, Bauhaus-University
Weimar, Germany, 2008.
TRACK 2: CONNECTIONS

REINFORCEMENT OF SHEAR FAILURE WITH LONG SCREW

IN MOMENT-RESISTING JOINT

Makoto Nakatani1, Hideki Morita2, Takuro Mori3

ABSTRACT: Moment resisting joint with lagscrewbolts shows good mechanical performance and aesthetic. However,
beam and column joints rarely showed a brittle shear failure in a panel zone of a column in previous studies. Therefore, a
joint system reinforced by long screws was developed to prevent from the failure in this research. The maximum shear
strength of the joint increased with increasing the number of long screws. However, the average of six screws specimens
was lower than that of four screws, because the glulam and some of the screws were damaged due to the narrow space
between the screws during an inserting process of the screws.

KEYWORDS: Long Screw, Lagscrewbolt, Shear Failure, Panel Zone

1 INTRODUCTION 123
The number of middle and large scale timber public
building is recently increasing in Japan. Also, the number
of houses constructed using timber portal frames is
increasing due to demand from customers to have wider
rooms. A moment-resisting joint by using Lagscrewbolt
(LSB) was developed and confirmed the performance in a
previous research [1]. The LSB joints showed good
mechanical performances and aesthetic. However, the
beam-column joints rarely showed brittle failures which
were shear failure of the column in the panel zone
surrounded by LSBs. Therefore, a cross LSB joint was
developed and confirmed good reinforcing performance in
a previous study [2]. However, it was not easy to drill
oblique lead wholes for cross LSBs. Therefore, in this Figure 1: Geometry of reinforced area
research, an improved joint was developed by using long
screws which does not need a lead hole and were used
instead of the cross LSBs prevented the joint from the
brittle shear failure.

2 EXPERIMENT
The specimens imagined an actual beam and column joint
with LSBs. Fig.1 shows geometry of the actual joint, and
the red area shows a panel zone. The column and beam
sizes were 120mm x 300mm and 120mm x 390mm,
respectively. Specimens were made of Japanese cedar
glulam, and the grade was E65-F225 in accordance with
Figure 2: Test set-up
1
Makoto Nakatani, Miyazaki Prefectural Research Institute, 20-2
Hanaguri Miyakonojyo, Miyazaki, Japan.
Email: nakatani-makoto@pref.miyazaki.lg.jp
2
Hideki Morita, Miyazaki Prefectural Research Institute, Japan
3
Takuro Mori, Kyoto University, Japan Photo 1: Long screw

127
TRACK 2: CONNECTIONS

(i) Two long screws (ii) Four long screws (iii) Six long screws
Figure 3: Details of reinforced specimens

the Japan Agricultural Standard (JAS). The diameter of

LSB was 25 mm, the length was 300mm and the lead hole
was 22mm. The long screws shown in photo 1 were used
to reinforce the panel zone. The diameter was 8mm and the
length was 320mm. In order to accurately investigate the
reinforced effect of the screws on shear strength of the
column, the tests were conducted based on an asymmetric
four point bending tests shown in Fig.2. Fig.3 shows the
details of reinforcing conditions of specimens. There were
four conditions, no reinforcement, (i) two long screws, (ii)
four long screws and (iii) six long screws. The total
number of specimens was 20. The failure phenomena of all
specimens were shear failure around the centre of
specimens same as shown in photo 2. Fig.4 shows a
relationship between the number of long screws and
maximum shear strength. The shear strength increased
with increasing the number of long screws. However, the Figure 4: Shear strength vs. the number of long screws
results of the six long screws specimens were varied, and
the average was lower than that of four screws. Because 3 CONCLUSION
some of the six screws were scratched by the next long
screw, and the glulam were also damaged due to the The reinforced effect of the long screws on shear strength
narrow space during the inserting process of the screws. in the panel zone was confirmed. The shear strength and
The maximum shear strength of the four screws increased modulus were increased with increasing the number of the
by 17% compared with that of non-reinforced specimens. long screws. However, they were not increased and varied
The shear modules of four screws increased by 55% over four long screws specimens in this test conditions,
compared with non-reinforced specimens. because the glulam and some screws were damaged due to
the narrow space between the screws during the inserting
process. The future problem is to propose an optimal
reinforcement method with long screws.

REFERENCES
[1] Makoto Nakatani, Takuro Mori, Kohei Komatsu:
"Development of moment-resisting joint systems
using lagscrewbolts." Proceedings of WCTE 2006,
Portland, USA, August, CD-ROM, No.148, 2006.
[2] Makoto Nakatani, Takuro Mori, Kohei Komatsu:
“Development of cross embedded joint using
Lagscrewbolt.” Proceedings of WCTE 2012,
Photo 2: Shear failure of reinforced specimen pp.360-363, Auckland, New Zealand, 2012.
(Two long screws)

128
TRACK 2: CONNECTIONS

EXPOSURE TEST OF SURFACE-TREATED STEEL PLATES ON

PRESERVATIVE-TREATED WOODS

Hiroki Ishiyama1, Masao Nakajima2, Takuro Mori3, Yasunobu Noda4, Takahiro

Tsuchimoto5

ABSTRACT: In this study, some surface-treated steel plates on some preservative-treated woods were subjected to
exposure test, and we observed the corrosion status of the steel plates continuously. The plates were evaluated on the visual
deterioration degree, but it seems that the method have low-reproducibility. Then we tried to evaluate the corrosion status of
the steel plates by the image analysis method. As a result, visual deterioration degree was almost same result to the
deterioration degree by the image analysis method. But there are some problems that the determination of the wood adhered
to the plate, the reddish part which is not rust, and the red rust near black, are difficult.

KEYWORDS: Timber structure, Metal joint, Durability, Preservative-treated wood, Exposure test

1 INTRODUCTION 123 preservative-treated wood. Outline of the exposure test was

shown on Figure 1. Specifications of steel plates and
In Japan, it becomes important that metal joints in the preservative-treated wood were shown on Table 1 and 2.
wooden houses because installation of metal joint were We observe corrosion status of the steel plates which
required by revised Building Standard Law in 2000 and the surface was facing the wood in some intervals, and we
Act on the Promotion of Popularization of Long-life evaluated the corrosion status by the visual index, which is
Quality Housing was en acted in 2008. However, 6 glade evaluation (Figure 2). We got the image data by
knowledge about the durability of the metal joint is still scanning the plate. Then the plates which had been
less. So we are continuing to observe the corrosion status observed were returned to attach on the wood.
of steel plates which are attached on the preservative-
treated wood and exposed outdoor [1].
In this test, we had evaluated the corrosion status of steel
plates by the visual index. The method of the visual index
has the advantage of their quickness and simplicity, but at
the same time, it has the risk that repeatability is low. So
we tried to evaluate the corrosion stats of steel plates by
image analysis.
Figure 1: Outline of the exposure test
2 TEST AND ANALYSIS
Table 1: Specifications of steel plates
A B C D E F G H I
2.1 TEST OUTLINE
Zn5Cr6 Zn8Cr6 Zn5Cr3 Zn8Cr3 Z27 HDZ-A HDZ23 Z60 HDZ35

Some steel plates treated with several different types of

rust-proofing were exposed outdoor with attached on the J K L M N O
Zn5
P
Zn5
Q
Zn5
R
Z27
Zn+Al(Bak Zn+Al(Bak Zn+Sn An+Mg Zn+Mg
+organic +inorganic +organic +cation
ing)1 ing)2 plateing plateing1 plateing
coating1 coating1 coating2 coating
1
Hiroki Ishiyama, Chubu University, 1200 Matsumoto-cho, Table 2: Specifications of preservative-treated wood
Kasugai-shi, Aichi, Japan. Email: ishiyama@isc.chubu.ac.jp 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
2
Masao Nakajima, Kanto Gakuin University, Japan non-
AAC SAAC BAAC ACQ CUAZ-2 CUAZ-3 AZN
Copper
naphthe-
3
Takuro Mori, Kyoto University, Japan attached
nate
4
Yasunobu Noda, Forest Products Research Institute, Hokkaido 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Research Organization, Japan Ethofen- non- non-
5 Thiame- Dino- Ethofen-
Hiroki Nakashima, Sumitomo Forestry Co., Japan thoxam tefuran
Bifenthrin prox
prox oil
Boric acid treated treated
6 emulsion Douglas fir Hemlock
Takahiro Tsuchimoto, Building Research Institute,, Japan

129
TRACK 2: CONNECTIONS

2.2 IMAGE ANALYSIS Architectural Institute of Japan, Structure Ⅲ, pp.611-

The procedure of the image analysis is shown below. 612, 2012
1 1.5 2
1) We extracted the RGB values of 30 points which were No change
変化なし
概ね50%以下の変色、
Discoloration
白錆発生
(less than 50%)
概ね50%以上の変
Discoloration
白錆発生
(more than 50%)
obviously red rust. And calculated average value and
the standard deviation σof R, G, and B. We defined
average values ±σ(range A) as the range of the red
rust (Figure 3).
2) We resized the image into 100 × 100 pixels for
3 4 5
reducing data size, and calculated the RGB values of Red Rust
微量の赤錆発生
Red Rust
概ね30%以下の赤錆発生 概ね30%以上の赤錆発生
Red Rust
(less than 5%) (less than 30%) (more than 30%)
each pixels.
3) If RGB values of the pixel are included in the range A
(described above), the part of the pixel was
determined as red rust. The ratio of red rust pixels to
total pixels (10000 pixels) was called Red Rust Area
Ratio. However, the pixel, which R/G value and R/B Figure 2: Visual index (6 grade)
value was less than 1.1, was not determined as red rust,
because the pixel, which R value was small and which
G value or B value was large, was not counted.
3 ANALYSYS RESULT AND DISCUSSION
The extraction results of the pixels as red rust are shown in
Figure 4 as an example. And the relationships between the The red rust was decomposed
into RGB, and the mean and
visual index and Red Rust Area Ratio are shown in Figure standard deviation was
5. As a result, it is found that the visual index has certain calculated
accuracy, but it has the tendency to overestimate Red Rust
Area Ratio at 4 or 5 grade of the visual index (Despite the
plate was under 5% Red Rust Area Ratio, it was
determined 4 grade of the visual index, and despite the
plate was under 30% Red Rust Area Ratio, it was
determined 5 grade of the visual index. ).
4 CONCLUSIONS
We tried to adopt image analysis for the evaluation of the Carried out on 30 samples, the range of red rust was defined
corrosion on the steel plates instead of the visual index. As
色、
a result, the visual index has certain accuracy, but some Figure 3: Definition of the range of red rust
issues remained. The remaining issue is that it is difficult
to determine the part which is red but not rust, the piece of
wood attached to the steel plate, the shadow of the hole in
the steel plate, and the red rust near black.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This study was performed as one part of "metal joint
research task group, durability subcommittee,
Figure 4: The extraction results of the red rust pixels
comprehensive verification project of Wooden Long-Life
100%
Quality Housing ", the subsidized project of MLIT. I 90%
would like to thank for people involved.
Red Rust Area Ratio

80%
70%
60%
REFERENCES 50%
40%
30%
[1] Hiroki Ishiyama, Masao Nakajima, Takuro Mori, 20%
Yasunobu Noda, Hiroki Nakashima, and Takahiro 10%
0%
Tsuchimoto: Exposure test of surface-treated steel 1 2 3 4 5
plates on preservative-treated woods 【Part 1】, Visual Index

Summaries of technical papers of annual meeting Figure 5: The relationships between the visual index
and Red Rust Area Ratio

130
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EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF PULL-OUT STRENGTH OF A

TENON AND MORTISE JOINT
- The effect of a size of komisen-dowel and a shape of a hole for komisen-dowl

Atsushi Tabuchi1, Takamitsu Motoyoshi2, Yoko Shiota3

ABSTRACT: A tenon and mortise joint are often used in Japanese traditional timber connection. This paper presents a
pull-put properties of a tenon and mortise joint by experimental methods and effects of a shape and size of a hole for a
komisen-dowel. The shape was a square or round one and the size was 15mm or 18mm. As a result, it was found that 1)the
joint which had a round hole for komisen-dowel was frequently damaged by shearing force at an end of column, 2)a pull-
out strength could be calculated under some assumptions of yield mode, which were a)a tenon breaking at a hole for
komisen-dowel by shearing force, b)splitting of a sill, c)yielding a komisen-dowel by bending moment in a column and a
sill in embedment, d)yielding a komisen-dowel by bending moment in both of column and sill.

KEWORDS: Tenon, Mortise, Japanese traditional timber joint, pull-out strength, komisen-dowel

1 INTRODUCTION 123 obtusa) . Each member had a 120mm x120mm section. A

length of column was 400 mm and a length of sill was 600
A tenon and mortise joint, which is usually used in a beam- mm. Each komisen-dowel had a square section, whose
column joint and a column-sill joint and so on, is one of dimension was 15mm x 15mm or 18mm x 18mm and
the japanese traditional timber connections. These joints knocked in a 15mm square, 18mm square, 15mm
are subjected to pull out by an earthquake and endured this diameter , or
force. Even though, a tenon 18mm diameter.
and mortise joint has not
been designed for seismic 2.2 METHOD
adequacy. The objective this A set-up
study is to make known that diagram was
a pull-out strength of a shown in Figure
tenon and mortise joint was 2. A sill was
influenced due to a shape of fixed from a
a komisen-dowell and a centre of a
hole for it. column at both
sides and at the
2 EXPERIMENT distance of
200mm. This Figure 2:Set up and method of
2.1 SPECIMEN experiment (Unit:mm)
column was
A specimen was shown in
Figure 1: A tenon-mortise pulled up and its load and displacement was measured.
Figure 1. A column
(Chamaecyparis obtusa) joint specimen (Unit:mm) 2.3 EVALUATION OF STRENGTH
with a tenon was squared with a sill ( Chamaecyparis A strength, when a column was pulled out from a mortise,
1 was evaluated following four assumptions.
Atsushi TABUCHI, Graduate School of Life and [1] Py1 : Broken tenon at a hole for komisen-dowel by
Environmental Science, Kyoto Prefectural Univ., 1-5 Shimogamo shearing force
nakaragi-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, Japan. [2] Py2 : Splitting of a sill
Email: a-tabuchi@kpu.ac.jp
2 [3] Py3 : Yielding a komisen-dowel by bending moment in
Takamitsu MOTOYOSHI, Kyoto Prefectural Univ. (former), 1-
5 Shimogamo nakaragi-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, Japan.. a column and a sill in embedment
3
Yoko SHIOTA, KyotoPrefectural Univ., 1-5 Shimogamo
nakaragi-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, Japan.

131
TRACK 2: CONNECTIONS

[4] Py4 : Yielding a komisen-dowel by bending moment in 1 - -

both of column and sill
The pull-out strength of a tenon-mortise joint (Py) was 2 11.2 13.2
defined as a minimum of these four strength. 3 12.7 6.1
S18 12.2 4.21 10.9 8.96 9.6
Py=min(Py1, Py2, Py3, Py4) 4 12.4 8.5

5 12.5 17.2
Table 1: Parameter of specimen
6 12.0 9.6
Feature of Size of 1 14.8 9.6
hole for komisen Quantity 2 17.2 10.5
komisen (mm)
3 19.5 9.7
S15 □15 15 6 C15 15.4 19.6 8.36 6.22 7.1
4 17.7 8.1
C15 ○15 15 6
5 12.3 3.8
S18 □18 18 6
6 11.0 5.3
C18 ○18 18 6 1 13.9 4.9
2 15.5 9.2
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3 14.2 7.3
The pull-out strength(Pmax), evaluated strength(Pcal), C18 16.3 13.8 11.1 8.96 8.1
4 19.8 15.4
stiffness(K) and so on were shown in Table2. And
peculiarity of each specimen was followings. 5 15.7 10.7

S15:Komisen-dowels of almost all specimens were broken, 6 18.9 7.3

when a loading force reached maximum. And they yielded
in about 3mm's displacement of a column. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
S18:Mortise of a column was damaged by shearing force, a A part of this research was supported by the scientific
maximum force was come at that time. research grant No.21760439 given by the Ministry of
C15:A mortise of a column was damaged by shearing Education, Science and Cultures. The authors greatly
force, but some of them was damaged when a appreciate these supports.
displacement was 3mm, others were damaged in 15mm.
A transformation of specimen varied widely.
C18:A feature was similar to C15, a mortice was broken
REFERENCES
[1] HIRASAKA Tsuguomi:Experimental studies on the ultimate
by shearing force. strength of the wooden construction connections, Journal of
structural and construction engineering, 548, 89-94, 2001
4 CONCLUSION [2] UEKI Hirotoshi, TAKARA Tomoya and HIRASAKA
Tsuguomi:Study on pull-out strength of the wooden
1)C-series, which had a round hole for a komisen-dowel, construction cotter pin connection (Part 2), Summaries of
were frequently damaged at a mortise of a column by technical papers of annual meeting Architectural Institute of
shearing force. Japan (Structures III), 7-9, 2003.9
2)A mean value of strength of C18 was higher than that of [3] SADANARI Masanori:Relationship between acoustic
S-series, which had a square hole for a komisen-dowel. emission and strength of timber connection(3): from factor
3)It was found that a strength of a tenon-mortise joint of cotter pin and strength property, Summaries of technical
papers of annual meeting Architectural Institute of Japan
could be evaluated.
(Structures III), 1-2, 2003
[4] SADANARI Masanori:Relationship between acoustic
Table 2: Results of each experiment
emission and strength of timber connection(7):the strength
Pmax Pmax_ave C.V P05 Pcal K K50
property of cotter pin joints at tenon connection with a circle
Series No.
(kN) (kN) (%) (kN) (kN) (kN/mm) (kN/mm) hole, Summaries of technical papers of annual meeting
Architectural Institute of Japan (Structures III), 145-146,
1 14.0 15.1
2007
2 16.4 16.9 [5] Architectural Institute of Japan,"Design Manual for
Engineered Timber Joints", 2009
3 13.4 14.1
S15 15.7 21.1 7.98 6.22 13.9
4 12.5 8.3
5 15.6 13.9
6 22.5 23.5

132
TRACK 2: CONNECTIONS

A STUDY ON FAILURE MODE AND STRENGTH ESTIMATION

OF TIMBER JOINT USING LAGSCREWBOLTS AND DRIFTPINS

Hiroyasu Sakata1, Takumi Ohira2, Yoshihiro Yamazaki3, Hiromichi Ito4,

Azuma Fujishiro5, Ryuki Odani6

ABSTRACT: Flexural tests of drift pined joints with insert-steel gusset plate with lagscrewbolts were carried out. In order
to observe various types of failure, the shear span and the difference in level of both side’s beams were changed. A method
to estimate the strength of the joint and the corresponding failure mode derived from bending failure of the column and
shear failure of the panel zone are proposed.

KEYWORDS: Lagscrewbolt, Driftpin, Experiment on joint, Moment resisting joint, Failure mode, Strength estimation

1 INTRODUCTION 123 3 RESULTS

We have carried out flexural experiments on drift pined
joints with insert-steel gusset plate with lagscrewbolts and
proposed analytical model of the joint. In this research,
failure mode and strength estimation is discussed.
2 OUTLINE OF FLEXURAL TEST
List of specimens and material properties are shown in
Table 1 and 2, respectively. Parameters of specimens are
cross-sectional dimension of column and beam, framing
type (T-type and Cross-type), length and height of beams.
Setup of specimen and measurement method are shown in
Figure 1. Static cyclic loading was applied by actuator.
Moment at the critical section is considered, and it is
calculated using shear force of the beam which is
measured by two-way pin type load cell. One- and three-
directional strain gauges were attached around panel zone
in order to examine failure mechanism caused by bending
and shear.
1 presented.
Hiroyasu Sakata, Structural Engineering Research Center,
Tokyo Institute of Technology, 4259 R3-18 Nagatsuta Midori-ku
Yokohama, Japan. Email: sakata.h.aa@m.titech.ac.jp
2
Takumi Ohira, Department of Built Environment, Tokyo
Institute of Technology, Japan
3
Yoshihiro Yamazaki, Structural Engineering Research Center,
Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan
4
Hiromichi Ito, NCN Co., Ltd., Japan
5
Azuma Fsujishiro, NCN Co., Ltd., Japan
6
Ryuki Odani, NCN Co., Ltd., Japan
Envelope curve of moment (M) - rotation angle of joint (θ)
relationship of T-type is shown in Figure 2. When depth of
column was 120mm, shear failure at panel zone occurred,
and brittle behavior was observed. Figure 3 shows the
shear strain of column along its height. Maximum shear
strain of specimen which is broken by shear failure was
recoded at 1/30rad. In addition, the location where shear
strain stands out is apparently close to where crack
occurred. Shear strain generally stands out at rotation
center of joint, which is evaluated by the analytical model
we have proposed. The bending failure mechanism of the
column is also confirmed. Therefore it becomes possible to
estimate strength determined by bending and shear
capacity of column.
4 CONCLUSIONS
Flexural tests of joints were carried out, and M-θ relation,
failure mode and shear strain of column were confirmed.
The key point to estimate strength of the joint was
REFERENCES
[1] Hiroyasu S., Yoshihiro Y., Shinobu M., Hiromichi I.,
Azuma F. and Ryuki O. A study on flexural-shear
behavior of timber joint using lagscrewbolts and
driftpins. In: Proceedings of WCTE 2012, Auckland,
New Zealand, 2012

133
TRACK 2: CONNECTIONS

Table 1: List of specimens

T-type Cross-type
The Number The Number
Name DC DB L1 H1 H2 Name DC DB L H H3
of Specimens of Specimens
12T 120 390 1200 1365 1365 3 12C 120
24T 240 390 1200 1365 1365 3 24C 240 390 1200 1365 0 3
30T 300 390 1200 1365 1365 3 30C 300
12TB 120 450 1200 1365 1365 1 Cross-type(difference in level on the beam)
24TB 240 450 1200 1365 1365 1 12CS1 120
30TB 300 450 1200 1365 1365 1 12CS2 240
120
12TS 120 390 600 1365 1365 1 12CS3 360
24TS 240 390 600 1365 1365 1 12CS4 480
390 1200 1365 1
30TS 300 390 600 1365 1365 1 24CS1 120
12TL 120 390 2400 1365 1365 1 24CS2 240
240
24TL 240 390 2400 1365 1365 1 24CS3 360
30TL 300 390 2400 1365 1365 1 24CS4 480
12TC 120 390 1200 680 680 3
24TC 240 390 1200 680 680 3 Table 2: Material properties
* *
30TC 300 390 1200 680 680 1 Member Tree species Lamina ( ) Strength grade ( )
12TF 120 390 1200 1360 680 3 Column Homogeneous
E95-F315
24TF 240 390 1200 1360 680 3 120×120 Scotch pine grade
Symmetric
30TF 300 390 1200 1360 680 1 Others E105-F300
grade
(*) Japanese standard

lm = 250 mm Load Load Load

L1 L L L L
H1

H
lm lm lm
Beam Column Beam Column Beam Column
DB
H3
Rotation angle Rotation angle
of joint (θ) of joint (θ)
H2

DC Rotation angle
H4
Two-way pin Two-way pin Two-way pin of joint (θ)
type load cell type load cell type load cell

(a) : T-type (b) : Cross-type (c) : Cross-type

Figure 1: Setup of flexural test of beam-column joints

h[mm] h[mm]
20 M[kNm] :Shear failure 1800 T-type 1800 T-type
DC:120[mm] DC:240[mm]

Shear Shear
10 failure failure
h=
1530[mm]
T-type
DC :120[mm] 1500 1500
θ[rad.] 1440[mm]
0
0 0.05 0.1
40
M[kNm] 1320[mm]

30 1200 1200
1215[mm]
20 1/200,1/100, 1/200,1/100,1/50,
T-type 1/50, 1/30rad. 1/30,1/15,1/10rad.
10 DC :240[mm] in ascending order in ascending order

θ[rad.] -3 -3
0 Crack after shear 900
ε×10 [-]
900
ε×10 [-]
0 0.05 0.1 failure at panel zone -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
(T-type, Dc:120mm)
Figure 2: Moment(M) – rotation angle Figure 3: Shear Strain Distribution around Panel Zone
of joint(θ) relationship

134
TRACK 2: CONNECTIONS

DEVELOPMENT OF CLT SHEAR FRAME USING METAL

PLATE INSERT CONNECTIONS

Akihisa Kitamori1, Shoichi Nakashima2, Hiroshi Isoda3

ABSTRACT: The purpose of this study is to develop a high strength leg joint for shear wall made of small size cross
laminated timber panel in a simple system. The joint of CLT in which steel plate was inserted in the central slit and fixed by
high strength bolt at inside of short steel pipes was proposed. In order to grasp the failure mode and strength of CLT
member, material tests on embedment and shear were carried out using small CLT blocks. The test results indicated that
there is few reinforce effect by cross bonding of each lamina. It was concluded that the precise estimation of the strength of
CLT member is important in order to develop the joint proposed in this paper.

KEYWORDS: Cross laminated timber, Steel connector, Embedment, Shear

1 INTRODUCTION 123 using larger diameter dowel type connector. After

In response to the increasing attention for timber structure
in terms of low environmental impact, the demand to
construct large-scale or mid-rise timber building is
increasing in Japan. In such buildings the higher strength
shear wall is required since lower layer of the building is
subjected to the higher earthquake force than the case of
conventional timber structures. Cross laminated timber
(CLT) has high potential to develop such strong shear wall
element. Different from the use in Europe, CLT shear
walls made of small sized panel is more reasonable on
current situation of Japan in terms of transportation or
manufacturing. In this case, strong leg joint is necessary
corresponding to the strong shear performance of CLT
shear wall. The purpose of this study is to develop a high
strength leg joint for CLT shear wall in a simple system.
Authors have investigated the structural performance of
steel plate insert drift pinned joint[1] and obtained
satisfactory high strength and ductility. However it was
necessary to drive in multiple number of drift pins to meet
the requirement of shear wall strength when common small
diameter drift pin was employed. Therefore in this paper
the joint with easier assembling ability was developed by
1
Akihisa Kitamori, Research Institute for Sustainable
Humanosphere, Kyoto University, Gokasho, Uji, Kyoto, Japan.
Email: kitamori@rish.kyoto-u.ac.jp
2
Shoichi Nakashima, Utsunomiya University, Japan
3
Hiroshi Isoda, RISH, Kyoto University, Japan
confirming the basic mechanical properties of CLT
member by material tests, tensile test of the developed
joint was carried out.
2 MATERIAL AND METHOD
2.1 SPECIMEN
5 layered CLT specimen made of Japanese cedar was
employed for the test. The thickness of each layer was
30mm, and the average density and moisture content were
430kg/m3 and 13% respectively.
2.2 MATERIAL TEST
As a preliminary material tests, embedment test and full-
scale block shear test were carried out for CLT. On
embedment test, steel bar of 12mm in diameter was push
into the half cut hole at the top of the CLT block placed on
the base by universal testing machine. The load and
relative movement between steel bar and top of the
specimen were measured. On block shear test, three
layered CLT block with 30x30mm notch was set in the
shear test apparatus. The top and bottom surface of the
specimen was fixed by apparatus while load was applied at
notch in vertical direction to the fixed surface. Maximum
force was measured.

135
TRACK 2: CONNECTIONS
30 60 Similarly, different failure mode was observed between
30
30 different grain orientation lamina in the case of block shear
Surface fixed 90
test. Shear failure occurred along the grain direction on the
by Jigs layer which grain orientation is parallel to the loading
direction, on the other hand, obvious shear failure was not
90 found on the layer which grain orientation is perpendicular
to the loading direction. Instead, tensile failure from corner
Figure 1: Specimens for material test (left: embedment, of the notch was observed on perpendicular lamina after
right: shear) occurrence of interlayer peeling between cross laminated
layers. The shear strength of the specimen was estimated
2.3 TENSILE TEST OF THE JOINT just by considering the shear strength of parallel lamina.
This result suggested that the transversal lamina does not
The tensile test specimen of the joint is composed of CLT
work for shear strength of CLT. More detailed
in which steel plate was inserted in the central slit prepared
investigation is necessary on the mechanism of shear
at one end of the specimen. Short steel pipes of which one
failure of CLT.
end is covered by steel plate were inserted in the side hole
of CLT members and were fixed to the inserted steel plate
by high strength bolt at inside of the pipe. Since the steel
pipes and steel plate were rigidly fixed by friction, small
deformation occur by embedment of pipe into CLT
member. Based on the previous research[2], a ductile slip
mechanism was taken into consideration. By forming long
hole on the inserted steel plate, the friction slip can be
expected without causing brittle failure by shearing or
embedment of CLT member.
By clamping the another end of CLT member and inserted
steel plate, the tensile force was applied to the joint. The
Figure 3: Failure modes observed in material tests
relative displacement between CLT and steel plate was
measured.
4 CONCLUSIONS
The material tests on embedment and shear indicated that
CLT
High strength bolt there is few reinforce effect by cross bonding of each
lamina. Therefore it is more important to care for the
Friction joint by
tightening the bolt
precise estimation of their strength in order to develop the
Expected friction
joint proposed in this paper. Tensile test of the joint is to
N N
slip displacement be carried out by taking material test results into
length
Shear consideration. And its load carrying capacity is discussed.
Embedment by large
One end diameter pipes
covered steel Inserted steel plate
pipe with long hole
P=2Nμ
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Figure 2: Specimen of the tensile test of the joint This work was supported by Grant-in-Aid for Young
Scientists (A) number 25712018 from Japan Society for
3 RESULT AND DISCUSSION the Promotion of Science.

Figure3 shows the failure modes obtained by material tests.

REFERENCES
Large ductile deformation capacity was observed in
[1] Shoichi Nakashima, Akihisa Kitamori, Takuro Mori
embedment test. Deformation progressed at just under the
and Kohei Komatsu: Evaluation of Tensile
steel bar on the lamina which grain orientation is parallel
Performance of Drift Pin Joint of Cross Laminated
to the loading direction, on the other hand, deformation
Timber with Steel Inserted Plate, Proceedings of
spread externally on the lamina which grain orientation is
World Conference on Timber Engineering 2012
perpendicular to the loading direction. However as a result,
Auckland, 417-424, 2012
it was able to calculate the ultimate strength of embedment
[2] Kohei Komatsu, Shoichi Nakashima and Akihisa
specimen by adding the strength of each layer according to
Kitamori: Development of Ductile Moment-Resisting
the ratio of the thickness. This indicates that the reinforce
Joint Based on a New Idea for Glulam Portal Frame
effect by cross lamination was not so significant on
Structures, Proceedings of World Conference on
embedment characteristics.
Timber Engineering 2012 Auckland, 156-161, 2012

136
TRACK 2: CONNECTIONS

THE QUICK CONNECT MOMENT JOINT FOR PORTAL

FRAME BUILDINGS: CASE STUDY AND DISCUSSION OF
DESIGN CHALLENGES AND CONSTRUCTION DETAILING

Felix Scheibmair1, Pierre Quenneville2

ABSTRACT: The Quick Connect is a rod based connection which utilizes fully threaded timber screws which has been
developed to allow timber construction to move from the traditional model of onsite connection assembly to a construction
methodology whereby much of the connection is manufactured offsite. The connection has been developed at the University
of Auckland and has been used in a number of buildings in Australia and New Zealand. The first use in a commercial
building in Australia is discussed, including design challenges and construction detailing. The issues and findings discussed
are applicable to all box beam type timber portal frame buildings, not just those using the Quick Connect.

KEYWORDS: Timber portal frames, screwed connections, moment connections

1 INTRODUCTION 123 2 THE QUICK-CONNECT

The Quick Connect was developed at the University of The Quick-Connect joint is a semi-rigid moment
Auckland as part of a five year research programme which connection which has been developed as an alternative to
was aimed at increasing the use of engineered timber traditional moment connection solutions. The connection
materials as the structural system. bears some conceptual similarity to the partially restrained
bolted connections often used in steel construction. The
This particular segment of the overall research programme
joint consists of a rod based system as shown in figure 1.
focused on timber portal frames, being the traditional form
of structure used when maximisation of interior space is
required (Leichti et al., 2000).
Through review of literature and contact with industry
partners in New Zealand and Australia, it was determined
that current moment connections, such as the plywood
gusset connection as introduced by Batchelar (Batchelar,
1984) had a number of constructability issues.
The plywood gusset and other traditional moment
connections used in timber portal frame structures require
significant assembly or manufacture onsite. This
‘traditional approach’ to timber building significantly
impacts on critical construction paths and can often result
in construction phasing issues.

1
Dr Felix Scheibmair, Faculty of Engineering, Auckland Figure 1: An example of the Quick-Connect joint
University, 20 Symonds street, Auckland, New Zealand. Email:
f.scheibmair@auckland.ac.nz When the structure is loaded, a tensile force is applied to
2
Prof. Pierre Quenneville, Faculty of Engineering, University of
one set of rods whilst the other set remains idle. The
Auckland, 20 Symonds street, Auckland, New Zealand. Email:
p.quenneville@auckland.ac.nz
compressive force in the connection is taken by the main
timber members. This allows a moment couple to be

137
TRACK 2: CONNECTIONS
developed which allows for the transfer of loading across
the joint. The rods are housed in U-shaped timber
members, hereafter referred to as timber sleeves. Placing
the rods on the exterior of the portal members allows for
the full bending moment capacity of the members to be
developed at the joint.
The timber sleeves are fixed to the main portal members
by way of continuously threaded timber screws. The
availability of this long, high strength, fully threaded
screws which have been designed specifically for high load
applications in timber, allows for the creation of efficient
connections between the timber sleeves and main
members.
In practical terms, the connection can be designed and
manufactured without special training. Pre-manufacturing
of the connection offsite allows for reduced crane and
labour requirements during erection. The slightly higher
materials costs when compared to the nailed gusset
connection are negligible when compared to the savings in
plant and labour onsite.
A full connection design procedure, verified by full scale
testing, has been introduced by the authors in a separate
paper (Scheibmair & Quenneville, 2012).
3 NETBALL CENTRAL, AUSTRALIA
The Netball Central facility is a New South Wales
government funded sports complex in Sydney, Australia.
The facility encompasses five practice courts and one show
court. The main portion of the structure, housing the
practise courts is approximately 140m, with portals
spanning 37m spaced at 8.7m.
The portals are of the box beam type, constructed of a
mixture of grade 11 LVL and grade 13 LVL and well as
cross-banded LVL. The engineered timber material is used
for both the column and rafter members.
The Quick Connect is used for the knee and apex joints.
Beam splices, placed approximately 12m from the apex,
are formed using a screwed connection with some
similarity to a rod-less Quick Connect system.
The overall design was managed and performed by Arup
in Sydney. The University of Auckland consulted on the
design of the knee, apex and splice joints.
3.1 THE IMPORTANCE OF DETAILING
The Netball Central structure is the first to use the Quick
Connect system with box beam type members.
A number of issues were faced and overcome during the
connection design phase of the project.
138
High loads in the knee connection area and discontinuities
in the member design required careful consideration. The
extent of infill materials and the termination of flanges
within the connection region required multiple design
changes and member design iterations.
In general, compression loading in the Quick Connect is
taken by the main portal members at the connection
interface. A gap is then left between the member interface
and the extreme end fibre of the sleeve to ensure that no
compression loading is taken by the sleeves.
Due to the significant moment loading at the knee joints, a
portion of the compression loading was assumed to be
acting on the sleeves. The design therefore used separate
screw groups on the compression side of the connection
which were orientated towards or away from the joint
depending on the load being resisted. This approach had
not been considered before and lead to an improved
method of calculating the compression deflections of the
system.
4 CONCLUSIONS
The Quick-Connect allows for the majority of assembly
work for timber connections to be completed off-site or on
ground. Significant savings are seen in crane times. Some
interesting design issues have been faced in the first use of
the connection with a box beam section, which highlight
the need to look beyond simple calculations and take a
more global view of the forces present in the high moment
zones of portal frame structures. Further, the findings show
that careful detailing can overcome most problems in
timber design and that efficient connections result.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors wish to thank the ‘Structural Timber
Innovation Company’ who supplied the funding for the
research phase of this project.
REFERENCES
Batchelar, M.L. (1984). Improved Plywood Gussets for
Timber Portal Frames, Proceedings of the Pacific Timber
Engineering Conference (pp. 654-666). Auckland, New
Zealand.
Leichti, R. J., Hyde, R. A., French, M. L., and Camillos, S.
G. (2000). The continuum of connection rigidity in timber
structures. Wood and fiber science, 32(1), 11-19.
Scheibmair, F., and Quenneville, P. (2012). The Quick
Connect moment connection for portal frame buildings–an
introduction and case study. Proceedings of the World
Conference on Timber Engineering, Auckland, New
Zealand, 15, 19.
TRACK 2: CONNECTIONS

DESIGN EQUATION FOR WITHDRAWAL RESISTANCE OF

THREADED FASTENERS IN THE CANADIAN TIMBER DESIGN CODE

Shawn Kennedy1, Alexander Salenikovich2, Williams Munoz3, Mohammad Mohammad4

KEYWORDS: Lag screws, wood screws, self-drilling screws, glued laminated timber, sawn timber.

were conditioned to 65 ± 5% of relative humidity and 20 ±

1 INTRODUCTION123
The 2009 edition of Canadian standard for engineering
design in wood (CSA O86) [1] provides two different
design equations for wood screws and lag screws, which
are, in turn, different from those in the American “National
design specification for wood construction” (NDS) [2] and
from the overseas codes. The purpose of this project is to
study the withdrawal resistance of various types of
threaded fasteners in timber and to propose a unified
design equation for the Canadian timber design code.
2 BACKGROUND
The NDS design values for wood screws originate from
the data collected by Fairchild [3] as early as in 1926 when
over 10 000 wood screws were tested in seven species of
wood. The NDS design equation for lag screws is based on
the work of Newlin and Gahagan [4] who tested 233
fasteners of different diameters in 5 wood species in 1938.
A modified version of this equation was adopted in CSA
O86 for lag screws in the form of a table. In 1997, McLain
[5] expanded the data base using tests conducted later by
various American researchers and proposed new equations
based on nonlinear regression analysis for wood screws
and lag screws. In 2009, the McLain’s equation for wood
screws was adopted in CSA O86. More recently, Gehloff
[6], Abukari et al. [7], and Baek et al. [8] conducted
independent investigations on the withdrawal strength of
self-drilling screws.
3 MATERIALS
The experimental program conducted jointly at
FPInnovations and Université Laval [9] and at McGill
University ([7], [10]), included withdrawal tests on lag
screws and self-drilling screws using sawn timber and
glued laminated timber of Canadian species. The sawn
timber and glulam products were generously provided by
manufacturers from Quebec Province and British
Columbia and included Douglas-fir sawn timber, Spruce-
pine glulam and Douglas-fir glulam. All wood specimens
2°C temperature prior to testing. Lag screws of six
diameters (from 6.35 mm to 19.01 mm) were commodity
off-shelf products, while self-drilling screws of three
diameters (6, 8 and 12 mm) were supplied by European
producers. Two lengths of penetration were examined for
each diameter of fastener.
4 METHODOLOGY
All fasteners were inserted perpendicular to grain of wood
respecting the minimum end and edge distances in
compliance with the European standard EN 1382 [11].
Wood samples with fasteners that required pilot holes were
predrilled to 70% of the nominal diameter. Fasteners were
inserted using pneumatic tools and all tests were performed
within 24 hours from insertion. In compliance with the
European standard EN 1382 [11], wood samples were
fixed to the test set-up and fasteners were pulled out with a
hydraulic actuator at a constant cross head speed of 1
mm/min and 0.5 mm/min for lag screws and self-drilling
screws, respectively. Test stopped after the resistance
decreased to 80% of the peak load. After testing small
samples were cut from the specimens to determine local
specific gravity and moisture content of each specimen.
5 MAIN RESULTS
5.1 LAG SCREWS
The following test data have been considered in the
analysis of the withdrawal resistance of lag screws:
1. Kennedy [9]: D-Fir, n = 120
2. Abukari [10]: Nordic Lam, n = 120
3. Newlin & Gahagan [4]: N. white pine, Redwood,
Douglas-Fir, Yellow pine, White oak, n = 233
4. McLain [5]: SPF, SYP, n = 88
5. Simpson Strong-Tie [12]: DFL, n = 130

1
Shawn Kennedy, Université Laval, 2325 rue de la Terrasse,
Québec, Canada. Email: shawn.kennedy.1@ulaval.ca
2
Alexander Salenikovich, Université Laval, Québec, Canada
3
Williams Munoz, Nordic Structures Bois, Montréal, Canada
4
Mohammad Mohammad, FPInnovations, Ottawa, Canada

139
TRACK 2: CONNECTIONS

The experimental values were compared with the

predictions using the following design equations: Prw =  59  dF0.82 G1.77 Lt
40
DF  (McGill)
1. CSA O86-09 [1]: Wood Screws
2. CSA O86-09 [1]: Lag Screws SP  (McGill)
3. NDS-2012 [2]: Lag Screws
30
4. NDS-2012 [2]: Wood Screws Nordic  L am
(McGill)
5. McLain [5]: Lag Screws DF  (UBC)

P rw,  test (kN)

Equation [1] revealed the best level of prediction for 20 SP  (UBC)
withdrawal resistance of lag screws. Figure 2 shows Hemlock
comparison of experimental mean values adjusted to
standard load duration with predicted values by Equation DFL  (SDS)
10
[1]. A coefficient of variation of 30% was assumed. n = 2430
Sugi  ( Japan)

n  =  2430  
0
0 5 10 15 20
P rw,  CSA  WS  (kN)

Figure 3: Comparison of experimental data and predicted

data for withdrawal of self-drilling screws (Equation [1])

n
 =
 691
  Washington, D.C., USA
Figure 2: Comparison of experimental data and predicted
data for withdrawal of lag screws (Equation [1])
5.2 SELF-DRILLING SCREWS
The following test data have been considered in the
analysis of the withdrawal resistance of self-drilling
screws:
1. Abukari [7]: Nordic Lam, D-Fir, n = 1261
2. Gehloff [6]: D-Fir. L, SP, Hemlock, n = 360
3. Simpson Strong-Tie [12]: DFL, n = 130
4. Baek et al. [8]: Sugi, n = 200
With all 4 projects, 2430 experimental data points were
collected and compared to the equations shown in section
5.1. Similar to lag screws, Equation [1] was found to
produce the best fit with the test data (see Figure 3).
6 CONCLUSIONS
The CSA O86 [1] equation for wood screws showed the
best prediction for withdrawal resistance of lag screws and
self-drilling screws in sawn timber and glued laminated
timber. A proposal was made to the CSA O86 technical
committee to apply the equation to all threaded fasteners.
Further research will investigate the withdrawal resistance
of threaded fasteners in cross-laminated timber.
140
REFERENCES
[1] CSA Standards. 2009. CSA O86-09 Engineering design in
wood, Canadian Standards Association. Mississauga, ON,
Canada.
[2] ANSI/AWC. 2012. National design specification for wood
construction. NDS-2012. American Wood Council.
[3] Fairchild, I.J. 1926. Holding power of screws. U.S. Dept. of
Commerce, Technologic Papers of the Bureau of Standards,
No. 319. Washington, D.C., USA.
[4] Newlin, J.A. and J.M. Gahagan. 1938. Lag-screw joints:
their behaviour and design. Techn. Bulletin No. 597. USDA
Forest Serv., Forest Prod. Lab., Madison, WI, USA.
[5] McLain, T.E. 1997. Design axial withdrawal strength from
wood: I. Wood screws and lag screws. Forest Prod. J. Vol.
47, No. 5, pp. 77-84.
[6] Gehloff, M. 2011. Pull-out resistance of self-tapping wood
screws with continuous thread. Master’s thesis. UBC,
Vancouver, BC, Canada.
[7] Abukari, M.H., M. Côté, C. Rogers, A. Salenikovich. 2012.
Withdrawal resistance of structural screws in Canadian
glued laminated lumber. WCTE 2012 Proceedings.
Auckland, New Zealand.
[8] Baek, H-S., H. Morita, A. Shiiba, Y. Iimura and F. Imai.
2012. Influence of shape factors of wood screw on
withdrawal performance. WCTE 2012 Proceedings.
Auckland, New Zealand.
[9] Kennedy, S. 2013. Withdrawal and embedding resistance of
fasteners in timber and CLT panels. Master’s Thesis.
Université Laval, Quebec, CA.
[10] Abukari, M.H. 2012. Project report on lag screws. McGill
University, Montreal, QC, Canada.
[11] EN 1382: 1999. Timber structures – Test methods –
Withdrawal capacity of timber fasteners.
[12] Simpson Strong-Tie. 2006. Test data on self-drilling lag
screws. Internal company report.
TRACK 2: CONNECTIONS

STUDY ON WOOD - STEEL PLATE CONNECTION

WITH EPOXY RESIN AND SELF DRILLING TAPPING SCREWS

Ryota Haba1, Akihisa Kitamori2, Takuro Mori3, Hiroshi Isoda4

ABSTRACT: Timber Concrete Composite (TCC) is a construction technique in which timber beam or deck is connected to
an upper concrete flange, using different types of connectors. To make TCC unification as the composite beam, the high
stiff connector is needed. In my research, on the assumption that epoxy adhesive enable the connection to be high stiff even
in small displacement, the bent steel plate sets into the slab and epoxy-glued into a slot in the glulam timber. And in order to
guarantee the long term strength, the self drilling tapping screw attaches the steel plate to the timber. This paper reports the
shear test result of wood–steel plate epoxy-glued specimens of various adhesive thickness about control and water soaked
on the assumption that the TCC is accidentally exposed to water and the steel plate is inserted in the slot which is thicker
than the plate. This paper also reports the sheer test result of specimens about self drilling tapping screws.

KEYWORDS: Timber Concrete Composite (TCC), Glued, Shear connector, Adhesive, Self drilling tapping screw

1 INTRODUCTION 123 control specimen and specimens treated by the water

soaking on the assumption that the TCC is accidentally
Wood attracts a great deal of attention as a sustainable exposed to water. In TCC, the steel plate is inserted in the
building material in the modern world as it contributes to slot whose width is thicker than the width of the plate, so
reduce a carbon emission in construction. The total volume specimens of various adhesive thicknesses are tested.
of industrial timber consumption in the world is increasing
and Japan’s wood demand also tends to increase.
It is thought that the composite structure composed of 2 SHEAR TESTS
timber and other structural member such as reinforced (CONTROL SPECIMENS)
concrete (RC) is effective in the rational design of large In the TCC of my research, the steel plate is inserted in the
scale timber structures. This research focuses on the slot of the timber and glued. If the steel plate and the
Timber-Concrete Composite (TCC) floor system. adhesive are pressed, they are put between two timbers.
The TCC structure is a construction technique in which a Although the slot of the timber doesn’t need pressing, its
timber beam or deck is connected to an upper concrete width has to be bigger than the thickness of the steel plate.
flange, using different types of connectors. There are some So each specimen with each adhesion thickness (0.1mm,
advantages of the TCC over timber-only or reinforced
concrete floors. When TCC become unification as the
composite beam, its strength and stiffness improve,
deflection decreases, and beam depth becomes smaller in
TCC. To realize this, the high stiff connector between the
concrete slab and the timber beam is needed. In this
research we focused on the bent steel plate sets into the
slab and epoxy-glued into a slot in the glulam timber. This
paper reports the shear test result of wood–steel plate
epoxy-glued specimens. Two conditions are compared:

1
Ryota Haba, Kyoto University, Uji, Japan.
Email: ryota_haba@rish.kyoto-u.ac.jp
²Akihisa Kitamori, Kyoto University, Uji, Japan.
³Takuro Mori, Kyoto University, Uji, Japan. Fig 1: Wood–steel plate epoxy-glued specimen (double-
⁴Hiroshi Isoda, Kyoto University, Uji, Japan. single-lap specimen)

141
TRACK 2: CONNECTIONS
1.0mm, 2.0mm, and 3.0mm) are experimented with in
these sheer tests.
The main member is the wooden piece made of the air-
dried Japanese larch (20×50×230mm). The secondary
members are SS400 steel plates (3.2×50×170mm). And
these steel plates are coated by cathodic electrodeposition.
The double-single-lap is made of this Japanese larch piece
and these two steel plates, glued by the two-part room
temperature-curable epoxy resin adhesive. The upper side
of the specimen cover the adhesive area of 50mm×50mm
and the lower side of the specimen cover the adhesive area
of 50mm×80mm. It intends to break the upper side of the
specimen [Fig 1].
The silicone rubber spacer is put between the wooden
piece and the steel plate. It makes an adhesive thickness.
There are four types of an adhesive thickness (0.1mm,
1.0mm, 2.0mm, 3.0mm). Each specimen has one of the
four types. There are six specimens in each type. So, in
total, 24 specimens are experimented with.
(WATER SOAKING TREATMENT SPECIMENS)
To obtain the adjustment coefficient of the accidental
water leak in Article 37 of the Building Standards Law,
specimens have to be sprinkled with water for 72 hours
and dried to the air-dried state with air drying, hot-air
drying, and so on. In this test, specimens are soaked in
water for 72 hours instead of being sprinkled with water.
At first specimens, which are the same shape and as many
as control specimens, are soaked in water for 72 hours.
They are dried in 30℃ in the drying machine for 48 hours.
They are in room temperature for 48 hours after the drying
machine. And they are experimented in shear tests, the
same as control specimen shear tests.
3 THE TEST RESULT
Every shear failure causes between the steel and the
adhesive and it is brittle failure. There isn’t any wood
failure. Average bonding strength is about 3N/mm ² .
Figure 2 shows average strength and the initial stiffness in
each adhesive thickness of control specimens and water-
soaked specimens. The left graph indicates bonding
strength in each adhesive thickness (0.1mm, 1.0mm,
2.0mm, 3.0mm). The right graph indicates initial stiffness
Fig 2: average strength and the initial stiffness in each
adhesive thickness of control specimens and water-soaked
specimens
142
in each adhesive thickness(0.1mm, 1.0mm, 2.0mm,
3.0mm). In control specimens, average maximum bonding
strength increase as the adhesive thickness increases from
0.1mm to 1.0mm. And average maximum bonding strength
decreases as the adhesive thickness increases from 1.0mm
to 3.0mm. The stiffness decreases as the adhesive
thickness increases.
Control specimens about the adhesive thickness of 0.1mm
vary largely in maximum bonding strength. However the
lower limit of maximum bonding strength in water-soaked
specimens about 0.1mm is 40% smaller than the lower
limit of maximum bonding strength in control specimens
about 0.1mm. Expected reasons for this are as follows:
After the adhesive thickness is thin, these specimens are
made without pressing adhesive surfaces. It possibly
influences the wettability of these specimens. In water-
soaked specimens about the adhesive thickness of 1.0mm,
average maximum bonding strength is about 86 % of it in
control specimens. And the lower limit of maximum
bonding strength is about 88% of it in control specimens.
On the other hand, water-soaked specimens about 2.0mm
and 3.0mm are the same as control specimens in average
maximum bonding strength and the lower limit of
maximum bonding strength.
In every adhesive thickness, the stiffness of water-soaked
specimens is not clearly different from it of control
specimens.
In some water-soaked specimens, cathodic
electrodeposition coating is peeled and a tiny part of
wooden piece is broken. There is a possibility that water-
soaking influences the physical property of the adhesive
surface in specimens.
As a result, variation of the adhesive thickness and
accidental water leak drastically don’t influence the
adhesion performance between the wooden piece and the
steel plate. In these shear tests, although a part of coating
on some specimens is peeled, cathodic electrodeposition
coating is reliable coating. And even though bonding
strength is smaller than strength of wood, if the adhesive
area is enough, this glued joint is strong enough to be used
as a shear connector in TCC.
4 CONCLUSION
The glued joint between wood and cathodic
electrodeposition coating steel plate is stiff and strong
enough to be used as a shear connector in TCC. In next
tests, shear tests of glued joint specimens composed of
wood, steel, and concrete are held, and bending tests of
composite beams are held.
REFERENCES
[1] Fragiacomo, M., and Lukaszewska, E. (2013): “Time-
dependent behaviour of timber–concrete composite floors
with prefabricated concrete slabs.” Engineering Structures;
52: 687–696
TRACK 2: CONNECTIONS

DESIGN EQUATIONS FOR EMBEDMENT STRENGTH OF WOOD FOR

THREADED FASTENERS IN THE CANADIAN TIMBER DESIGN CODE

Shawn Kennedy1, Alexander Salenikovich2, Williams Munoz3, Mohammad Mohammad4,

Derek Sattler5
KEYWORDS: Dowel bearing strength, sawn timber, glued-laminated timber.

1 INTRODUCTION 123 3 METHODOLOGY

The test program conducted jointly by FPInnovations and
The Canadian standard for engineering design in wood
Université Laval [7] included embedment tests on lag
(CSA O86) [1] uses the European yield model for
screws using glued-laminated timber manufactured in
calculations of lateral resistance of connections with
Quebec and British Columbia and made of Spruce-pine,
dowel-type fasteners. This model takes into account the
Spruce-pine-fir and Douglas-fir. All specimens were
moment resistance of the fastener, the assembly’s
conditioned to (65±5) % of relative humidity and (20±2)
geometry and the embedment strength of wood. The latter
°C temperature prior to testing. Lag screws of six
is considered a function of the relative density of wood and
diameters (from 6.4 mm to 19.1 mm) were commodity off-
diameter of the fastener. The purpose of this study is to
shelf fasteners.
verify the significance of these variables as applied to the
embedment strength for threaded dowel-type fasteners of
diameters 6.4 mm and greater. The importance of this
research is justified by the growing interest in the use of
large-diameter threaded fasteners in heavy timber and
hybrid structures of high load-bearing capacity.
Laser #2
2 BACKGROUND Laser #1
The embedment strength, also known as the dowel bearing
strength, was studied by several researches in Europe and
in the US in the 1980s for potential adoption of the
European yield model for design of dowel-type fastenings.
As a result, in Canada the embedment strength values have
been based on the work of Smith et al. [2]. The European
[3] values for fasteners installed into wood with pre-drilled
holes are equivalent to Canadian for parallel to grain
direction but different for fasteners of diameters greater
than 6 mm loaded in transverse direction. The dowel Figure 1. Embedment test set-up
bearing strength in the American timber design code Embedment tests were performed in accordance with
(NDS) [4] are based on the work of Wilkinson [5] who ASTM D5764 [8] half-hole test method with the fasteners
proposed embedment equations independent of the fastener inserted perpendicular to the lamination face of the glulam
diameter in parallel to grain direction. Later, Chui et al. [6] blocks and loaded at an angle of 90°, 45° and 0° to grain
reported new findings for threaded fasteners 6.4 mm in direction. The specimen width and depth were 5 and 6
diameter and less, which are different from those currently times the fastener diameter, respectively. The embedment
adopted in the design codes. length was 76 mm for lag screws of three smaller
diameters (6.4, 7.9 and 9.5 mm) and twice as long for
those of larger diameters (12.7, 15.9 and 19.1 mm). The
tests were conducted separately on the smooth shank
(unthreaded) portion and on the threaded portion of the lag
1
Shawn Kennedy, Université Laval, 2425 rue de la Terrasse, screw. Specimens were prepared by drilling a hole in the
Quebec, Canada. Email: shawn.kennedy.1@ulaval.ca center of a glulam block and then cutting it into two halves
2
Alexander Salenikovich, Université Laval, Quebec, Canada to obtain two specimens. For tests on the smooth shank
3
Williams Munoz, Nordic Structures Bois, Montreal, Canada
4 portion, the hole diameter was equal to the nominal
Mohammad Mohammad, FPInnovations, Ottawa, Canada
5
Derek Sattler, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
fastener diameter. For the threaded shank, the hole was

143
TRACK 2: CONNECTIONS
70% of the nominal diameter, and the lag screw was
carefully inserted in and out of the hole using a wrench
before cutting the block in half.
The load was applied to the half-hole specimen using a
fastener welded to a steel plate attached to the loading head
of a hydraulic actuator (Figure 1). The specimen was
loaded at a constant speed of 1.0 mm/min, and test was
stopped when the load decreased to 80% of the peak load
unless the displacement first reached the lesser of 7.0 mm
or half the diameter of the fastener. The displacement was
calculated as the average of measurements recorded using
two laser sensors installed at the ends of the specimen.
After the test, a wood sample was taken from each
specimen to determine the relative density and moisture
content in the vicinity of the loaded zone.
4 ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
The following parameters were determined after the tests
using load-displacement curves (Figure 2):
- Initial stiffness (K);
- Maximum load and corresponding displacement;
- Yield load and corresponding displacement according
to Yasumura and Kawai [9];
- 5% diameter offset load and corresponding
displacement according to Wilkinson [5]; and
- Failure load and corresponding displacement.
The embedment strength was calculated using the
maximum load or the load corresponding to the point of
minimum slope of the curve before a 5-mm displacement,
whichever occurs first, divided by the embedment length
and the nominal diameter of the fastener. The test results
were compared with those found in previously published
literature and with the design equations found in the CSA
O86 [1], Eurocode 5 [3] and NDS [4].
K
Maximum load
5% diameter offset load
Failure load
Yield load (Y&K)
Figure 2. Analysis of load-displacement curve
The analysis of experimental data obtained to date on the
fasteners in the tested range shows that the diameter has no
significant influence on the embedment strength of wood
at any angle to the grain. Also, the test data suggest that the
difference between the embedment strength parallel and
144
perpendicular to grain is less than is currently given in the
CSA O86 [1]. Once the test program is completed and all
data analysed, it is likely that new equations for the
embedment strength for lag screws (and potentially for
bolts and dowels), independent of the fastener diameter,
will be proposed for potential inclusion into the Canadian
timber design code.
5 CONCLUSION
Equations for embedment strength of wood for dowel-type
fasteners currently used in CSA O86 standard are a
function of wood relative density and fastener diameter,
and, for lag screws, bolts and dowels, are strongly
dependent on the angle between the load and the grain
direction. Experimental data obtained recently for lag
screws of diameters 6.4 mm and greater suggest that the
equations can be revised and be independent of the
fastener diameter. The new findings will be useful for
design of timber connections with lag screws and other
threaded fasteners. Also, the data will be useful for
development of design equations for fastenings in cross-
laminated timber (CLT), which is a subject of a parallel
ongoing investigation.
6 REFERENCES
[1] CSA Standards. 2009. CSA O86-09 Engineering
design in wood, Canadian Standards Association.
Mississauga, ON, Canada.
[2] Smith, I., L.R.J. Whale, C. Anderson, B.O. Hilson,
and P.D. Rodd.1988. Design properties of laterally
loaded nailed or bolted joints. Can. J. Civ. Eng. 15(4):
633-643.
[3] European Committee for Standardization (CEN).
2004. Eurocode 5. Design of timber structures. Part 1-
1. General. Common rules and rules for buildings.
EN1995-1-1: 2004. CEN Brussels.
[4] ANSI/AWC. 2012. National design specification for
wood construction. NDS-2012. American Wood
Council. Washington, D.C., USA.
[5] Wilkinson, T.L. 1991. Dowel bearing strength. Res.
Pap. FPL-RP-505.USDA Forest Serv., Forest Prod.
Lab., Madison, WI.
[6] Chui, Y. H.; Smith, I.; Chen, Z. 2006. Influence of
fastener size on lateral strength of steel-to-wood screw
joints. Forest Prod. J. 56(7/8): 49-54.
[7] Kennedy, S. 2013. Withdrawal and embedding
resistance of fasteners in timber and CLT panels.
Master’s Thesis. Université Laval, Quebec, CA.
[8] American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM).
2007. D5764-97a (2007). Standard test method for
evaluating dowel-bearing strength of wood and wood-
based products. ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA.
[9] Yasumura, M., and N. Kawai. 1998. Estimating
seismic performance of wood-framed structures.
Proceedings of 1998 I.W.E.C. Switzerland. Vol.2. pp.
564-571.
TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS OF CONVENTIONAL TIMBER FRAME

WALL UNDER SEISMIC ACTION : APPLICATION OF N2 METHOD

Yassine Verdret1,2, Carole Faye2, Sidi Mohammed Elachachi1,

ABSTRACT: In this paper, we apply the N2 method [2] to predict the behavior of conventional timber frame wall
subjected to seismic action. The behavior law, as input data of the N2 method, is obtained by a bilinear idealization of the
envelope curve of cyclic tests performed according to ISO 21581. Four different methods to build this behavior law are
used. The numerical results are compared with dynamic tests done at the FCBA on a shaking table.

KEYWORDS: N2 method ; conventional timber frame wall ; cyclic test ; dynamic test ; earthquake ; performance
based design

1 INTRODUCTION 123 2 TESTS ON TIMBER FRAME WALL

For buildings complying with construction rules as criteria
Two cyclic tests (named MC in the following) were
for structural regularity, lateral force method of analysis in
conducted under cyclic testing standard ISO 21581 [4] and
Eurocode 8 [7] is used to design timber structures under
made with a linear constant vertical load of 625 kg / m.
seismic actions where a simple linear–elastic analysis is
This configuration aims to represent real conditions loads
made. Another possible way to predict behaviour
experienced by the shear walls. To use the Nonlinear
structures under seimsic actions is the capacitive method or
Spectral Method, we assume that the pushover curve
the Nonlinear Spectral Method inspired by Fajfar's work
which provides the relationship between the shear force at
[2]. This method reproduces the major potential energy
the base of the structure and the roof displacement could
dissipation mechanisms activated in the fasteners
be described by the envelope curve of cyclic tests.
connecting the sheathing panels to the wooden frame,
during an earthquake. The dynamic tests on a shaking table were undertaken in
order to follow the linear and nonlinear dynamic behaviour
So, in this paper, we proposed to present the results
of the shear walls and identify the modal parameters
obtained from the application of the Nonlinear Spectral
(frequencies, damping, mode shapes). The three used input
Method [2] to the behavior analysis of an element of a
signals were representative of the French and European
conventional timber frame wall made by two OSB
seismic hazard. Six shear walls tests were performed.
sheathing panel under seismic action in order to predict its
maximal displacement and acceleration. The behavior law 3 APPLICATION OF SPECTRAL
of this element is obtained by four different bilinear NONLINEAR METHOD TO A TIMBER
idealizations of the envelope curve of cyclic tests. The
numerical results are compared to those obtained by FRAME WALL
dynamic tests carried out on a shaking table at the FCBA. The Spectral Nonlinear Method combines a pushover
analysis of a multiple degrees of freedom system (MDOF)
and an inelastic response spectrum analysis of an
equivalent system with one degree of freedom (SDOF) [3].
The accelerograms are first transformed into elastic
1
response spectrum in the spectral Acceleration –
University of Bordeaux 1, I2M, department of Civil and Displacement plane (Sae=f(Sde)) with a damping ratio of
Environmental Engineering, Avenue des facultes, 33405 Talence,
15% (noted during dynamic tests). In a second step, the
France, Email : yassine.verdret@etu.u-bordeaux1.fr
2
Technological Institute FCBA, Allée Boutaut, BP227, 33028 capacity diagram of timber frame walls is built. It is
Bordeaux cedex assumed that the material is slightly heterogeneous thereby
experimental cyclic curves are representative of all walls.

145
TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
One can add that the studied system is considered as a
simple degree of freedom system.
To build the capacity diagram and distinguish between the
elastic behaviour and the inelastic one for each sample, the
envelope curve is idealized by a bilinear relationship
Force-Displacement. To do this, the energy equivalence
between the two systems is considered. The post-peak
stiffness is assumed to be equal to zero. The four chosen
methods to determine the yield stress are:
- EN 594’s method [8];
- ASTM E 2126A’s method [1];
- Karacabeyli & Ceccoti’s method (K&C) [5];
- CSIRO’s method [6];
By superimposing the capacity diagram and the elastic
response spectrum expressed on the Acceleration –
displacement spectral plane, one can determine the
performance point (PP) (see figure 1) of the structure
which correspond to the intersection between the
idealization curve and the response spectrum.
As example, Figure 1 shows the superposition of the
capacity diagram obtained for an OSB12 wall, the four
idealized bilinear curves and the response spectrum for
PGA = 0,33g.
Figure 1 : Pushover curve for an OSB12 wall and its four
bilinear idealizations (MC wall tested in cyclic)
4 RESULTS
For each wall and its bilinear idealizations, knowing its
natural period, we compare the numerical results to those
obtained by dynamic test (maximum displacement,
maximum acceleration).
In order to evaluate the accuracy of the four methods of
bilinearization, we used the following error index:
U mod el  U exp Amod el  Aexp
e ( )2  ( )2
U exp Aexp
Where Umodel: is the numerical displacement, Uexp: the
experimental displacement, Amodel: the numerical
acceleration and Aexp: experimental acceleration. From this
index, there are broadly two classes (in ascending order of
accuracy): ASTM E 2126A [1]
5 CONCLUSIONS
It was established that the N2 method [2] based on the EN
594 [8] to determine the yield stress of the bilinear law,
reproduces correctly displacements and accelerations.
Error margins between actual and simulated results
established with the other methods used to determine the
yield stress are less stable.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The ANRT, the Regional Council of Aquitaine, the
CODIFAB and the DHUP are acknowledged for their
financial support.
REFERENCES
[1] ASTM E 2126A. (2008). Standard test methods for
cyclic load test for shear resistance of vertical
elements of the lateral resisting systems for
buildings. AFNOR.
[2] Fajfar, P. (2000). A Nonlinear Analysis Method for
Performance Based Design. Earthquake Spectra,
Vol. 16, N°3, 573-592.
[3] FCBA. (2012). Test report N°403/11/725/12/422,
Essais sismiques de murs à ossature bois,
SISMOB Project. Bordeaux: FCBA.
[4] ISO 21581. (2010). Timber structures - Static and
cyclic lateral load test methods for shear walls.
ISO.
[5] Karacabeyli, E., Yasumura, M., Foliente, G., &
Ceccoti, A. (2005). Background information on
ISO standard 16 670 for cycling testing of
connections. Proceedings of the International
Council for Research and Innovation in building
Construction, Working Commission W18, Timber
structures.
[6] Muñoz, W., Salenikovich, A., & Quenneville, P.
(2008). Need for a harmonized approach for
calculations of ductility of timber assemblies.
Proccedings of the International Council for
Research and Innovation in building
Construction, Working Commission W18, Timber
structures. St. Andrews, Canada.
[7] NF EN 1998-1. (2005). Calculation of structures for
earthquake resistance. AFNOR.
[8] NF EN 594. (Février 1996). Timber structures – Tests
method –Test of stiffness and strength for shear
walls. AFNOR.
(1)
146
TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

STRUCTURAL PERFORMANCE OF PORTAL FRAME

CONSTRUCTED WITH JAPANESE CEDAR GLULAM

Min-Chyuan Yeh1, Yu-Li Lin2, Shu-Yu Deng3

ABSTRACT: Feasibility of using rapid grown Japanese cedar glulam for constructing a portal frame was examined. A
2500x3000-mm portal frame was constructed with 140x305-mm glulam members and subjected to a lateral cyclic load. The
connections between post and beam members were fastened with 8 16-mm pins. Resulted moment resistance of the frame
fastened with pins in square placement performed better than that with in circular placement. While the inserted metal plate
in L-type showed higher initial stiffness and energy absorption than that in straight metal plate. The stress distribution of
glulam post indicated shifts of neutral axis and deflection point as the cyclic load increases.

KEYWORDS: Glulam, Portal frame, Japanese cedar, Connection

1 INTRODUCTION 123
Japanese cedar has the largest plantation area in Taiwan
and is one of rapid grown species in this region. There is a
concern about the adequacy using 30-yr-old Japanese
cedar as structural glulam products for wooden structure
applications. Post and beam structure is major local wood
construction which requires proper joint rigidity to resist
lateral loads such as earthquake and wind. A portal frame
design has an advantage in lateral load resistance through
the bending moment capacity of joints. Consequently,
energy can be absorbed through deformation of post and
beam members upon the lateral forces [1]. It can be
applied on seismic resistance of residential structures and
bridges. However, the structural performance of a portal
frame also depends on the connection types and boundary
conditions [2,3]. In this study, Japanese cedar was used for
the fabrication of glulam members to construct a portal
frame structure. Different metal types and placement of
bolts at the post-beam connections were considered for
each portal frame. The effect of joint rigidity on the lateral
resistance of the frame was investigated.
1
Min-Chyuan Yeh, National Pingtung Univ. of Sci. & Tech., 1
Shuefu Road, Neipu, Pingtung. Taiwan 912 ROC. Email:
yehmc@mail.npust.edu.tw
2
Yu-Li Lin, National Pingtung Univ. of Sci. & Tech. Taiwan
3
Shu-Yu Deng, National Pingtung Univ. of Sci. & Tech. Taiwan
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1 MATERIALS
The rapid-grown Japanese cedar logs were harvested from
forest plantation in Hsin-chu Forest District. The size of
laminae was 38×140 mm after sawn, kiln-dried, and planed.
The laminae were graded with measured modulus of
elasticity by using tap-tone approach. A resorcinol phenol
formaldehyde adhesive (RPF) and a hardener of para-
formaldehyde (D-40) mixed with a ratio of 15:100 to RPF
were used for the glulam lamination. The grade of E75-
F240 with the size of 305×140×3000 mm was assembled
for beam members and E65-F225 with the size of 305×140
× 2200 mm for column members. An inserted metal
connection between beam and column member was
developed. Two types of steel connectors were designed,
i.e., straight or I- and L-type, using 9-mm thick steel plate
for the connection. Placement of 16-mm pins was arranged
in square (S) or circle (C) at each member end.
2.2 METHODS
Each portal frame specimen was constructed by two
columns on both sides and one beam on top and fixed to a
testing frame with designed steel base. Each member end
was fastened with 8 pins at post-beam joint and 8 bolts at
base. A cyclic loading protocol in 7 stages ranging from
1/300 to 1/30 rad. in lateral deformation angles was
applied with 3 repeated loads for each stage [4]. Total of 4

147
TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
conditions were examined with 3 replicates for each joint
configuration. The stress distribution of the portal frames
subjected to a lateral force was measured using strain
gages and simulated using SAP2000 software.
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 CYCLIC LOADING CAPACITY
The maximum lateral load of a glulam portal frame was
53.6 kN for I-C condition and a 12.7% increase was found
as the pins arranged in square form (I-S portal frame).
Allowable load of glulam portal frame estimated at 1/120
rad. was 4.40 kN for I-C conditions and a 74.0% increase
was found as the pins arranged in square form. Frame
structures assembled with inserted L-type metal plate
showed similar tendency in both maximum load and
allowable load to that of T-type metal plate condition. But
no significant difference between two types of metal plates
was found.
The initial stiffness of a glulam portal frame assembled
with straight metal plate and circular arrangement of pins
had the lowest value of 1.19 kN/rad as compared to the
other connections. The ductility of the glulam portal
frames ranged between 1.27 to 1.44 showing less
deformation when subjected to a lateral load for all
assembly conditions. Further, the portal frame connected
with L-type plate and fastened in square placement of pins
experienced the highest energy absorption among four
different conditions.
3.2 STRUCTURAL DESIGN PROPERTIES
3.2.1 Load factor
Allowable shear of a portal frame is estimated as 75% of
the allowable load. Safety factor is a ratio of maximum
load for each portal frame to the corresponding allowable
shear. Vales of the safety factor were between 5.9 for the
L-S condition and 7.3 for the I-C condition. A load factor
was obtained by dividing allowable shear with the
maximum load. It was between 8.2 and 14.3% indicating
lower stiffness among the assembled glulam portal frame
specimens.
3.2.2 Joint efficiency
The maximum bending moment of a portal frame structure
was calculated by assuming fixed end of boundary
condition at the base. The joint efficiency of the I-C and L-
C portal frames were 66 and 70%, respectively, based on
the designed bending strength and apparent section
modulus of Japanese cedar glulam member. The joint
fastened with pins in square placement showed better
efficiency, i.e., 75 and 77% for the I-S and L-S conditions,
respectively.
3.2.3 Shear wall multiplier
Performance of post and beam structures against horizontal
shear can be compatible to shear walls constructed in
structural light wood-framing by considering span between
148
posts and basic shear capacity of 1.3 kN/m. Values of
shear wall multiplier for the I-S and L-S glulam portal
frames were between 1.8 and 2.11, respectively, meaning
superior to that of shear wall in structural light wood-
framing. And, the I-C and L-C portal frames had similar
shear resistance to the structural light wood-framing walls.
3.3 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
The bending moment at portal frame base connections
calculated by both slop-deflection method and SAP2000
software was higher than that at post-beam connections. In
the case of the I-S portal frame structures subjected to a
lateral load measured at 1/120 rad, a difference of moment
resistance between bases and post-beam connections, i.e.,
9.4~29.2% was found by using slop-deflection method,
while 20.7~24.9% was found by using SAP2000 software.
A similar trend can be found in the L-S portal frames.
4 CONCLUSIONS
Glulam members fabricated with rapid grown Japanese
cedar can meet the engineering performance of wood-
frame structures. The load capacity of a Japanese cedar
glulam portal frame fastened with pins in a square
placement at the connection performed better than that
with pins in circular placement. As in terms of safety
factor, joint efficiency, and horizontal shear resistance, the
rapid grown Japanese cedar glulam with adequate
connections is suit for a portal frame application.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Financial supports of NSC 98-2313-B-020-002-MY3 from
National Science Council, Taiwan, ROC, are
acknowlodged.
REFERENCES
[1] Noguchi, M, S. Takino and K. Komatsu: Development
of wooden portal frame structures with improved
columns. Journal of Wood Science, 52:51-57, 2006.
[2] Nakata, K and K. Komatsu: Development of timber
portal frames composed of compressed LVL plates
and pins II. Strength properties of compressive LVL
joints as moment resisting joints. Mokuzai Gakkaishi,
55:155-162, 2009.
[3] K. Komatsu, and K. Hosokawa. Glulam semi rigid
portal frames composed of hardwood wedges and
metal wares. In: Proceedings of the 5th World
Conference on Timber Engineering, Vol.2 246-253,
1998.
[4] The Japan Housing and Wood Technology Centre.
Allowable stress design for post and beam housing
construction. pages 145-152.The Japan Housing and
Wood Technology Centre, Tokyo, Japan, 2001.
TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

BUCKLING OF BLOCKHAUS WALLS UNDER IN-PLANE

VERTICAL LOADS

Chiara Bedon1, Massimo Fragiacomo2, Claudio Amadio3, Annalisa Battisti4

ABSTRACT: Blockhaus systems represent a traditional construction technology, whose strength directly depends on the
contact and interaction between timber logs and carpentry connections. Due to the complexity of the phenomena involved in
their typical load-carrying behavior (loading perpendicular to the grain, effect of friction, influence of gaps in the joints,
creep, etc.), their structural behavior under specific loading/boundary conditions is not completely known. In the paper, the
buckling failure of Blockhaus walls under in-plane vertical loads is deeply investigated. Based on sophisticated numerical
models, linear modal analyses and nonlinear static incremental simulations are performed to predict their critical buckling
load. A detailed parametric study is performed to highlight the effects of openings and load eccentricities. Numerical results
are then compared to predictions of analytical models available in literature and results of full-scale buckling experiments.

KEYWORDS: Blockhaus walls, buckling behavior, in-plane vertical loads, numerical simulations, full-scale
experiments

1 INTRODUCTION123
‘Blockhaus’ systems represent a traditional construction
technology where structural resistance is obtained by direct
contact between multiple timber surfaces obtained via
carvings, notches, and ancient joints [1][2]. Native of
forested areas, this technology is frequently used in
practice for the construction of log buildings (Figure 1). Figure 1: Example of ‘Blockhaus’ structural systems
However, due to the complexity of the phenomena (www.haus.rubner.com)
involved (loading perpendicular to the grain, effect of
friction, influence of gaps in the joints, creep, etc.), their 2 NUMERICAL APPROACH
structural behavior under specific loading/boundary
conditions is not completely known, particularly for To investigate the effects of several parameters on their
complex geometries (e.g. wall with openings such as buckling capacity, sophisticated numerical models are
windows and/or doors). The interaction between multiple developed using the ABAQUS/Standard software package
logs, for example, as well as the restraint effectiveness of [3]. The typical numerical model consists of a traditional
carpentry timber joints and the anisotropy of timber, can Blockhouse wall composed by multiple interacting timber
strongly affect the load-carrying capacity of these logs, described in the form of 3D-8 node solid elements.
structural systems. In the paper, the attention is focused on The main advantage of this advanced numerical modeling
the structural response of Blockhaus walls under in-plane approach is given by the realistic description of the
vertical loads. interaction between logs, and in particular by surface-to-
surface contact pairs able to take into account both the
possible sliding and friction effects between multiple logs,
1
Chiara Bedon, University of Sassari, Palazzo del Pou Salit, and the possible separation between logs when subjected to
Piazza Duomo 6, Alghero, SS, Italy. Email: c.bedon@libero.it tensile stresses.
2
Massimo Fragiacomo, University of Sassari, Palazzo del Pou
Salit, Piazza Duomo 6, Alghero, SS, Italy. Email: 2.1 METHODS OF ANALYSIS
fragiacomo@uniss.it
3
Claudio Amadio, University of Trieste, Piazzale Europa 1, A first simulation phase is focused on the buckling
Trieste, TS, Italy. Email: amadio@units.it response of Blockhaus walls without openings (Figure 2).
4
Annalisa Battisti, Rubner Haus AG SpA, Handwerkerzone 4, Linear elastic modal analyses as well as nonlinear static
Chienes, BZ, Italy. Email: annalisa.battisti@rubner.com

149
TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
incremental simulations are performed on the same
numerical models, and in general a good correspondence is
found between the corresponding predicted critical
buckling loads. At the same time, numerical predictions
are compared with critical loads given by analytical
approaches existing in literature, to assess their accuracy
and applicability to Blockhaus timber walls.
Figure 2: Buckling failure mode of a Blockhaus wall under
in-plane vertical load. Wall without openings
2.2 NUMERICAL PARAMETRIC STUDY
Subsequently, the same numerical study is extended to
Blockhaus walls with openings (e.g. only a door, door and
window, etc.), to investigate the effects of different
geometrical configurations on their typical load-carrying
behavior under in-plane vertical loads (Figure 3).
Figure 3: Buckling failure mode of a Blockhaus wall under
in-plane vertical load. Wall with openings
In this case, simulations highlighted that the presence of
openings, in conjunction with possible local interactions
between adjacent logs, strongly affects the global buckling
strength of Blockhaus walls, markedly reducing their
collapse load (Figure 4). Consequently, based on the
specific geometrical configuration, particular attention
should be paid to a correct estimation of the corresponding
critical load. Further numerical analyses are then
performed on Blockhaus walls under eccentrical vertical
loads, and also in this case interesting results are obtained
for various amplitudes of assigned eccentricities.
150
Figure 4: Buckling behaviour of a Blockhaus wall under in-
plane vertical load. Effect of openings
3 FURTHER DEVELOPEMENTS
In conclusion, numerical and analytical predictions are
compared to critical loads obtained from full-scale
buckling experiments performed on Blockhaus walls under
in-plane vertical loads. Based on the results of the
numerical study, useful suggestions are provided for an
accurate estimation of the critical buckling load of these
structural systems.
4 CONCLUSIONS
Buckling failure of Blockhaus under in-plane vertical loads
is deeply investigated by means of sophisticated numerical
models able to take into account the interaction and contact
between multiple timber logs and carpentry joints. As
shown, particular geometrical configurations (e.g. door
and/or window openings) and load eccentricities can
strongly affect the buckling capacity of these structural
systems. Based on comparisons between numerical results,
analytical predictions and results obtained from full-scale
buckling experiments, useful suggestions are provided for
a realistic estimation of their critical buckling load.
REFERENCES
[1] Branco J., Araújo J.P. (2012). Structural behaviour of
log timber walls under lateral in-plane loads.
Engineering Structures 40: 371-382.
[2] Bedon C., Fragiacomo M., Amadio C., Sadoch C.
(2013). Experimental and numerical investigation of
“Blockhaus” shear walls under in-plane cyclic loads.
Proc. XV ANIDIS Conference, 30 June-4 July,
Padova. Italy.
[3] ABAQUS, v.6.10 [Computer Software]. Simulia,
Dassault Systems, Providence, RI, USA, 2010.
TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

STUDY ON DAMPING EFFECT OF WOODEN BEARING SHEAR WALL

1 2 3 4
Rika Arai , Yuichiro Matsutani , Hideyuki Nasu , Hiroshi Kawase

ABSTRACT: Main purpose of this study is to reduce the damage on bearing shear walls of wooden house. Earthquakes or
traffic vibrations cause depreciation of performance on shear walls during the period of its life. We confirmed the efficacies
of many dumping materials which are expected not only effectiveness but also workability and low cost for construction.
Some of real size in-plane shearing tests with or without the dumping materials have been done with three times or ten times
cyclic load. Now we are doing real size in-plane tests using vibration generator as accelerated degrading tests.

KEYWORDS: Damping effect, Accelerated degrading tests, Bearing shear wall, In-plane shearing test , static loading test,

1 INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this study is to decrease damage wooden
houses. Specifically, bearing shear walls (referred to as
shear wall) form traffic vibration utilizing effect. As well
as reduce the damage and strength degradation during
earthquakes, and to reduce the repair cost. On the other
hand, changing the natural period, it would be avoid the
resonance from traffic vibration. It is verified whether it is
possible to improve the workability and lower cost than
damping devices there are conventionally used. This study
is positioned as a preliminary test of the vibration
experiment. Therefore, this study has many pieces of
experiments which were carried out at static loading test.
Currently, we carried out in-plane shear experiment
repeating 3 times and 10 times with no damping material.
When the number of iterations increased, the yield strength
has declined significantly. We carry out experiment
repeating 3 times using butyl rubber. We are going to
execute the in-plane shear test, 10 times cyclic load test
using butyl rubber. As a result, we will consider whether it
is possible to prevent reduction in strength by using
damping material.

2 THE PROGRESS OF THE CURRENT

We were carried out an experiment using the damping
material (Figure 1) to verify whether can prevent how
much stress reduce quantitatively (Figure 2). With 4 test
specimens, we compared the number 3 times or 10 times
of repetitions and the presence or absence of damping
material (Figure 3).
Figure 2: Load - displacement curve
(using damping materials)

Figure 1: Many kind of test materials.

1
Rika Arai, Graduate School, Nippon Institute of Technology,
4-1 Gakuendai, Miyashiro-machi, Saitama Pref., 345-8501, JAPAN
Email:rika.arai1029@gmail.com
2
Yuichiro Matsutani, Sumitomo Rubber Industries Co., Ltd Figure 3: Load - displacement curve (with or without
3
Hideyuki Nasu, Prof., Dr.Eng., Nippon Institute of Technology, JAPAN damping material, 3 or 10 times cyclic load )
4
Hiroshi Kawase, Prof., Dr.Eng., DPRI, Kyoto University, JAPAN
151
TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

3 SUMMARY OF EXPERIMENT 4 RESULT OF EXPERIMENT

Preliminarily shear experiment of the test pieces were
performed by autograph (100kN max) (Figure 4). Each
material was sandwiched between wood frame and
plywood. We selected better damping materials. Maximum
displacement was supposed up to 45mm.
As a next step, damping materials were sandwiched real
size the shear walls (Figure 5). Each in-plane shear test
was repeated 3 times alternating push and pull at every
point angle at the name point of deformation. Potential as a
shear walls damping was validated against maximum
strength, initial stiffness and energy absorbing capacity
using the Pa (allowable shear load). Eventually, it
destroyed by pushing load. Measuring the load using a
300kN load cell, we measured the displacement using the 3
types of displacement meters (Figure 6). Maximum
displacement was supposed up to 0.8Pmax.
We carried out the shear experiments of all 13 type 50
pieces preliminary test. We show the results (Table 1).
Silicon caulking compound, butyl rubber, waterproof tape
and energy absorbing rubber hold good workability and
energy absorbing capacity.
Real size the shear walls were carried out in-plane shear
experiments using the material of 5 types which we were
selected with results of the preliminary test pieces. We
show the experimental results. We compared to the each
construction cost and materials cost. It was considered as
additional construction costs on control test pieces. We
estimated 25000 JPY per day, 8 hours construction costs
(Table 2). Silicon caulking compound and butyl rubber
showed high Initial stiffness and maximum load. However,
these specimens gave a great damage and displacement to
the frame.

5 CONCLUSIONS
Initial stiffness and maximum strength were increased
approximately 10% with using butyl rubber and silicone
caulking compound. It might be caused by the adhesive
performance of the damping materials. Screw was
prevented to shear failure by damping materials. This is
because the damping material has a high adhesion
performance.
Figure 4: Preliminarily shear experiments Silicone caulking compound has most inexpensive
damping material cost. However construction costs will be
higher when using silicone caulking compound. The cost
can be reduced further by devising during construction.
For example, it attached only the portion of the screw by
using a caulking gun. In addition, energy absorbing rubber
is a prototype. Therefor it is not possible to compare the
construction costs. Butyl rubber is construction method
relatively simple. Therefore it is possible to reduce the
construction costs. Silicone caulking compound and Butyl
rubber are an effective damping material for use in shear
walls.

Table 1: Result of preliminary test pieces

Pmax Initial stiffness Energy absorbing capacity
Figure 5: The dumping materials were sandwiched (kN) (kN/mm) (kN･mm)
between a plywood and column, beam Wood glue 12.60 11.02 11.51
Glue G17 5.13 0.93 5.23
Gap tape 3.81 1.06 87.38
Waterproof tape 5.53 41.60 213.90
Butyl rubber 8.64 6.93 220.05
Earthquake resistant mat 7.42 4.18 153.33
load cell
joint jig displacement meter (DP-1000E)
Energy absorbing rubber 7.01 2.10 138.65
bracket
Urethane sealant 5.97 0.91 14.59
Silicon caulking compound 8.39 9.27 180.79
Nailing75 3 point 3.76 0.94 56.44
Nailing50 3 point 5.77 2.60 129.47
Hold course thread 3 point 6.58 3.49 508.30
Hold course thread 4 point 5.91 2.09 129.76

Table 2: The test specimens cost

displacement meter (CDP-50) displacement meter (CDP-50)
base plate displacement meter (SDP-100)
stopper
Number Construction Materials Total
of builder Costs(JPY) Costs(JPY) Costs(JPY)
Waterproof tape 2･ 1,563 12,400 15,526
Butyl rubber 2･ 2,344 4,140 8,828
300 400 3100 400 3100 400 300
8000
Energy absorbing rubber 2･ 781
Figure 6: Test specimen’s installation diagram Silicone caulking compound 3･ 3,125 1,254 10,629

152
TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

STUDY ON THE INFLUENCE OF BEARING SHEAR

WALL WITH OPENING

Ryutaro Watanabe1, Tatsuya Degura2, Hideyuki Nasu3

ABSTRACT: Main purpose of this study is to evaluate influence of an opening on bearing shear wall of Swedish wood
frame construction. Another purpose is to evaluate the strength and the behaviour of bearing shear walls with different
opening position. In experiments, the opening reduced strength of wall, however side walls beside opening could keep
relatively the performance of shear walls. On this paper, these influences will be shown quantitatively, and then the final
damage of bearing shear walls having an opening will also be shown.

KEYWORDS: Opening, Bearing Shear wall, Swedish wood frame construction, In-plane shearing tests

1 SPECIMEN DESCRIPTION123 2 EXPERIMENTAL METHOD

We are using spruce with the dimension of 45 × 120mm
which is from Swedish timber dimension system. There
are four patterns of specimen. The first specimen is control
wall without opening which we call "Control". The second
one is the wall having an opening in the center called
"Center Opening Wall", the third one is the wall having
opening in one side called "Side Opening Wall", the fourth
one is the wall having an opening in both side called "Both
side Opening Wall". We constructed above four test
specimens and carried out experiments.
Table 1: Shear deformation angle for each
Shear deformation
±1/600 1/450 1/300
angle[rad.]
Deformation amount[mm] ±4.55 ±6.07 ±9.10
We carried out the experiments using the four specimens
explained former paragraph. The studs in both ends of each
specimen are connected with base frame through anchor
bolts by Hall-down. In addition, we put a pin joint between
the head of the hydraulic actuator and the beam for force
application, because of cancellation of reaction by
deformation of specimen. The brackets were attached to
prevent out-of-plane deformation. Force application
method was repeated continuous force application, "push
and pull". We applied force under the force application
schedule from application shear deformation angle ranging
from 1/600[rad.] to 1/50[rad.] (Table 1). Each specimen
was applied force until the specimen broke. Measurement
±1/200 ±1/150 1/120 1/100 ±1/75 ±1/50
was used a displacement meter (made by Tokyo Sokki
±13.65 ±18.20 ±22.76 ±27.30 ±36.40 ±54.60
Kenkyujo) (CDP-50, SDP-100, DP-1000) load cell and
data logger TDS-601.

3000 3000 3000 3000

260 2480 260 260 2480 260 260 2480 260 260 2480 260
241

241

241

241
2731

2731

2731

2731
2490

2490

2490

2490

Figure 1: Summary of Specifications (Control, Center Opening Wall, Side Opening Wall, Both side Opening Wall)

1
Graduate school, Nippon Institute of Technology, 4-1
Gakuendai, Miyashiro-machi, Saitama, 345-8501, Japan. Email:
w.ryutaro1007@gmail.com
2
Tatsuya Degura, Sweden House CO.,LTD, Japan
3
Nasu Hideyuki, Nippon Institute of Technology, Japan

153
TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

FAD
load cell
joint jig steady rest displacement meter(DP-1000E)
4 CONSIDERATION
"Center Opening Wall" was stronger than our expectation.
Tension(+) Compression(-)
We considered the both walls putting opening between of
specimen shouldered some power corresponding to the rim
test piece stress. By the other hand, we could observe some gaps
displacement meter (CDP-50)
between the window lintel and bottom frame of opening
displacement meter(CDP-50) displacement meter (SDP-100CT) and vertical studs (Fig. 3). If this corner will be reinforced
stopper base plate
with some hardware, we expect to improve the
performance of "Center Opening Wall". On experimenting
300 400 3100 400 3100 400 300
"Both side Opening Wall", we could observe the cracks in
8000
top of vertical studs around nails (Fig. 4) and the
Figure 2: Frame testing machine deformation that straight vertical stud change into the S-
shape (Fig. 5).
3 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
3.1 The influence of the opening 5 CONCLUSION
According to Japanese Building Standard Law, the length 5.1 The influence of opening
of opening in wall can't count as length of load bearing
In the Japanese Building Standard Law, wall with the
wall. Therefore, yield strength of "Side Opening Wall"
opening was thought of as not having strength, even if
should be 50% of only wall with same length. However it
there is a "spandrel wall" or "hanging wall". However, we
was about 77% from the experiment. In the same way,
considered experimental strength value has been measured,
"Both side Opening Wall" should be 0%. However, it was
because "spandrel wall", "hanging wall" and "wing wall"
about 25% from the experiment.
bore the horizontal force in practice.
3.2 The influence of the opening position
5.2 The influence of opening position
We carried out two kind of specimen with same area of
As a result of a comparison of the "Side Opening Wall"
opening in order to compare the influence of opening
and "Center Opening Wall", experimental strength value of
position. Allowable shear strength (referred to as Pa) of
"Center Opening Wall" was higher than "Side Opening
"Side Opening Wall" was about 77%. Pa of "Center
Wall". The strength of wall with the opening was affected
Opening Wall" was about 106%.
by the opening position.
Table 2: Allowable shear strength（ Pa）% list
Pa(%) Control Center Opening Wall Side Opening Wall Both side Opening Wall
Building Standards Act 100%□ｌ 51.67%□ｌ 43.61%□ｌ 0%□ｌ

Housing Quality Assurance Act 100%□ｌ 68.25%□ｌ 66.40%□ｌ 33.30%□ｌ

All wall inclusion 100%□ｌ 74.44%□ｌ 72.59%□ｌ 45.83%□ｌ

Experimental value 120%□ｌ 105.55%□ｌ 76.72%□ｌ 24.55%□ｌ

Figure 3: Damage of the window sill Figure 4: Cracking of the studs Figure 5: Deformation of the opening

154
TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

LOAD-CARRYING CAPACITY OF A BUILT-UP STUD

FABRICATED WITH SMALL-DIAMETER ROUND TIMBER

Guofang Wu1, 2, Enchun Zhu1, 2, Hejian Zhou3, Jinglong Pan1, 2

ABSTRACT: Small-diameter round timber is a forestry by-product mainly from thinning of the artificial forest. It is not
suitable for direct use as structural members due to the low quality. To make use of the by-product, a built-up stud
fabricated with small-diameter round timber was proposed in this paper and was intended to be employed in a shear wall for
light wood frame construction. The load-carrying capacity of the built-up stud was investigated experimentally by testing
of the specimens under axial compression and testing of the specimens under eccentric compression, respectively. To
predict the load-carrying capacity considering buckling, the equation for the modified slenderness ratio of the stud was
derived. The predicted load-carrying capacity using the modified slenderness ratio correlated with the test very well. Some
suggestions were then given to enhance the load-carrying capacity of the built-up stud. The study provides reference for
incorporating the small-diameter round timber into a shear wall of light wood frame construction and thus promotes the
application of small-diameter round timber as structural members.

KEYWORDS: Small-diameter round timber, load-carrying capacity, built-up stud, slenderness ratio

1 INTRODUCTION
The small-diameter round timber, referring to the logs with
a diameter between 40mm and 160mm in Northeast China
or 4cm and 14cm in the rest part of China according to the
corresponding code[1], is a forestry by-product mainly from
the thinning of the artificial forest. A large quantity of
small-diameter round timbers is produced every year,
which accounts up to 44% of the total of wood supply. It is
not suitable for the small-diameter round timber to be used
directly as structural members due to various kinds of
natural defects, yet it is not economical to use it merely as
raw material for other products.
Light-frame construction is used extensively in the
European, American and Australasian market for low and
medium rise timber buildings. These buildings are light-
weight and with high energy-dissipation capacity due to
the ductile behavior of the shear walls, which are made of
light frames (stud, top and bottom plates) and sheathing
boards nailed together. The cross-sectional area of small-
diameter round timber and the dimension lumber are both
quite small, a built-up stud fabricated with small-diameter
1
Guofang Wu, Key Lab of Structures Dynamic Behavior and
Control (Harbin Institute of Technology), Ministry of Education,
Heilongjiang, Harbin, 150090, China.
Address: P.O. Box 2453, School of Civil Engineering, Harbin
Institute of Technology, 73 Huanghe Road, Nangang District,
Harbin 150090, China. Email: 11B933034@hit.edu.cn
2
School of Civil Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, 73
Huanghe Road, Nangang District, Harbin 150090, China
3
Heilongjiang Construction Group, Harbin 150046,China
round timber was proposed in this paper and was intended
to be employed in a shear wall similar to that made of
dimension lumber stud. This is an effort to enhance the
efficiency of application of the small-diameter round
timber.
Twelve specimens, each consisting of three built-up studs,
were manufactured. Six of these were tested under axial
compression and the other six were tested under eccentric
compression. The equation for the modified slenderness
ratio of the built-up stud was then derived, in consideration
of shear deformation of the limbs of stud, deformation of
the U-shaped nails and the slip of connection between the
U-shaped nails and the stud. The load-carrying capacity of
the stud with buckling being addressed was predicted
based on the modified slenderness ratio, and the predicted
result correlated with the test very well.. Some suggestions
were then given to enhance the load-carrying capacity of
the built-up stud. This study provides reference for
incorporating the small-diameter round timber into a shear
wall of light wood frame construction and promotes the
application of small-diameter round timber as structural
members.
2 FORMATION OF THE BUILT-UP STUD
As shown in Figure 1, a built-up stud is comprised of two
limbs of small-diameter round timber and U-shaped nails
are used to link the two limbs. A piece of small-diameter
round timber is sawn into two halves to form two
semicircle limbs, or it is cut along one side to form one

155
TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
limb. The U-shaped nails are applied to both sides of the worked out. The shear deformation resulted from bending
limbs, the angle between the axis of the nails and the stud of the limbs, deformation of the U-shaped nails and slip of
is about 45 degrees. connections between the U-shaped nail and the studs was
taken into consideration. The derived equation is given as
Bow-shaped
Limbs made of small-diameter cross-section
round timber 2 2 Ew A  2 Ew A (1)
A
Semicircular 0  2  12  
cross-section 12 sin2  cos Es Ad sin2  cosaKl

A where λ0 = the modified slenderness ratio; λ = unmodified

(a)Plan view (b) Section A-A slenderness ratio; λ1 = slenderness ratio of limbs;α=the
angle between the U-shaped nail and the stud; Ew
Figure 1: Formation of a built-up stud =modulus of elasticity of wood; Es = Young’s modulus of
steel; A = the cross-sectional area of stud; Ad = the cross-
3 TEST OF THE LOAD-CARRYING sectional area of the U-shaped nail; K = the slip stiffness
CAPACITY OF THE STUD of the connection between the U-shaped nail and the stud
and l = length of the U-shaped nail.
Top plate Using Equation (1) and the equations given by GB50005-
2003[2], the load-carrying capacity of the stud was
Nails predicted either under axial load or eccentric load, which
U-shaped was 24.40kN for axial compression and 21.08kN for
OSB nails eccentric compression, respectively. The prediction
correlated with the test very well. From the derived
Equation (1), it can be found that to increase the slip
stiffness of the connection between the U-shaped nail and
stud is the most effective way to reduce the value of the
Built-up modified slenderness ratio and thus enhance the load-
stud
carrying capacity of the stud.
5 CONCLUSIONS
A built-up stud fabricated with small-diameter round
Bottom
plate timber was proposed and the load-carrying capacity of the
stud under axial load or eccentric load tested. The equation
(a)Front view (b) Side view for the modified slenderness ratio was then derived to
predict the load-carrying capacity of the stud. The work
Figure 2: Test model of the built-up stud provides reference for incorporating the small-diameter
round timber into a shear wall for light wood frame
The wall-type built-up stud model was fabricated with 3 construction and promotes the application of small-
built-up studs, as shown in Figure 2. The stud in the test diameter round timber as structural members.
model can only bend outside the wall plane under vertical
load.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Vertical load was applied to the test model via two one- The authors acknowledge gratefully the financial support
way steel hinges, each installed to one end of the model. from 'the Twelfth Five-year-plan' in National Science and
By moving the hinge plate to intended position, the vertical Technology for the Rural Development in China, with the
load was applied either axially or eccentrically. In order to project designation as 2011BAJ08B02-01.
measure the lateral displacement of test model, 6 LVDT’s
were employed. Another 2 LVDT’s were used to measure REFERENCES
the vertical displacement.
[1]. General Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection
11 of 12 models buckled under vertical load. The average and Quarantine of the People's Republic of China.GB/T
11716-2009,Logs of small diameter ， Beijing ： China
load-carrying capacity of the stud under axial load was
Zhijian Publishing House，2009
24.62kN, of stud under eccentric load was 21.95kN.
[2]. the Ministry of Construction of People's Republic of Chia.
4 PREDICTION OF THE LOAD- GB50003-2003,Code for design of timber structures.
CARRYING CAPACITY OF THE STUD Beijing：China Architecture & Building Press，2005

To predict the load-carrying capacity of the built-up stud,

the modified slenderness ratio of the stud needs to be

156
TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

DEVELOPMENT AND EVALUATION OF CLT SHEAR WALL

USING DRIFT PINNED JOINT

Shoichi Nakashima1, Akihisa Kitamori2, Kohei Komatsu3, Zeli Que4,

and Hiroshi Isoda5

ABSTRACT: The connectors for the CLT shear wall with drift pin joint were suggested. The wall composed of five layers
Japanese cedar CLT, steel connectors and drift pins (diameter d = 16mm). The horizontal shear performances of the walls
were evaluated by static experiment and 2D frame analysis. The experimental parameter was number and position of drift
pins. Characteristic failure was shear failure on the border of the laminae. There were good agreement on initial stiffness,
yield load and second stiffness between experiment and calculation.

KEYWORDS: CLT, Shear wall, Drift pin joint, Frame analysis, Shear modulus, in-plane bending

1 INTRODUCTION 123 replication number of control specimen (DPW1) was three,

and those of the other specimens were one.
Cross Laminated Timber (CLT) is especially expected in
Japan as a new material for the structural wall and/or floor.
We have reported the research about the drift pin joint with CLT
CLT Steel
PL9 Plate
350 PL9
CLT [1] to collect the basic data of structural performance. 350
350 t=9
17
In this paper, the attempt of development of the short φ 17
Hole
width CLT shear wall and evaluation by static experiment Drift Pin φ=17
and frame analysis were performed to achieve the easy 16
d=16 350
design of CLT structure in earthquake prone countries. 350
350 170
170
170

2 EXPERIMENT
2.1 OUTLINE OF THE JOINT
Fig.1 shows the image of the joint. The joint must resist
not only tensile and compressive force but also shear force,
because CLT wall panel will deform, rotate and sway
against the horizontal load like earthquake. The inclined
surface of steel connectors was intended to work as
reaction surface against the compressive and shear force.
2.2 SPECIMENS
Five layers Japanese cedar CLT panels, steel connectors
and steel drift pins were used as components of specimens.
Fig. 1(b) shows the four kinds of specimens. Parameter of
the test was number and position of drift pins. The
1
Shoichi Nakashima, Kyoto University, Gokasho, Uji, Kyoto,
611-0011, Japan. Email: s-nakashima@rish.kyoto-u.ac.jp
2
Akihisa Kitamori, Kyoto University, Japan
3 bending deflection of the panel (δb) was calculated from
Kohei Komatsu, National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
4
Zeli Que, Nanjing Forestry University, China.
5
Hiroshi Isoda, Kyoto University, Japan
Bolt
M16
d=16
DPW1 DPW2-1 DPW2-2 DPW2-3
Parameters
(a) (b)
Figure 1: (a) Image of the wall. (b):Connector and
parameters.
2.3 TEST METHOD
Steel connectors were fixed on H shape steel basement
frame, and horizontal cyclic load was applied on the top of
the specimen based on the protocol of the Japanese
Standard. As shown in in Fig.2, relative horizontal and
vertical displacement between loading height and bottom
surface, left and right side were measured to obtain shear
deformation angle (γ) and joint rotation angle (θ),
respectively. The diagonal deformation at the middle of the
panel was measured to obtain the shear deformation angle
of the panel (γs) for in-plane shear modulus (G). And
these deformations for the in-plane Young’s modulus (E).
The definitions of deformations are as follows;

157
TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

Test Methods 80
80 80
100%

OilOilJack
Jack M30Bolt
M30
#1 δb 60
90%
DPW2-2

#1 δb 80%
40
40 40

θ/γθ/γ(rad/rad)
δb

(kN)
70%

(rad/rad)
P (kN)
20 60%
tt=4.5 00 0

Load P
γ
50%

δ s
Steel Plate

Load
40%
s δs -20

#5 HH
γ0 γ0 γs -40
-40 -40
30%

H=2730
H=2730 #5
H
bb b
γs
2 b + δ5
-60
20%
10% Rotation angle of joint θ
√2b+δ5 2 b+ δ5 -80
-80
DPW1-3
0%
-80

1/300

1/100
1/200

1/150

1/75

1/30
1/50
1/300

1/200

1/150

1/100
1 6 11 16

(rad)
1/75

1/50

1/30
-0.08
-0.08 -0.06 -0.04
-0.04 -0.02 00 0.02 0.04 0.04 0.06 0.08
0.08

#3 #4 #2 bb
Deformation angle R (rad)
Deformation angle γ (rad) Deformation angle
Deformation angle
Cycle
(rad)γ (rad)

B b
#2
Steel frame #3 B=910
Steel frame
B=910
#4
(1)
B (a) (b)
B
Figure 3: (a) Examples of experimental load (P) -
Figure 2: Test set up and definitions of the notes deformation angle (γ) curves. (b) The change of ration of
the joint rotation angle (θ/γ)
p
1 2 3 4 2 5
= ✓= s =
H , B , b ,
b =( ✓ s )H

here, δ1, δ2, δ3, δ4, δ5 are measured deformations, H, B, are

height and width of specimen, and b is vertical and
horizontal component of diagonal measurement device.

3 TEST RESULT Figure 4: Example of condition after the test (DPW2-3).

Fig. 3(a) shows the example of load (P) - deformation Δδ

125
angle (γ) curves. Fig. 3(b) shows the example of ratio of Δδ
Analysis
joint rotation angle (θ/γ). An increase tendency was BeamBeam
Element
100

Load P (kN)
Element
observed as the deformation angle becomes larger, the CLT E, G, I, A
75
value of θ/γ were around 0.5. In other words, the other Experiment
50
halves were caused by the in-plane bending deflection (δb).
Fig. 4 shows the characteristic failure of the joint. The Rigid Body
25
Rigid Beam
most critical failure was shear failure around the border of 0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
the laminae that caused by the bending of the drift pins. Spring Element
Spring Elements
Drift Pin Joint k0, p0, α
Deformation angle γ (rad)

4 ANALYTICAL MODEL (a) (b)

Figure 5: (a) Analytical model. (b) Example of calculated
4.1 2D FRAME FEM MODEL load (P) – deformation angle (γ) curves (DPW1).
The model consists of beam element, spring element and
rigid body element (shown in Fig. 5(a)). The wall was Table 1: Characteristic values for the analysis
expressed as the beam that has Young’s modulus (E), shear E [N/mm 2 ] G [N/mm2 ] t [mm] k 0 [kN/mm] p0 [kN] α
modulus (G) and information about cross section (I, A). E 2772 661 150 15.4 26.8 0.096
and G were taken from the previous chapters. The drift pin
joints were expressed as vertical and horizontal bilinear 5 CONCLUSIONS
spring models. Characteristics of these springs were
referred from the previous research [1]. These springs have The CLT shear wall with drift pin joint as investigated by
initial stiffness (k0), yield load (p0) and ratio of second the frame analysis and static experiment. The amount of
stiffness against k0 (α) and are connected to beam through the rotation angle of the joint was about half of whole
the rigid bodies. These values are listed in Table 1. angle. The frame analysis was useful for evaluation of the
performance of the shear wall.
4.2 ANALYSIS
We used the commercial frame analysis software [2] to
REFERENCES
obtain the load (P) – deformation (γ) relationships of the [1] Shoichi Nakashima, Akihisa Kitamori, Takuro Mori,
model. The result is shown in Fig. 5(b). It can be seen that and Kohei Komatsu: Evaluation of Tensile
there is satisfactory agreement between calculated curve Performance of Drift Pin Joint of Cross Laminated
(dot line) and experimental ones (thin rigid line). Thus, we Timber with Steel Inserted Plate, Proceedings of
can say that the frame model with beams and springs are World Conference on Timber Engineering 2012
useful for not only post-beam structure, but also CLT wall Auckland, 417-424, 2012
like shown in this report. [2] Kozo system: SNAP ver.6

158
TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

STRUCTURAL PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF WOODEN

FRAMEWORK WITH JOINTED COLUMN

Kota Iinuma1, Masato Nakao2

1 INTRODUCTION 123
Many of traditional wooden buildings have been built on
foundation stones(Soseki). Therefore, their bottom ends of
columns rotted or had damage by termites as time goes on.
Netsugi, a traditional maintenance technique replacing
such a rotted or damaged part of the bottom of column
with a new member, had been done since long ago. There
are various forms of joint of a new member and old one,
and KANAWATSUGI joint is generally adopted for
Netsugi from among many joint methods. It is quite likely
that the structural performance of jointed column is worse
than the one of a column without joints. Though many
studies on traditional type joint itself have been conducted,
there have been few examinations of a column with a joint.
As for a column, bending moment produced by shear wall
and compressive axial force due to dead load affects the
joint of columns within a framework so it is difficult to
evaluate the structural performance of the framework with
the jointed column from only test results of the joint itself.
Therefore, test specimens of framework with a jointed
column were prepared and static shear loading tests were
conducted to comprehend the structural performance. It
can be considered that KANAWATSUGI joint has
different structural performance by loading direction. Tests
of the two frameworks, one had a joint in strong axis and
the other had in weak axis, were conducted. And a
comparison of the structural performance of the two
frameworks and the one without joint was made.
2 SPECIMENS AND TEST METHODS
Fig. 1 shows the test a specimen of framework. Shear walls
in traditional wooden buildings are usually mud plastered
walls but on this study nailed plywood is used to the
framework instead of mud plastered wall. It is installed
easily and carries shear force which affect the joint. Fig. 2
shows details of the KANAWATSUGI joint which is
1
Kota Iinuma, Graduate School of Urban Innovation, Yokohama
National University, 79-5, Tokiwadai, Hodogaya-ku, Yokohama,
Kanagawa, Japan. 240-8501 Email: iinuma-kota-fg@ynu.ac.jp
2
Masato Nakao, Institute of Urban Innovation, Yokohama
National University, Email: mnakao@ynu.ac.jp
located in the lower part of one column. The other column
has no joint to compare. Specimens are 2 types, KN-1 and
KN-2. KN-1 has a joint in strong axis direction and KN-2
has the one in weak axis direction against affected bending
moment. The position and the size of the joint were
examined through measuring survey of existing traditional
wooden buildings.
Positive-negative lateral repeated force was applied to the
beam of specimen. The lateral load was repeated at
deformation angles of 1/300, 1/150, 1/100, 1/75, 1/50, 1/30,
1/20 and 1/15rad. Approximately 20 kN of weight as dead
and live load was loaded on the beam of the specimen.
Figure 1: Framework specimen Figure 2: Detail of joint
3 RESULTS AND DISCCUSION
Table 1 shows test results and Fig.3 shows load-
displacement relationship of specimen KN-1 and KN-2.
Fig.4 shows KN-2 specimen at ultimate state. In the
specimen KN-1, during the positive side loading the load
reached the maximum in 1/20 rad of deformation angle.
Then bending failure occurred on Ashigatame(lateral
member which connects columns at lower position) in 1/15
rad though columns were not damaged seriously. When the
negative side loading, tenon at the end of Ashigatame was
broken and the load decreased in 1/30 rad. However,
Kanawatsugi joint had no damage even in 1/20 rad of
deformation angle. The maximum load on the negative
side loading was 12.5kN and it was on the same level as
the positive side 12.9kN. In the specimen KN-2, the
maximum load and stiffness on the positive side were

159
TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

higher than the ones of the specimen KN-1. The load on which has no relation to the existence of the joint. The
the negative side reached the maximum in 1/30 rad, then specimen KN-2 has similar tendency to KN-1 that bending
split occurred on the tenon of Ashigatame along the peg in moment at the upper or lower part of the joint increase as
1/28 rad. Deformation performance on the negative side deformation angle increases.
loading of the specimen KN-2 was lower than that of KN-1,
In jointed columns within the specimen KN-1 and KN-2,
but the maximum load of KN-2 was higher than that of
bending moment at the lower part of the joint was low
KN-1 by 10percent. From these test results, it was found
when especially deformation angle is relatively large. This
that the difference in loading direction of Kanawatsugi
is because the negative bending moment applied from
joint as follows; the maximum load of KN-2 is higher than
Ashigatame cancelled the existed positive bending moment.
that of KN-1 and the maximum deformation angle of KN-2
Bending moment at Ashigatame was especially large in
is over 1/30 rad and KN-1 has better deformation
1/30 rad or more of deformation angle, so bending moment
performance.
at the lower part of the joint was low.
Table 1: Tests Results Horizontal displacement of jointed column in negative side
Stiffness Pm ax. M ax.D isp. loading was larger than that of column without the joint in
Specim ens
(kN /rad.) (kN ) (rad.) the positive side loading. Horizontal displacement of
un-jointed o n positive 761.8 12.9 1/15
KN -1 jointed column within the specimen KN-2 was larger than
jointed o n n egative 824.4 12.5 1/20
that of KN-1. Thus it can be recognized that bending
un-jointed o n positive 984.6 15.2 1/20
KN -2
jointed o n n egative 840.4 13.4 1/28 rigidity varies by the existence of the joint and the
direction of the joint.
20 1/300 3000
Load(kN)

15 1/150 2500
10 1/100

Height(mm)
2000
5 1/75
1/50 1500
0
1/30 1000
-­‐80 -­‐60 -­‐40 -­‐20 -­‐5 0 20 40 60 80
Deformation  angle 1/20 500
-­‐10 Joint
(×1/1000rad.)
0
-­‐15
KN-­‐1 KN-­‐2 2.5 1.5 0.5 -­‐0.5
( 20 Bending  Moment(kNm)
Figure 3: Load-displacement relationship of specimens Figure 5: Bending moment of jointed column within KN-1
specimen on the negative side

Figure 4: KN-2 specimen at ultimate state
Fig. 5 shows bending moment distribution of the jointed
column within the specimen KN-1 on the negative side
loading. Vertical axis indicates the height of 4 measured
points by strain gauges, namely the top end of column, the
upper part of the joint, the lower part of the joint and the
bottom end of column. Bending moment at the upper or
lower part of the joint was higher than that at the top end
of column or the bottom end of column. Bending moment
has a tendency to increase as deformation angle increases,
4 CONCLUSIONS
On this study, static shear loading tests of the frameworks
with jointed column were conducted. The follwing were
the main findings:
1. When lateral force is applied in strong axis direction,
the maximum load of the jointed column is a little
lower than that of column without joint and
deformation performance of the jointed column is on
the same level as the column without joint. In weak
axis direction, the maximum load of the jointed
column is on the same level as the column without
joint and deformation performance of the jointed
column is worse than that of the column without joint.
2. Bending moment at column is higher as the
deformation angle is larger. When the angle is in 1/30
rad or more, bending moment at the lower part of the
joint decrease because of bending moment at
Ashigatame.
3. Bending rigidity of jointed column is lower than that
of column without joint. Bending rigidity of
Kanawatsugi joint in weak axis direction is lower
than the one in strong axis direction.

160
TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

MORPHOLOGICAL AND STABILITY RESEARCH

FOR TREE-LIKE TIMBER STRUCTURES

Xiaowu Cheng1, Jiannan Hao2, Weiqing Liu3, Weidong Lu4

ABSTRACT: In recent years, with the long span wooden architecture flourished, there are a wide variety of structure forms
which contain artistic beauty and mechanical beauty appeared. Tree-like structure as a new form is more and more widely
used in the world, due to it has ecological aesthetics for its form likes the natural trees and scientific rationality. This paper
aims to study the mechanical properties of tree-like timber structure and we design a statical test of tree-like timber structure.
We also do a simulation and find the simulated results agree to the experiment.

KEYWORDS: tree-like structure, timber structure, statical test, simulation

1 INTRODUCTION 123 2 EXPERIMENT INSTRUCTIONS

Tree-like timber structure is one form of long span wooden
structures. It was first proposed by Frei Otto, a German 2.1 MATERIAL TEST
architect, in 1960s. It’s called tree-like structure due to its
We select the douglas fir as the material of this experiment.
shape likes the natural trees and its mechanical form is also
similar to the trees. This form is different from traditional At first, we should do some material tests to test the
beam-column form and it can use the branch to support the density, moisture content, compressive performance and
bending performance of this timber.
space. At present, we only study the morphology of this
structure, the mechanical performance study of this
structure is very little. So we design a statical test to 2.2 EXPERIMENT COMPONENT DESIGN
research a kind of common tree-like timber structure. And In this experiment, we choose a typical tree-like timber
also we do a simulation of this structure to compare with structure as research model, its prototype is tree-like
the experiment. columns of Beaverton library and the size is 1/4 of the
original.
50 1300 50

1
Xiaowu Chen, Nanjing University of Technology, No.200
North Zhongshan Road, 210009, Nanjing, China Email:
chengxiaowu888@sina.com
2 1000
Jiannan Hao, Nanjing University of Technology, No.200 North
Zhongshan Road, 210009, Nanjing, China Email:
hjn0356@126.com
3
Weiqing Liu, Nanjing University of Technology, No.200 North
Zhongshan Road, 210009, Nanjing, China Email:
wqliu@njut.edu.cn
4
Weidong Lu, Nanjing University of Technology, No.200 North
1000
Zhongshan Road, 210009, Nanjing, China Email:
concrete@163.com

100

90

Figure 1: Experiment model

161
TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

Table 1: Dimension of the structural elements

Structure Width (mm) Length (mm)

element
Vertical support 90 100
Tree branches 50 100
Rafters 50 75

2.3 EXPERIMENT INSTALLATION

The experiment installation is shown in figure 2.

2
3
7
6 5 Figure 3: Experiment installation

1
4 this form is satisfied with the specification requirements.
1.Portal frame 2.Jack 3.Allotting beam 4.Experiment modl
5.Lateral brace 6.Displacement tansducer 7.Strain foil
Figure 2: Experiment installation
4 CONCLUSIONS
After the experiment study on tree-like structure, we found
The structure under symmetrical loads, stress concentrate
on the branch end connections; it under asymmetric loads,
the structure needs to consider the instability. The column
foot connection should be rigid; the branch end connection
can be hinge joint, but should be satisfied with the
strength requirements. The simulated results mainly agree
to the experiment.

3 SIMULATION OF TREE-LIKE
STRUCTURE
We use ABAQUS simulation software to analysis the tree-
like structure behaviour. The size of analysis model is the
same as the experiment. The material is defined as
anisotropy; the column foot connection is defined as
a rigid connection; the branch end connections are defined
as semi-rigid connections. The structure behaviour is
shown in figure 3.

162
TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

THE ANALYSIS OF HORIZONTALLY OFFSET DIAPHRAGMS

R. Terry Malone, PE, SE1

ABSTRACT

The structural configurations of many modern buildings require very complex lateral load paths that incorporate diaphragms
at different elevations, multiple re-entrant corners, multiple irregularities, and fewer vertical lateral-force-resisting elements.
This paper discusses a method of analyzing diaphragms with horizontal offsets and how to transfer member forces across
areas of discontinuity.

KEWORDS: Diaphragm, discontinuity, offset, transfer diaphragm

1 DISCUSSION
Code requires that a complete continuous lateral load
path, or paths, with adequate strength and stiffness must
be provided to transfer all forces from the point of origin
to the final point of resistance. All edges of diaphragms
must have boundary members consisting of drag struts,
chords, collectors or other vertical lateral-force-resisting
elements. The load path must include all of the
connections necessary to make members in the line of
lateral-force resistance act as a unit and transfer the
shears and forces from the diaphragm sheathing into the
boundary elements, across any discontinuity, then into
the vertical force-resisting elements, and finally down
into the foundation.
Discontinuities in diaphragms are often created when a
portion of an exterior wall line is offset from the main
wall line, which causes a disruption in the diaphragm
chord or strut. By code, whenever this occurs, the
disrupted chord or strut force must be transferred across
the discontinuity through an alternate load path. It is
important to remember that at diaphragm discontinuities,
such as offsets, openings or re-entrant corners, the design
must assure that the dissipation or transfer of edge
(chord) forces combined with other forces in the
_______________________________________
1
R. Terry Malone, PE, SE
WoodWorks, Wood Product Council
Senior Technical Director
Prescott Valley, Arizona 86314
diaphragm is within the shear and tension capacity of the
diaphragm. All irregularities and/or discontinuities within
a diaphragm or system of diaphragms and shear walls
must be addressed.
2 METHOD OF ANALYSIS
In order to successfully solve the problem of transferring
forces through areas of discontinuity, it is important to
understand how shears are distributed into and out of a
diaphragm. The discontinuous chord at grid line 2C, as
shown in Figure 1, is typically extended into the main
body of the diaphragm by the use of a continuous light
gauge steel strap and flat blocking, with the intent of
overlapping and transferring the disrupted chord force
into the main diaphragm chord at grid line C.
In order to effectively distribute the force into the
diaphragm, in accordance with code, a portion of the
diaphragm to the right of the discontinuity must act as a
transfer diaphragm (TD), which receives the disrupted
chord force and distributes it out to the main diaphragm
chords at grid lines A and C. The transfer diaphragm acts
like a beam with a concentrated load applied as depicted
by the inset diagram. This method of analyzing
diaphragms

163
TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

with offsets and openings was developed by Edward F. REFERENCES

Diekmann, of GFDS Engineers in San Francisco [2][3].
The main diaphragm and transfer diaphragm are already
under shear from the uniform load, as calculated in the
basic shear diagram. Additional transfer diaphragm
shears are created by the disrupted chord force. The
transfer diaphragm shears must be added to or subtracted
from the basic diaphragm shears, to accurately account
for the combined localized effects within the transfer
diaphragm, resulting in net shears occurring within the
transfer diaphragm area. This complies with the code
requirement of “combined with other forces”.
3 CONCLUSION
[1] The Analysis of Irregular Shaped Structures:
Diaphragms and Shear Walls, Malone, Rice, McGraw-
Hill & ICC, 2012.
[2]Wood Engineering and Construction Handbook,
Chapter 8-Diaphragms and Shear Walls (Edward F.
Diekmann), K.F. Flaherty
and T.G. Williamson (eds.), McGraw-Hill, New
York, 1995.
[3] Edward F. Diekmann, “Design of Wood
Diaphragms”, Journal of Materials Education, 8:1-2,
1986, Fourth Clark C. Heritage
Memorial Workshop, Wood Engineering Design
Concepts, University of Wisconsin.

This method of analysis can be used to solve most of the

complex diaphragm layouts experienced today. Modern
R. Terry Malone, P.E., S.E.
complex structures require careful attention to how the Author: The Analysis of Irregular Shaped Structures:
loads are distributed through the structure, how these Diaphragms and Shear Walls[1]
forces are transferred across discontinuities, and to the
details necessary to allow the transfer of those forces.
When highly irregular diaphragms are viewed as a
whole, a rational design of the lateral force resisting
paths may seem daunting; however, when approached
one section at a time, keeping in mind our statics, a
robust design can be developed. Most of the problems
and challenges presented by these structures can be
resolved by using simple statics.

164
TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON THE CONTRIBUTION OF GWB

TO THE LATERAL PERFORMANCE OF WOOD SHEARWALLS

Zhiyong Chen1, Alex Nott2, Ying H. Chui3, Ghasan Doudak4, Chun Ni5,
Mohammad Mohammad6

ABSTRACT: It is well-known that gypsum wall board (GWB) affects the structural performance of light wood frame
buildings (LWFBs) constructed with wood-based shear walls. However, the behaviour of the LWFBs including GWB under
earthquake actions is still unknown. As the first step to investigate the seismic response of LWFBs with GWB, the structural
behaviour of shear walls and the contribution of GWB are studied experimentally. Twelve (12) shear walls sheathed with
oriented strand board (OSB) or GWB alone, or in combination are being tested under static monotonic or reversed cyclic
lateral load. The structural performance of shear walls in terms of stiffness, load-carrying capacity, ductility, failure modes,
failure mechanism, load distribution between OSB and GWB will be analysed. Based on the tests, the influence of the panel
orientation, the taping and number of layers of GWB on the shear walls will be investigated. This test will provide essential
information for the development of a supper macro model to simulate the behaviour of shear walls sheathed with OSB and
GWB, and the simulation of the seismic behaviour of LWFBs considering the contribution of GWB as well.

KEYWORDS: Wood Structures, Shear walls, Gypsum wall boards, Structural performance, Test.

1 INTRODUCTION 123
In light wood frame buildings (LWFBs), shear walls which
provide the lateral resistance are constructed with
dimension lumbers and wood-based panels, such as
oriented strand board (OSB), fastened together on one or
two side(s) by nails which generally exhibit large ductility.
For fire resistant and sound isolation reasons, gypsum wall
boards (GWBs) which show stiffer and less ductility are
sheathed on the interior side of the shear walls.
It is well-known that GWB contributes to the structural
performance of the LWFBs [1-2]. However, the influence
of GWB to ductility, failure mechanism and load-
transferring path of the LWFBs are still unknown. A study
was undertaken to investigate the influence of GWB to the
seismic response of the LWFBs.
The effect of single-layer GWB on the structural
performance, in terms of load-carrying capacity and
stiffness, of shear walls has been studied by Wolfe [3],
Ceccotti and Karacabeyli [4], and Sinha and Gupta [5]. It
1 or without taping) and panel orientations (vertical and
Zhiyong Chen, University of New Brunswick, P.O. Box 4400,
Fredericton, Canada. Email: zhiyong.chen@unb.ca
2
Alex Nott, University of Ottawa, Canada
3
Ying H. Chui, University of New Brunswick, Canada
4
Ghasan Doudak, University of Ottawa, Canada
5
Chun Ni, FPInnovations, Canada
6
Mohammad Mohammad, FPInnovations, Canada
was commonly found that the lateral resistance of shear
walls with OSB and GWB appeared to be equal to the sum
of contributions of shear walls sheathed with OSB or
GWB only. However, the influence of GWB to the
ductility, which is used to determine an important seismic
force modified factor, Rd, [6] of shear walls obtained by
Ceccotti and Karacabeyli [4] is completely different from
that derived by Sinha and Gupta [5].
Hence, as the first step towards investigating and
understanding the seismic response of LWFBs with GWB,
the structural behaviour of shear walls and the contribution
of GWB were studied experimentally. The parameters,
including the panel orientation, the taping and number of
layers (single and double) of GWB, are being investigated.
2 TESTING PROGRAM
A total of 12 assemblies were designed to investigate the
influence of GWB on the structural performance of shear
walls. All shear walls had the same dimensions of 2440 ×
2440 mm (8 × 8 ft) and different types of sheathing
panels (OSB, GWB, and OSB + GWB), taping cases (with
horizontal).
At the time of writing of this abstract, all shear wall
assemblies are being manufactured with 38 × 89 mm (2
× 4 in.) spruce-pine-fir (SPF) dimension lumbers of stud

165
TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

grade, 12200 × 2440 ×12.5 mm OSB, 1220 × 2440 × REFERENCES

12.5 mm GWB, Simpson HD3B hold-down, 15.9 mm
diameter A307 anchor bolts, 8d (φ3.5 × 63.5 mm) and [1] J. W. van de Lindt, H. Liu. Nonstructural elements in
16d (φ4.1 × 89 mm) common wire nails, φ3.25 × 50.8 performance-based seismic design of wood frame
mm and φ 3.25 × 63.5 mm screws. Prior to testing, structures. J. Struct. Eng., ASCE, 133(3): 432-439,
2007.
assemblies will be stored in the laboratory for two weeks
[2] A. Asiz, Y. H. Chui, G. Doudak, C. Ni, M.
to allow for wood relaxation around the nails.
Mohammad. Contribution of plasterboard finishes to
The end studs of each shear wall are fastened to the structural performance of multi-storey light wood
foundation beam by mechanical hold-down devices, and frame buildings. In: 12th East Asia-Pacific Conference
the bottom plate is attached to the foundation beam by on Structural Engineering and Construction (CD-
anchor bolts. Similarly, the top plates are connected to the ROM), 2011.
load beam with bolts. The lateral load is applied to the [3] R. W. Wolfe. Contribution of Gypsum Wallboard to
specimens through a hydraulic actuator. Racking Resistance of Light-Frame Walls. Forest
Service, FPL 439, 1983.
Two shear wall assemblies sheathed with OSB or GWB
[4] A. Ceccotti, E. Karacabeyli. Dynamic analysis of
alone are tested under static monotonic load according to
nailed wood-frame shear walls. In: 12th World
ASTM E564 [7] to derive the maximum loads and ultimate
Conference on Earthquake Engineering, pages 719-
displacements which are used in the reversed cyclic
720, 2000.
loading test; while the other ten shear wall assemblies are
[5] A. Sinha, R. Gupta. Strain distribution in OSB and
tested under reversed cyclic load in accordance with
GWB in wood-frame shear walls. J. Struct. Eng.,
ASTM E2126 [8] to investigate the influence of the panel
ASCE, 135(6): 666-675, 2009.
orientation, the taping and number of layers of GWB on
[6] N. M. Newmark, W. J. Hall.: Earthquake spectra and
the structural performance of shear walls.
design. Earthquake Engineering Research Institute,
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Berkeley, 1982.
[7] ASTM.: E564 Standard practice for static load test for
The structural performance of shear walls sheathed with shear resistance of framed walls for buildings.
OSB or GWB alone, or in combination will be investigated American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM),
under static monotonic or reversed cyclic load. Parameters West Conshohocken, 2006.
such as stiffness, load-carrying capacity, ductility, failure [8] ASTM.: E2126 Standard test methods for cyclic
modes, failure mechanism, and load distribution will be (reversed) load test for shear resistance of vertical
determined from test data. Since the testing is underway, elements of the lateral force resisting systems for
results will be presented in the full length paper later. buildings. American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM), West Conshohocken, 2009.
4 CONCLUSIONS
In total 12 shear walls are being tested under static
monotonic or reversed cyclic lateral load to investigate the
structural behaviour of shear walls sheathed with OSB or
GWB only, or in combination. Based on the test, the
influence of the panel orientation, the taping and number
of layers of GWB on the shear walls will be researched.
For further investigation, a supper macro model for
simulating the behaviour of the shear wall sheathed with
OSB and GWB will be developed, and some refined FE
models with such super macro model can be used to
investigate the contribution of the GWB to the LWFBs
under earthquake actions.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors greatly acknowledge the financial support
provided by Natural Sciences and Engineering Research
Council (NSERC) of Canada under the Strategic Research
Network on Innovative Wood Products and Building
Systems (NEWBuildS).

166
TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

LIGHT-FRAME WOOD STUD WALLS UNDER BLAST

LOADING - AN ASSESSMENT OF THE CANADIAN BLAST
DESIGN STANDARD PROVISIONS

Daniel Lacroix1, Ghasan Doudak2

ABSTRACT: Little details on how to address the design or retrofitting of wood structures subjected to a blast threat are
available. Wood structures may be exposed to such loading due to their proximity to an intended target or they may be
subjected to an accidental explosion. This paper presents an overview of the current information available on the behaviour
of light-frame wood structures subjected to blast loading. A scaled P-I diagram was developed and used to predict damage to
light-frame wood stud walls. The ductility ratios provided by the blast code were verified using experimental data. The
comparison showed good agreement with the observed levels from experimental work in the superficial and moderate damage
region. More work is currently underway to better establish the behaviour in the heavy to blowout ranges.

KEYWORDS: Blast loading, light-frame wood structure, SDOF modelling, CSA S850 code assessment, scaled P-I
diagram.

1 BACKGROUND 123 the structures is highly influenced by the damage inflicted

In the past few decades, the response of structures to blast
loadings, such as deliberate attacks on buildings (e.g. World
Trade Center, 2001) and accidental explosions (e.g. Ronan
Point, 1968; BP Texas City, 2005; Lac-Mégantic, 2013), has
become a topic of great interest to researchers and
engineers. This is in part due to the political and socio-
economic issues associated with such tragic events. The
heightened risk for loss of life and property damage has
emphasized the need for research in the behaviour of
structural systems under blast load effects. The focus, for
the most part, has been on the behaviour of concrete and
steel as most high-risk and high-profile structures consist of
a combination of these two materials. However, little to no
details on how to address the design or retrofitting of wood
structures subjected to a blast threat, are available.
to the rafters, studs, joists and windows [1-3].
This paper provides a perspective on the behaviour of light-
frame wood structures subjected to blast loading. Design
tools are developed and comparison with tests results is
made to assess the validity of the design tools.
2 METHODOLOGY
The Canadian Standard Association (CSA) has recently
developed a standard that addresses the analysis and design
requirements for structures under blast loading titled
"Design and assessment of buildings subjected to blast
loads" (CSA S850) [4]. Although wood is included in the
CSA S850 standard as a material option, research on wood
structures under blast loading has been very scarce.

In general, research conducted on the behaviour of light-
frame wood structures subjected to blast loading highlighted
the robustness of such structural systems, and noted that
they withstood higher loads than what they were designed
and constructed for, due to the load sharing and high strain
rates effects. Another important finding is that damage to
1 Daniel Lacroix, University of Ottawa, 161 Louis Pasteur,
Ottawa, Canada. Email: dlacr086@uottawa.ca
2 Ghasan Doudak, Assistant Professor, University of Ottawa,
In order to evaluate the CSA S850 standard provisions and
to obtain a more general description of the damage, a scaled
P-I diagram, with non-dimensional Pbar and Ibar terms, was
developed. These are obtained by dividing the pressure and
impulse by the component properties. The derivation of
these terms used the conservation of energy principle [5].

Ottawa, Canada.

167
TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
Rather than describing a deflection limit, the scaled P-I
diagram reflects a non-dimensional response criterion,
which is often described as a ductility ratio or support
rotation
3 EXPERIMENTAL AND ANALYTICAL
RESULTS
In order to illustrate the validity of the scaled P-I diagram
presented in this paper, tests data with varying levels of
damage are used to compare observed damage with that
obtained from the ductility ratios provided in the code.
Dynamic tests on light-frame wood stud walls consisting of
38 mm x 89 mm and 38 mm x 140 mm studs were conducted
[6, 7] and the test results are compared to the prediction by
the P-I scaled diagram. The data presented here focuses on
the “superficial” and “moderate” damage regions as current
work is underway to better establish the behaviour in the
“heavy”, “hazardous” and “blowout” regions.
Three different groups of walls with different construction
details. The walls in group 1 consisted of 38 mm x 89 mm
Spruce-Pine-Fir (SPF), No. 2 and better elements spaced at
406 mm, and sheathed with 11 mm oriented strandboard
(OSB) while group 2 and 3 consisted of 38 mm x 140 mm
machine stress rated (MSR) lumber, spaced 406 mm on
center. In group 2, 11 mm OSB sheathing was used while
group 3 consisted of 18.5 mm plywood. The height of the
studs was 2083 mm with a clear span of 2032 mm equal to
the size of the opening of the end frame.
Figures 1 (a) and (b) shows representative examples of the
damage levels identified as “superficial” and “moderate”,
respectively.
(a) W12-2 Superficial (b) W9-3 Moderate
Figure 1: Observed Representative Damage Levels-
Superficial and Moderate
168
4 CONCLUSIONS
The paper presents an overview of the current information
available on the behaviour of light-frame wood structures
subjected to blast loading. It is shown that a scaled P-I
diagram can be used as a simple design tool to predict
damage to light-frame wood stud walls. The scaled P-I
diagram was developed based on code ductility ratios and
verified using experimental data, allowing the designer to
evaluate the expected damage to light-frame wood walls of
any size and construction details without the need for
dynamic analysis. The scaled P-I diagram showed good
agreement with the observed levels of damage from
experimental work in the superficial and moderate damage
region. More work is currently underway to better establish
the behaviour in the heavy to blowout ranges.
REFERENCES
[1] Kimbell R.G. and J. Fies: Two typical wood frame
houses exposed to energy released by nuclear fission.
Report by the National Lumber Manufacturers
Association, Washington, D.C., pp. 16, 1953.
[2] Randall P.A.: Damage to conventional and special
types of residences exposed to nuclear effects. Federal
Civil Defense Administration (FCDA), Washington,
D.C., pp. 53, 1955.
[3] Air Force Handbook 10-2401: Force protection
battlelab vehicle bomb mitigation guide. USAF Force
Protection Battle Lab, 2002.
[4] Canadian Standard Association (CSA) S850-12:
Design and assessment of buildings subjected to blast
loads. Mississauga, Ontario, Canada, 2012.
[5] Oswald C.J.: Component explosive damage
assessment workbook (CEDAW) methodology
manual V1.0. Prepared for PDC U.S.A.C.E. Omaha
District. Report No. 02-0752-001. 2005.
[6] Lacroix D.N.: Behaviour of light-frame wood stud
walls subjected to blast loading. M.A.Sc. thesis,
University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada, pp. 292, 2013.
[7] Lacroix D.N. and G. Doudak: Behaviour of typical
light-frame wood stud walls subjected to blast loading.
Proceedings, World Conference on Timber
Engineering, New Zealand Timber Design Society
(NZTDS), 561-569, 2012.
TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

STRUCTURAL HEALTH MONITORING OF WOODEN

STRUCTURES BY USING SUBSPACE SYSTEM
IDENTIFICATION BASED ON SHAKING TABLE TESTS

Takenori Hida1, Masayuki Nagano2 and Toshiaki Sato3

ABSTRACT: To evaluate the earthquake resistance of wooden structures, a structural health monitoring method based on
subspace system identification was applied to acceleration data obtained from full-scaled shaking table tests of wooden post
and beam structures made with plywood and brace. The ordinary Multi-variable Output-Error State sPace (MOESP) was
used to evaluate the temporal variation of the natural frequency of the structure. As a result, the identified equivalent story
stiffness was higher than the secant stiffness evaluated by the hysteresis loop of the specimen. This suggests that the
subspace method might underestimate the structural damage.

KEYWORDS: Structural health monitoring, Subspace system identification, Shaking table test, Plywood, Brace

1 INTRODUCTION 123 There are many seismic-resistant elements to consider for a

In recent years, structural health monitoring (SHM) has
been attracting attention as a tool for examining the
seismic safety after an earthquake [1, 2]. SHM is based on
system identification theory using the input to and output
of a structure. The input is the load acting on the structure,
e.g., ground motion, whereas the output is the response of
the structure to this input.
The Auto-Regression with eXogeneous variables (ARX )
model and subspace-based method are often used as
system identification methods. The ARX model deals
mainly with single-input single-output (SISO) systems. On
the other hand, the subspace-based method enables us to
analyze the multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) system.
Furthermore, the subspace-based method is based on LQ
decomposition and singular value decomposition [3],
which are both mathematically stable. Thus, the subspace-
based method is useful to evaluate the structural soundness
by using the multipoint record with observation noises.
The system identification by the subspace approach is
based on a linear system. On the other hand, a wooden
structure shows non-linear behavior when the structure is
damaged during an earthquake. Thus, the evaluation
accuracy of the method should be clarified.
1 Takenori Hida, Tokyo University of Science, 2461 Yamazaki,
Noda-shi, Chiba, Japan. Email: hida-t@rs.tus.ac.jp
2 Masayuki Nagano, Tokyo University of Science, Japan
3 Toshiaki Sato, Tokyo University of Science, Japan
wooden post and beam structure. The variation of the
natural frequency and the story stiffness of the structure
during an earthquake might be different from the structural
characteristics. In spite of the current situation, the
knowledge about the effects of the structural soundness of
wooden post and beam structure with seismic resistant
elements on the natural frequency and the story stiffness is
limited.
This study investigates the identification accuracy of the
natural frequency and equivalent story stiffness of wooden
structures during an earthquake by using the system
identification method based on the subspace approach. To
achieve the desired purpose, shaking table tests were
conducted with test specimens consisting of a wooden
frame made with braces or plywood. Then, the system
identification method based on the subspace approach was
applied to the acceleration data observed in the shaking
table tests.
2 OUTLINE OF SHAKING TABLE TEST
The shaking table tests were performed in January 2013 by
using a 1-dimensional shaking table at the National
research Institute for Earth science and Disaster prevention.
Figure 1 illustrates the test specimens. They consisted of
two structure planes. Two sets of earthquake resisting
elements were attached to each plane. One of the
specimens was a wooden post and beam structure with
plywood. The other one was a structure with braces. The
top and bottom of the columns were connected with the
beam and groundsill by hole-down joints. The specimens

169
TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

Weight (4 ton) Weight (4 ton)

Beam
PLY Brace

Plywood Hole-down Brace Brace

joint

Shaking
table Groundsill

Unit: mm
910 910 910 Steel 910 910 910
300 2730 300
beam
300 2730 300
c) Side view
Shaking direction Shaking direction

a) Plywood b) Brace : Accelerometer

Figure 1: Test specimens : Laser displacement meter

Shaking direction
100 100

The ratio of identified stiffness

The ratio of identified stiffness

a) Plywood b) Brace
Test specimen

to secant stiffness
to secant stiffness

10 10
12,000 mm

1 1

12,000
mm
Test
specimen 0.1 0.1
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (sec) Time (sec)
Shaking table
Figure 3: Temporal variation of the ratio of identified story
12,000 mm stiffness to secant stiffness evaluated from the hysteresis
Figure 2: Layout of test specimens loop (JMA Kobe)

were constructed on steel beams connected to the shaking specimen with plywood and braces, respectively. In these
table. In order to prevent torsional vibration, braces were time ranges, each specimen showed strong non-linear
set to planes orthogonal to the shaking direction. A weight behavior.
of 4 tons was put on the top of each specimen.
As mentioned above, the equivalent story stiffness
Accelerometers were attached to the first and roof floors of
evaluated by the system identification method based on the
the structure. The displacement of the first and roof floors
subspace approach was higher than the secant stiffness
were observed by a laser displacement meter.
calculated by the hysteresis loop for the test specimen.
Figure 2 shows the layout of the test specimens on the This is probably because the subspace approach is based
shaking table. The dimension of the shaking table was 12 × on a linear system. These facts suggest that the subspace
12 m in plan. The shaking tests were performed 3 times. method might underestimate the structural damage. This
Three different specimens were subjected to the shaking in problem needs to be solved in the future.
each single experiment. In this paper, the test results of two
of the specimens will be discussed. 3 CONCLUSIONS
Figure 3 shows the temporal variation of ratios of the The identification accuracy of the natural frequency and
identified equivalent story stiffness to the secant stiffness story stiffness based on the subspace method was
evaluated from the hysteresis loop. The stiffness ratios are investigated by using the acceleration data observed in
almost equal to 1 during t = 0–8 and 0–12 s in the shaking table tests with a wooden post and beam structure.
specimen with plywood and braces, respectively. This As a result, the identified stiffness was higher than the
means that the identified stiffness showed good agreement secant stiffness when the specimens showed strong
with the secant stiffness. On the contrary, the stiffness nonlinear behavior. This suggests that the subspace method
ratios were higher than 1 after t = 8 and 12 s in the might underestimate the structural damage.

170
TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

SEISMIC PERFORMANCE OF WOODEN HOUSE WETTED BY

RAINFALL OR SUBMERGING IN WATER

Kei Tanaka1, Mariko Hara1, Toshihiro Kuwano2,

Ji-young Park1 , Takuro Mori3 and Masafumi Inoue1

ABSTRACT: The purpose of this study is to clear that influence of the seismic performance when the bearing wall
with brace experienced wet processing. In this study, wet processing is performed of soaking and water splash. In
addition, bearing wall with brace is dried in indoor condition or seal condition in order to discuss the difference of drying
conditions. After finishing the wet processing and drying, the horizontal shear test of bearing wall with brace are carried
out. From the test results, it is clear that seismic performance was reduced by the long drying period. In addition, the
bearing wall with brace experienced wet processing shows different seismic performance by the drying condition and
period.

KEYWORDS: Wooden house, Bearing wall with brace, Rainfall, Wall strength factor

1 INTRODUCTION 123 Scots pine. The size of wooden frame is 1820 mm in width,
2730 mm in height.
In the wooden house, the material, hardware, joint and Scots pine
（105×180）
structural member are often exposed to water splash by
sudden rainfall during construction and transportation of
the members and leak accident. In recent years, heavy rain
exceeding the drainage capacity of city caused by typhoon Nail
Nail
75mm
and guerrilla rainstorm occurred. Furthermore, the many 75mm

buildings were submerged by tsunami of Tohoku Region

Pacific Coast Earthquake in 2011. The wooden house
experienced submerge is discussed for the decline of Scots pine
（30×105）
seismic performance. In this study, after finishing the wet

2730
processing and drying, horizontal shear test of bearing wall
with brace are carried out. Bracing hardware

Scots pine
2 TEST SPECIMENS （105×105）

Figure 1 shows the shape and size of test specimen. The

Nail
materials of brace are LVL and hemlock. The materials of 75mm

the sill, column, beam and studs are glulam made from
910 910
1 1820
Kei TANAKA, Mariko HARA, Ji-young PARK, Masafumi
INOUE, Department of Architectural Engineering, Faculty of Figure 1: Shape and size of test specimen (Unit in mm)
Engineering, Oita University, 700 Dannoharu, Oita, Japan
Email: kei@oita-u.ac.jp, v1056034@oita-u.ac.jp, 3 WET PROCESSING AND DRYING
v09f2002@oita-u.ac.jp, inoue@oita-u.ac.jp
2
Toshihiro KUWANO, Ichijo Co., Ltd.(Ichijo Komuten), 1227-6
CONDITION
Okubo-cho, Nishi-ku, Hamamatsu City, Shizuoka, Japan Table 1 shows the list of test specimens. Two methods of
Email: v12e6008@oita-u.ac.jp wet processing are adopted in this study. The first one is
3
Takuro MORI, Research Institute for Sustainable Humanosphere,
soaking whole specimen in fresh water for 24 hours (see
Kyoto University, Gokasho, Uji, Japan, Email:
moritakuro@rish.kyouto-u.ac.jp photo 1). The second wet processing is water splash by

171
TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
sprinkler for 3 hours (see photo 2). The water splash is 4 CHANGE OF MOISTURE CONTENT
assumed rainfall of 100mm/h. The drying conditions are
set into two patterns, that is indoor condition and seal Figure 2 shows the change of moisture content through the
condition. Indoor condition means non-control condition wet processing and drying condition. The moisture content
of temperature and humidity in the room. The specimens is measured at three points of brace. Moisture content of
on the seal condition are wrapped up by plastic sheet to both brace materials with LVL and hemlock are about
prevent the evaporation of moisture. It is assumed to be 20 % before wet processing. After soaking for 24 hours,
inside condition of finishing materials. The humidity level moisture content of LVL specimen raised to nearly 80 %.
is about 80 % in the plastic sheet. On the other hand, the moisture content of hemlock
specimen raised to nearly 60 % after then. After 3 months,
Table 1: List of test specimens the moisture contents of specimen with both brace material
Material Wet Wet Drying Number that dried in the indoor condition recover to the same value
of Processing Processing of before wet processing. Decrease of moisture content is
brace Method Period Condition Period Specimen
LVL 1day
small in seal condition. After water splash for 3 hour,
Soaking 1day Indoor Seal Moisture content raised to nearly 50 %. After drying for
Hemloke 3months
two weeks, moisture content of specimen recover to the
Water 1day
LVL
Splash
3hours Seal 3 same value as before water splash.
2weeks
LVL
Control - - - - 5 SEISMIC PERFORMANCE
Hemloke
Figure 3 shows the wall strength factor of test specimens.
The test specimen of LVL dried for 3 months after soaking
are lower than control of LVL in wall strength factor.
However, test specimen of hemlock dried for 3 months
after soaking about the same wall strength factor as control
of hemlock. The test specimen of LVL dried after water
splash and control of LVL are about the same wall strength
factor. It is reason that only surface of test specimens are
contented water at water splash.

Sprinkler 6 CONCLUSION
Photo 1: Photo 2: From the test results, irrespective of the drying conditions,
Soaking for fresh water Water splash seismic performance is recovered by long drying period.
100 (%) 100 (%) 100 (%)
Hemloke LVL Hemloke LVL LVL
80 80 80

60 60 60

40 40 40

20 20 20

0 0 0
Before After 1day 3months Before After 1day 3months Before After 1day 2weeks
soaking soaking drying drying soaking soaking drying drying water splash water splash drying drying

Soaking (Indoor condition) Soaking (Seal condition) Water splash (Indoor condition)

Figure 2: Change of moisture content through wet and dry process

Wall strength factor Wall strength factor Wall strength factor
3 3 3
Hemloke LVL Hemloke LVL LVL

2 2 2

1 1 1

0 0 0
Control 1day 3months Control 1day 3months Control 1day 2weeks
drying drying drying drying drying drying

Soaking (Indoor condition) Soaking (Seal condition) Water splash (Indoor condition)
Figure 3: Wall strength factor

172
TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

EXPERIMENTAL AND NUMERICAL INVESTIGATION OF

NOVEL STEEL-TIMBER-HYBRID SYSTEM

Pooja Bhat1, Riasat Azim2, Marjan Popovski3, Thomas Tannert4

ABSTRACT: This paper summarises the experimental and numerical investigation conducted on the main connection of a
novel steel-timber hybrid system called FFTT. The component behaviour of the hybrid system was investigated using quasi-
static monotonic and reversed cyclic tests. Different steel profiles (wide flange I-sections and hollow rectangular sections)
and embedment approaches for the steel profiles (partial and full embedment) were tested. The results demonstrated that
when using an appropriate connection layout, the desired strong-column weak-beam failure mechanism was initiated and
excessive wood crushing was avoided. A numerical model was developed that reasonably reflected the real component
behaviour and can subsequently be used for numerical sensitivity studies and parameter optimization. The research
presented herein serves as a precursor for providing design guidance for the FFTT system as an option for tall wood-hybrid
buildings in seismic regions.

KEYWORDS: Strong-column weak-beam failure mechanism, cross-laminated-timber, energy dissipation

1 INTRODUCTION 123 2 EXPERIMENTAL AND NUMERCIAL

According to the objective-based design approach in the INVESTIGATIONS
2010 version of the National Building Code of Canada, 2.1 SPECIMEN DESCRIPTION
new structural systems that are not defined in the code can
be used as “alternative solutions”, provided that the Two 7-ply Spruce-Pine-Fir CLT panels, 3.9m long and
alternative solution provides the same level of performance 0.9m wide in combination with two beam profiles: i) wide
as the “acceptable solution” specified in the code. The flange I-section (150 x 100mm) and ii) hollow rectangular
adoption of this objective based approach can favour large- tube section (HSS 100 x 50 x 3.1mm) were used in the
scale wood construction if equivalent performance design tests. The beams were embedded into pre-cut slots in the
can be demonstrated. panels and held in place using lag bolts. The main
parameters of the five test series are presented in Table 1.
Over the last decade, several innovative hybrid systems
were developed. One such system is ‘Finding Forest Table 1: Summary of Test Series Configuration
Through Trees’, abbreviated as FFTT [1]. It consists of
mass timber wall panels such as CLT as the vertical system Embedment Embedment
No. Section
that are anchored down using ductile hold downs or Length [mm] Depth [mm]
dampers and rigid (elastic) shear connectors. Steel beams 1 I 900 50
are partially embedded into the panel faces that hold the 2 I 900 100
walls together and also act as the ductile weak links for 3 Reduced I 900 100
seismic design, thus providing the desired “Strong-Column
Weak-Beam” failure mechanism. 4 HSS 900 50
5 HSS 600; 300 50

1 Pooja Bhat, Research Assistant, Civil Engineering, UBC 2.2 METHODS

Vancouver, Canada, Email: pujabhatk@gmail.com
2 Riasat Azim, Research Assistant, Civil Engineering, UBC
Vancouver, Canada, Email: riasat@civil.ubc.ca
3 Marjan Popovski, Principal Scientist, FPInnovations,
Vancouver, Canada, Email: Marjan.Popovski@fpinnovations.ca
4 Thomas Tannert, Assistant Professor, Wood Science and Civil
Engineering, UBC Vancouver, Canada, Email:
thomas.tannert@ubc.ca (corresponding author)
The CLT panels were bolted to the floor at both ends to
restrain them from translation, rotation or uplift (Figure 1).
The load was applied by means of a hydraulic actuator at
the end of the projecting steel beam. Six sensors along the
steel beam allowed for measurement of the relative
horizontal displacement between the beam and panel and
the rotation of the steel beam.

173
TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

The computed load deformation curves of the joint were

compared to the experimental results. The five different
test configurations were modelled and a static pushover
analysis for each test series was performed. For each
configuration, the load-displacement curves at the
locations of the six LVDTs were recorded and compared to
those of the experimental results. The results for Series 1
are exemplarily shown in Figure 2.
50

40

Force (kN)
30
Figure 1: Typical experimental setup loc4_exp
20 loc4_num
Two replicates for each series were tested under quasi- loc5_exp
static monotonic loading, while one specimen was tested loc5_num
under reversed cyclic loading. The static load was applied 10 loc6_exp
at a constant displacement rate according to EN-26891; the loc6_num
reversed cyclic tests followed the CUREE protocol. 0
0 20 40 60
Deformation (mm)
2.3 RESULTS
The static tests were used to develop the cyclic loading Figure 2: Load-deformation plots comparing experimental
protocol. Recommendations on optimum beam profile and and numerical results for cantilever portion from series 1
placement (embedment length) to maximize energy
dissipation under seismic loads were provided. The 3 CONCLUSIONS
obtained hysteresis loops were typical of a steel
The research presented herein focused on the component
component, implying a connection with adequate ductility
level performance of the proposed wood-hybrid FFTT
for the desired seismic application.
system. A full-size connection assembly, consisting of a 7-
In all series, the failure mode was ductile steel yielding. ply CLT panel and a steel beam, subjected to static and
Rectangular hollow sections proved to be the better cyclic loads, demonstrated high connection strength while
solution for achieving ductile failure mechanisms without maintaining ductile performance. The combination of
any significant wood crushing even at partial embedment hollow profiles with a minimum embedment length
lengths, without out-of-plane buckling that was provided best results. The experimental and numerical
characteristic for the I-section beams. investigations provided input data that can be used to
Main parameters from monotonic and cyclic tests are develop preliminary design guidance for the FFTT system
summarized in Table 2. to be used in mid- and high-rise timber buildings.

Table 2: Summary of Monotonic and Cyclic Test Results ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Yield Ultimate Load Dissipated This research was supported by the Natural Sciences and
No.
load [kN] displ. [mm] cycles energy [J] Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) and
1 40.0 76.2 34 4,066 the Wood First Program by Forestry Innovation
2 41.0 64.7 38 19,228 Investments. The support from Johannes Schneider and
Paul Simmons (FPInnovations) is acknowledged. The CLT
3 44.5 72.6 36 5,326
panels were provided by Structurlam Products LP.
4 17.0 126.0 42 21,086
5 17.1 174.5 42 27,844 REFERENCES
2.4 NUMERICAL MODEL [1] Green MC, Karsh JE (2012) TALL WOOD - The case
for tall wood buildings. Vancouver.
To complement the experimental results, a numerical
investigation was carried out using ANSYS. All properties
were assigned in such a manner so as to represent the
actual behaviour. CLT was modelled a linear elastic
orthotropic material, steel as bilinear isotropic elasto-
plastic material. Contact elements were used to represent
the gap and contact between the components.

174
TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

MECHANICAL PERFORMANCES OF TIMBERCONNECTIONS,

IMPROVEMENT BY MECHANICAL PREPARATION OF THE
INTERFACES: ITS APPLICATION TO STRUCTURAL MEMBER

Stéphane Girardon1, Jean-François Bocquet1,Laurent Bleron1, Pascal Triboulot1

ABSTRACT: This paper presents a methodology to characterize the shearing stiffness of multi-layer spruce beams using
woodenscrews and machined interfaces. A woodenscrew’s extraction behaviour and machined interface stiffness behaviour
as well as isostatic multi-layer beams’ behaviour have been experimentally obtained. These elements are made by a
specifically designed machine to guarantee repeatability. A model of finite elements was developed to reproduce tested
beams’ bending behaviour from non-linear connection behaviour. After a sensibility analysis, a parameterized regression
model allows to obtain secant stiffness to design multi-layer beams in an elastic analytical model way. This model is based
on Kreuzinger’s [1] work.

KEYWORDS: multi-layer beam, wooden screw, machined interface

1 INTRODUCTION 1 2 INTERFACES TREATING

Wooden andconcrete composite beams joined by metallic
organs havegenerally a non-linear mechanical behaviour
up until failure [2]. This behaviour is also observable
inmulti-layer wooden beams using welding-through beech
dowels [3] as well as multi-layer wooden beams using
wooden screws and machined interfaces. To approach in a
practical way the design of these elements, it is convenient
to use elastic analytical models including interface sliding
between elements [4] [5] [1]. Appropriate secant stiffness
is chosen whose limitstate is necessary, to approach
deformations or constraints distribution in beam elements.
In practice, secant stiffnessis deducted from standardized
tests and analysed. Some authors [2] [6] [7] showed that
depending on connector type, stiffness by standardized
approach could lead to significant deviation in design
value. Numerical and experimental studies are proposed in
order to understand the behaviour of multi-layer beams,
focusing on stiffness adapted values.This beam can offer
high-performing building solutions [8] and are
environment-friendly.
1
ENSTIB/Lermab,
Université de Lorraine,
27 rue Philippe Séguin,
CS 60036,
88026 ÉpinalCedex, France.
Phone: +333 29 29 61 00
Fax: +333 29 29 61 38
Email: Stephane.Girardon@univ-lorraine.fr
2.1 STRENGTH TRANSMISSION BY
INTERFACES
The weakness of welding-through beech dowel connection
comes from that loads are only transmittedthrough dowels,
while surfaces in contact are not used. These interfaces are
used in glue connection which leads to a great interface
stiffness. Strength can be transmitted from layer to layer by
huge surfaces by machining interfaces.
2.2 CONTACT HOLDING AT INTERFACES
Surfaces have to be held in contact to guarantee well shear
strength. So fasteners are added in this way. The choice of
this fastener was conducted to have productwhich was both
quick to assemble and only in wood. So a conic hardwood
screw has been chosen. Hardwood avoids cutting screw
threads in softwood beams.
3 CONNECTION CHARACTERIZATION
A bottom-up method is led to characterizeconnection
behaviour. Unit assemblies were tested to measure shear
groove behaviour and extraction screw behaviour. When
behaviours were obtained, test on grooved and screwed
assembly was realised to valid that assembly behaviour can
be predict from unit test. The test principle proposed by
Claudio Pirazzi [9] was chosen to characterize assembly
shearing stiffness.

175
TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
4 MODEL AND DESIGN TOOLS
4.1 FINITE ELEMENT MODEL
With the aim of extrapolating previous results to other
types of configurations, the finite elements model was
realized on Castem [10]. Elements are modelled in two
dimensions. Every plank is considered perfectly elastic and
orthotropic, longitudinal modulus of elasticity is constant.
Contact conditions avoid elements’ interpenetration. The
assemblies’ behaviour is modelled by a nonlinear shearing
stiffness linking element to their interface.
4.2 ANALYTIC MODEL
It is preferred to use elastic models in which adapted
stiffness are introduced to find a functioning point of the
structure to optimise limit state or to service limit state. To
study grooved and screwed beams, the elastic model from
Kreuzinger’s [1] and Scholz’s [11] works is at present day
the most accurate to include shearing and interface sliding
to design structure. To determine stiffness and which allow
finding particular functioning points which can be
determined from the previous non-linear model,
Kreuzinger’s model is implemented in the Mathematica
software [12].
4.3 PARAMETRIC STUDY AND STIFFNESS
FORMULATION
A parametric study is realized to propose a stiffness
formulation that allows precise structure calculations.
After this first analysis and simplification, parameter
sorting is realized according to their degree of correlation
with stiffness value. Pearson’s correlation coefficients are
obtained by R software [13]. To produce a stiffness
formulation according to previously selected parameters, it
was chosen to use an artificialneural network (ANN). This
choice was taken due to its generalization capacity,
experimental learnt capacity and its computing speed
[14][15].
5 CONCLUSIONS
A global and constant secant stiffness value is difficult to
estimate for composite beams with partial interaction
design, when connection behaviour is strongly non-linear.
This study presents an approach to find grooved and
screwed behaviour by a complete analysis and a sorting of
parameters that have significantinfluence on secant
stiffness.This work leans upon a reliable non-linear model
based on the average grooved and screwed shearing
behaviour. An ANN use allows then to propose an accurate
interpolation formula for assembly shearing stiffness in
softwood planks based oninfluent parameters.
176
REFERENCES
[1] H. Kreuzinger, «Flächentragwerke: Platten, Scheiben
und Schalen; Berechnungsmethoden und Beispiele.,»
Informationsdienst Holz: Brücken aus Holz, pp. 43-
60, 1999.
[2] E. Lukaszewska, «Development of prefabricated
timber-concrete composite floors,» 2009.
[3] J.-F. Bocquet, A. Pizzi, A. Despres, H. R. Mansouri,
L. Resch, D. Michel et F. Letort, «Wood joints and
laminated wood beams assembled by mechanically-
welded wood dowelsc,» Journal of adhesion science
and technology, vol. 21, pp. 301-317, 2007.
[4] B. Heimeshoff, «"Zur Berechnung von Biegeträgern
aus nachgiebig miteinander verbundenen
Querschnittsteilen im Ingenieurholzbau,»
Querschnittsteilen im Ingenieurholzbau, vol. 45, pp.
237-241, 1987.
[5] U. A. Girhammar et D. H. Pan, «Exact static analysis
of partially composite beams and beam-columns,»
International Journal of Mechanical Sciences, vol.
49, n°2, pp. 239-255, 2007.
[6] M. Fragiacomo et E. Lukaszewska, «Development of
prefabricated timber concrete composite floor
systems,» Proceedings of the Institution of Civil
Engineers. Structures and buildings, vol. 164, n°2, p.
13, 2011.
[7] A. Ceccotti, Timber-concrete composite structures.,
Timber Engineering-STEP 2, Ed. by H. J. Blass, P.
Aune, B. S. Choo, R. Görlacher, D. R. Griffiths, B. O.
Hilson et al. Centrum Hout, The Netherlands, pp.
E13/1-12. ISBN 90-5645-002-6, , 1995.
[8] L. Resch, «Développement d'éléments de construction
en bois de pays lamellés assemblés par tourillons
thermo-soudés,» 2009.
[9] C. Pirazzi, «Zur Berechnung von Holzschalen in
Brettrippenbauweise mit elastischem
Verbundquerschnitt,» EPFL, Lausanne, 2005.
[10] CEA, CASTEM - Logiciel de calcul aux éléments
finis, 2012.
[11] A. Scholz, «Ein Beitrag zur Berechnung von
Flächentragwerken aus Holz,» München, 2004.
[12] Wolfram Research, Mathematica 9.0, I. W. Research,
Éd., 2012.
[13] R Development Core, «R: A Language and
Environment for Statistical Computing,» Vienna,
Austria, 2011.
[14] K. Hornik, M. Stinchcombe et H. White, «Multilayer
feedforward networks are universal approximators,»
Neural Networks, vol. 2, n°5, pp. 359-366, 1989.
[15] J. Castro, C. Mantas et J. Benitez, «Neural networks
with a continuous squashing function in the output are
universal approximators,» Neural Networks, vol. 13,
n°6, pp. 561-563, 2000.
TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

REINFORCEMENT OF THE SUPPORT AREAS OF GLUED

LAMINATED TIMBER STRUCTURES

Damien Lathuilliere1, Laurent Bleron2, Jean-François Bocquet3, François

Varacca4, Frédéric Dubois5

ABSTRACT: This paper illustrates arrangements of self-tapping screws to reinforce the mechanical behaviour of
transverse compression. Several experimental approaches are studied such as the reinforcement below the support, beside
the support or the combination of these two reinforcements. The last experimental approach is explored to solicit the shear
over the entire height of the screw. These different approaches of reinforcement allow seeing a panel of constructive
solutions to transverse compression reinforcement by screws. This panel allows adapting the type of reinforcement with the
studied building.

KEYWORDS: Reinforcement, Transverse Compression, Glued Laminated Timber, Self-tapping screws

1 INTRODUCTION 123 In order to study this problematic, diverse studies are

realised about the comprehension of wood behaviour under
Today, we build buildings larger and larger with a stress of transverse compression. These results show that
spectacular spans. However, the modern architecture the diffusion within wood material for important support
searches to develop fine structures in order to obtain large lengths is very limited. Consequently, the mean of
spaces and look for a certain aesthetic. Therefore, this artificially increase the support length consists to insert a
reduction implies an increase of charges on the load- rod-type element in the perpendicular direction to grain of
bearing. The limits of wood are reached and so the the beam. On this principle, multiple tests were performed
reinforcement techniques are more and more used within as reinforcements by screws [2-6], metal glued rods or
assembly or material [1]. wood studs [7]. All these reinforcements increase the
This problem is observed in the vicinity of the support bearing capacity of the support. However, the behaviour
areas. The increase of loading requires a considerable less and less ductile is observed on this type of
increase of support length. In order to obtain feasible and reinforcement caused by different failure modes.
economic lengths of support, the reinforcement of support
areas become a major solution. 2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
The objective of this study is to experiment other
1
Damien LATHUILLIERE, University of Lorraine, approaches arrangement reinforcement by screws in the
ENSTIB/LERMAB 27 rue Philippe SÉGUIN, 88026 Épinal vicinity of the support areas. Two types of references tests
Cedex - France. Email: damien.lathuilliere@univ-lorraine.fr were made, one with no reinforcement and one with a
2
Laurent BLERON, University of Lorraine, ENSTIB/LERMAB perpendicular reinforcement under support (see Figure 1).
Email: laurent.bleron@univ-lorraine.fr
3
Jean-François BOCQUET, University of Lorraine, ENSTIB
/LERMAB. Email: jean-francois.bocquet@univ-lorraine.fr
4
François VARACCA, SFS Intec, 39, rue Georges Méliès BP 55
26902 Valence Cedex 9 - France. Email: vfra@sfsintec.biz
5
Frédéric DUBOIS, University of Limoges, FST/GEMH 17,
boulevard Jacques Derche 19300 Egletons - France. Email:
frederic.dubois@unilim.fr

Figure 1: References tests

177
TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
From these references tests five different arrangements
were tested in comparison to the reinforcement by screw
positioned perpendicular to grain. These approaches aim to
reduce the support lengths.
The first approach aims to artificially increase the strength
of shear by an inclined reinforcement or perpendicular
reinforcement on beside the support (see Figure 2). This
solution type allows the intervention of support areas on
existing buildings.
Figure 2: Reinforcement on beside the support
The second approach is the combination of perpendicular
reinforcement under the support and one of the two
reinforcements seen previously (see Figure 3). The
objective is to see the contribution of the reinforcement on
beside the support with the reinforcement under the
support. The inclined reinforcement allows modifying the
failure mode, avoiding the buckling of screws under the
support.
Figure 3: Reinforcement under and beside the support
The last approach involves decreasing the spacing between
the lines of screws in order to mobilize the shear strength
of the fibers along the entire height of the screw, located
between the two lines of screws (see Figure 4). To avoid
any pre-cracking, the reinforcement is also made within
the thickness of the beam.
Figure 4: Crossed reinforcement of the plan sheared
178
3 CONCLUSIONS
This paper presents experimental tests of reinforcement
solutions of transverse compression other that those which
already exists. Some configuration can modify the failures
modes of the support areas. This investigation of screws
arrangements aim to reinforce the supports of buildings
existing or not.
In the following of the project, the objectives are to realise
a finite element model in order to understand the strength
dispersion within different reinforcements and material.
This model will have to take into account different failures
modes observed during experimental tests.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Our gratefulness goes to the attention of technician of
ENSTIB of University of Lorraine (France) for their
collaboration in the realization of tests. We also thank the
CODIFAB to funding of tests. Finally, this project has
received encouragement from the Laboratory of
Excellence “ARBRE”.
REFERENCES
[1] R. Lefadag, V. Calvi, C. Eglin, Allianz Riviera ou
l’alliance du bois et du metal pour un défi géométrique
et structurel, 3ème Forum International Bois
Construction 2013, Beaune.
[2] H.J. Blass, R. Görlacher, Compression perpendicular
to the grain, In proceeding of WCTE vol 2, Finland:
2004 p 435-40
[3] S. Formolo, R. Granström, Compression perpendicular
to the grain and reinforcement of a pre-stressed timber
deck, Master’s Thesis 2007, Chalmers University of
Technology, Göteborg, Sweden 2007.
[4] I. Bejtka, H.J. Blass, Self-Tapping Screws as
Reinforcements in Beam Supports, CIB-W18,
Florence, Italy, 2006.
[5] I. Bejtka, Verstärkung von Bauteilen aus Holz mit
Vollgewindeschrauben, Band 2 der Reihe Karlsruher
Berichte zum Ingenieurholzbau. Herausgeber,
Karlsruhe University, Karlsruhe Germany, 2005.
[6] M. Mahr, Querdruckarmierung mit selbstbohrenden
schrauben eine kostengunstige und effiziente
verstarkungsmaBnahme , Diplomarbeit Fachgebiet
Holzbau, Vaduz 2002.
[7] Ed D, Hasselqvist F, Timber compression strength
perpendicular to the grain, Master’s dissertation, April
2011
TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

DEVELOPMENT OF NOVEL POST-TENSIONED

GLULAM TIMBER COMPOSITES

Emma McConnell1, Daniel McPolin2, Su Taylor3

ABSTRACT: Timber as a primary structural material has been forced to continually evolve to keep abreast with the
changing demands of the construction industry. This paper presents further research undertaken by Queen’s University
Belfast to evaluate the advantages provided by the post-tensioning of timber members using novel basalt fibre reinforced
polymer (BFRP) rods. Using the high strength, low density, highly durable BFRP tendons experimental investigations
utilising the four-point bending method were conducted and monitored. From the experimentation it was found that there
was an increase in load carrying capacity, a more favourable ductile failure mode and a further benefit of less net deflection
due to the precamber induced by the post-tensioning prior to load application.

KEYWORDS: Post-tension, Timber, BFRP, Glulam

1 INTRODUCTION 123
Timber that has been sourced from sustainable forests is
not only considerably less damaging to the environment
than other materials, but it also has many advantageous
structural properties. Additionally the act of forestry is
regarded as a beneficial process as it has the potential to
reduce the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide by
sequestrating carbon. Despite the many advantages
possessed by timber over other construction materials it
remains underused in the industry.
…‘timber is not widely used for primary structural
elements, even though a substantial volume of renewable
native material is available.’ [1]
The underuse of timber as a structural material may be
attributed to the naturally occurring defects within its
structure. The undesirable characteristics include the
presence of knots and grain defects, susceptibility to the
effects of moisture and other time dependent
vulnerabilities, such as the occurrence of creep.
The limitations experienced when using timber in
construction have been continually addressed in the past
with the development of LVL and glulam to reduce the
presence of natural defects, and more recently the
extensive work that has been completed regarding the
reinforcement of timber using both various metals and
novel fibre reinforced polymers as an attempt to enhance
the timber’s strength and stiffness [2-4].
BFRP is a corrosion resistant composite material
particularly suited to use with timber as it has a low elastic
modulus and therefore a high strain compatibility.
Additionally it has excellent tensile strength,
approximately 2.5 times stronger than steel while also
being 3.7 times lighter [5].
Although extensive work reinforcing timber has been
completed in the past, many researchers have concluded
that the addition of the expensive FRP material is akin to
the addition of a single timber lamina, making this method
ineffective and uneconomical [4&6]. It is therefore
arguable that the FRP’s utilised in these investigations are
not being fully exploited as only a fraction of their
structural potential is used. By initially tensioning the
material and therefore using active reinforcement a number
of advantages may be realised as,

1
‘Prestressing effectively increases flexural strength by
Emma McConnell, Queen’s University Belfast, University introducing an initial compressive stress into the timber
Road, Belfast, Northern Ireland. Email:
fibres that in service are under tension.’ [7]
emcconnell10@qub.ac.uk
2
Daniel McPolin, Queen’s University Belfast, Northern Ireland
3
Su Taylor, Queen’s University Belfast, Northern Ireland

179
TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
2 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
This study was initiated by Queen’s University Belfast to
evaluate the feasibility of strengthening timber beams
through the use of a post-tensioned basalt rod. Throughout
the investigation a combination of unreinforced and both
unbonded and bonded post-tensioned GL28 timber beams
were experimentally tested to determine the structural
advantages that the process would generate.
Additional theoretical investigations examining the various
stresses occurring throughout the materials during the
testing process were undertaken and analysed to create a
theoretical stress model capable of accurately predicting
the behaviour of the system.
3 EXPERIMENTAL TESTING
• 5 No. 45x155x3000 mm control beams, tested both
elastically and to failure,
• 5 No. 45x155x3000 mm beams post-tensioned to 20.0kN
through the unbonded BFRP tendon, tested elastically,
• 5 No. 45x155x3000 mm beams post-tensioned to 20.0kN
through the bonded BFRP tendon, tested elastically and to
failure.
Beams were tested using the four point bending method in
accordance to BS EN 408 [8] being initially loaded with a
10 kN settlement load. Results were gathered using a
combination of ERS gauges and LVDT transducers
arranged as shown in Figure 1. An additional three ERS
gauges were placed along the BFRP tendons length and
load cells monitored the tension force in the tendon.
ERS Gauge: 00-05 at midpoint
LVDT Transducers: 004-006 & 1001-1004 at load points
Figure 1: Experimental Set-up & Gauge Positions
4 RESULTS
To provide a brief overview of the results gathered
throughout the experimental testing the following tables
have been included.
Table 1: Mid-point Deflection Results at Elastic Loading
Net Deflection at 10.0 kN (mm)
Beam No. Control Beams Post-tensioned Beams
with Bonded Tendon
1 25.26 11.15
2 23.59 9.07
3 23.64 9.22
4 24.20 11.91
5 25.31 10.40
Av. 24.40 10.35
180
Table 2: Ultimate Capacity of Timber Members
Beam No. Control Beams Post-tensioned Beams with
(kN) Bonded Tendon (kN)
1 16.25 25.24
2 19.33 26.19
3 23.79 22.8
4 22.52 23.79
5 17.77 24.75
Av. 19.93 24.55
Std. Dev. 3.17 1.31
5 CONCLUSIONS
Further research into this subject is necessary before
definite conclusions may be drawn; however there are
several positive indications from the experimental testing.
• an applied post-tensioning force of 20 kN considerably
reduced net deflections in the elastic region
• the ultimate capacity of a post-tensioned timber member
with a bonded tendon was seen to be 23% greater, on
average, than unreinforced members
• a reduction in material variability was achieved with
post-tensioning
• there are indications that the failure mode of the post-
tensioned beams shifted from a brittle mode to a more
desirable ductile form.
REFERENCES
[1] Gilfillan, J.R., Gilbert, S.G. & Patrick, G.R.H., The
use of FRP composites in enhancing the structural
behaviour of timber beams, Journal of Reinforced
Plastics and Composites, 22(15):1373-1388. 2003
[2] Patrick, G., The structural performance of FRP
reinforced glued laminated beams made from
homegrown Sitka spruce, Thesis. Ph.D. (Faculty of
Engineering), Queen's University of Belfast. 2004
[3] Plevris, N. and Triantafillou, T. FRP-­‐Reinforced
Wood as Structural Material. Journal of Material Civ.
Eng., 4(3): 300–317. 1992
[4] Martin, Z.A. Stith, J.K. & Tingley, D.A.
Commercialisation of FRP reinforced glulam beam
technology. Proceedings of the 6th world conference
on timber engineering. Whistler Resort, Canada, UBC
Press. 2000.
[5] Information on http://magmatech.co.uk/
[6] Negrao, J. Brunner, M. & Lehmann, M. Pre-stressing
of Timber. Bonding of Timber: Core document of the
COST Action E34. Vienna: University of Natural
Resources and Applied Life Sciences. 2008.
[7] Brady, F. & Harte, A. Prestressed FRP Flexural
Strengthening of Softwood Glue-Laminated Timber
Beams, 10th World Conference on Timber
Engineering (WCTE), 2 - 5 June 2008.
[8] British Standards Institution, 2010. BS EN 408:2010
Timber structures. Structural timber and glued
laminated timber. Determination of some physical and
mechanical properties: BSI
TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

DEVELOPMENT OF BIDIRECTIONAL RAHMEN STRUCTURE

USING A WOOD BONDED COMPOSITE PANELS

Hisamitsu Kajikawa1, Haruhiko Ogawa2, Noriko Muguruma3, Yuka Okada4,

Hiroyuki Noguchi5

ABSTRACT: Author realize a 3-story office building using a bidirectional Rahmen structure using wood bonded
composite panels. And we were confirmed by various tests its performance.

KEYWORDS: Bidirectional rahmen structure, Wood bonded composite panels, Various tests of structure performance

1 INTRODUCTION12
In recent years, the proactive use of wood as a material in
buildings has been pursued in Japan in order to realize a
low carbon society, and in 2010, the Act for the Promotion
of Use of Wood in Public Buildings etc. was enacted to
encourage efforts to use wood in low-rise public buildings.
Against this background, the author began to want to
realize a bidirectional Rahmen structure using large section
components with a hollow construction composed of a
combination of small-scale materials such as laminated
wood and wood bonded composite panels. Since that
period coincided with the reconstruction of the author’s
company’s building, the author decided to take on the
challenge of developing a 3-story office building using
Figure 1: A photo of the exterior of the building
new construction techniques.

2 OUTLINE OF BUILDING
A photo of the exterior of the building is shown in Figure 1,
while Figure 2 shows floor plans and elevation plans for
each floor. The building is a 3-story above-ground building
with the 1st floor being a parking lot and the 2nd and 3rd
floors made up of offices. It is a large building due to the
wood construction, with the highest point being 16.8m and
having a total floor area of 2,829m2. The roof has solar
power generation and a rooftop structure that is flat so that
it can be used by people.

1
Hisamitsu Kajikawa, Misawa Homes Institute of Research and
Development Co., Ltd., 1-1-19 Takaido-Nishi, Suginami-ku,
Tokyo,Japan., Email:Hisamitsu_Kajikawa@home.misawa.co.jp
2
Haruhiko Ogawa, Misawa Homes Institute of Research and
Development Co., Ltd., Japan
3
Noriko Muguruma, Misawa Homes Co.,Ltd., Japan Figure 2: Floor plans and elevation plans for each floor
4
Yuka Okada, Misawa Homes Institute of Research and
Development Co., Ltd., Japan
5
Hiroyuki Noguchi, Meiji University, Japan

181
 TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

columns are manufactured in advance at a factory,

allowing for easy on-site construction since they can be
joined to various other components using bolts. Beams
with a long span were constructed on site by joining
multiple beams.
4 EXPERIMENT
4.1 HORIZONTAL LOADING TEST
The maximum load for a 11M(1M=910mm) Rahmen
frame is 509kN, and the maximum load for a 5M Rahmen
frame is 520kN, confirming that they have an extremely
high load bearing ability.
4.2 VERTICAL LOADING TEST
The maximum load of 674kN and the curvature of
L/1444(＝6.3mm) when bearing a load for a long period
demonstrated satisfactory performance.
Figure 3: Outline of the construction method -1 4.3 TWO DIRECTIONS LOADING TEST
The maximum load of 894kN.
600
HORIZONTAL LOADING TEST
400

200

Load[kN]
0

-200

-400
11M
5M
-600
-0.04 -0.03 -0.02 -0.01 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
Story deformetion angle[rad.]
800
VERTICAL LOADING TEST
600

Load[kN]
.
400

Figure 4: Outline of the construction method -2 200

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Displacement[mm]
1000
TWO DIRECTIONS LOADING TEST
750

500

250
Load[kN]

-250

-500

-750 11M
5M
-1000
-0.03 -0.02 -0.01 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
Story deformetion angle[rad.]

Figure 6: Test results

Figure 5: Built-up beam and built-up column configuration
3 OUTLINE OF THE CONSTRUCTION
METHOD
Figure 3 and 4 shows an outline of the construction method,
while Figure 5 shows the built-up beam and built-up
column configuration. This construction method involves a
composition of a 3,640mm beam span joined with a
9,100mm Rahmen frame. The built-up beams and built-up
columns are the components of the hollow construction,
composed of a combination of a bonded composite of
wood bonded composite panels and laminated wood. Metal
fittings are attached to the ends to allow them to be coupled
with other components. The built-up beams and built-up
4.4 IMPULSE HAMMER TEST
The primary natural frequency of a Rahmen frame unit
beam was 16.0Hz. When adjusted to take the rigidity of the
floor and weight of the actual building into account, it was
12.6Hz. The primary natural frequency of the solid-body
frame’s floor slab was 9.2Hz.
4.5 SOUND-PROOFING TEST
The actual building’s sound-proofing performance with
light-weight floor impact sound insulation was LrL-50. It
was LrH-65 with heavy floor impact sound insulation.
5 CONCLUSIONS
These results were confirmed by creating a bidirectional
Rahmen structure using wood bonded composite panels
and conducting various tests of its performance.

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GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF CONSTRUCTION SYSTEMS

AND MATERIALS OF TIMBER-FRAMED HOUSES IN JAPAN

Chikako Tabata1

ABSTRACT: This paper presents the geographic distribution of construction systems and materials used in timber-framed
houses in Japan, through the analysis of questionnaire answers received from house builders. Two questionnaires were used:
one for the whole of Japan and one for Mie Prefecture. House builders were extensively queried on the materials they used
in different parts of timber-framed houses. We conclude that house builders in Japan use different materials for different
parts, i.e., framing systems, foundations, floors, walls, and roofs. While certain materials are used across Japan, some are
used more frequently in specific areas. In certain cases, this is the result of local availability of materials and/or climatic
conditions requiring that a particular method be used.

KEYWORDS: Survey, Questionnaire, Regional characteristics, Mie Prefecture,

1 INTRODUCTION123 Prefecture. In this paper, it is referred to as “2004 survey.”

Japanese construction systems and materials used in timber
houses have been developed from the traditional methods
of local carpenters; these systems and materials have
undergone several structural, material, and legal
innovations. Because of this historical course, timber
housing construction in Japan still uses a variety of
construction systems and materials. This paper presents the
geographic distribution of construction systems and
materials in relation to seismic performance of existing
conventional timber-framed houses, based on the results of
questionnaires given to house builders.
2 METHODS
The investigation involved two surveys: one covering the
whole of Japan and the other limited to Mie Prefecture.
Mie Prefecture is located between the eastern and western
regions of Japan; the building systems and materials in this
region are expected to have been influenced by both
regions. Mie Prefecture divided into six areas based on
administrative districts. The surveys used questionnaires
distributed to people involved in house building, such as
architects, carpenters, and construction managers.
2.1 NATIONWIDE JAPANESE SURVEY
The nationwide survey was conducted in 2004 in 46
prefectures, i.e., the whole of Japan except Okinawa
1
Chikako Tabata, Mie University, Kurimamachiya-cho 1577,
Tsu-city, Mie, 514-8507 Japan. Email: tabata@arch.mie-u.ac.jp
The 2004 questionnaire, with 39 questions, was printed on
postcards and sent to fewer than 2000 builders. The
questionnaire was returned by 541 builders, a return rate of
approximately 30%.
2.2 MIE PREFECTURE SURVEY
The survey limited to Mie Prefecture was distributed in
2010 and is herein called the “2010 survey”. The
questionnaire ran to eleven sheets of paper and was sent to
664 builders by post. The, return rate was approximately
26% (172 builders) and the valid responses was 165. From
this data, geographic data plotting, regional differentials in
methods used, and chronological charting were delivered,
and conclusions were drawn.
3 RESULTS
3.1 FRAMING SYSTEMS AND ELEMENTS
Figure 1 shows the geographic distribution of the modules
used in timber-framed houses in Japan. The modules most
widely used in Japan, especially in the eastern region, are
909-mm and 910-mm modules. In central Japan, 939-mm
and 940-mm modules are partially distributed. In the
western region, the 950-mm module is widely used. The
985-mm module is found exclusively in western Japan,
except in Kyushu region and Okinawa Prefecture. In
addition, 1000-mm modules are used across Japan.
Figure 2 shows the modules used in houses in Mie
Prefecture currently and in the past, i.e., before the current
modules became widely used. At present, 910-mm

183
TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
modules are used in the whole of Mie Prefecture. In
addition, currently and in the past, 985-mm modules tend
to be used only in the Iga area, which is an influence of the
Kansai region, the second largest metropolitan area in
Japan. On the other hand, in the past, 940-mm modules
were only used in the Hokusei area (also shown in Figure
1).

3.2 FOUNDATIONS
Presently in Japan, there are two main construction
methods for foundation: continuous footing and mat
foundation. Figure 3 shows the foundations used under the Figure 1: Modules used in timber-framed houses in Japan
outer and inner walls in Mie Prefecture, based on multiple-
choice questions. Over 90% of house builders use mat
foundation under the outer wall. For the inner walls,
approximately 60% house builders use “steel floor jack
post,” 14% use “plastic floor jack post,” and 8% use
Current Past
“wood floor jack post on stone single footing.”
From this summarization, we conclude that house builders
frequently use mat foundation under the outer walls, and
simplified floor jack posts under the inner walls, not only
Mie Prefecture but across Japan.

3.3 WALL CONSTRUCTION

Figure 4 shows the distribution of responses to multiple- Figure 2: Modules used in timber-framed houses in Mie
response and essay questions on the most frequently used Prefecture currently (left) and in the past (right)
types of bearing wall for outer and inner walls. For both
outer and inner walls, “brace” was the most common
answer, (about 60% each), followed by “bearing wall
panel” (over 20% and about 10%, respectively) and
plywood or others (less than 10% each). The percentage of
Outer Inner
respondents using bearing wall panel for outer walls tend
to be higher than that for inner walls.
From this summarization, outer and inner bearing walls are
most frequently constructed using braces, although the use
of bearing wall panels, such as plywood, for bearing of
outer walls has gradually increased. Further, mud walls are
often still used in Mie Prefecture.
4 CONCLUSIONS Figure 3: Types of foundation used under the outer walls
(left) and the inner walls (right) in Mie Prefecture
In this study, we have shown that house builders in Japan
use different materials for framing systems, foundations,
floors, walls, and roofs of timber-framed houses. Certain
materials are used across Japan, whereas some show
higher incidence of use in specific areas. In certain cases,
this is the result of local availability of materials and/or Outer Inner
climatic conditions requiring that a particular method be
used.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This study was supported by JSPS KAKENHI (Grant-in-
Aid for Young Scientists (B)) Grant Number 22760456.

Figure 4: Bearing walls used for outer (left) and inner walls
(right) in Mie Prefecture

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EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON SEISMIC PERFORMANCE OF

MORTAR FINISHING EXTERNAL WALL

Masato Nakao1, Yasushi Ono2, Masaru Tahara3, Masashi Miyamura4,

Terusato Inoue5 and Kazuya Koga6

ABSTRACT: To improve the durability and prevent falling off of the mortar under earthquake motion, ventilation method
for the mortar finishing external wall has been introduced. This research project was conducted to evaluate the seismic
performance of the mortar finishing external wall with ventilation space. Specimens with 4550mm of wall length which had
various openings were manufactured and static shear loading test of them was carried out. It was found that falling off of the
mortar did not occur during the loading up to 10% of story drift, moreover, it showed good seismic performance.
Furthermore, FEM analysis model of this mortar finishing external wall was proposed to evaluate the seismic performance
of the one with various openings. It is expected that the good structural performance of this external wall contributes to
improve wooden buildings’ seismic capacity.

KEYWORDS: Mortar, External wall, Ventilation method, Seismic performance, Opening

1 INTRODUCTION 123 seismic performance of the mortar finishing external wall

with ventilation space.
Mortar finishing external wall is constructed using
sophisticated plasterer’s technics, it is able to be given 2 OUTLINE OF THE CONSTRUCTION
various texture on the surface. The external wall shows METHOD
good fire resistant performance, however, not a few mortar
layer of the external walls fell off under earthquake A schematic of the mortar finishing external wall dealt
motions. From the fact, it has been considered that seismic with in this paper is shown in Figure 1. Vertical furring
performance of mortar finishing external wall is not good. strips are attached to the out face of columns and studs
The reasons of the falling off of the mortar layer were use with 15mm thick to keep ventilation space. Wooden laths
of inadequate materials, decay of timber, corrosion of are fastened with 65mm long nails(N65). Sheathing
metal materials, etc. To improve its durability and prevent membrane is applied on the wooden laths. Thereafter metal
falling off of the mortar layer, ventilation method for the lath is fixed with 19mm long staples(1019J) on it. Light
mortar finishing external wall has been introduced to weight mortar is plastered on the substrate with 15mm
Architectural Standard Specification of AIJ(Architectural thick. To avoid shrinkage crack, glass fiber mesh is applied
Institute of Japan). With the ventilation space, since on the surface of the mortar.
moisture is vented out of a wall, it is able to be kept dry.
Staple Metal lath Sheating membrane
Wooden lath
There were several experimental researches on seismic N38@200
performance of a mortar finishing external wall in the past, Column
but the external wall specimens had no ventilation space. Furring strip
This research project was conducted to evaluate the
Mortar
1
2-N65
Masato Nakao, Yokohama National University, 79-5 Tokiwadai
Hodogaya-ku Yokohama, Japan. Email: mnakao@ynu.ac.jp
2
Yasushi Ono, Institute of Technologists, Japan
3
Masaru Tahara, Osaka Institute of Technology, Japan
4 Figure 1: Schematic of the mortar finishing external wall
Masashi Miyamura, National Institute for Land and
Infrastructure Management, Japan with ventilation space
5
Terusato Inoue, Japan Building Coating Material Association,
Japan
6
Kazuya Koga, Fukuoka University, Japan

185
TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

3 STATIC SHEAR LOADING TEST
For better understanding of the seismic performance of the
mortar finishing external wall, specimens with 4550mm of
wall length and 2730mm in height which had various
openings were manufactured because the mortar is
plastered monolithically on one vertical plane in a building.
There are two kinds of opening, namely, door type opening
and window type opening. Each type has three opening
widths, 910mm, 1820mm and 2730mm. In addition to
these six specimens with opening, three specimens with no
opening were also prepared.
Static shear repeated load was applied to the beam of the
specimen until 3.3% of story drift and after that one
directional loading until 10% of story drift followed.
Average maximum shear force of the specimens with no
opening was 42.8kN at 2% of story drift. No crack on the
surface of the mortar layer was observed, pull-out of
65mm long nails and staples occurred around 3.3% of
story drift. Splits of vertical furring strips were also
observed.
nonlinear incremental analyses was conducted. The
analysis model is composed of three layers, a wood frame,
wooden laths and mortar layer. Each layer is connected by
fasteners such as 65mm long nails and staples. Since
analysis results of the FEM analysis model showed good
agreement with the static shear loading test results, the
analysis model is considered to be adequate.
5 CONCLUSIONS
Static shear loading test of the mortar finishing external
wall with ventilation space was carried out. Falling off of
the mortar layer did not occur during the loading up to
10% of story drift, moreover, the external wall showed
good seismic performance. FEM analysis model proposed
in this paper is expected to contribute the improvement of
wooden buildings’ seismic capacity.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research project was carried out by the committee set
up in Wet Finishing Technical Center. Authors express our
gratitude for the support by the member of the committee.

Figure 2 shows shear force-story drift relationships of the

specimens with door type opening. The maximum shear
force decreased with the opening width. The maximum
shear forces were at 2% of story drift. Cracks around
corners of the opening were observed and full-height walls
beside the opening rotated as the story drift increased.
Staples around left and right ends of the specimen were
pulled-out while no pulling-out of 65mm long nails
occurred. Picture 1 shows a specimen with 2730mm width
opening at 10% of story drift.
Picture 1: Specimen with door type opening under loading
Maximum shear forces of the specimens with window type
opening were remarkably higher than the ones with door No opening
type opening as shown in Figure 3. The maximum shear 40 910mm
Shear force (kN)

1820mm
force decreased with the opening width except for the 30 2730mm
specimen whose opening width was 910mm. In this 20
specimen, though relatively small cracks were observed
10
around corners of the opening, similar failure modes to the
0
specimen with no opening were observed. Other two
0 2 4 6 8 10
specimens with window type opening showed cracks Story drift (%)
around corners of the opening and pulling-out of staples Figure 2: Shear force-story drift relationship of specimens
the same as the specimens with door type opening, while with door type specimens(opening width:910-2730mm)
the rotation of full-height walls beside the opening was not
observed. No onpening
40 910mm
Shear force (kN)

1820mm
During the loadings, falling off of the mortar layer did not 30 2730mm

occur. From the test results, it is considered that the mortar 20

finishing external wall with relatively small opening is 10
capable of acting monolithically and shows good seismic 0
performance. 0 20 40 60 80 100
Story drift (%)
Figure 3: Shear force-story drift relationship of specimens
4 FEM ANALYSIS with window type specimens(opening width:910-2730mm)
FEM analysis models of the static shear loading test
specimens were built using material testing data and static

186
TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

HYBRID WOOD-MASONRY WALL TEST AND VERIFICATION

OF TWO-DIMENSIONAL MODELLING APPROACH

Lina Zhou1, Ying-Hei Chui2, Chun Ni3

ABSTRACT: Elevator shaft and stairwell core in multi-storey light wood frame buildings are usually constructed with non-
combustible materials like reinforced concrete or masonry. As the storey limit of light wood frame building has been
increased from 4 to 6 in the Province of British Columbia, it is beneficial to take advantage of the stiffer core to reduce
building deflection under lateral loads. In this paper, two-storey hybrid wood-masonry wall systems bolted at the floor level
were tested under reversed cyclic loads to simulate the performance of hybrid building systems under seismic load. The test
results were used as verification data for a two-dimensional (2-d) model which would be used to predict the seismic
performance of hybrid buildings under a series of earthquake ground motions. The test results show that the connection
system is the weak part of the hybrid system if load was transferred from wood frame to masonry core. And the 2-d model
could predict the performance of hybrid building accurately if reliable input properties of system elements are provided.

KEYWORDS: Hybrid wall system, Wood-masonry connection, Reversed cyclic load, Numerical modelling

1 INTRODUCTION 123 general understanding on how lateral loads are transferred

between wood wall and masonry wall through the
Elevator shaft and stairwell core in multi-storey light wood connection system. The results of the wall tests were used
frame buildings are usually constructed with non- to verify a two-dimensional (2-d) numerical modelling
combustible materials like reinforced concrete or masonry, approach which would be used to predict the seismic
making the construction a multi-material hybrid building performance of multi-storey light wood frame building
system [1]. Although in design practice for low-rise light connected with a reinforced masonry core.
wood frame building up to 4-storey, the reinforced
concrete or masonry core is designed separately from 2 EXPERIMETAL PROGRAM
wood frame, the increase of storey limit from 4 to 6 may
In total there were 4 walls being tested in this program
necessitate the need to rely on the stiffer core to reduce
including a one-storey wood shear wall, a one-storey
building deflection under lateral loads. Structurally
reinforced masonry shear wall and 2 two-storey hybrid
attaching wood frame to stiff core leads to uncertainty of
wood-masonry wall specimens with load applied at the
the seismic response of hybrid building systems as these
second storey of wood wall and masonry wall respectively.
two principal materials have vastly different physical and
The wood-masonry connection systems were
mechanical properties. In this paper two-storey wood-
recommended by a design engineer and a total of 3
masonry hybrid wall systems bolted at the floor level were
replicates were tested for each type.
tested under reversed cyclic load as well as one-storey
wood shear wall, one-storey reinforced masonry wall and
wood-masonry connections to simulate the seismic 2.1 MATERIALS AND DESIGN
performance of hybrid building system and its related CONFIGURATIONS
components. The purpose of these tests was to get a The fully grouted reinforced masonry wall was constructed
with 20 cm hollow concrete block joined with Type S
1
Lina Zhou, University of New Brunswick, 28 Dineen Drive, mortar. No. 10 rebar was located horizontally at every 600
Fredericton, NB, Canada. Email: lina.zhou@unb.ca mm. 16 mm (5/8 in.) threaded rod was used as vertical
2
Ying-Hei Chui, University of New Brunswick, Canada reinforcement.
3
Chun Ni, FPInnovations, Canada

187
TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
The wood shear wall was constructed with 2 × 4 spruce-
pine-fir (SPF) No.2 grade and better dimension lumber,
and sheathed with 12.5 mm OSB on one side. The lumber-
to-lumber nails were 83 mm (3.25 in.) in length. The
lumber-to-sheathing nails were 57 mm (2.25 in.) in length.
Sheathing nail spacing was 100 mm at edges and 300 mm
in the middle. In two-storey wood shear walls, the floor
headings were constructed with double 2 × 8 dimension
lumber. The floor was connected to the 1st storey wall with
toe nails and 2nd storey wall with two rows of 83 mm (3.25
in.) nails. To ensure efficient shear transfer mechanism, 20
mm bolts were put through the floor and adjacent walls
vertically at every 400 mm.
The masonry wall and wood wall were connected with
grade 8 bolts at the floor level. Figure 1 shows the
configuration details of the one-storey single walls and
two-storey hybrid walls.
1400
1400
1200
2400
(a) One-storey masonry wall (b) One-storey wood wall
1400
A A
2800
2800
2400
A-A
(c) Two-storey hybrid wall
Figure 1: Wall configurations
3 VERIFICATION OF 2-D NUMERICAL
MODEL
3.1 DISCRIPTION OF NUMERICAL MODEL
A 2-d numerical model was used to analyze the seismic
performance of hybrid buildings under a series of
earthquake ground motions. In the 2-d model, all wood
shear walls in a storey were grouped into one super
element. Likewise, the reinforced masonry walls were
represented by another super element. The super element
contains three rigid truss elements and two diagonal
springs simulating the lateral hysteretic performance of the
walls. The two super elements were connected by a pair of
hysteretic springs that represent the bolted connections.
188
This 2-d model was implemented using the commercial
software ABAQUS V6.10 together with a user-defined
subroutine developed by Xu and Dolan [2] that
incorporates the Bouc-Wen-Barber-Wen (BWBN)
hysteresis model. The BWBN model contains 13
parameters to describe the hysteresis performance of the
wall elements and connections. Detailed explanation of the
significance of each parameter and equations controlling
the hysteresis loops can be found in reference [3].
3.2 VERIFICATION
The 2-d model of the two-storey hybrid wood-masonry
wall system was built with ABAQUS and applied a
reversed cyclic load at the second storey of wood wall or
masonry wall respectively. The properties of walls and
wood-masonry connection elements came from the test
data in this project. The hysteresis loops and energy
dissipating capacity of numerical hybrid wall systems were
compared with that of the test data to prove the accuracy of
the modeling method.
4 CONCLUSIONS
The wood shear wall, reinforced masonry shear wall and
connection systems all exhibited highly nonlinear,
inelastic, strength/stiffness degradation and history
dependent phenomenon under reversed cyclic load. When
the load was applied at the top storey of wood wall, the
connection failed first while when the load was applied at
the top storey of masonry wall, masonry wall failed first.
The 2-d numerical model could predict the performance of
hybrid building accurately if reliable input properties of
system elements are given.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Funding of this project is provided by NSERC Strategic
Research Network on Innovative Wood Products and
Building Systems (NEWBuildS).
REFERENCES
[1] APEGBC: Structural, fire protection and building
envelope professional engineering services for 5 and 6
storey wood frame residential building projects (Mid-
Rise Buildings). Association of Professional
Engineers and Geoscientists of B.C., Burnaby, B.C.,
Canada, 2009.
[2] J. Xu and J. D. Dolan: Development of a wood-frame
shear wall model in ABAQUS. J. Struct. Eng., 135(8):
977-984, 2009.
[3] J. Xu: Development of a general dynamic hysteretic
light-frame structure model and study on the torsional
behavior of open-front light-frame structures. PhD
dissertation, Washington State Univ., Pullman, WA,
2006.
TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

LOAD DISTRIBUTION IN LATERAL LOAD RESISTING

ELEMENTS OF TIMBER STRUCTURES

Zhiyong Chen1, Ying H. Chui2, Mohammad Mohammad3, Ghasan Doudak4,

Chun Ni5

ABSTRACT: Stiffness properties of diaphragm and lateral load resisting elements (LLREs) influence the load distribution
between LLREs under lateral load induced by earthquake or wind. Where a more sophisticated method of calculating the
load distribution in a lateral load resisting system is used, often it is based on the concept of beam on elastic foundation.
This approach could be tedious to apply in design when there are several LLREs. A multiple spring model (MSM), where
translational springs are used to model the diaphragm stiffness and the stiffness of the LLREs, is proposed. The developed
model was validated with results from a more sophisticated analysis using a finite element program. The lateral load
distribution between LLREs with various stiffness ratios of diaphragm to LLREs and considering the torsional effects was
also investigated. The results show that, contrary to common belief, the forces transferred by a semi-rigid diaphragm to the
supporting LLREs may be higher than those predicted by flexible and rigid diaphragm assumptions. Hence using the
envelope force approach proposed by some may lead to underestimation of the design forces in the shearwalls.

KEYWORDS: Timber structures, Structural elements, Diaphragms, Load distribution.

1 INTRODUCTION 1 2 3 on the respective tributary area. Whilst the assumptions of

In building structures that contain a number of different
lateral load resisting elements (LLREs), the distribution of
the lateral loads arising from wind and earthquake is
dependent on the stiffness characteristics of the horizontal
diaphragms relative to that of the LLREs supporting the
rigid and flexible diaphragms are convenient from a design
perspective, reality is that wood-based diaphragms are
often semi-rigid, which significantly complicates the
calculation of forces resisted by LLREs.

H
diaphragms. D1 Di-
1 Di Dn- 1

Figure 1 shows a single-storey building under a uniform

load, p. The diaphragm acts as a load distributor to the p

B
LLREs that run parallel to the direction of applied lateral W1 W2 Wi-
1 Wi Wi
+1 Wn-
1 Wn
load and transfers the shear force down to the foundation.
L1 Li-
1 Li Ln-
1
How the lateral load shared between the LLREs depends in L
principle, on the flexibility of the diaphragm relative to
that of the supporting LLREs. In design, if the diaphragm Figure 1: Single-storey building
is idealized as ‘rigid’, all LLRE’s are assumed to deform
by the same amount, and therefore the lateral load is
To date, limited research has been undertaken to
distributed to each LLRE in proportion to its stiffness. As a
systematically evaluate the diaphragm flexibility and its
result, a stiffer LLRE would attract a higher proportion of
influence on the load distribution to LLREs. In this study,
the applied lateral load. If the diaphragm is assumed
a multiple spring model is proposed for estimating the load
‘flexible’, the LLREs deform by different amounts and the
distribution between LLREs with different stiffnesses.
lateral load resisted by each LLRE will be assigned based
Some preliminary conclusions regarding the inadequacy of
1
the current design approach are given.
Zhiyong Chen, University of New Brunswick, P.O. Box 4400,
Fredericton, Canada. Email: zhiyong.chen@unb.ca
2
Ying H. Chui, University of New Brunswick, Canada 2 MULTIPLE SPRING MODEL
3
Mohammad Mohammad, FPInnovations, Canada An established approach to estimate the distribution of
4
Ghasan Doudak, University of Ottawa, Canada
5 lateral loads to individual LLREs is the beam-on-elastic-
Chun Ni, FPInnovations, Canada

189
TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

foundation concept. For a simple building with only a few the values at the two extreme regions, i.e. rigid and flexible.
LLREs, solutions of the deep beam-on-springs model Therefore, the design method using the envelope force of
(DBSM) for design purposes can be obtained with relative the two diaphragm flexibility assumptions, as proposed by
ease. However, as the number of diaphragm elements and APEGBC [4], may not always be conservative.
LLREs increases, more sophisticated analysis procedures, 0.4
F1_FEA
such as finite element analysis (FEA), may be required F2_FEA
which makes this method not very user friendly. F3_FEA
0.3
To address the limitations of the DBSM approach, a
multiple spring model (MSM) is proposed. In the MSM, as F1_MSM
0.2 F2_MSM
illustrated in Figure 2 for a single-storey building, each

F
F3_MSM
LLRE is modelled by a translational spring with
0.1
stiffness K connected to the ground. Similarly the
i

diaphragm between adjacent LLREs is modelled by a Flexible Semi-Rigid Rigid

0.0
translational spring with stiffness K , which is connected Di 1E-4 1E-3 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
to the springs representing the two adjacent LLREs via a KDE/Kmax

rigid beam with only one degree of freedom in the

direction of the applied load. Figure 3: Force ratio vs. stiffness ratio
P1 P2 Pi-1 Pi Pi+1 Pn-1 Pn
Note: K DE is the equivalent stiffness of diaphragm, while K max is the
largest stiffness of LLREs.
K1 K2 Ki-1 Ki Ki+1 Kn-1 Kn
KD,1 KD,i-1 KD,i KD,n-1 4 CONCLUSION
F1 F2 Fi-1 Fi Fi+1 Fn-1 Fn In this paper, a simplified mechanics-based model
consisting of multiple springs to represent the stiffness of
Figure 2: Multiple spring model for single-storey buildings diaphragms and supporting LLREs, is proposed for
calculating load distribution to LLREs. Comparison
The reactions and deformations of the LLRE springs in between results based on the MSM and those obtained
this MSM can be obtained by solving the system of from FEA has shown that the proposed model is adequate
equations with 2n variables, as shown in Equation (1). for design use. In addition, the results shown here reveal
that the design method based on envelope forces may not
F  2n
  D 2 n 2 n U 2 n (1) always be conservative.

Equation (1) can be solved numerically by applying the ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Gaussian Elimination Method. The solution routine can be The authors greatly acknowledge the financial support
implemented in a simple computer program. provided by Natural Sciences and Engineering Research
Council (NSERC) of Canada under the Strategic Research
3 LOAD DISTRIBUTION IN LLREs Network on Innovative Wood Products and Building
To verify the proposed MSM and to investigate the load Systems (NEWBuildS).
distribution between LLRE’s, two types of single-storey
building with and without consideration of the torsional REFERENCES
effects and with different LLREs arrangements were
analysed under a uniform lateral load. [1] ABAQUS.: ABAQUS analysis user’s manual
(Version 6.11). Hibbitt, Karlsson, and Sorenson,
The DBSM was used as the reference analysis method. Pawtucket, 2011.
The force ratios,  , defined as the ratio of the reaction
F
[2] ASCE.: Minimum design loads for buildings and other
force of any individual LLRE to those of the all LLREs, of structures. American Society of Civil Engineering
the building cases predicted by the MSM agree well with (ASCE), Reston, 2010.
those predicted by FEA of DBSM using ABAQUS [1]. As [3] ASCE.: ASCE 41-06 Seismic rehabilitation of existing
shown in Figure 3, the range of the semi-rigid diaphragm buildings. American Society of Civil Engineering
is much wider than assumed in the codes [2-3], and as a (ASCE), Reston, 2006.
result, diaphragms in most timber structures should be [4] APEGBC.: Structural, fire protection and building
classed as semi-rigid. envelope professional engineering services for 5 and 6
storey wood frame residential building projects (Mid-
An interesting observation in both the MSM and the FEA Rise Buildings). Association of Professional
results shown in Figure 3 is that the force ratio of some of Engineers and Geoscientists of BC (APEGBC)
the internal springs in the semi-rigid range was higher than Technical and Practice Bulletin, Burnaby, 2009.

190
TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY

SHEAR WALL WITH THICK PLYWOOD SHEATHING FOR
LARGE TIMBER CONSTRUCTION

Kenji Aoki1, Ken-ichi Sugimoto2, Fumio Kamiya3

ABSTRACT: Recently, the numerical value and the technical information of the design are insufficient though an increase
of a large timber construction is expected. In this research, a high load carrying capacity shear wall with thick plywood
sheathings for the large timber construction was developed, and its static bearing force was confirmed experimentally. And
the bearing force of the shear wall was calculated by using past numerical analysis methods. As a result, the development of
the wall having the target bearing force succeeded, and the numerical analysis method could be applied to the high load
carrying capacity shear wall.

KEYWORDS: large timber construction, shear wall, thick plywood, allowable shear strength

1 INTRODUCTION 123 used for the sheathing material, and CN75 common nail
was used for the fasteners. Table 1 showed the
In recent years, relatively large timber constructions have specifications of materials, nailing, and test methods. The
increased in JAPAN. Because some differences exist in the column base is connected to the steel foundation through
design method of a house construction and of the large the box-type base plate connector.
timber construction, the progress of research and the
development of technical design information of the large
timber constructions are expected. Especially, a shear wall Table 1: Specification of shear wall specimens
which is very important for the earthquake resistance has
to bear a much bigger horizontal force. Frame Plywood
Nailing Test
No (Glulam species, (Veneer species,
Then, in this research, we aimed at the exploitation of the (spacing) Method
JAS grade) Thickness)
shear wall that had about four times the load carrying LSB
1 Sugi, Sugi,
capacity compared with the house’s shear wall. Relatively E55-F225 t=24mm
thick plywood was used in the shear wall, and it was
2
CN75 Tie-rod
3 Sugi, LSB
narrowly nailed to the timber frame. The racking test was 4 Japanese larch, t=28mm @50mm, Tie-rod
conducted to the shear wall, and the test results were 5 E95-F270 Japanese larch, 2 lines LSB
compared with the calculated results based on the shear 6 t=28mm Tie-rod
performance of the nailed joint.

2 TEST PROCEDURE
1680
1680

2.1 SPECIMENS
The test specimens were built with the post and beam
3500
3500

timber shear wall (Figure 1). Based on the assumption of

the large timber construction, the wall height is higher than
1820

1820

a general shear wall. 24mm or 28mm thick plywood was

1
Kenji Aoki, Forestry and Forest Products Institute (FFPRI),
910 910 910 910
Matsunosato 1, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan,
Email: aoken@ffpri.affrc.go.jp (a) LSB type (b)Tie-rod type
2
Ken-ichi Sugimoto, FFPRI, Japan
3
Fumio Kamiya, Seihoku Co. Ltd., Japan Figure 1: Shear wall specimen

191
TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
2.2 TEST METHOD

Load(kN)

Load(kN)
200 200
In this research, two methods of racking test were used.
100 100
The first method, which is generally used in Japan for the No.1 No.2
evaluation of the shear wall, is the method of fixing
-0.04 -0.02 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 -0.04 -0.02 0 0.02 0.04 0.06
column base to the steel foundation with HD connectors
Def. angle(rad) Def. angle(rad)
and so on. The LSB (Lag Screw Bolt) connectors were -100 -100

used instead of the HD connectors in this test. The second -200 -200
method is a tie-rod type test as shown in Figure 2.

Load(kN)

Load(kN)
200 200

100 100
No.3 No.4

-0.04 -0.02 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 -0.04 -0.02 0 0.02 0.04 0.06

-100 Def. angle(rad) -100 Def. angle(rad)

-200 -200

Load(kN)
Load(kN)
200 200

100 100
No.5 No.6
0
-0.04 -0.02 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 -0.04 -0.02 0 0.02 0.04 0.06
Figure 2: Test Method (Tie-rod type) -100 Def. angle(rad) Def. angle(rad)
-100

-200 -200
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION : Experimental result, : Bi-linear model

3.1 LOAD-DEFORMATION RELATIONSHIP Figure 3: Load-deformation angle relationship

Figure 3 shows the relationship between the load and the Table 2: Test results and characteristic values
shear deformation angle. The shear failure of the column
Pmax Pu K γv γu
base has been confirmed in all of the LSB type specimens No. μ
(kN) (kN) (kN/rad) (10-2rad) (10-2rad)
(No.1, 3, and 5). In the tie-rod type specimens (No.2, 4,
1 145.4 124.8 12327 1.98 1.01 2.00
and 6), the slip deformation of the nail joints, the shear
failure of the thick plywood, and the splitting of middle 2 157.3 134.4 12906 2.79 1.04 2.91
column occurred complexly, and the maximum load was 3 175.1 152.0 12343 1.98 1.23 2.44
able to be obtained. 4 197.6 176.0 13605 2.93 1.29 3.79
5 177.9 152.9 14528 1.78 1.05 1.87
3.2 TEST RESULTS 6 234.0 204.8 16070 3.86 1.27 4.92
Pmax: Maximum load, Pu: Ultimate load, K: Stiffness, μ:
Table 2 shows the characteristic values that were
Ductility factor, γv: Yield point deformation angle, γu:
calculated by modelling the complete elasto-plasticity (Bi-
Ultimate deformation angle
linear model, See Figure 3) from the load-deformation
relationship. The target load carrying capacity was able to
be achieved in No.4 and No.6 of tie-rod type specimen 200
though the LSB type specimens did not reach the target
Load(kN)

capacity.
100
3.3 COMPARISON WITH CALCULATED : Exp.
: Cal.
RESULTS
The load carrying capacity of the shear wall was calculated 0 0.02 0.04 0.06
by using past numerical analysis methods [1] based on Def. angle(rad)
load-slipping relationship of the nailed joint. Figure 4 Figure 4: Comparison for the tested and calculated results
shows the relationship between tested result and calculated (No.4 specimen)
result for No.4 specimen. It has been clarified that this
numerical analysis method can be applied effectively to the REFERENCES
design of the high load carrying capacity shear wall. ［1］F. Kamiya: Theoretical studies on racking stiffness
and strength of wooden sheathed walls, Trans. of
A.I.J., No.309, 1981.

192
TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

A NEW CONSTRUCTION SYSTEM FOR CLT STRUCTURES

Andrea Polastri1, Albino Angeli2, Dal Ri Gianni3

ABSTRACT: The technique proposed herein, aims to solve the construction site issues related to both the handling and the
assembly of cross laminated timber walls (CLT), through an innovative preassembled connection system. This system,
which thanks to its being prefabricated permits to save time during the installation process, provides also a high strength
and a high stiffness to the panel joints. As a result, an improvement of the building safety is attained for both static and
seismic conditions. The main purpose of the original solution is the enhancement of the production, the handling and the
onsite assembly processes of CLT panels, by means of an higher degree of prefabrication which implies higher safety,
precision and speed of assembly as well as an advantage in terms of costs and time schedule planning.

KEYWORDS: CLT constructions system, prefabrication, innovative connection system, seismic behaviour

to the need of positioning the panels (secured with

1 INTRODUCTION 123
In the last decade, Cross Laminated Timber (CLT)
buildings have undoubtedly thrived. This positive trend has
not stopped owing to the remarkable versatility of such
product. CLT panels provide the timber structures with
quite good strength levels, no matter the load direction
they are subjected to (wall/diaphragm configuration) and,
if loaded edgewise, they offer an extremely high stiffness
as well. Another aspect that should not be neglected is the
“environmental friendliness” of CLT, which is a renewable
and recyclable material with excellent insulating qualities.
The CLT technology is characterized by a high level of
prefabrication: the panels are manufactured in modern
factories equipped with computer numerical control (CNC)
systems. By contrast, the speed of the construction process
and the possibility of controlling the quality of the onsite
installation are hindered by the difficulty of assembly due
hundreds of nails and timber screws) without any reference
point. From the in-depth analysis of the details of the CLT
construction method, it can be deduced that the critical
point of the whole system is represented by the mechanical
connections. In the traditional CLT assembling system,
single panels are connected to the foundation and to the
panels of the upper floor through hold-down elements and
angle brackets which are nailed to the panels (Figures 4
and 5). These connectors which have been designed for
other technologies (like platform frame) have been adopted
for CLT structures with little or no modifications. As a
result, the building capacity is limited by the strength of
the connectors, which also show ultimate deformations not
compatible with the CLT panel stiffness. This is
accompanied by poor dissipating capabilities in case of an
earthquake.

1
Andrea Polastri, Research Associate, Trees and Timber Institute
of the National Research Council of Italy (CNRIVALSA), Via
Biasi 75, 38010 San Michele all’Adige (TN), Italy.
E-mail: polastri@ivalsa.cnr.it
2
Albino Angeli, Head of Technical Department,
Rothoblaas Srl, Via dell’Adige 2/1, 39040 Cortaccia (BZ), Italy.
E-mail: albino.angeli@rothoblaas.com Figure 1: The new connection X-RAD fixed at a corner of a
3
Ganni Dal Ri, Purchasing, Logistic and R&D Manager, CLT panel, (left) and schematic representation of an entire
RothoBlaas Srl, Via dell’Adige 2/1, 39040 Cortaccia (BZ), Italy. node between four walls (right)
E-mail: gianni.dalri@rothoblaas.com

193
TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
Figure 2: comparison between the innovative connection
X-RAD (left) and traditional connection system (right)
2 X-RAD INNOVATIVE CONSTRUCTION
SYSTEM
The proposed connection system leads to a new idea of
CLT construction. Due to the possibility of assembling the
X-RAD connectors directly within the factory, the CLT
panels can be lifted during the production phases,
transported to the construction site and assembled by the
use of a unique element represented by the steel elements
placed at the edge of the different panels. The X-RAD
components are meant to be pre-assembled in the factory
using all-threaded self-tapping screws, so that the system
could to act as a lifting point for the positioning operations.
Finally the installation of the panels, thanks to this
innovative connection, requires just the tightening of few
bolts in order to secure a timber wall to the next or to the
foundation.
Figure 3: an assembling phase, walls connected each
other by the use of special plates
Figure 4: an assembling phase, two levels of walls
connected each other and with the floors
194
3 MECHANICAL BEHAVIOR OF THE
SYSTEM
In the traditional CLT assembling system the CLT walls
are connected to the foundation and to the floors by the use
of hold down and angular brackets. Considering that the X-
RAD connecting system is located at the corners of the
panels it is possible to create slots where to insert the
panels constituting the floor diaphragms (Figure 3 and 4).
By doing this, the vertical loads can be transferred to the
foundations by direct contact between the vertical walls,
thus preventing any failure of the floor panels due to
compression orthogonal to the grain.
Figure 5: comparison of load path into a CLT structure built
according to the traditional connection system (left) and
according to the innovative X-RAD system
The floor panels can be connected to the vertical panels
directly by the use of the X-RAD system, applied both on
vertical and horizontal panels, and proper steel plates at the
corner nodes or screwing the floor directly to the
aforementioned slots created into the CLT wall.
4 CONCLUSION
A new connection system and a new assembling structural
system for CLT was developed. In particular, the proposed
joint is a point-to-point mechanical connection system,
designed to be fixed to the corners of the CLT panels and
intended to substitute both the hold downs and the shear
angular brackets, usually adopted by the traditional CLT
construction system. The innovative system will be
factory-preassembled and meant to be used as a lifting
hook for a rapid and safe positioning. This will help
improve the safety of the building process, its quality level
and also its profitability. The materials and the technology
processes which the prototype had to be realized with,
were carefully analyzed. A detailed experimental campaign
aimed to characterize the prototype mechanical properties
is currently being carried out. X-RAD will boost the
construction of big industrial and residential complexes
(social housing). It will also help the process urban
requalification by facilitating the construction of an extra
storey on top of existing masonry/concrete buildings.
TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON LATERAL RESISTANCE OF

TIMBER POST AND BEAM SYSTEMS

Haibei Xiong1, Yingyang Liu2

ABSTRACT: In China, post and beam sawn timber buildings are widely used as small span residential houses with
mortise-and-tenon connection. Nowadays, this traditional construction are challenged by the modern engineering timber
post and beam systems which connected by bolts or rivets. In order to give some guidelines for the kind of new system in
China, five lateral systems, pure post and beam frame system, frame with X-brace, frame with K-brace, frame with knee-
brace and frame filled with light wood shear walls were selected and tested to compare their lateral resistances. Two
monotonic tests and eight cyclic tests on full-scale one-storey, one-bay pure frame and strengthened frame with braces or
walls were introduced and comprised in this paper. Based on analysis of failure modes and mechanical performances, some
conclusions were obtained. Then, some suggestions were put into forward for the design specification of engineering timber
buildings.

KEYWORDS: Timber post and beam structures, Cyclic test, Failure mode, Mechanical performance

1 INTRODUCTION 12 been divided into pure post and beam frame system and
lateral strengthened structure system, as shown in Table 1.
In China, post and beam sawn timber buildings are widely
used as small span residential houses with mortise-and- Table 1: Specimen types
tenon connection. Nowadays, this traditional construction
are challenged by the modern engineering timber post and Specimen Lateral resisting Sketch of the
beam systems which connected by bolts or rivets. names systems specimens

The researches of modern post and beam structures mostly MF1

Pure post and
focused on the joint connections. The limited studies on CF1
beam frame
the structures’ lateral resistance focused on load-carrying CF2
capacity and the energy dissipation capacity [1-3]. There
MXB1
are few studies on the comparison between different lateral
CXB1 X-brace
resisting systems with same member sections and joint
CXB2
connections. This paper mainly focuses on the failure
modes and mechanical performances of different lateral
resisting systems. CKB1
K-brace
CKB2
2 TEST PROGRAM

2.1 SPECIMENS CHB1 Knee-brace

There are ten specimens with span of 4110 mm, height of
2740 mm, and span-depth ratio of 1.5. Specimens have
Light frame
CFW1
1
wood shear walls
Haibei Xiong, College of Civil Engineering, Tongji University,
1239 Siping Road, Shanghai 200092, China. Email:
Note: F: Post and beam structure, XB:X-brace, KB: K-
xionghaibei@tongji.edu.cn
2
Yingyang Liu, College of Civil Engineering, Tongji University,
brace, HB: Knee-brace, W:Light frame wood shear walls;
1239 Siping Road, Shanghai 200092, China. Email: M:Monotonic test, C:Cyclic test.
liuyingyang5687@qq.com

195
TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
2.2 TEST SETUP
Experimental study focused on the in-plane lateral
resistance of the wooden frame, without considering the
vertical load. The out-of-plane stability was ensured by the
steel roller installed on the gantries. The test setup is
shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Test setup
2.3 TEST PROCEDURE
The load was applied by displacement control method,
referring to the Standard of American Society for Testing
Materials, detailed by Clause E564 [4] and Clause E2126
[5].
3 TEST RESULTS
3.1 FAILURE MODES
(a) CXB1 (b) CFW1
Figure 2: Failure modes
Figure 2 shows the failure modes of frame with X-brace
system and frame filled with light wood walls system. K-
brace system and frame with Knee-brace system show the
bolts cut of the brace joints when destructed.
All the specimens exhibit a failure mode of the "weak-joint
and strong-member".
3.2 MECHANICAL PERFORMANCES
Figure 3 shows the envelope curves of the specimens. The
peak load, the failure load, the ultimate displacement and
the yield point can be determined from the envelope curves
using EEEP (equivalent energy elastic-plastic) method.
196
Figure 3: Envelope curves
4 CONCLUSIONS
Based on comparison of failure modes and mechanical
performances, some conclusions were obtained. First, pure
post and beam frame system is not suggested to support
lateral loads due to unreliable lateral stiffness and
capacities. Second, frame with X-brace system and frame
with K-brace system provide higher elastic stiffness but
lower ductility compared to the frame with Knee-brace
system. Meanwhile, the frame filled with light wood walls
system performs desired elastic stiffness and ductility, but
less flexible in space utilization.
REFERENCES
[1] Marjan Popovski, Helmut G.L. Prion, Erol
Karacabeyli. Shake table tests on single-storey braced
timber frames [J]. Canadian Journal of Civil
Engineering. 2003, 30:1089-1100.
[2] Minghao Li, Frank Lam. Seismic Reliability Analysis
of Diagonal-Braced and Structural-Panel-Sheathed
Wood Shear Walls [J]. Journal of Structural
Engineering, 2009, 135(5):587-596.
[3] Minjuan He, Tao Lu. Research on Lateral
Performance of Hybrid Structure Based on Post-beam
Construction and Light Wood Frame Construction [A].
International Conference on Multimedia Technology,
2011.
[4] ASTM E564-06 (2012) Standard Practice for Static
Load Test for Shear Resistance of Framed Walls for
Buildings. Pennsylvania, USA: ASTM International，
2012.
[5] ASTM E2126-11, Standard Test Methods for Cyclic
(Reversed) Load Test for Shear Resistance of Vertical
Elements of the Lateral Force Resisting Systems for
Buildings. Pennsylvania, USA: ASTM International,
2012.
TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

TORSIONAL INTERACTION OF TWO-STORY

TIMBER HOUSES WITH 3D ECCENTRICITY

Kento Suzuki1, Hiroyasu Sakata2, Yoshihiro Yamazaki3

ABSTRACT: This study shows about torsional interaction of two-story timber houses with eccentricity. Torsional
interaction which is obtained by modal analysis for two-story building with 3D eccentricity, considerations, evaluation
formulas about the interaction is shown.

KEYWORDS: Timber house, Torsional behavior, 3D Eccentricity, Torsional Interaction

Rex1=±0.6, ±0.5, ±0.4,

Lx=3.64[m] ±0.3, ±0.25, ±0.2, ±0.15,
1 INTRODUCTION 123
±0.1, ±0.05, ±0.0

Rex2=±0.6, ±0.5, ±0.4,

Ly=5.46[m]
Torsional vibration is one of the typical collapse factors of
the timber house. So, there are a lot of studies about ±0.3, ±0.25, ±0.2, ±0.15,
±0.1, ±0.05, ±0.0
torsional behaviour. But most of them target on one story
timber houses. Previous study [1] showed that torsional ：Shear Wall
(a) 1F (b) 2F
behaviour of a story of two-story house with eccentricity ：Center of mass
Symmetric-placed Model
can affect the other story. But there is not evaluation ：Center of stiffness
method for this behaviour. In addition, the Japanese
seismic design method for eccentricity ignores the
interaction of the torsional behaviour and the dynamic
effect. So, it is hard to say that the appropriate evaluation
for torsional response. This study shows the evaluation
method of the interaction of the torsional behaviour which (a) 1F (b) 2F (a) 1F (b) 2F
is derived from modal analysis. Only 1st story Only 2nd story
eccentricity Model eccentricity Model
2 EXAMINATION OBJECT
Examination objects are shown below. Examination
objects meet the following conditions. 1) Two-story
Timber house. 2) Rigid floor. 3) uni-axial stiffness
eccentricity (X direction).4) 4DOF(DOF of X direction (a) 1F (b) 2F (a) 1F (b) 2F
y
was 1 + DOF of rotational direction was 1 ×two stories). Sequential eccentricity Reversal eccentricity
5) Linear structure. Fig.1 shows floor plans of each Model Model
examination objects. Input Motion
x

1
Figure 1: Floor plans of each examination objects
Kento Suzuki, Department of Built Environment, Tokyo
institute of Technology, 4259 R3-18 Nagatsuta Midori-ku
Yokohama, Japan. Email: suzuki.k.bq@m.titech.ac.jp
3 STUDY OF TORSIONAL
2
Hiroyasu Sakata, Structural Engineering Research Center, INTERACTION
Tokyo Institute of Technology, 4259 R3-18 Nagatsuta Midori-ku
It is shown for the interaction of the torsional behaviour.
Yokohama, Japan. Email: hsakata@serc.titech.ac.jp
3
Yoshihiro Yamazaki, Structural Engineering Research Center, Assumptions are shown in the following conditions. (1)
Tokyo institute of Technology, 4259 R3-18 Nagatsuta Midori-ku Story stiffness of X direction Kx= Story stiffness of Y
Yokohama, Japan. Email: yamazaki.y.ai@m.titech.ac.jp direction Ky. (2) Floor area of 1F A1＝Floor area of 2F A2.

197
TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

(3) mi (i story’s mass)∝Ai 、Kxi ∝Ai. (4) All shear Wall 1

 
K x1 K x 2  m2 2  2 m1m2 2  K x 2 m1  m2   
was placed on the outer periphery. (5) It was assumed that u1


K x1  m12os K x 2  m2 2 
Rex 2

Two-story timber house vibrate in only 1st mode. u os Rex1


 
K x1 K x 2  m2 2  2 m1m2 2  K x 2 m1  m2    3a 
3.1 TRANSLATIONAL DISPLACEMENT OF THE 
K x1  m12os K x 2  m2 2  
CENTER OF MASS
1
 
K x1 K x 2  m2 2  2 m1m2 2  K x 2 m1  m2   
It is shown that the change of translational displacement of u 2


K x 2  m2 2os K x1  m1  m2 2 
Rex1

the center of mass due to eccentricity. Fig.2 shows the u os Rex 2
relationship between x2/x2ne (Fig.3) and Rex2 (2F’s 
 
K x1 K x 2  m2 2  2 m1m2 2  K x 2 m1  m2    3b 
eccentricity ratio). x2/x2ne changed like a quadratic curve 
K x 2  m2 2os K x1  m1  m2 2  
with respect to Rex2. x2/x2ne had the smallest value in the
λos：Natural frequency(one story building)
vicinity of Rex2=0(2F has no eccentricity). When Rex1= Rex2,
λ：Natural frequency(Two story building)
x2/x2ne=1. When Rex2=0, x2/x2ne was expressed by Equation
(1). So, x2/x2ne was expressed by Equation (2) 1F (⊿u1 /⊿uos) 2F (⊿u2 /⊿uos)
approximately. Rex1
K x 2  m2 2ne
3
⊿u1/⊿uos
3
⊿u2/⊿uos

m2/m1=108/170,kx2/kx1=15/29
=0.05
1 2.5
Rex2=0.05 2.5

K x 2  m2 2ne x 2 K x 2  m2 2 2 K  m2 2ne 2 2
 Rex 2  x 2
,
K x 2  m2 2 x 2 ne Rex1 K x 2  m2 2 1 2 1.5 1.5
1 0.6 1 0.6
λne：Natural frequency(Rex1= Rex2=0) 0.5
Rex1 0.5
Rex2
0 0
λ：Natural frequency(Rex2=0, Rex1≠0) -0.6 -0.45 -0.3 -0.15 0
-0.5
0.15 0.3 0.45 0.6 -0.6 -0.45 -0.3 -0.15 0
-0.5
0.15 0.3 0.45 0.6

1.4
x2/x2ne Rex1=0.6
1.4
x2/x2ne
-1 -1
-1.5 -1.5
1.3 1.3
-2 -2
1.2 1.2

⊿u1/⊿uos ⊿u2/⊿uos R
m2/m1=147/170,kx2/kx1=21/29

1.1 1.1 3 3 ex1

2.5 2.5
=0.05
1 0.05 1 Rex2=0.05
2 2
0.9 0.9
1.5 1.5
0.8 0.8 1 0.6 1 0.6
Rex2 Rex2 0.5
0.7 0.7 Rex1 0.5
Rex2
-0.6 -0.45 -0.3 -0.15 0 0.15 0.3 0.45 0.6 -0.6 -0.45 -0.3 -0.15 0 0.15 0.3 0.45 0.6 0 0
-0.6 -0.45 -0.3 -0.15 0 0.15 0.3 0.45 0.6 -0.6 -0.45 -0.3 -0.15 0 0.15 0.3 0.45 0.6
-0.5
(a) m2/m1=108/170,kx2/kx1=15/29 (b) m2/m1=147/170,kx2/kx1=21/29 -0.5
-1 -1

Broken line：approximate, Solid line：Precision -1.5 -1.5

-2 -2

Figure 2: Relationship between x2/x2ne and Rex2 Broken line：approximate, Solid line：Precision
x2
x2ne
x2ne Figure 4: Relationship between ⊿ui /⊿uos and Rexi

x1ne=1 x1=1

ros
(a) Non eccentricity (b) Eccentricity ⊿uos r1 ⊿u r2 ⊿u2
1
Figure 3: x1ne, x2ne and x1, x2

(a) One story building (b) Two story building

3.2 TORSIONAL DEFORMATION
Figure 5:⊿uos and ⊿u1, ⊿u2
Fig.4 show the relationship between ⊿ui /⊿uos and Rexi
(iF’s eccentricity ratio). ⊿ uos is the incremental 4 CONCLUSIONS
displacement of the one story building caused by the
The evaluation method of the interaction of the torsional
torsional(Fig.5). ⊿ui is the iF’s incremental displacement behaviour which is derived from modal analysis was
of the two story building caused by the torsional(Fig.5).⊿ shown.
ui /⊿uos changed linearly with respect to Rexi. When Rex1=
Rex2, ⊿ui /⊿uos=1. When the eccentricity ratio of intended REFERENCES
story was bigger than the eccentricity ratio of the other
story, ⊿ui /⊿uos>1. This means that the value of ⊿ui /⊿ [1] Kento Suzuki, Hiroyasu Sakata and Yoshihiro
uos doesn’t have to be bigger than 1. On the other hand, the Yamazaki: Seismic Response Evaluation of Multi-
Story Timber Houses with Eccentricity. 12th World
value of ⊿ui /⊿uos of the reversal eccentricity model was
Conference on Timber
smaller than 1. So, ⊿ui /⊿uos was expressed by Equation
(3) approximately.

198
TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

DEVELOPMENT OF NUMERICAL ANALYSIS METHOD

FOR JAPANESE TRADITIONAL WOOD HOUSES CONSIDERING
THE SLIDING BEHAVIOR OF COLUMN ENDS
Takafumi Nakagawa1, Mikio Koshihara2, Naohito Kawai3, Yukio Saito4,
Yoshiyuki Suzuki5

ABSTRACT: In Japanese traditional construction method of wooden post-and-beam houses, the columns of the most
of houses are just put on the foundation stones and isolated from the foundation. It is said that the sliding behaviour
between the column and the foundation stone has the seismic effect against the large earthquake, but it is difficult to
estimate and control the sliding behaviour of the column end, because the columns slide independently unlike the
general base isolated system. In this study, we developed the numerical analysis method of Japanese traditional wood
houses considering the sliding behaviour of the column ends, and the numerical results were verified by the shake table
tests of the real-size two storied wood house. The one of the analytical estimation by three dimensional numerical
models agreed well with the experimental results.

KEYWORDS: Japanese Traditional Post-and-beam wood house, Shake table test, Distinct element method

1 INTRODUCTION 123 model is built up by the three dimensional frame,

because it is important to trace the sliding and uplift
The one of the main seismic element of Japanese behaviour of the each columns.
traditional wood houses is regarded as the post and
hanging clay walls and moment resistance of joints 2 SHAKE TABLE TEST
between frames. In addition, the posts of the most of the
old style traditional houses are just put on the foundation The shake table tests of real size two story wood houses
stones and isolated from the foundation, so it is said that were conducted to clarify the seismic performance of the
the sliding behaviour between the posts and stones has traditional wood houses. Figure 1 shows the photograph
the seismic effect against the large earthquake. But it is of the specimens. The tests were executed on two
difficult to estimate and control the sliding behaviour of specimens, but we focused on the specimen No.5 in this
the post end, because the posts slide independently paper. The main seismic components of the specimen
unlike the general base isolated system. To estimate and were mud plastered walls. The size of the specimen was
design the sliding behaviour of the column ends, some 11.83x7.28m. The second story has narrower floor area
experimental and analytical approaches were made. But than first story.
the structural design method including the sliding
behaviour of column ends have not yet been established.
In this study, we developed the numerical analysis
method of Japanese traditional wood houses considering
the sliding behaviour of the column ends, and the
numerical results were verified by the shake table tests
of the real-size two storied wood house. The numerical

1
Takafumi Nakagawa, National Institute for Land
Infrastructure Managemant, MLIT,
1 Tachihara Tsukuba Ibaraki, 305-0802 Japan.
(a) Specimen No.5 (b) Column end and stone
Email: nakagawa-t92ta@nilim.go.jp
2
Mikio Koshihara, Institute of Industrial Science, the
University of Tokyo, Japan Figure 1: The photograph of shake table specimen
3
Naohito Kawai, Faculty of Architecture, Kogakuin University,
4
Yukio Saito, Saito Laboratory of Structural Engineering,
Japan
5
Yoshiyuki Suzuki, Kinugasa Research Organization,
Ritsumeikan University, Japan

199
TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

The input waves are JMA Kobe and BCJ-L2. JMA Kobe
was recorded during the South Hyogo prefecture
Earthquake in 1995. BCJ-L2 is the artificial wave which
acceleration spectrum fit to the large scale earthquake at
the 2nd class soil of Japanese building standard
requirement. (a) Frame element (b) Truss element

3 ANALYSIS MODEL
Moving direction
In our analysis, we used the three dimension frame
vxy
analysis using the software “wallstat” that was
developed at Building Research Institute. The
calculating theory of wallstat is based on Distinct μN
Element Method (DEM). A detailed explanation of DEM
N
and our theory was given in our previous papers. DEM is
(c) Analysis model (d) Column end model
a non-continuum analyzing method, so the large
deformation analysis of the fracture developing Figure 2: The outline of analysis model
processes is possible. Figure 2 shows the outline of the 400 400

analysis model. In this analysis, slide control element is 300

200
300

200

added to wallstat. The slider model act as the two 100 100

deformation (mm)

deformation (mm)
dimensional dynamic and static friction force, when the 0
L1 L2 L6 L10 L14 S1 S2 S6 S9
0
L1 L2 L6 L10 L14 S1 S2 S6 S9
-100 -100
column end contact to the foundation surface, and -200
Nomal
wall 150%
-200

calculated by the axial force and lateral load of each -300 floor 150%
Experiment
-300

column at every calculating step. -400

(c) Sliding deformation

-400

(b) First story drift

S9 400

4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 300

S6 200

Figure 3 shows the maximum deformation of analytical 100

deformation (mm)
S2 0

and experimental results at BCJ-L2 Y-direction input. Y S1

-100
L1 L2 L6 L10 L14 S1 S2 S6 S9

Figure 4 shows the time history of displacement of L1 L2 L6 L10 L14 -200

-300
sliding of the corner column end (L1-S1) at BCJ-L2 Y- X -400

direction input. Figure 5 shows The load-displacement (a) Second story drift
relationship of first story at BCJ-L2 Y-direction input. Figure 3: The maximum deformation of analytical and
Calculated column end displacements of analysis model experimental results at BCJ-L2 Y-direction input.
were fairly agreed with experimental results. 10

5
sliding deformation (mm)

5 CONCLUSIONS
0
The numerical analysis results of Japanese traditional 0 10 20 30 40 50 time (sec)
60
wood houses considering the sliding behaviour of the -5
column ends were verified by the shake table tests of the
-10
real-size two-story wood house. The analytical
estimation by numerical models agreed well with the -15 Analysis
experimental results. Experiment
-20
It was found that the analysis results were affected by the
shear performance of 1st floor diaphragm, so the detailed Figure 4: Time history of displacement of sliding of the
modeling of each seismic element and a lot of parametric column end (L1-S1) at BCJ-L2 Y-direction input.
studies are required to establish the structural design Analysis 200
method of Japanese traditional wood house. 150
Experiment
100
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
50
This work was supported in part by a Grant-in-Aid for
Story Shear (kN)

story drift (mm)

Scientific Research from the JSPS, Japan 0
-150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150
(No.B21780171 and B24780174). The shaking table -50
tests in this research are part of the research project -100
“Committee of Structural Design Method and -150
Performance Verification Experiment for Traditional
-200
Wooden Buildings”, which is financially supported by
the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Figure 5: The load-displacement relationship of first story
Tourism. at BCJ-L2 Y-direction input.
200
TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

CONSIDERATIONS REGARDING EARTHQUAKE-RESISTANT DESIGN OF

WOODEN RESIDENCES UTILIZING MEASUREMENT DATA TAKEN WITH
A SEISMOGRAPH FOR STANDALONE RESIDENCES WITH DAMAGE
ASSESSMENT FUNCTIONALITY
Hisamitsu Kajikawa1, Yuka Okada2, Mikihiro Uematsu3, Hiroyuki Noguchi4

KEYWORDS: Seismographs, damage assessment, standalone residences, wooden and wood-compound construction,
earthquake-resistant design, response analysis

structures. We believe the above is possible by computing

1 PREAMBLE 123 response analysis from seismic input (measured data) on
buildings and making explicit its discrete features.
In 2010, we were selected for sponsorship by the Ministry In this report, we use analytical data from seismographs in
of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism’s Project City A, pictured in Figure 1, as an example.
for the Sponsorship of Advanced Residential and
Architectural Technologies. We developed a residential
seismograph with built-in damage assessment functionality
for use in standalone, detached homes (hereinafter referred K-net c
to as “seismograph”).
We previously presented background on development of
this seismograph and on the methodologies used in damage Japan 大船渡市

Meteorological
assessment at WCTE 2012 (Auckland) [1]. As stated in Agency b
大船渡駅
source [1], Japan has many earthquakes, and the 2011
Tohoku-Oki Earthquake produced damage over an
exceedingly wide area, with the ensuing restoration inquiry 45

and response taking a considerable amount of time. The Misawa Seismograph a

damage manifested itself as torn cloth wallpaper, fallen
tiles, cracked foundations, destroyed supporting walls,
liquefaction, and tsunami damage. In some cases, the Figure 1: Seismograph locations (City A)
affected subsoil led to damage of buildings.
By measuring the seismic input on a per-building level and
analyzing the discrete data for each residence, we
researched new approaches for earthquake-resistant design
Point a Point b
and for diagnosing earthquake-resistance of extant

1
Hisamitsu Kajikawa, Dr.Eng., Misawa Homes Institute of
Research and Development Co., Ltd., 1-1-19 Takaido-Nishi,
Suginami-ku, Tokyo 168-0071 , Japan. , Japan.E-
mail:Hisamitsu_Kajikawa@home.misawa.co.jp
2
Point c
Yuka Okada, M.Eng., Misawa Homes Institute of Research and
Development Co.,Ltd. ,1-1-19 Takaido-Nishi, Suginami-ku,
Tokyo 168-0071 , Japan. , E-mail : yuka_okada @home.
misawa.co.jp.
3
Mikihiro Uematsu, M.Eng., Misawa Homes Co.,Ltd., 2-4-1
Nishi-shinjuku, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 163-0833, Japan.
4
Hiroyuki Noguchi ,Prof. , Dr.Eng. , Dept. of Architecture
School of Science and Technology , Meiji Univ. , Meiji
University,1-1-1 Higashi-mita, tama-ku, Kawasaki-shi,
Kanagawa 214-8571, Japan. Figure 2: Summary of seismograph placement

201
TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
Table 1: Recorded JMA intensity and
maximum acceleration
2 SUMMARY OF SEISMOGRAPH
PLACEMENT
In this report, we use analytical data from seismographs in
City A, pictured in Figure 1, as an example.
Point (a) in Figure 1 is the seismograph we developed;
point (b) is a seismograph installed by the Japan
Meteorological Agency; and point (c) is a seismograph
installed by the National Research Institute for Earth
Science and Disaster Prevention (K-NET).
The placement of each seismograph is detailed in Figure 2.
The seismographs in points (a) and (c) are situated on
buildings atop a cliff, while the seismograph in point (b) is
situated on a building on a gentle slope. Between January
18th, 2012 and March 7th, 2013, point (a) recorded 147
tremors. Of these, we have extracted those with the
strongest JMA intensity and describe them in Table 1. The
epicenter place names are as follows: I) Southern Tokachi;
II) Sanriku Coast; III) Aomori Prefecture Eastern Coast;
Figure 3: Earthquake
Response Spectrum(a)
Figure 5: Earthquake
Response Spectrum (No.23)
202
IV) Iwate Prefecture Coast; V) Miyagi Prefecture Coast;
VI) Fukushima Prefecture Coast; and VII) Northern
Miyagi Prefecture. Table 1 shows that the JMA intensity
recorded at point (a) was greater than that at the Japan
Meteorological Agency’s seismograph at point (b). We
believe this corresponds to features of the underlying
ground at the respective locations.
3 EARTHQUAKE RESPONSE SPECTRUM
Figures 3-4 describe the earthquake response spectrum at
each location.(point a and b) The dominant period for
points (a) (Fig. 3),and(b) (Fig. 4), was 0.4sec and 0.2sec,
respectively.
In addition, we conducted a comparative earthquake
response spectrum for the earthquakes dated January 13,
2013(No.23), and February 26, 2013. (Fig. 5-6).
We believe the dominant periods diverge because of
features of the underlying ground at the respective
locations. We plan to use these results for future
earthquake-resistant design.
4 CONCLUSIONS
Affixing discrete seismographs (sensors) to residences and
utilizing the resultant data on seismic input at each location
allows for earthquake-resistant design and diagnosis of
earthquake-resistance on a per-building basis.
REFERENCES
[1] H. Kajikawa, Y. Okada, A. Osawa, M. Uematsu, O.
Tsuruta, H. Noguchi. Development of seismograph
with struck level judgment function intended for
timber structure. World Conference on Tinber
Engineering, New Zealand, Auckland, 2012, poster,
p.462-465
Figure 4: Earthquake Response
Spectrum(b)
Figure 6: Earthquake
Response Spectrum (No.28)
TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

STUB GIRDER FLOORING SYSTEM FOR TIMBER

CONSTRUCTION

Reza Masoudnia1, Pierre Quenneville2

ABSTRACT: This article presents the concept of the stub girder flooring system adapted to timber structures. The floor
system consists of LVL beams covered by CLT floor panel separated by a series of short shear connection called stubs. The
paper focusses on the analytical development to predict the optimized flooring system dimensions for future experimental
tests. The proposed model contains structural parameters such as the main girder and secondary Gerber beam, the stubs and
the CLT panel with various materials. This initial investigation into this concept suggests that the flooring system can be
a possible alternative for mid to long span frames.

KEYWORDS: Stub girder, LVL, CLT, Gerber beam, load deflection

A conventional system of composite floor which is

1 INTRODUCTION
The demand for more economical and efficient timber
buildings leads the designers to reduce or eliminate the
space for utilities below the floor beam system. The timber
stub girder flooring system, shown in figure 1, is a
structural concept that attempts to minimise floor to floor
heights by incorporating services within the structural
depth. The flooring system is composed of LVL beam that
are covered by CLT floor panels which are separated by a
series of short, typically wide sections called stubs.
Examples of such a system in steel structural floor system
yielded significant floor-to-floor heights reductions. It is
hypothesized that the use of the stub girder floor system
adapted for timber floors reduces the amount of structural
timber in floor system and the total cost of the floor system
[1-6].
common in multi-story timber buildings consists of
concrete and timber and the composite action between the
timber beams and concrete slab is generally achieved by
the use of suitable connectors. The drawbacks of common
flooring systems are the cost of cutting holes in the beam
and the provision of stiffeners to reinforce the edges of
holes to pass any conduits, piping or HVAC ducts. The
design is also tedious and limited since ducts can only be
placed at limited and predetermined points. Other such
systems include composite girders with ducts below the
beams or composite trusses with utilities within the truss
members. The suspended ceiling is easy to install, but can
be expensive in the overall building costs as it may add
several centimetres of valuable floor-to-floor height for
every storey of the building. For a multi-story building, it
is evident that the addition of height for every floor will
accumulate, and thus leads to a significant increase in the
total height of the building. Recognizing the
aforementioned problems and the fact that the timber
engineering community is proposing very high hybrid
timber buildings leads to this research attempt to develop
and examine the potential of the stub girder system in
timber construction [1-6].

Figure 1: Timber stub girder flooring system sketch 2 MATERIAL PROPERTIES

2.1 CLT
Cross Laminated Timber (CLT) is a high-performance
1
Reza Masoudnia, University of Auckland, Department of Civil massive wood product, which its elements are made up of
and Environmental Eng., 20 Symonds St., Auckland, ordinary boards, glued together in a cross layered fashion
New Zealand. Email: rmas551@aucklanduni.ac.nz and typically showing a symmetric layup.
2
Pierre Quenneville, University of Auckland, Department of
Civil and Envrionmental Eng., 20 Symonds St., Auckland,
New Zealand, Email:p.quenneville@aucklanduni.ac.nz

203
TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
2.2 LVL
Laminate veneer lumber (LVL) is an engineered wood
composite made from rotary peeled veneers, glued with a
durable adhesive and laid up with parallel grain orientation
to form long continuous sections. It is suited to structural
applications such as beams in a wide range of industrial
and commercial structures.
3 OBJECTIVE
How to get a more effective and efficient design to save
money and space without sacrificing construction quality
and safety has become a great challenge to the construction
field. Therefore, in the present study, the main challenge is
to optimise the timber flooring depth and reduce the total
thickness at the same time as providing enough space to
pass ducts though the floor. To achieve these goals, this
study attempts to adapt the concept of the stub-girder
system and the Gerber beam system to incorporate the duct
work requirements into the timber structural flooring
system without increasing the floor-to-floor depth.
4 RESEARCH METHODLOGY
The adaptation of the stub girder floor system is done
through the analysis and design of each separate
component and of their potential interaction along with the
objective of allowing spaces for utilities.
4.1. STUB GIRDER
The stub girder flooring system being studied consists of
the interaction of LVL beams, CLT panels and a series of
stubs which result in an increase moment of inertia and
consequently moment carrying capacity. Different failure
mechanisms are identified in each of the component under
loading: CLT failure in bending and axial loading, LVL
beam failure has been checked for combined bending,
shear and tension forces and stubs failure in shear
resulting from the load transferring between the CLT
panels and the LVL bottom chord which is shown in more
detail in Figure 2.
Figure 2: Stub girder load transformation
4.2. GERBER BEAM SYSTEM
The Gerber beam system is used in the secondary beams
system to provide deeper space to pass ducts across the
secondary beams. As shown in figure 3, the Gerber system
is a technique to reduce the bending moment of continuous
204
beams by locating hinges at inflection points of the beam
[1-4].
Shear graph
Moment graph
Continues beam system Gerber beam system
Figure 3: Continuous and Gerber beam systems
5 RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Preliminary design of the individual structural floor
components suggest that the overall composite action of
each parts will result in an effective structural system that
offers floor-to-floor height advantages.
6 CONCLUSION
Based on work done so far, the timber stub girder flooring
system offers an economical design resulting in the
reduction of storey heights, and the creation of a series of
openings between the stubs which provide convenient
passages for utility ducts and intersecting floor beams.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to thanks the New Zealand
Timber Design Society for supporting this research
work.
REFERENCES
[1] J.P. Colaco: A stub-girder system for high-rise
buildings. Eng. J. Am. Inst. Steel Constr, 9 (3): 89-95,
1972.
[2] K. Padmanaban, C. M. Wang, N. E. Shanmugam, S.L.
Lee, Nonlinear analysis of stub girders using finite
element method. Finite Element in Analysis and
Design, 18:329-339, 1994.
[3] El-Sayed Mashaly, Hesham ZienEldin, Mohamed El-
Heweity, Raafat Ismail, Howida Ismail: Behavior of
stub girder floor system with partial shear connection.
Alexandria Engineering Journal, 49:357–370,2010.
[4] Dr Andrew Buchanan: Timber Design Guide Book,
Third edition, 2007.
[5] Joseph P.Colaco, A Stub-Girder System for High-Rise
Building, Eng.J.Am.Inst.Steel Constr,9(3):89-95, 1972.
[6] M.Ahmad, E. Y. L. Chien, and M. U. Hosain, Modified
Stub-Girder Floor System Full-Scale Test, J.Struct.Eng,
118:3222-3236, 1992.
TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

STRUCTURAL DETAIL INVESTIGATION AND SEISMIC PERFORMANCE

EVALUATION FOR THREE-STORY TRADITIONAL WOODEN HOUSE IN
KANAZAWA URBAN AREA
Tatsuru Suda1

ABSTRACT: This study investigates structural characteristics and vibration characteristics to clarify the structural
performance of traditional wooden house. The target house is a three-story house by traditional wooden structure in the
Kanazawa urban area, which has many historical wooden town houses. In this study, structural detailed observations and
microtremor measurements were carried out. From results of these investigations, the seismic performance of the traditional
wooden house was considered.

KEYWORDS: Response-limit capacity analysis, Microtremor, Structural characteristic, Vibration characteristic

1 INTRODUCTION 123 The structural drawing of the traditional wooden house is

shown in Figure 3. The scales of plan are 6,370mm in
There are a lot of traditional wooden houses in kanazawa, width, 16,380mm in length, 12,190mm in height.
Japan. These houses often have historical and cultural
value. In order to preserve these houses, it is necessary to
improve seismic performance. In past studies on seismic
performance of two-story traditional wooden house,
structural survey and microtremor measurement were
carried out [1]. In this study examines seismic performance
of three-story traditional wooden house based on structural
detail investigation and approximate seismic response
analysis.

2 TRADITIONAL WOODEN HOUSE IN

KANAZAWA
Appearance of investigated traditional wooden house is
shown in Figure 1. The traditional wooden house is a Figure 1: Appearance of investigated town house
three-storied structure. The roof is a simple gable and is
tiled with roofing mud as a bond.
Interior of the traditional wooden house is shown in Figure
2. The diameters of a column section are mainly 105mm x
105mm. The columns are put on foundation stones without
any connectors. The walls are mud-plastered wall, all mud
walls including mud hanging-walls are constructed by
traditional techniques using a Japanese pampas grass lath
and rough material composed of clay, sand, and straw.

1
Tatsuru SUDA, Kanazawa Institute of Technology, 3-1
Yatsukaho, Hakusan, Ishikawa, 924-0838, Japan.
Email: suda-t@neptune.kanazawa-it.ac.jp

Figure 2: Interior of the town house

205
TRACK 3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
4 SEISMIC PERFORMANCE
D
EVALUATION
C
The main seismic elements are mud-wall, hanging mud-
wall and columns. The restoring force of the house is
calculated by summing those of seismic elements
B according to each specification. The restoring force is
3rd Floor
proportional to wall length for the mud wall, is
A proportional to span number for the hanging mud wall. The
D seismic performance of the traditional wooden house is
C evaluated by Response-Limit Capacity Analysis [2] which
is an approximate seismic response analysis, as show in
Figure 5.

B ［Response-Limit Capacity Analysis］

2nd Floor Q［kN］
Curve obtained from The maximum response is
A demand spectra of the approximately obtained by a
input motion. cross point of the two lines.
D
C
Restoring force
of the structure.

B Generally, in the seismic design of traditional wooden

1st Floor houses, the safety limit deformation angle is supposed to be
A 1/15rad.
3,640 7,280 5,460

16,380 R ［rad］

Figure 3: Plan and arrangement of microtremor sensor Figure 5: Response-Limit capacity analysis

3 OUTLINE OF INVESTIGATION
The structural detail investigation was carried out in order
to identify the structural characteristics and seismic
elements of the traditional wooden house. About the
traditional wooden house, the floor plan, the framing plan
and framing elevation plan were drawn and the dimensions
of the house, the size of wooden members and the
specification of structural elements were examined. As
shown in Figure 3, many mud-walls are arranged in the
longitudinal direction of exterior walls, and most interior
walls are hanging mud-walls.
As shown in Figure 4, the microtremor measurement was
carried out in order to identify vibration characteristics.
The natural frequencies obtained from the microtremor
measurement are 2.6Hz and 3.8Hz in the transvers and the
longitudinal direction, respectively.
Figure 4: Microtremor sensor on ground level
5 CONCLUSIONS
The structure performance of the three-story traditional
wooden house built in Kanazawa was investigated in detail.
The structural characteristics and the vibration
characteristics were clarified by the structural detail
investigation. The seismic performance was evaluated
based on the result of investigation. The obtained result
contributes to preservation of existing traditional wooden
houses.
REFERENCES
[1] Hiromi Sato, Kazuki Chiba, Kaori Fujita: Structural
Performance of Traditional Timber Townhouses in the
Historic Town of Wakimachi in Japan, Proc. of 11th
World Conference on Timber Engineering, Riva del
Garda, Italy, June, 2010.
[2] Yoshiyuki Suzuki, Yukio Saito, Kenichi Katagihara,
Koju Ikago, Chisato Nojima,: Method of Evaluating
Seismic Performance of Wooden Frames -Limit
Bearing Capacity Analysis in Wide Range of
Deformation-, Proc. of the 11th Japan Earthquake
Engineering Symposium, (2002) pp. 1523-1528.(in
Japanese)R. Mahnken. A Newton-multigrid algorithm
for elasto-plastic/viscoplastic problems. Comp. Mechs.,
15:408-425, 1995.

206
TRACK 4: BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES

STRUCTRURAL PERFORMANCE OF HALF THROUGH ARCH

TIMBER HIGHWAY BRIDGE

Hideyuki Honda1, Yuuta Nakada2

ABSTRACT: The objected bridge is Yusuhara Bridge made by glulam timber and constructed in Kochi prefecture on
2007. To investigate design factors, static and dynamic performance, structural rigidity, vibration serviceability, and store
of initial data for maintenance, the static and dynamic field tests of the bridge were done using one dump truck in August
2007. The structural performance on static and dynamic were investigated in the terms such as static deflection, response
vibration, dynamic characteristics, dynamic increment factor and vibration serviceability. Furthermore, three-dimensional
static and dynamic structural analyses of the bridge were conducted using FEM. From the comparison of dynamic
characteristics between the subjected bridge and 22 modern timber bridges used glulam timber measured by authors in the
past in Japan, this study gives a valuable data to evaluate dynamic performance for modern timber highway bridges.

KEYWORDS: Arch timber highway bridge, field test, structural characteristics , modern timber bridge, FEM analysis

1 INTRODUCTION 123
The investigation on static and dynamic characteristics of
modern timber bridges using glulam is necessary in the
design, serviceability and maintenance problems. However,
the basic data by field test and analysis to such problems of
the bridges is not sufficient worldwide. We, therefore,
have done the field test and analysis of 22 modern timber
bridges, and then have investigated the technical problems.
Yusuhara Bridge objected in this study is a half through Figure 1: Yusuhara Bridge objected
arch timber highway bridge with stress-laminated slab 29800
29700

used cedar glulam of maximum scale in Japan as shown in

28800
4850 5000 5000 5000 5000 4850

Fig.1. The design geometry is as, bridge length: 29.8 m,

arch span length: 28.0 m and clear width: 7.0 m as shown
in Fig 2. The field tests on static and dynamic of the bridge 8500

were carried out in 2007. The structural performance of the

bridge is investigated from the results based on the field 28000

tests and structural analysis by FEM.

Figure 2: General drawing of Yusuhara Bridge

2 FIELD TEST AND ANALYSIS
The Static test was done using one dump truck with the
weight of 196 kN to measure the static deflection. The
static deflection is measured by special auto level with
height accuracy of 0.1 mm. The dynamic test was done by
the tests such as (1) ambient vibration, (2) impact loading
1
Hideyuki Honda, Dept. of Civil and Environ. Eng., Kanazawa
Institute of Technology, 7-1 Ohgigaoka, Nonoich, Ishiwaka 921-
8501, Japan. Email: honda@neptune.kanazawa-it.ac.jp
2
Yuuta Nakada, Katayama Stratech Corp., 6-2-21Minamiokajima,
Taishou-ku, Osaka 551-0021,Japan.Email: nakada @Katayama-
st.co.jp
by the dropping of sand bag with weight 0.3 kN, (3)
moving vehicles to measure the dynamic characteristics
and vibration serviceability.
2.1 STATIC CHARACTERISTIC
As an example, Fig. 3 shows the measured and analyzed
values when one dump truck with the weight of 196 kN is
loaded at central point. Static analysis was conducted in
order to check the rigidity which this bridge holds. The
measured and the analyzed values were mostly in
agreement, and the deflection shape was also in agreement.
The specificity of arch bridge was checked from this result.

207
TRACK 4: BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES
-6
2.2 DYNAMIC CHARACTERICTICS

(mm)
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9
-4

-2
The measured and analyzed dynamic characteristics are

Deflection(mm)
Deflection
0
shown in Table 1. The vibration mode measured in the 2
dynamic tests was to the seven vibrations. The 4 ● : Measured
実験値
fundamental natural frequency is f2=4.79 Hz of the vertical 6 : Analyzed
解析値
flexural anti-symmetric1st, and the damping coefficient is 8

h2=0.0062. There is good agreement between the measured Measured points Si

and analyzed natural frequencies. The analyzed vibration Figure 3: Static characteristics
modes are shown in Fig. 4 until vibration of the 4th degree.
Fig. 5 shows the relationship between maximum span Table 1: Dyna mic characteristics
length L and the vertical first natural frequency f2 of Natural frequencies Damping
modern timber bridges measured in Japan. In generally, No. Mode types fi (Hz) coefficients
there is high correlation between experimental value of Measured Analyzed hi
vertical 1st flexural natural frequency and bridge span 1 Arch-hori. 1st 1.25 1.26 0.0133
length L. The formula of f2=100/L (Hz) shown in Fig.5 is 2 Vertical1st 4.79 4.79 0.0062
rough estimated equation for general steel and concrete 3 Vertical 2nd 5.30 5.23 0.0016
highway bridges. From this figure, although there is a little 4 Torsion 1st 7.71 7.61 0.0038
dispersion in short span length, modern timber bridges 5 Horizontal 1st 8.30 8.46 0.0018
used glulam have the characteristics equal to general 6 Torsion 2nd 9.64 10.67 0.0064
bridges. Fig. 6 shows the relationship between maximum 7 Torsion 3rd 12.65 14.23 0.0013
span length and damping coefficient h2 at first vertical
natural frequency. In generally, there is the tendency that
damping values are wide, and that of bridges with long
span length decreases and tends to fixedly approaches. The
damping factor value of this bridge is small. This is
Arch-horizon. 1st 1.26 Hz
アーチ水平曲げ対称1次　　1.26　Hz
Vertical 1st 4.79 Hz
鉛直曲げ逆対称1次　　4.79 Hz

considered to originate in the construction specificity of

half through arch which this bridge does not have stringer
and is hanging floor system by arch member.
The dynamic increment facto (impact factor) was
investigated by dynamic deflection measured in the Vertical 2nd 5.23HzHz
鉛直曲げ対称1次　　5.23 　
Torsion 1st 7.61 Hz
ねじれ逆対称1次　　7.61 Hz

moving vehicle test. It can be recognized that some Figure 4: Analyzed vibration modes
modern timber bridges with short span exceeds the design
impact factor of 0.25. As a result of the investigation, the
2 (Hz)

25
frequencyf1 f(Hz)

equation of i=16/(30+L) is proposed by author as the f2 = 100 / L Arch

20 Girder, Slab
design impact factor for modern timber highway bridges.
flexural frequency

Cable stayed
15 Rigid frame
The vibration serviceability of this bridge was investigated
Truss
from the viewpoint of vibration sense which the 10
Firstflexural

pedestrians received in the walking. The response velocity Objected bridge

5
is calculated as root mean square (r.m.s.) value to velocity
First

measured by the one moving vehicle test. The pedestrians 0

have the reaction of the degree that the sense of vibration 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
is definitely or lightly perceptible. Therefore, there be Span length L (m)
seemed to no problem in vibration serviceability of the Figure 5: Span length and natural frequency f2
bridge. 0.1
Arch
h2 = 0.12 /√L
coefficient hh21

3 CONCLUSIONS 0.08 Girder, Slab

Damping coefficient

Cable stayed
This study investigated the structural performance of the 0.06 Rigid frame
Truss
half through arch timber highway bridge from both sides 0.04
Damping

of the field test and the three dimensional structural Objected bridge
analysis by FEM. There was good agreement between the 0.02
measured and the analyzed values. It is the happiness for
the reference basic data shown by this study in the 0

evaluation on design method and maintenance of modern 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

Span length L (m)
timber highway bridges.
Figure 6: Span length and damping coefficient h2

208
TRACK 4: BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES

SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS FOR PROBABILISTIC SEISMIC

BEHAVIOUR OF A WOOD FRAME BUILDING

Jianzhong Gu 1

ABSTRACT: The objective of this paper is to study the influence of different sources of uncertainties as they relate to the
probabilistic seismic behaviour of wood frame buildings. Three numerical models were implemented to produce probability
distributions that accurately captured the nonlinear time history of the well-recognized archetype building used in the
analysis. The simulation results indicate that variations in intensity measures significantly affects the probabilistic behaviour
while seismic weights do not appear to significantly influence the overall outcome or distributions. Optimized sample sizes
for the different factors considered (such as intensity measure) are also recommended. The results of the analyses show that
care should be taken when using fitting probability distributions to intermediate and final results to avoid extra errors. These
results can be used to provide some quantified information for further complicated seismic probabilistic analysis.

KEYWORDS: wood frame, timber, seismic reliability, seismic design, probability, earthquake.

123 seismic weights, ground motion records and intensity

Wood frame construction is a commonly-used structural
form in low-rise residential construction in some regions.
Traditionally, wood frame buildings are believed to
perform well in terms of life safety and collapse prevention
during large earthquakes. However, significant damages
and economic losses have been observed after several past
earthquakes, such as the 1994 Northridge earthquake. As a
result, the public’s confidence toward seismic performance
of wood frame buildings has been somewhat eroded. In
some earthquake-prone regions, insurance premiums are
significantly higher and unaffordable for many home
owners. With increasing concerns to build earthquake
resilient communities and build taller wood buildings,
further understanding of seismic probabilistic behaviour of
such structures will benefit stakeholders, builders,
designers and homeowners.
This paper presents a discussion of sensitivity analysis to
study the influence of different sources of uncertainties as
they relate to the probabilistic seismic behaviour of wood
frame buildings. The CASHEW and SAWS programs were
used as a tool for nonlinear dynamic analysis. The
archetype building used in the analysis is a two-storey
building. In order to accurately quantify the marginal
contribution of related factors, numerical procedures for
three reliability methods were employed. The variations of
1 motion records were scaled to multiple levels of intensity
Jianzhong (James) Gu, Thompson Rivers University, 900
McGill Road, Kamloops, BC, Canada. Email: jgu@tru.ca.
measure were compared and discussed for their
contributions. Two different types of probability
distributions of intensity measure were also discussed.
Based on the results of sensitivity analysis, some
recommendations were made for future study on seismic
probabilistic behaviour of structures.
The studied building is the two-storey wood frame house
tested as a part of the CUREE-Caltech Woodframe project.
The two-story house is an example of non-engineered
wood frame buildings. The design of such type of
buildings is usually completed by one or two major
designers, who usually have the control of both structural
and non-structural elements. The CUREE house has been
well-studied experimentally and analytically. The reversed
cyclic behaviour of all shear walls was simulated with
CASHEW, a program that was developed by the CUREE-
Caltech Woodframe project. The results of each wall
obtained from CASHEW were used to calibrate the
parameters of a single degree-of-freedom nonlinear
hysteretic spring with strength and stiffness degradation.
With these nonlinear springs, the numerical program
SAWS was used to perform three-dimensional nonlinear
analyses of the structures.
A suite of 22 pairs of ordinary earthquake ground motion
records by FEMA P-695 were used as the input for the
nonlinear time-history analysis (NTHA). These ground
measure using a scaling method to account for the
variations of earthquake loads. The probabilistic seismic
behaviour can be computed from the results of IDA with

209
TRACK 4: BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES

the selected ground motion records. The scaling process
involves three steps: i) normalization, ii) basic scaling and
iii) secondary scaling. The first two steps were promoted
by FEMA P-695. For the normalization, all records are
scaled to their median peak ground velocity. In the second
step, all records are scaled to have a median spectral
acceleration (Sa) to match the targeted spectral acceleration
for the maximum considered earthquake at the
fundamental period. With the basic scaling, the ground
motion records are scaled to a deterministic level of
intensity (i.e., the median spectral acceleration, Ŝ NRT ).
Three questions were examined for the influences of
different factors. The first question is the contribution of
uncertainty from seismic weights, relative to that from
ground motion records and intensity. The second question
is the influence of sample size from seismic weights and
intensity measure and the optimized sample size. The third
question is how well the distribution curves can fit certain
distribution types such as the lognormal distribution. The
contribution of different factors can be observed from
numerical results and figures using the numerical
procedures for different methods.

To ensure a probabilistic analysis, the targeted intensity The preliminary results of sensitivity analysis show that
level is not deterministic and is selected randomly. The the main sources of uncertainties come from ground
third step, the secondary scaling, is used to consider the motion records and intensity measure. Seismic weights do
uncertainty of intensity measure for reliability analysis not appear to contribute much to the overall probability
with the scaling factors dependent on the selected distribution of the seismic demand. If the uncertainty of
distribution types as discussed. seismic weights has to be considered, eight samples may
be sufficient. The sample number of intensity measure
Three sources of uncertainties are considered in the used by the second method depends on the targeted
sensitivity analysis: seismic weights, record-to-record exceeding probability. Forty (40) samples appear to be
uncertainty, and intensity measure. Seismic weights mainly sufficient for a COV of 0.3. With the MCS, 16 samples of
come from the dead loads of structural and non-structural intensity measure appear to be enough. The results of the
components. A lognormal distribution with a coefficient of analyses also show that care should be taken when using
variation (COV) of 0.1 is assumed for seismic weights of fitting probability distributions to intermediate and final
all floors and roofs. Generally, the seismic weights at results to avoid extra errors. These results can be used to
different floors and roof can be assumed to be uncorrelated provide some quantified information for further
or having a correlation coefficient not significantly complicated seismic probabilistic analysis.
different from zero. However, uncorrelated seismic
weights may produce some cases with significant vertical
weight irregularities which is either not permitted by
typical building codes or avoided by construction practice.
It is also noted that the floor assembly is commonly the
same for all levels. The materials for all levels are assumed
to come from the same suppliers or perhaps even the same
shipment. Thus, it would be reasonable to assume that
seismic weights at different floor levels are highly
correlated. Therefore it would be practical and reasonable
to assume that the correlation coefficients between any two
floors are equal to the unity. Two types of hazard curves
were used in the analysis. One is linear on a log-log plot in
the region of interest. Another one is the lognormal
distribution in the region of interest. The ground motions
were assumed to be uniformly distributed.
Three methods were used in the reliability analysis, the
traditional method, the method based on conditional
distributions of ground motions and the Monte Carlo
simulation. The numerical procedures of these three
methods were applied in analysing the probabilistic
behaviour under seismic loadings. Compared with the
traditional algebra equations with parameters obtained
from data-fitting, these numerical procedures have the
advantage of retaining the accuracy of results from NTHA
for reliability analysis. The results from numerical
solutions can calibrate the relative accuracy of different
methods. With these procedures, the influences of different
factors and sources of uncertainties can be quantified and
compared for their contributions.

210
TRACK 4: BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES

SEISMIC BEHAVIOR OF CYLINDRICAL WOODEN WATER

TANK IN VIBRATION TEST

Fukuji Iida1, Kuniaki Yamagishi 2, Toku Nishimura 3, Masami Goto4

ABSTRACT: Wooden tanks are used to preserve important parts of public facilities, such as hospitals. Ensuring the
safety of these public facilities during earthquakes is important; there has been insufficient research on the seismic
resistance of wooden water tanks. We performed vibration experiments using ground motions greater than 1g, and
analyzed displacement response. The strain results and acceleration response were analyzed with the yield limit strain. The
experiment results confirmed the safety of wooden tanks during earthquakes; the strain was about one-thirds the maximum
yield limit strain.

KEYWORDS: Wooden tank, Vibration test, Strain,Earthquake,Sloshing

1 INTRODUCTION 1.3 NOVELTY AND CONTRIBUTION OF THIS

1.1 HISTORY OF WOODEN TANKS IN JAPAN RESEARCH
In Japan, wooden barrels have a long history as tanks used In this study, the numerical values observed from the
for fermentation. Since the early 1900’s, tanks have been wooden tank demonstrated vibrations and confirmed the
used for chemical industries, and individual content tank’s safety during earthquakes. The safety was
weights presently exceed 300t. While reservoirs of guaranteed based on the behavior of the wooden tank.
medium- and large-scale tanks have increased, damage to
steel water tanks due to sloshing was reported after the 2 EXPERIMENT
1964 Niigata earthquake [1]. Sloshing was also reported to
have occurred during the 1995 Kobe earthquake and 2011 2.1 STRUCTURE OF WOODEN TANK
Tohoku earthquake. However, there have been almost no
reports of earthquake damage to wooden tanks. A survey For the structure of the wooden tank, hagi junctions were
of the literature showed few experimental results on the used to connect the side uneven boards on the side.
Ozane
behaviour of large scale earthquakes. Ozane
Mezane (Tongue)
1.2 HISTORY OF WOODEN TANK STUDY Side Board
Sole Plate Mezane
Fujiwara and Kitahara [2] of Japan Architectural Institute, (Groove)
conducted vibration tests with the 1940 NS EL Centro
wave, and were only ones to measure the acceleration of a Side Board
wooden tank, dynamic characteristics (particularly the
vibration number and critical damping ratio) , and a variety Figure 1: Connection method
of effects of initial band tensions according to different
wooden tank shapes. Band Content
weight of
Bolt 3t (29KN)
(Anti-tip)
Side Height 2.5 m
Board
Wood
Fukuji Iida, Japan Woodtank &Pipe MFG CO.,Ltd, 2-23-2 thickness
TSpuraza Bld.16th floor,Tsuruyacho,Kanagawaku, Yokohama 70 mm
City, Kanagawa, Japan. Email: iida@nihon-mokuso.co.jp Vibration Table
2
Kuniaki Yamagishi, Kanazawa Institute of Technology, Japan
3
Toku Nishimura, Kanazawa Institute of Technology, Japan Diameter 1.4 m
4
Masami Goto, Kanazawa Institute of Technology, Japan Figure 2: Test wooden tank

211
TRACK 4: BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES
With ozane and
a mezane, stteel bands are tightened, wiithout 3 RESULT
TS
the use of an adhesive bindding. The rigiddity of the struucture
was confirmeed by the introoduction of ann initial stresss. The 3.11 EFFECTS ON WOODE
EN SIDE BO
OARDS
wooden tankk used hagi juunctions to coonnect the unneven Expected fa
ailure strain limit
side boards, w
which called oozane and mezzane.

2.2 OVERV
VIEW OF EX
XPERIMENT
T

3000

F
Figure 5: Stra
ain of sides boards
At the bottom,, the strain tended to inncrease as thhe
fluuctuating wateer pressure inccreased towardd the bottom of
thee tank. The strrain was found to be less thhan the strain at
Figure 3: Exp
xperiment view
w whhich the woodeen boards wouuld break.

Using the 10tt vibration uniits owned by Kanazawa

K Insstitute 3.22 EFFECTS ON STEEL BANDS AN
ND BOLTS
of Technologgy, we conduccted an oscillattion experimeent on Expected yyield strain limit Expeccted yield strain lim
mit
a wooden tannk with contennt weight of 3tt that was desiigned
and manufacctured followinng the traditioonal method uusing
natural driedd domestic cedar. We performed p a free
vibration tesst, sweep tesst and strongg motion tesst, to
measure the ddisplacementss, accelerationss, strains and wwater
pressures of pparts (wood annd steel) of thee wooden tankk.

2.3 INPUT SEISMIC M

MOTION
F
Figure 6: Band
d strain Figure 7: Bolt strain
Two input sseismic motioons were seleected from rrecent Thhe strain on thhe bands tendeed to increasee, especially ffor
major earthquuakes: JMA KKOBE 1995 N NS motion from
m the thee bottom bandd, but it was small comparred to the yieeld
1995 Southerrn Hyogo Preffecture earthquuake and strain of the steeel plate. A largge strain occurrred for the side
plaate, but the baand could susstain the long--term allowabble
stress as it was about 1/3 off the maximum m stress for thhe
yieeld strain of thhe bolts.
(a)JMA
A 1995 NS
4 CONCLU
USIONS
Thhis study revieewed the behaavior of a woooden tank. W
We
anaalyzed the displacement reesponse, strainn response annd
accceleration ressponse. The impact on each membber
(b)JMA
A Resp
connfirmed the saafety of wooden tank. The strain
s was smaall
commpared with the yield straains for grounnd motions ovver
1g.

AC
CKNOWLE
EDGEMEN
NT
G 01302011 NS
(c)MYG
Special thankss go to the Earth Sciencce and Disastter
Prevention Reesearch Instituute (K-net) for
f the grounnd
m
motion data useed in this studdy.

RE
EFERENC
CES
(d) MY
YG 013 Resp
[1]] G.W. Housnner The dynam mic behaviour of water tankks.
Figure 4: Input seismic motions
Bulletin of tthe Seismologgical Society oof America.
MYG0131100311446NS m motion from the 2011 Toohoku Vol.53(2),ppp.381-387,19663
earthquake. The
T time respoonse of a tank--model installeed on [2]] T. Fujiwara. and A. Kitahhara: Experimeental report onn
the top of a 15-story reinfoorced concrete (RC) buildingg was the vibrationn characteristiics of wooden reservoir.
simulated annd the time reesponse of a test tank durring a Summaries of Technical Papers
P of Annnual Meeting.
motion experriment was obsserved. Architecturaal Institute of JJapan,1992

212
TRACK 4: BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES

TIMBER BRIDGES WITH ASPHALT SURFACING –

TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS

Florian Scharmacher1, Andreas Müller2, Maurice Brunner3

ABSTRACT: Nowadays, different asphalt systems are used for the surfacing of timber road bridges. However, it is difficult to get
adequate information about their load-bearing properties. The authors have participated in a research project to investigate the
properties of different, asphalt-based road surfacing materials under service loads. First, suitable material combinations and layer
structures were selected for detailed research. The transfer of horizontal forces through the composite construction was a special
research interest. A number of test series was carried out to investigate the adhesion between the surfacing and the timber surface.
The test results are comparable with those of concrete and steel surfaces. The necessary bonding strength can be achieved with
similar systems such as in steel and concrete bridges. Structural recommendations for the practical application are presented in the
paper.

KEYWORDS: timber bridge, road bridge, sealant system, blistering of asphalt, shear and tensile tests

1 BACKGROUND 1AND PROJECT AIMS23 2 MATERIAL AND METHODS

Nowadays, mastix asphalt and rolled asphalt are both used for In order to determine the properties of various composite
the surfacing of timber road bridges. A durable sealant structures, shear and tensile bonding tests were carried out.
between the asphalt layer and the timber deck is of enormous Systems without shear connection and systems with a shear
importance for both systems [1], [2]. connection between asphalt structure and deck material are
used for road bridges: the tests performed during the research
In systems without shear connection between asphalt structure
work were limited to systems with shear connection as shown
and bridge deck, there is the risk of the development of
in Figure 1.
"surface waves" caused by high braking and acceleration
forces. F Asphalt structure
Sealant
The authors have participated in a research project to Bridge deck
investigate the properties of different, asphalt-based road
surfacing materials under service loads. The two most Teflon layer
important research topics were concerned with the shear
resistance of the surfacing, as well as with the problem of
“blistering” often feared when hot asphalt is on top of a
timber deck.

1
Florian Scharmacher, Bern University of Applied Sciences –
Architecture, Wood and Civil Engineering, Solothurnstr. 102, Figure 1: Test set-up for the shear tests
2504 Biel, Switzerland. Email: florian.scharmacher@bfh.ch
2
Andreas Müller, Bern University of Applied Sciences – The following parameters were also investigated:
Architecture, Wood and Civil Engineering, Switzerland a) the deck material, such as steel, concrete, cross laminated
3
Maurice Brunner, Bern University of Applied Sciences –
timber and plywood.
Architecture, Wood and Civil Engineering, Switzerland

213
TRACK 4: BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES

b) the sealant system, such as polymer bitumen membranes Berne, Switzerland). The massive timber deck was surfaced
and liquid synthetic sealants (based on polymethyl with a 25mm thick asphalt structure [4] supplied with vent
methacrylate, PMMA) together with various surface holes but without a shear connection. Despite the high wood
coatings. moisture content, no increased blistering was observed. The
temperature in the wooden deck was observed to rise very
Top layer Asphalt slowly during the application of the within temperature
Protective layer structure
modified asphalt: a sudden evaporation of water could not
Sealant
Surface coating
occur according to the temperature measurements (Figure 4).
Bridge deck 200
180
160

Temperatur [ C]
140
120
Figure 2: Sketch of a system with a bonded shear 100
connection between asphalt and deck 80
60
There was a practical aspect to the research work as well: The 40
research work included the scientific observation and 20
monitoring during the renovation of the surfacing of the 0
0 300 600 900 1200
Bubenei Bridge in Canton Berne, Switzerland [3].
Time [s]
mastix asphalt center mastix asphalt bottom
wood surface wood 10 mm
3 RESULTS wood 25 mm wood 40 mm

Figure 4: Temperature profile for a timber deck during

3.1 SHEAR AND TENSILE BOND TESTS
The shear and tensile bonding tests clearly established that
there was a sufficient adhesion of the tested waterproofing
systems to the wooden base plate. The bonding strength was
comparable to that achieved with steel and concrete as base
material. A clear difference in the failure mechanism was
observed different sealants were used (Figure 3). The ductile
behaviour of the polymer bitumen membrane accommodates
larger deformations of a timber bridge and thus reduces the
risk of cracks in the asphalt layer.
In one parameter of the sealant and primer systems tested,
during the pouring of the hot asphalt, a blistering of the
asphalt was observed. The shear strength compared to an
undisturbed sample was also reduced by approximately 10 -
15%.
1.2 polymer bitumen membrane
liquid synthetic sealant
1.0
Shear strength [N/mm2]
asphalt coating
4 CONCLUSIONS
A durable sealant between the asphalt layer and the timber
deck is an important water protection for timber bridges.
Shear tests have revealed that the bonding strength between
asphalt structure and timber deck was comparable to that
achieved with steel and concrete as base material. For timber
bridges with a shear connection between the asphalt structure
and the timber deck, a sealing with a vapour proof surface
coating prior to the installation of the sealant or the pouring of
the hot asphalt is essential.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The research project was financially supported by the Swiss
Federal Office for the Environment, the Road Traffic
Department of Canton Bern and the private company

Aeschlimann AG, Zofingen.

0.8

0.6 REFERENCES
0.4 [1] Milbrandt, E.: Konstruktion von Fahrbahnbelägen, in
Brücken aus Holz, Informationsdienst Holz, 1999
0.2
[2] Schellenberg, K.: Bituminöse Beläge auf
0.0 Holzbrücken, 11. Int. Holzbau-Forum, Garmisch-
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0
Partenkirchen , 2005
Strain [mm]
[3] Durret, J.: Technischer Bericht Instandsetzungsprojekt
Figure 3: Stress-Strain-Diagramme for two selected „Instandsetzung Bubeneibrücke“, Ingenieurbüro
sealant systems on a timber deck Bächtold & Moor, 2012
[4] Milbrandt, E., Schellenberg, K.: Eigning von
3.2 PRACTICAL APPLICATION bituminösen Belägen für Holzbrücken, Schlussbericht
The research team was allowed to scientifically observe the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Holzforschung (DGfH),
renovation of the surfacing of the Bubenei Bridge (Canton of 1998

214
TRACK 4: BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES

INFLUENCE OF ARRANGEMENTS OF WALLS AND OPENING

ROOFS TO MAXIMUM SEISMIC RESPONSE OF JAPANESE
TRADITIONAL WOODEN HOUSE

Koji Yamada1, Yoshiyuki Suzuki2, Yukio Saitoh3

ABSTRACT: In this report, we discuss the maximum seismic displacements of Japanese traditional wooden houses with
unconstrained column bases by response analysis. Results of response analysis for various arrangements of walls and
opening roofs are as follows: the maximum sliding displacement of column base is less than 10cm. The sliding
displacement is larger at a weak frame in a structure. The opening roofs do not make the story displacement larger.

KEYWORDS: Japanese traditional wooden house, Wall arrangement, Opening roof, Slide of column base,
Displacement response

1 INTRODUCTION 1 dynamic friction is supposed as 0.39. Five wall

arrangements in Table 1 are used on the analysis. Type C2
Column bases of a Japanese traditional wooden house are is the most balanced model, and Type C4 has strong
put on and unfixed on their foundations. Therefore the eccentricity. Two openings at the roof are supposed. For
column bases are able to slide on the foundations for example, Type 2B has an opening at the centre of roof.
severe earthquake motions. The maximum sliding
X1
displacement is a matter of real importance in the seismic X5
X9
structural design. In this paper, both the maximum story X13
displacement and the maximum sliding displacement
effected by the arrangements of walls and opening roofs
are discussed on the basis of time history seismic response
analysis.2
Y9
Opening Case 2B
Y5
2 ANALYSIS MODEL Opening Case 2C
Y1

2.1 STRUCTURE Figure 1: Analytical model

The structure is one story with 3 spans in X direction and 2
spans in Y direction as shown in Figure 1, and is subject to Table 1: Wall arrangements (strength amplitude factor(%))
earthquake motions in Y direction. The mass at the roof Case X1 X5 X9 X13
level is 15184 kg and the mass at the first floor level is C1 150 50 50 150
C2 100 100 100 100
11290 kg. The maximum lateral strength in X direction of C3 125 125 75 75
this structure is 160.3kN and that of Y direction is 106.9kN. C4 150 150 50 50
The section of a column is 150 mm x 150mm. The section C5 125 125 25 125
of a beam is 150mm x 180mm at the roof level, 120mm x
150mm at the first floor level. The Young’s coefficient is 7 2.2 RESTORING FORCE CHARACTERISTICS
kN/mm2, the bending strength is 22.2kN/mm2. Every
The restoring force characteristics of wall and floor are
connection is supposed as a pin joint. The coefficient of
shown in Figure 2. Those are composed of the sum of bi-
static friction is supposed as 0.4, and the coefficient of
linear characteristic and tri-linear slip characteristic.
1
Koji Yamada, Toyota national College of Technology, 2-1
Eisei-cho, Toyota, Japan. Email: kyamada@toyota-ct.ac.jp
2.3 DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
2
Yoshiyuki Suzuki, Kinugasa Research Organization, Wallstat [1] is used on the dynamic analysis. The damping
Ritsumeikan University, Japan ratio is 0.02 proportional to an instant stiffness. Seven
3
Yukio Saitoh, Saitoh laboratory of building structure, Japan
artificial input motions are used. Those response spectra

215
TRACK 4: BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES

with 5 random phases and 2 observed phases are shown in III:Numerical simulations of the real size wooden houses",
Figure 3. Journal of Wood Science, Vol.56, No.4, p.284-292, 2010
10 20
15 8
C1 C1

S torey D isplacem ent(cm )

S lide displacem ent(cm)
6 15
10

Force(kN)
Force(kN)

4 5 10
5
2
5
0 0
0 0
0 10 20 30 0.00 0.05 0.10 X1 X5 X9 X13 X1 X5 X9 X13
Storey displacement(cm) Storey angle(rad)
10
C2 20
C2

S torey D isplacem ent(cm)

Wall (per piece) Floor (per 1m)

S lide displacem ent(cm)

15

Figure 2: Restoring force characteristics 5 10

1600 5

1400
Acc. Response(cm/s2)

0 0
1200
X1 X5 X9 X13 X1 X5 X9 X13
1000
800 10 20
C3 C3

S torey D isplacem ent(cm)

600

S lide displacem ent(cm)

400 15
200
0 5 10
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0
Natural period(s) 5

0 0
Figure 3: Response spectrum X1 X5 X9 X13 X1 X5 X9 X13

10 20

3 RESULT AND DISCUSSION

S torey D isplacem ent(cm)

C4 C4
S lide displacem ent(cm)

15

The maximum story displacement and the maximum 5 10

sliding displacement are shown in Figure 4. The maximum
5
sliding displacement is less than 10cm. And the aevrage
maximum sliding displacement is less than 5cm The 0
X1 X5 X9 X13
0
X1 X5 X9 X13
sliding displacement is larger at a weak frame in model C3
10 20
and model C4. The maximum story displacement at a weak C5 C5
S torey D isplacem ent(cm)
S lide displacem ent(cm)

frame is larger than those of other frames. But the 15

distribution of story displacements in model C3 and model 5 10

C4 looks like that with a rigid floor. The effect of opening
5
roofs to the story displacement is shown in Figure 5.
Compared with the maximum displacement in Figure 4, 0 0
X1 X5 X9 X13 X1 X5 X9 X13
The maximum story displacement in the model with an
opening roof is not larger than that in the model without an Slide Story Displacement
opening. On the other hand, the deformation of roof in the Figure 4: Displacement responses (Max. Ave. Min.)
model with an opening is larger than that in the model
without an opening. 20
C1
20
C4
S torey D isplacem ent(cm)
S torey D isplacem ent(cm)

15 15

4 CONCLUSIONS 10 10

The influence of arrangements of walls and opening roofs 5 5

to seismic response of traditional wooden house is 0 0

discussed and is essential to the seismic design. X1 X5 X9 X13 X1 X5 X9 X13

a) Opeming type 2B
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 20
C1
20
C4
S torey D isplacem ent(cm)
S torey D isplacem ent(cm)

15 15
This research was partially supported by the Committee of
Structural Design Method and Performance Verification 10 10
Experiment on Japanese Traditional Wooden Buildings supported
5 5
by the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism.
0 0
REFERENCE X1 X5 X9 X13 X1 X5 X9 X13

[1] T. Nakagawa, M. Ohta, et. al.: Collapsing process b) Opening type 2C

simulations of timber structures under dynamic loading Figure 5: Displacement response (Max. Ave. Min.)

216
TRACK 4: BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES

THE STUDY AND PROPOSED APPLICATION OF THE MULTI-STOREY

HYBRID TIMBER STRUCTURAL SYSTEM ON THE DESIGN FLEXIBILITY
AND HAZARD PREVENTION

Mengting Tsai1, Mikio Koshihara2

KEYWORDS: Hybrid timber structure, Required Stiffness, Eccentricity

1 INTRODUCTION
2.1 SEISMIC RESISTANT ABILITY
From urban sustainability point of view, wood as an
environmental friendly and recyclable material, it becomes When the lateral force resistant components have been
important to develop and improve the structural system in reduced in the timber structure, the force occurs in this part
order to fit the various requirements nowadays, especially is expect to transmit to the core structure via the timber
the design and construction of the mid- and high- rise floor and the connector between two structure. It is
wooden buildings. When considering the design of the important to make sure that the stiffness of timber floor
mid- and high- rise wooden buildings in japan, the most and core structure is adequate to take the extra force from
important issue will be the lateral force resistant ability the timber structure.
such as seismic and wind loading or impact loading from
tsunami, therefore large amount of shear walls or braces
are usually installed in a multi storey wooden building.
However, some of the buildings required big opening on
the façade for commercial use, and some need a flexible
layout to fit the interior arrangements, while the lateral
force resistant components shrank these design options. In
this study, a plan-mixed hybrid timber structural system is
proposed, the images of this hybrid system is shown in
Fig.1. This hybrid structural system makes it possible to
design a big opening without any shear wall on the façade,
as well as creating an indoor wall-free space to flexible the Core (grey part) is able
design options. to provide as an escape
route or shelter under
tsunami as well.
2 TECHNICAL ISSUES
The proposed hybrid structural system as shown in Fig. 1,
is composed by one span core structure and two span
timber structure. The wooden part is supposed to face the
street, becoming a unique landscape to distribute wooden
atmosphere like the traditional city view “Machinami-the
streets lined with neat rows of wooden houses” in Japan.
And the core is used for service function, such as elevation,
stair case and kitchen or toilet. The technical issues for this
structural system are as follow.
1
Mengting Tsai, the University of Tokyo, IIS Ce406, 4-6-1
Komaba Meguro-ku, Tokyo 153-8505, Japan.
Email: timtsai1005@hotmail.com
2
Mikio Koshihara, the University of Tokyo, Japan Figure 1: Plan-mixed hybrid timber structural system

217
TRACK 4: BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES

2.1 BUILDING WITH ECCENTRICITY 3 DESIGN PROPOSAL

The lateral force resistant components have been reduced
in the timber structure, making the building eccentricity.
The additional torsional force is expected to occurs in the
timber structure, therefore the efficient floor stiffness is
required to be determined.
2.2 STOREY DISPLACEMENT CONTROL
To make this structural system is able to be built under the
current building codes in Japan, the control of the max
displacement at each storey is essential. The analysis
results under different seismic loadings are shown in the
Fig. 2, including the rotational displacement and max
displacement at each storey under the different reduced
ratio of the shear wall at timber structure.
Based on the analysis results on this study, the following
designs of the multi storey hybrid timber buildings shown
in the Fig.3 and Fig.4 are proposed, including two different
types of functions. The shear wall at the timber part can be
reduced in some storey due to the hybrid structural system
being applied and makes it is possible to creating a open
space for commercial use and free the design options.
Type A is a plan-mixed timber structure from first storey
to fifth storey, while type B is a two storey plan-mixed
timber structure with three storey wooden house top up.
Type A can be used for a multi-functional building, such
as office building, department store, and restaurant. Type
B is considered a two storey multi-functional building with
a three storey height wooden residential house on top.

4 CONCLUSIONS
This paper gives an overall study on this hybrid timber
structural system, and the possible forms and options are
proposed to provide the design flexibility, including big
25% 50% 75%
opening on the Façade and interior wall-free space, on the
(a) Rotational displacement at each storey multi storey wooden buildings.

REFERENCES
[1] Meng-Ting Tsai, Mikio Koshihara: The Research of
Plan Mixed Hybrid Timber Structure and Parametric
Equivalent Brace Study of Floor Slab,Proceedings of
25% 50% 75% World Conference on Timber Engineering (WCTE),
(b) Max. displacement at each storey Final Paper Journal- Poster Papers, pp.27~32, Auckland,
Figure 2: The storey displacement control under New Zealand, July 2012
the different reduced ratio of the shear wall at timber
structure

(a) Structural system (a) Structural system

(b) Perspective Images (b) Perspective Images

Design based on the building code Design proposal Design based on the building code Design proposal

Figure 3: Type A Figure 4: Type B

218
TRACK 4: BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES

APPLICATION OF NON-LINEAR FINITE ELEMENT DYNAMIC

ANALYSIS FOR TRADITIONAL WOODEN STRUCTURE

Atsuo Takino1, Atsushi Kunugi2, Tomoki Ikeda3, Yuji Miyamoto3

ABSTRACT: In this study, we performed the shaking table tests of traditional wooden structure such as temples and non-
linear finite element dynamic analysis of the shaking table tests. In the experiment, the predominant frequency and
amplification ratio in the case of large earthquake motion are lower than that in the case of small one because the slippage
and uplift of columns were occurred in the case of large earthquake motion. In the analysis, there is a difference of
predominant frequency compared with the experiments, however, the qualitative trend of experiments could be simulated.

KEYWORDS: Non-linear finite element analysis, Shaking table test, Anisotropy, Traditional wooden structure

1 INTRODUCTION 123
Traditional wooden architectural structures in Japan
constructed with columns, Nuki (beams) and Kumimono
are generally considered to have superior deformability
and damping properties. However, very little study has
been performed on the behaviour of traditional wooden
architectures in earthquakes and so elucidation of the
mechanisms involved in their dynamic behaviour remains
incomplete. In this study, we conducted the shaking
and the height of columns are 60x60mm and 600mm,
respectively. All specimens consist of columns, beams
(called Nuki as the traditional name) and Kumimono
(traditional joint of eave-supporting assemblies). Only
specimen C has the board wall. Table 1 shows the
experimental parameters. The published wave of JMA
Kobe (1995 NS) phase, shortened by half in times scale,
was used as the input earthquake motion.
weight
plywood

93
experiments of models based on the traditional wooden Kumimono
architectural frames and attempted the application of 3D
finite element analysis for the simulation of the shaking beam (Nuki ) board

600
experiments. wall

2 SHAKING TABLE TESTS beam (Nuki )

350 shaking table 350

2.1 SPECIMENS AND TEST SETUP
<Specimen A> <Specimen C>
Figure 1 shows the detail of specimens. A total of three
specimens of one-fifth scale were tested. Test specimens
were designed based on the traditional wooden
accelerometer
architectural structures such as temples. The section size displacement meter

1
Atsuo Takino, Nara Women’s University, Kitauoya
Higashimachi, Nara city, Nara, Japan. Email: takino@cc.nara-
wu.ac.jp
2
Atsushi Kunugi, JSOL Corporation, 2-2-4 Tosabori, Osaka city, 350 350
Osaka, Japan. Email: kunugi.atsushi@jsol.co.jp
3
Tomoki Ikeda, Yuji Miyamoto, Osaka University, 2-1 <Specimen B>
Yamadaoka, Suita city, Osaka, Japan. Email:
ikeda_tomoki@arch.eng.osaka-u.ac.jp, Figure 1: Configuration of specimens
miyamoto@arch.eng.osaka-u.ac.jp

219
TRACK 4: BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES

Table 1: The experimental parameter however, the predominant frequency and amplification
ratio of JMA_100% are lower that of JMA_20% as the
restraint weight
Name Specimen same characteristic of experiments. Also the slippage and
condition (N)
uplift of column are shown in the analysis (see in Fig.5).
A-1 900
free
A-2 1500 :HLJKW5LJLGERG\
A
A-3 900
pin support
A-4 1500
B-1 1400
B free
B-2 2200
C-1 900
C free
C-2 1500
6SHFLPHQ
:RRG0RGHO
2.2 TEST RESULTS
Figure 2 shows the acceleration Fourier spectrum ratio
between the top of specimen and the shaking table. The
predominant frequency and amplification ratio of JMA
_100% are lower than that of JMA_20%. This is because
6KDNLQJWDEOH5LJLGERG\ 6\PPHWU\SODQH
the slippage and uplift of columns were occurred in the
7KHORQJVLGH! 7KHVKRUWVLGH!
case of JMA_100%.
10 10 Figure 3: Analytical model
<A-2> <A-4>
8 8 20
Exp._20 <A-2>
6 JMA_20% 6 JMA_20% Exp._100
JMA_100% JMA_100% 15 Ana._20
4 JMA_125% 4 JMA_125% Ana._100
2 2
(Hz) (Hz) 10
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
5
10 10
<B-2> <C-2> (Hz)
8 8
0
6 JMA_20% 6 JMA_20% 0 5 10 15 20
JMA_100% JMA_100%
4 JMA_125% 4 JMA_125% Figure 4: Comparison between experimental results and
2 2 analytical results in acceleration Fourier spectrum ratio
(Hz) (Hz)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20

Figure 2: Acceleration Fourier spectrum ratio

3 NON-LINEAR FINITE ELEMENT

DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
3.1 ANALYTICAL MODEL
Figure 3 shows the analytical model. Each element of the
all members was individually modeled, their contact
conditions were assigned, and the slippage and the
separation were considered for all component material
interfaces. Wood material model, taking anisotropy and
material non-linearity into consideration, is used for
material model.
Figure 5: The uplift of column in analysis
4 CONCLUSIONS
In this study, we performed the shaking table tests of
traditional wooden structure and non-linear finite element
dynamic analysis of the tests. There is a difference of
predominant frequency between experiment and analysis,
however, we could simulate the qualitative trend of
experiments.

3.2 ANALYTICAL RESULTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Figure 4 shows the comparison between experimental
This study was supported by Kajima Foundation’s
results and analytical results in acceleration Fourier
Research Grant. Special thanks to Harimashaji Koumuten
spectrum ratio. There is a difference of predominant
Co., Ltd.
frequency between experiment and analysis. In the analysis,

220
TRACK 4: BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES

REPLACEMENT OF STEEL STRUCTURE FOR WOODEN

STRUCTURE IN ENVIRONMENT EXPOSED TO MARINE
AGGRESSIVENESS

Alexandre Wahrhaftig1, Ricardo Carvalho2, João Dias3, Luciana Bezerra4

ABSTRACT: One described in this work, the challenges and solutions for the design of a timber structure used to replace
another of steel that collapsed. The choice by wood is due to the fact that is a material better suited to environments with
high salinity and, in this context, to reduce maintenance costs.
KEYWORDS: Aggressive environment, Wooden structures, Steel structures, Maintenance.

1 INTRODUCTION 123 2 PRESENTATION OF THE PROBLEM

The city of Salvador is located in Northeastern Brazil and
constitutes one of the main entry points of the country. It
was the first capital, established by the Portuguese after
arriving in the new territory on April 22, 1500. Salvador is
inserted into the extensive coast of Brazil which is bathed
by the Atlantic Ocean. It is located eight meters above sea
level and has one of the highest degrees of salinity of
Brazil.
Due to the climate and the proximity to the sea, the city
environment creates a condition very unfavorable to the
metallic components of every order in function of
oxidation processes that may develop. Furthermore, the air
blowing from the sea makes the oxidation process even
more corrosive because the oxidation is enhanced by wind
currents carrying the droplets of water and salt. In this
context, the structures require special maintenance
condition, aiming not only extend the life of the building,
but also ensure the structural safety. The wooden structures
are attractive option for aggressive environments due the
fact that the conditions of inspection and maintenance are
easier to be performed and are less costly because are
restricted to connecting components.
1
Alexandre Wahrhaftig, Federal University of Bahia, Email:
alixa@ufba.br
2
Ricardo Carvalho, Federal University of Bahia, 02 Aristides
Novís, 5th floor, Federação, Salvador – BA, Brasil. Email:
ricardoc@ufba.br
3
João Dias, Federal University of Bahia, Researcher supported
by FINEP, Email: jhonny_days85@hotmail.com
4
Luciana Bezerra, Federal University of Bahia, Email:
lucianabezerra@live.com
This paper describes the design of a structure of wood used
to replace another of metal that collapsed. The collapsed
structure was situated in environmental conditions of high
level of aggressiveness.
The structure that collapsed was built in front of the
building, staying away about 100 meters from the seaside.
The roof in ceramic tile had a total area of 285.36 m2 and
was supported by steel frame, except the columns that
were in reinforced concrete. The columns possessed an
architectural finish that kept them hidden by a coating of
clay bricks.
The original steel structure collapsed in May 2013, after 07
years of use, destroying completely the superstructure and
the columns. The remaining metallic structure was also
replaced considering the high costs of maintenance. The
builders called to rebuild the roofing chosen by the use of
wooden structure, whose design solutions provide the basis
of this discussion. The main facade of the building and the
roofing analyzed can be seen in Figure 1.
3 STRUCTURAL DESIGN
3.1 COMPUTACIONAL MODELING
The computational model was constructed using the finite
element method, with plate elements to simulate roof tiles,
common rafters, battens and purlins and bar elements to
simulate trusses, beams, hip rafters, ridge broad and
columns. The support basic structure is constituted by
plane frame that support the scissors from roofing whose
combination gives the assembly tridimensional shape.

221
TRACK 4: BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES
Structure Designed
Figure 1: Frontal view for building
In the computational model the bars were considered joint
ringed on the start and end of element and the roofing
plates were discretized in order to make its nodes coincide
with the scissors points which support hip rafters. The
Figure 2 shows the mathematical model used to obtain
structural efforts. More details about Finite Element
Method are presented by Bucalem [1].
Figure 2: 3D Frame and Kind of elements on MEF Model
3.2 STRUCTURAL DIMENSIONING
The design of structural pieces was performed assuming a
wood resistance class of 60 MPa and sought to meet the
recommendations of the NBR 7190 – Design of wooden
structures of Brazilian Association of Technical Standards
(ABNT) [2]. Efforts in structural elements were extracted
from the computational model presented in the previous
section and the cross sections were calculated by observing
the guarantees resistance and stability. Special challenges
relate to the design of the support columns, made to meet
the pined condition as well as beans and columns, whose
cross sections found particular solution. Another limitation
is the availability of laminated timber and the amount of
wood from one species to suit the mounting of the roofing,
with the necessary mechanical composition and the use of
structural elements of different tropical species.
3.3 FINAL ARRANGEMENT
The geometric modeling with the final arrangement can be
seen in Figure 3. The project was presented to the builders
with the graphical representation of the structural elements,
222
with plans, views and sections, as well as the detailing of
connections. The geometric modeling also collaborated
with the production and assembly of structural
components.
Figure 3: Final arrangement
4 CONCLUSIONS
In aggressive environments wooden structures show up
naturally more advantageous than steel structures
considering maintenance tasks to which they are subject. It
should be noted that the geometric modeling of the
structure contributed to the implementation of complex
solutions required, as well as numerical modeling allows
evaluation of efforts and the "as-built" of the structure. It is
important to highlight that the design of a wooden
structure requires knowledge and creativity to overcome
the challenges of design and detailing own this material.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors thank to FINEP - Brazilian Agency of
Innovation and CNPq - National Council for Scientific and
Technological Development.
REFERENCES
[1] Bucalem L.-M, Bathe K.-J: The Mechanics of Solids
and Structures – Hierarchical Modeling and the Finite
Element Solution, Springer, German, 2011.
[2] Brazilian Association of Technical Standards (ABNT)
- NBR 7190 - Design of wooden structures, 1997.
TRACK 4: BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES

BUILDING DAMAGES OF MODERN WOODEN

ARCHITECTURES IN JAPAN BY THE 2011 OFF THE PACIFIC
COAST OF TOHOKU EARTHQUAKE

Naoyuki Matsumoto1 and Kaori Fujita2

KEYWORDS: Vibration Damage, early modern wooden architecture, lath, footing

1 INTRODUCTION 12 properties, cracks on mud walls, inclinations of columns

and falling off of horizontal member have been observed.
Many of the early modern wooden architectures [In this On the other hand, there is not any report of complete
paper, ‘early modern’ means 1853-1926, from the end of destruction of modern wooden architectures, and there are
the Edo era to Taisho era] in Japan were damaged by the few reports focused on the ‘modern’ building elements.
2011 off the Pacific Coast of Tohoku Earthquake [Tohoku
2 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION ELEMENTS
eq. here after]. They are built with traditional Japanese and
newly imported Western techniques, so they have various OF THE INVESTIGATED BUILDINGS
building construction types, and it has been difficult to Among the early modern wooden architectures in the three
classify the building elements of them and evaluate their heavily damaged prefectures (Fukushima, Miyagi and
seismic performance. On the other hand, these years, they Iwate), we chose 16 early modern wooden buildings. They
have been re-appreciated as local symbols and properties, included all the Important Cultural Properties designated
so it is important to try to classify the construction by the national government (seven cases), five Important
elements of them and to clarify the seismic characteristics Cultural Properties designated by the prefectural
through the investigation of the vibration damages. government, Cultural Properties designated by the town
1.1 Purpose and Methods government and two Registered Cultural Properties.
The purpose of this paper is to clarify the characteristics The damage investigation was performed during August
and vulnerabilities of modern wooden building 2011 to September 2012.
construction elements. 2.1 Classification of Building Construction Elements
As a preliminary research, we classified the building The building construction elements of the 16 investigated
elements of early modern wooden architectures based on buildings were classified as follows [figure 1].
the preceding research [1], the reports of repairs [2], and [The Ratio of the building construction elements]
Foundation Foundation
on-site measurements. Then, we investigated the vibration (a) [8/16] (b) [7/16] (c) [1/16] (a) Floor Post and Footing Stone
damages of them by the Tohoku eq., focusing on the (b) Bonded Footing at perimeter
building elements classified above. and Floor Post inside
(c) Bonded Footing
1.2 Vibration Damages of Wooden Architecture by the Wall[combination of Inside and Outside Wall]
2011 off the Pacific Coast of Tohoku Earthquake Wall (a) [4/16] (b) [7/16] (c) [5/16] (a) Mud on Wattle [both sides]
In Out In Out In Out (b) [Inside] Plaster on Wooden Lath
The magnitude of the main shock was 9.0(Mw), and the [Outside] Siding
(c) [Inside] Mud on Wattle
maximum acceleration was approximately 2700 gal at K- [Outside] Siding
net Tsukidate, Kurihara City. Among the cultural property (d) Others

buildings in Tohoku region, 58 out of 162 Important Frame and Brace

Frame and Brace Roof Structure (a) Beam-Column [traditional]
(b) Beam-Column + Girt + Stud
Cultural Properties designated by the national government, (a) [5/16] (b) [7/16] (c) [2/16] (a) [3/16] (c) Beam-Column + Girt + Stud
and 131 out of 699 Registered Cultural Properties were + Brace
(d) Unknown [2/16]
(b) [3/16]
damaged [3]. Especially, concerning timber cultural Roof Structure
(a) Beam-Post-Purlin [traditional]
(c) [7/16] (b) Queen Post
(c) King Post (d) Unknown [4/16]
1
Naoyuki Matsumoto, PhD Candidate, M. Eng., Research Fellow
Figure 1: Construction Elements of Investigation Objects
of JSPS DC1, Dept. of Arch.,Graduate School of Eng., Univ. of
Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-Ku, Tokyo, 113-8656, Japan. 2.2 Modern Wooden Construction Elements
E-mail: nmatsumoto@buildcon.arch.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp
2
Kaori Fujita, Associate Professor, Dr. Eng., Dept. of Arch., Among the building construction elements above, the
Graduate School of Eng., Univ. of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo- following elements started being used during the ‘early
Ku, Tokyo, 113-8656, Japan. modern’; siding boards, wooden lathes, bonded-footing,
E-mail: fujita@buildcon.arch.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp girts, braces, king trusses, queen trusses, and slate tiles.

223
TRACK 4: BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES

3 RESULTS OF THE DAMAGE INVESTIGATION dislocations were concentrated at the corners and the
places where the partition walls were inside.
3.1 Degree of Building Damage
Table 2: Types of Damages of Foundations
The damages are evaluated to 4 degrees (from heavier
Types of Observed Damages
damaged order, ‘Total Destruction’, ‘Heavy Damage’, Foundation [ratio of the damaged buildings]
‘Partial Damage’, ‘No Damage’) based on the preceding Floor post and ①Cracks on footing stone [1/8]
research [4]. In addition, concerning the cost of repairs, Footing stone ②Damages on a ground sill [1/8]
such damages which need total repair of the walls and Bonded footing at ①Dislocation of perimeter stone-bonded footing [2/7]
perimeter ②Shear failure at the joint of floor posts [1/7]
jacking up of foundations are also evaluated as ‘Heavy
Damage’.
As a result, 9 out of the 16 buildings were Heavy Damage,
6 were Partial Damage, and 1 was unknown.
The ‘Heavy Damage’ include dislocation of stone-bonded
perimeter footing, shear failure at the joint of floor posts,
falling down of horizontal members and falling off of \
almost all the plaster and mud walls. The ‘Partial Damage’ Figure 4: Dislocations of Stone-Bonded Perimeter Footing
include cracks of walls and foundations, falling down of 3.4 Other Damages
ridge roof tiles, disconnection of knee braces [Figure 2]. The damages of the frames were observed on 2 buildings.
No 
Total  Heavy Damage
Damage Destruction
Falling off of wall finish [9/9]
They included bending failure at the joint of a few braces
０ ０ Dislocation of perimeter and columns, falling down of lintels, inclinations of
Unknown
[2/9]
１ footing columns. The damage of the roof structure was observed
Damages on Frames [1/9]
Partial  Others [1/9] only on 1 building. It was heavily damaged by the
Heavy 
Damage
Damage Partial Damage destruction of a neighboring warehouse. The falling down
６ Cracks on Foundations [3/6]
９ of a few roof tiles were observed on 6 buildings.
Cracks on Walls [5/6]
Falling down of Roofing Tiles [5/6] 4 CONCLUSIONS
Other [3/6]
[Ratio of Damaged Buildings] 1) By the building damage investigation of early modern
Figure 2: The Degree of Damages, and its details wooden architectures in 3 heavily damaged prefectures, 9
3.2 Damages of Walls out of 16 buildings were evaluated as ‘Heavy Damage’,
and they included 9 falling off of wall finishes and 2
On all of the investigated buildings, the cracks and falling dislocations of perimeter stone-bonded footings. The
off of finishing material (mud, plaster) were observed, dislocations of bonded footing were observed in such
except 1 building which we could not investigate inside. buildings which have no footings under sleepers.
The ratio of buildings which need whole repair of walls are 2) The characteristics of damages on early modern wooden
shown as in table 1. No damages were observed on sidings, architectures were falling off of plaster finishes and the
and the frames inside the walls. dislocation of perimeter stone-bonded footing.
Table 1: Types of heavy Damages of Walls 3) The frames and roof structures are not heavily damaged,
Observed Damages even it was made with modern building construction
Types of Wall
[ratio of the damaged buildings]
[Inside] elements or not.
Plaster on Wooden Lath Cracks and falling off of plaster [4/7] In the next step of the study, to analyse the seismic
[Outside] Siding
[Inside] Mud on Wattle
performance quantitatively, the dislocation of stone-
[Outside] Siding
Cracks and falling off of mud [3/5] bonded footing, the sticking of finishes and the seismic
[Inside and Outside]
Cracks and falling off of mud [3/4] responses are need to be examined.
Mud on Wattle
5 REFERENCES
[1] Aihiko Minamoto, The History of the Modernization
of Wooden Frame Work Method in Japan, Chuo
Koron Bijutsu Publishing, 2009.
[2] The Japanese Association for Conservation of
Architectural Monuments, “The Report of the repair
Figure 3: Falling off and Cracks of Plaster finish for conservation of Former Date County Office,” 1979.
3.3 Damages of Foundations [3] Architectural Institute of Japan, Preliminary
Reconnaissance Report of the 2011 Tohoku-Chiho
On 4 buildings, damages of foundations were observed. Taiheiyo-Oki Earthquake, Maruzen, 2011.
The types of the damages are shown as in table 2. [4] Shigeyuki Okada et al, Classifications of Structural
The dislocations of perimeter stone-bonded footing were Types and Damage Patterns of Buildings for
observed on 2 buildings, and their footings were only at Earthquake Field Investigation. Journal of Structural
perimeter, and not under the sleepers. In addition, the and Construction Engineering, 524:65-72, 1999.

224
TRACK 4: BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES

STRUCTURAL PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT OF THE FIRST

VEHICULAR TIMBER BRIDGE IN KOREA

Yukyung Shin1, Kwang-Mo Kim1, Sang-Joon Lee1, Moon-Jae Park1, Ji-Woon

Yi2, Hyun-Moo Goh2

ABSTRACT: The first vehicular timber bridge in Korea was constructed in 2012. This timber truss bridge was designed
depending on USDA timber bridge standard with allowable stress method due to absence of Korean standard. Especially, as
glulam timber was used and stress laminated timber was applied for bridge deck, structural performance was predicted to
improve. Through finite element analysis, structural performance was evaluated, and allowable forces and deflection
verified.

KEYWORDS: Timber bridge, Vehicular bridge, Glued laminated timber, Structural performance

1 INTRODUCTION 123
As increased attention on the use of wood, researches on
timber as a material of the bridge have been studied (Kim,
2012). And timber bridges have been constructed in
Europe and US. However, it is not considered as a main
structural member of bridges in Korea, and there is no
standard of timber bridges yet. Recently timber bridges are
built for pedestrian and the field of timber bridges will
extend to the vehicular bridges. Figure 1: Longitudinal Sectional View of Bridge
This study represents the first vehicular timber bridge
including design and construction. Design procedures of
2.2 TIMBER PROPERTIES
Timber Bridge (USDA, 2005) were applied for bridge
design, and with finite element analysis structural The bridge included arched truss, and stressed laminated
performance assessment was performed. deck. Glulam timber was used as a structural material for
truss and deck. 10S-30B glulam (Table 1) was applied,
2 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION which was defined in Korea Standard (KS F 3021).
Table 1: Mechanical Properties of Glulam (KS F 3021)
2.1 DESIGN METHOD Grade of Strength 10S-30B
The standard of timber bridge is absent in Korea Bridge Flexural x-x axis 10.0
Allowable
Design Specification (2010), so this bridge design was Flexural y-y axis 7.0
Stress
referred to US code (NDS for wood construction, 2005). Axial Tensile 6.5
(MPa)
The bridge was designed as a first class bridge and applied Axial Compressive 7.5
DB-24 for vehicular load. And timber truss, connections, Modulus of x-x axis 9,000
and steel cross beam were designed with allowable stress Elasticity
design. Figure 1 is a design drawing. y-y axis 8,000
(MPa)

2.3 DECK AND TRUSS DESIGN

1 Deck floor was designed with Timber Bridge (USDA,
Yukyung Shin, Department of Forest Products, Korea Forest
Research Institute, Seoul, Korea. E-mail: skys28@naver.com 2005) and truss design procedure was referred from Korea
2
Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea. Bridge Design Specification (2010).

225
TRACK 4: BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES
Deck was designed with procedure of US design code
(USDA: Timber Bridges, 2005). Stress laminated timbers
were applied for plate behaviour due to service loads. Also,
structural performance was advanced due to improving
shear capacity.
Truss members were glulam timbers except vertical
members because of small member sizes for fine view.
Section optimization was performed with allowable stress
design method.
2.4 BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION
Micheongol recreational forest was selected for a
construction field and construction of bridge was
completed at the last of 2012 (Figure 2).
Figure 2: Truss Timber Bridge in micheongol
3 STRUCTURAL PERFORMANCE
ASSESSMENT WITH FINITE ELEMENT
ANALYSIS
Structural performance was assessed with finite element
analysis program, MIDAS Civil 2006. FE model (Figure 3)
was made of timber deck, timber truss member, and steel
vertical truss member.
Figure 3: 3D Finite Element Model
Structural performance of bridge deck floor was
represented with bending moments due to live loads and
maximum deflections. As shown in Table 2, the latter was
lower values or lower than maximum deflection standard
226
(Korea Bridge Design Specification, 2010), which meant
the deck floor was enough to endure applying loads.
Table 2: Results with Design and Analysis for Deck
Design Values Analysis Results
Moment due to
18.2 kN∙m 13.4 kN∙m
dead load
Moment due to
156 kN∙m 111.1 kN∙m
live load
Maximum
12.95 mm 24.75 mm
Deflection
Meanwhile, structural performance of truss was
determined through member forces such as tensile forces
or compressive forces. The maximum tensile force was
shown in centre lower chord, 1556 N, comparing 1710 N
for design value. On the other hand, the maximum
compressive force was 1846 N in centre upper chord, and
design value was 1990 N. The results meant that member
forces were satisfied with allowable forces.
4 CONCLUSIONS
This study was performed to introduce vehicular timber
truss bridge and assess structural performance of bridge. It
is a meaningful study that this bridge is the first vehicular
timber bridge in Korea.
To design the timber bridge, Timber design (USAD, 2005)
was applied because there is no standard of timber bridges
in Korea Bridge Design Specification (2010). Deck and
truss members were designed with allowable stress method.
And this bridge was constructed in 2012.
Assessment of structural performance was conducted with
finite element analysis using MIDAS Civil 2006.
Structural performance was determined with bending
moments and deflections of deck and member forces of
truss. Therefore, the results were perfectly satisfied with
allowable forces and deflections.
It will be the foundation study on the vehicular timber
bridge in Korea.
REFERENCES
[1] American Forest & Paper Association, Inc.: National
Dsign Specification for Wood Construction
ASD/LRFD, U.S., 2005.
[2] Architectural Institute of Korea: Design Manual for
Timber Structure, 2008.
[3] G. Kim: Understanding of Wood as a Structural
Material for Timber Bridge, Korea Society of Civil
Engineering 60(9), pp.10-20, 2012.
[4] Korea Road and Transportation Association: Korea
Bridge Design Specification, 2010.
[5] USDA: Timber Bridges-Design, Construction,
Inspection, and Maintenance, Washington, D.C., U.S.,
1990.
TRACK 4: BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES

STRUCTURAL EVALUATION OF TRADITIONAL TOWNHOSE

WITH TIMBER THROUGH COLUMN IN JAPAN

Hiromi Sato1, Mikio Koshihara2 and Tatsuya Miyake3

ABSTRACT: This paper presents a study of the structural performance of traditional timber townhouses in a historic town
in Japan. The aim of this study was to clarify the evaluation method of the structural performance of traditional timber
townhouses with through column. The target area has many traditional timber townhouses built in from the middle of 17th
century to the early 20th century and these townhouses have few structural walls. In this study, the subject of evaluations
was a typical townhouse in this area and earthquake observation, seismic diagnosis and earthquake response analysis were
performed. Results of evaluations are compared and it verifies about the difference in evaluation methods.

KEYWORDS: Traditional timber construction, Earthquake observation, Seismic diagnosis, Earthquake response
analysis

built in from the middle of 17th century to the early 20th

1 INTRODUCTION 123 century [1]. In townhouses in this area, the frontage
direction of the first floor has few walls and the frames
Japan has a long history of earthquakes and timber which consist of through columns.
structures in Japan have suffered great damage caused by
strong earthquakes. Old traditional timber structures
suffered especially heavy damage. Besides, many of
historical towns in japan have many traditional timber
buildings that construction method is same in each area.
These traditional buildings often have insufficient
earthquake-proof performance. However, if the structural
evaluation is suitable for the characteristics of their
construction, the technique of earthquake-proofing suitable
for those buildings can be examined. Therefor it is
important to clarify a suitable evaluation method in each
historical area.
Figure 1: Sawara district
2 RESEARCH AREA
2.2 PREVIOUS EARTHQUAKE DISASTER
2.1 SAWARA DISTRICT On 11 March, 2011, timber structures suffered a great deal
The research area of the present study is the Sawara district of damage due to the 2011 off the Pacific coast of Tohoku
of Chiba Prefecture, which is located near Tokyo. The Earthquake. This earthquake destroyed or severely
Sawara district is a historical town arranged on the damaged 289 houses in the Katori city including the
riverside and contains traditional timber townhouse and Sawara district. In the Sawara district, many falls of
storehouse with thick walls as shown in Figure 1. They are roofing tiles, collapse of mud walls, and foundation
damage were observed.
1
Hiromi Sato, Research Associate, Institute of Industrial Science,
the University of Tokyo, #Ce406, 4-6-1 Komaba, Megro-ku, 2.3 SUBJECT OF EVALUATION
Tokyo 153-8505, Japan, Email: sato310@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp The subject of the structural evaluation was a traditional
2
Mikio Koshihara, Professor, Institute of Industrial Science, the
timber townhouse. This townhouse was built about 120
University of Tokyo, Japan
3 years ago. The target house is a building with the typical
Tatsuya Miyake, President, Nihon System Sekkei Architects &
Engineers Co., Japan characteristics of this area. The wall quantity in the

227
 TRACK 4: BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES

frontage direction (X) of the first floor was very few and it 4.2 CONSIDERING THROUGH COUMN FRAME
was not able to satisfy the current standard as shown in
Instead of with few walls the townhouses of in the Sawara
figure 2.
district have many frames which consist through columns
in the frontage direction. Therefore, based on the result of
static test of previous researches, the effect on the
N structural performance of the frames was evaluated and
seismic capacity evaluation was improved [3], [4].

Subject part
5 EARTHQUAKE RESPONSE ANALYSIS
The target house was modelled as three-dimensional frame
Through column
model [5]. The horizontal load-resisting elements of the
Y+   townhouse are mud walls. The input waves of the analysis
（NS）   were simulated earthquake motions equivalent to design
X+   earthquake ground motion based on Japanese Code.
st nd
（EW）   1 floor 2 floor Roof floor Parametric study was performed on the reducing rate for
strength due to horizontal diaphragms and beam-column
Figure 2: Plan and structural elements joints.
As a result, although response displacement was large, it
3 EARTHQUAKE OBSERVATION AND did not collapse. Therefore, the target townhouse holds the
MICROTREMOR MEASUREMENT minimum earthquake-proof performance.

3.1 VIBRATION CHARACTERISTICS 6 CONCLUSIONS

Microtremor measurement and earthquake observation
were performed on the target house. On 7 November 2012,
the seismic intensity (JMA seismic intensity scale)
observed in the Sawara district was 4. The maximum
acceleration was approximately 42 gal recorded in this area.
The fundamental vibration characteristics of the house are
as shown in Table 1.
1. In the frontage direction (X) of the first floor, the
townhouse does not have structural walls nevertheless
there are some earthquake-proof performance.
2. Considering the structural performance of through
column frame, the townhouse in this area can be
evaluated appropriately.

Table 1: Natural frequency ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

X Y The authors express their appreciation to the owners of the
Microtremor Freq.(Hz) 3.03 5.47 subject houses, and to members of the studies group of
measurement Disp.(mm) 0.021 0.019 townhouse of the Sawara district, without whose help these
Earthquake Freq.(Hz) 1.86 2.95 experiment would not have succeeded.
observation Disp.(mm) 3.5 2.7
REFERENCES
3.2 LOAD DISPLACEMENT RELATIONSHIP [1] The Sawara City: Townscape of the Sawara district,
2004.3
Displacement was calculated by having integrated with the [2] The Japan Building Disaster Prevention Association:
observed acceleration waveform, in consequence the load Seismic diagnosis and reinforcement of timber house,
displacement relationship was presumed. In the small 2004
earthquake, the stiffness of the X direction was small; a [3] H. Sato et al.: Horizontal Load Capacity of
half of the Y direction, it was not 0. Sashikamoi Frame with Through Column, Summaries
of Technical Papers of Annual Meeting Architectural
4 SEISMIC DIAGNOSIS Institute of Japan, C-1, 569-570, 2010.9
[4] H. Sato et al.: Horizontal Load Capacity of
4.1 SEISMIC DIAGNOSIS Sashikamoi Frame with Through Column Part 2
Effects of Seismic Performance of Second Floor on
A seismic diagnosis was conducted [2]. The results of the
Through Column , Summaries of Technical Papers of
seismic diagnoses of the target house were 0 in the X
Annual Meeting Architectural Institute of Japan, C-1,
direction and 0.37 in the Y direction. The seismic
461-462, 2012.9
diagnosis indicated a ‘high possibility of collapse’ because
[5] Architectural Instisute of Japan: Fundermental Theory
the X direction (the direction of frontage) of the first floor
of Timber Engineering, pp.314-319, 2010.12
has not bearing walls.

228
TRACK 4: BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES

COLLAPSING ANALYSIS OF AN OLD TWO-STORY WOODEN-

HOUSE AGAINST A STRONG EARTHQUAKE GROUND MOTION

Tomiya Takatani1

ABSTRACT: 3-D non-linear collapsing process analysis of an old two-story wooden house, “Kyo-machiya” structure, was
conducted against a strong earthquake ground motion with the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) seismic intensity of “6
upper” level, in order to investigate the seismic behaviour of Kyo-machoya structure built by a Japanese traditional framed-
construction method. A non-linear behaviour of timber elements in the wooden house during a strong earthquake ground
motion can be simulated by this collapsing analysis. As a result, seismic response of the wooden house depends on the
seismic intensity of the input earthquake motion in the collapsing analysis. Also, there seems to be a possibility that the old
two-story wooden house may be collapsed by a strong earthquake motion with the seismic intensity of “6 upper” level.

KEYWORDS: 3-d non-linear collapsing analysis, Traditional framed-construction method, Seismic ground motion

1 INTRODUCTION 123
In recent years, major earthquakes in Japan caused serious
damage to a great number of existing wooden houses built
by some old seismic design codes before 1981. It is very
important for a structural engineer to take account of a
seismic response of wooden house in the design process of
seismic retrofit during a strong earthquake ground motion.
In this paper, 3-D collapsing process analysis of wooden
house based on the theory of the Distinct Element Method
ment Method, and can be taken into consideration the
extremely non-linear properties of timber members break-
ing or being disperse. Due to the limited space, the outline
of the collapsing analysis is referred to Reference [3].
2.1 SEISMIC INPUT MOTION
Figure 1 shows an input earthquake motion wave used in
30
NS
Displacement (cm)

20
[1] is conducted in order to accurately evaluate the seismic 10
EW

behaviour of wooden house, Kyo-machiya structure. An

0
earthquake ground motion with the Japan Meteorological 0 5 10 15 20
Agency (JMA) seismic intensity, IJMA=”6 upper” level, is -10

used in this 3-D collapsing process analysis of a traditional -20

Time (s)
two-story wooden house in Japan.
(a) Displacement waves
2 COLLAPSING ANALYSIS 600
NS

Target of the collapsing process analysis in this paper is an 500 EW

old two-story wooden house built by a Japanese traditional

400
Amplitude(cm/s)

framed-construction method. Seismic collapsing process

analysis software of “Wallstat” was conducted in order to 300
investigate the seismic response behaviour and the collaps-
ing process of wooden house during a large earthquake 200
ground motion. This software has an original analysis
technique [2] using the basic theory of the Distinct Ele- 100

0
1
Tomiya Takatani, Department of Civil Engineering & Architec- 0.1 1 10

ture, Maizuru National College of Technology, 234 Shiraya, Frequency(Hz)

Maizuru, Kyoto, Japan.
(b) Fourier spectra
Email: takatani@maizuru-ct.ac.jp
Figure 1: Displacement waves and their Fourier
spectra of JMA Kobe wave record, 1995

229
TRACK 4: BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES
Figure 2: Analytical frame model without walls and braces
0 sec 3 sec
7 sec 8 sec
12 sec 13 sec
Figure 3: Collapsing behaviour during a strong earthquake ground motion (JMA Kobe wave record, 1995)
mud-plastered walls has no braces inside walls.
Figure 3 shows seismic collapsing behaviour of the wood-
en house during JMA Kobe earthquake ground motion
shown in Figure 1. Although, main part with large ampli-
tude displacement of an earthquake ground motion as
shown in Figure 1 almost finishes after 10 second, the
wooden house was collapsed by a twisting behaviour of
the second floor part and the roof one after 10 second.
3 CONCLUSIONS
In this paper, 3-D non-linear collapsing analysis based on
the Distinct Element Method was conducted in order to
investigate the seismic collapsing behaviour of an old two-
story wooden house during a strong earthquake ground
motion with the JMA seismic intensity, IJMA=”6 upper”
level. In summary, the following conclusions can be made
based on the results presented in this paper.
(1) Seismic collapsing process analysis can simulate a
seismic behaviour of wooden house during a strong
earthquake ground motion. Therefore, whether an old
wooden house has a sufficient seismic resistant force
or not can be numerically evaluated by this collapsing
analysis.
the collapsing analysis, which has a peak ground accelera-
tion 818cm/s2, a peak ground velocity 91cm/s, and a peak
frequency 1.43Hz.
2.2 COLLAPSING BEHAVIOUR RESULTS
Figure 2 indicates an analytical frame model without walls
and braces for a two-story wooden house, which consists
of a lot of timber elements. Structurally, the style incorpo-
rates a horizontal beam known as a nuki (penetrating tie
beam), which is used in combination with pillar to rein-
force the structure. Therefore, this wooden house with
4 sec 5 sec 6 sec
9 sec 10 sec 11 sec
14 sec 15 sec 16 sec
(2) Seismic response of the wooden house greatly de-
pends on the spectral characteristics of an input
earthquake ground motion used in the collapsing
analysis.
(3) Because the seismic behaviour of wooden house
during a strong earthquake motion is more sensitive
to the peak frequency range in Fourier spectrum of
the earthquake motion, further investigation may be
needed to simulate the collapsing process phenome-
non of wooden house against several earthquake mo-
tions with different peak frequency range.
REFERENCES
[1] Cundall, P. A. and Strack, O. D. L.: A discrete numer-
ical model for granular assemblies, Géotechnique,
Vol.29, No.1, 47-65, 1979.
[2] Nakagawa, T. and Ohta, M.: Collapsing process simu-
lations of timber structures under dynamic loading III:
Numerical simulations of the real size wooden houses,
Journal of Wood Science, Vol.56, No.4, 284-292,
2010.
[3] Takatani, T. and Nishikawa, H.: Collapsing simulation
of wooden-house retrofitted by ACM braces during
seismic ground motion, Proceedings of the 2012 Inter-
national Conference on Advances in Coupled System
Mechanics (ACSM 2012), Seoul, Korea, 2012.
230
TRACK 4: BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES

STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES EVALUATION OF UNIQUE BOAT

HOUSE USING OBLIQUE NUKI
Part I: Structural Investigation

Noriko Takiyama1, Yasuhiro Hayashi2, Chiaki Watanabe3, Yasuhiro Nambu4,

Sunao Kobayashi5 and Hiroto Yamamoto6

ABSTRACT: We have reported the progress of our research project on the seismic performance of unique boat house using
oblique nuki. In Part I, we investigate existing 14 boat houses, and structural characteristics are understood such as
construction method or material, vibration characteristics, and so on. Furthermore, details of wooden frame using oblique
nuki and form of joints could be grasped.

KEYWORDS: Traditional wooden structure, Boat house, Oblique nuki

1 INTRODUCTION 123 characteristics or maintenance method. Next, in Part II, we

conduct cyclic loading test of typical frame to grasp
There are Ine in northern Kyoto which is registered seismic characteristics. We simulate experiment results by
IPDGHB (Important Preservation District for Groups of simple model, and estimate existing boat houses based on
Historic Buildings) in Japan. And there are many investigation in Part I.
traditional residential houses and boat houses there. The
boat houses have unique joints.
2 OUTLINE OF INVESTIGATION
So, the purpose of this paper is to grasp the seismic
We investigate some boat houses in Ine from October 22 to
performance of the boat house. First, in Part I, we carry out
25, 2010.
field survey of boat houses in Ine to understand structural
2.1 INVESTIGATION DISTRICT
1
Noriko Takiyama, Research Assoc., Dept. of Architecture and Ine is registered IPDGHB as fishing village in 2005. Many
Architectural Eng., Kyoto Univ., Dr. Eng.,
C2-316, Kyotodaigaku-Katsura, Nishikyo-ku, Kyoto, Japan.
household have a residential house built on the mountain
Email: noriko@archi.kyoto-u.ac.jp side of the road and a boat house built on seaward side of
2
Yasuhiro Hayashi, Prof., Dept. of Architecture and the road, as shown in Fig.1.
Architectural Eng., Kyoto Univ., Dr. Eng.,
C2-308, Kyotodaigaku-Katsura, Nishikyo-ku, Kyoto, Japan.
Email: hayashi@archi.kyoto-u.ac.jp
3
Chiaki Watanabe, Assoc. Prof., Institute of Wood Technology,
Akita Prefectural Univ., Dr. Eng.,
11-1, Kaieizaka, Noshiro, Akita, Japan.
Email: chiaki@iwt.akita-pu.ac.jp
4
Yasuhiro Nambu, Graduate Student, Dept. of Architecture and
Architectural Eng., Kyoto Univ.,
C2-316, Kyotodaigaku-Katsura, Nishikyo-ku, Kyoto, Japan. Figure 1: Townscape in Ine
Email: rp-nambu@archi.kyoto-u.ac.jp
5
Sunao Kobayashi, Under Graduate Student, Dept. of
Architecture and Architectural Eng., Kyoto Univ., 2.2 ITEM OF INVESTIGATION
C2-316, Kyotodaigaku-Katsura, Nishikyo-ku, Kyoto, Japan. We target 14 boat houses. The items and the way of
Email: rp-kobayashi@archi.kyoto-u.ac.jp investigation are in what follows.
6
Hiroto Yamamoto, Under Graduate Student, Dept. of
Architecture and Architectural Eng., Kyoto Univ.,
a) Drawing plans: Floor and sectional plans are drawn to
C2-316, Kyotodaigaku-Katsura, Nishikyo-ku, Kyoto, Japan. grasp arrangement of structural constituent, detail of joint
Email: rp-yamamoto@archi.kyoto-u.ac.jp or weight of house, and so on.

231
TRACK 4: BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES
b) Interviews: We ask inhabitants about information of 3.2 OBLIQUE NUKI
houses or maintenance method. We seek information from
In this section, the detail of wooden frame using oblique
carpenter about construction method or material.
nuki. Here, we call penetrating tie beam ‘nuki’. Oblique
c) Microtremor measurement: We conduct microtremor
nukis are arranged in span direction by introspective
measurement of each boat house.
picture of Fig. 5(a). Detail of the joint of oblique nuki is
illustrated in Fig. 5(b). Tenon of beam stick into gain of
2.3 EARTHQUAKE LISK
column and two cotters are drove in. An oblique nuki is
The hazard curve of Ine is shown in Fig.2 with other stick into both gains of beam and column. And width of
districts (Kiragawa, Yuasa, Kyoto and Miyama). It is oblique nuki is not even. Top of them are higher than
found that earthquake lisk of Ine is lower than other. bottom of it, and when earthquake occur, they stick
gradually downward by gravity.
1
Kiragawa
t yr. exceedence probability

The material for columns and foundations has been usually

Yuasa
Kyoto acorn, and for beam has been pine. But recently, cypress
Miyama and cedar are used for columns and foundations.
Ine
0.1 58
t =30

beam cotter
(360 x 360) 130 (30 x 20)
160 220
0.01 oblique nuki 152
0 50 100 150 200 oblique nuki
Maximum velocity on engineering bedrock (cm/s)
column (170 x 170)
Figure 2: Hazard curve
(a) Introspective picture (b) Detail of joint
Figure 5: Frame using oblique nuki
3 STRUCTURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
BOAT HOUSE 3.3 VIBRATION CHARACTERISTICS
We conduct microtremor measurement of existing boat
3.1 GENERAL VIEW houses. The result of microtremor measurement is as
The conventional use of boat houses is moorings. They shown in Fig.6. Measurement points are indicated in Fig. 4
stand in a low as shown in Fig.3. Visible appearance in this (c). 1st natural frequency of ridge direction is 4.5Hz and it
picture is span direction as illustrated in Fig.4(a), the other is higher than one of span direction.
side is ridge direction as illustrated in Fig.4(b). There are 50
50
oblique nuki in span direction in Fig.4(c). Ridge direction ③/① 40
Span direction ③/①
④/①
Spectral Ratio

40 ④/①
Spectral Ratio

2.4Hz ⑤/①
4.5Hz ⑤/① 30
30
4.4Hz
20 20
10 10
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8
Figure 3: Appearance of boat house from sea Frequency(Hz) Frequency(Hz)

Figure 6: Fourier spectral ratio (KT house)

4 CONCLUSIONS
We have reported the progress of our research project on
the seismic performance of unique boat house using
oblique nuki.
In this paper, observations from the investigation of boat
(a) Span direction (b) Ridge direction houses can be summarized in what follows.
⑤ ④ a) Oblique nukis are arranged in span direction.
① Frame using oblique nuki
b) An oblique nuki is stick into both gains of beam and
Crosspiece
Wooden wall
column. And width of oblique nuki is not even, top of
③
oblique nuki are larger than bottom.
(c) Plan and measurement points c) As to boat houses in Ine, 1st natural frequency of ridge
Figure 4: Plans of boat house (KT house) direction is higher than one of span direction

232
TRACK 4: BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES

REDUCTION OF SAND PRESSURE TO THE PARTITION WALL

USING LOGS IN FISH LADDER

Hideyuki Hirasawa1, Jun Tonuma2, Daisuke Takahashi3 and Tetsuya Sato4

ABSTRACT: As a method to remove a large amount of sand away from fish ladder by small labor power, the authors have
discussed the method to flush sand by water flow after the taking off the logs as partition walls. This method gives some
good results in the flow experiments using a small fish ladder model. However, it is not easy to take the logs off the fish
ladder because the sand pressure acts on the logs. This study is to show a new method to decrease the sand pressure on
removing logs. A full scale model of fish ladder were made from timber, and removing log tests under the sand pressure
were carried out in the field. As a result of the tests, the force of taking off the logs became 50 [kgf] per one log, which
meant that the sand pressure were decreased. The application of this new partition wall to the fish ladder will bring easy
maintenance.

KEYWORDS: Fish ladder, Log, Partition wall, Sand pressure

1 INTRODUCTION123 examined by the full scale model experiment. The result of

There are large amounts of fish ladders in Japan at present.
They are constructed beside the dam for fish to move
upstream or downstream. However, most of them cannot
function well as a way of fish because water flow is not in
good condition due to sand, gravel, branches, etc. in the
fish ladder. Some fish ladders have no water flow because
of a great deal of sand.
To remove the accumulated sand in the fish ladder, the
authors developed a new type of fish ladder which has log
partition walls, and carried out the flow experiments[1]. As
a result of the experiment, water flow can flush the
accumulated sand after pulling up the logs used as partition
wall. This result shows that the maintenance job does not
need a hard work to remove sand. However, it was found
that the work of pulling up the logs was not easy because
of sand pressure to the logs.
this study leads to extended use of wood for the field of
infrastructure construction, while almost all fish ladders
are made of concrete at present.
2 FULL SCALE MODEL OF FISH
LADDER
A full scale model of fish ladder, 1500mm wide and
2500mm long, was made by plywood for floor and side
wall and by logs for partition wall, as shown in Photo 1.
Floor slope has 10-degree gradient. The diameter and the
length of the log are 200mm and 1500mm, respectively.
Steel members are bolted to the side wall to put logs in, as
in the right photo in Photo 1. In this study, water flow
experiments were not carried out, but pulling up logs
experiments were carried out, subjected to sand pressure
horizontally.

In this study, a new type to fix the logs to the side walls of
fish ladder is presented to reduce the sand pressure. The
work of pulling up the logs in the human power is

1
Hideyuki Hirasawa, Hakodate National College of Technology,
14-1, Tokura-cho, Hakodate, 042-8501, Japan. Email: hide@
hakodate-ct.ac.jp
2
Jun Tonuma, Tonuma Iwasaki Construction Co. Ltd., 21-2,
Yunokawa-cho 2, Hakodate, 042-0932, Japan.
3
Daisuke Takahashi, Kitahiroshima city government, 2-1, Chuo
4, Kitahiroshima, 061-1192, Japan.
4
Tetsuya Sato, Tonuma Iwasaki Construction Co. Ltd., 21-2,
Yunokawa-cho 2, Hakodate, 042-0932, Japan. Photo 1 : Full scale model of fish ladder

233
TRACK 4: BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES
This study discusses three types as fixing steel members to
the side wall. In the first type, the steel member is fixed by
upper and lower bolts, and it cannot slide. The second type
can slide only at the upper bolt, and the third type can slide
at both upper and lower bolts as shown in Figure 1. If the
steel member is slid, space is made between the steel
member and the logs. Since the logs can move horizontally
due to this space, the sand pressure acting on the logs
decreases.
slide space slide space
a: Type 2 b: Type3
Figure 1: Fixing types of steel members
3 EXPERIMENT OF PULLING UP LOGS
3.1 OUTLINE OF THE EXPERIMENT
Under the sand pressure, the logs are pulled up by two
ropes hung at the both ends of the log, and pulling up loads
are measured by digital weight scale. Experimental
conditions are as the following.
(1) Fixing types of steel member: Type 1, 2 and 3.
(2) Moisture content of sand: little (6.4%) and much.
(saturated)
(3) Height of accumulated sand: 10, 20 and 30 [cm].
Photo 2 : The condition of Type 3 just before pulling up
234
3.2 RESULTS OF THE EXPERIMENT
Photo 2 shows the condition of Type 3 just before pulling
up and right after sliding the steel member. As soon as
sliding, the logs move for the direction of sand pressure.
The sand pressure acting on the logs, at this time, is
reduced.
Figure 2 shows the pulling up loads of one log measured
by digital weight scales. When the height of the
accumulated sand is zero, that is, no sand pressure, the
pulling up load is 20 kgf in all types. This is the same as a
dead load of one log. On the other hand, when the height
of the accumulated sand is 30cm, the pulling up load is
over 80kgf because of sand pressure in Type 1 and 2. It is
difficult for even two workers to pull up the log with this
weight. However, in Type 3, the pulling up load is 50kgf at
the 30cm height of sand, which means that it is easy for
two workers to pull up one log, since one worker only pull
up 25kgf.
120
pulling up a log [kgf]
Type1
100
引抜き荷重[kgf]
Type2
80
Type3
60
40
Loads of
20
0
0 10 20 30
砂の高さ[cm]
The height of the accumulated sand [cm]
Figure 2: Loads of pulling up a log
4 CONCLUSIONS
Conclusions of this experimental study are summarized as
follows.
(1)Fixing mechanism of logs to side walls originated, and
the labor-saving of pulling up a log was examined.
(2)Type 3 is the most effective in reducing sand pressure
to logs.
(3)It is possible for two workers to pull up a log because
the pulling up load per one worker is only 25kgf.
REFERENCES
[1] Hideyuki, Hirasawa, Megumi Takeuchi, Shoya Ikeda,
Jun Tonuma and Tetsuya Sato : SAND FLUSH IN
FISH WAY USING WOOD PARTITION,
Proceedings of the 11th World Conference on Timber
Engineering, Conference Proceedings, 2010.
TRACK 4: BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES

SEISMIC DESIGN METHOD OF HYBRID STRUCTURE

OF WOOD AND RC

Yoshihiro Yamazaki1 and Hiroyasu Sakata2

ABSTRACT: Seismic design method of hybrid structure of wood and RC is discussed. Although the structure mainly
consists of wood, RC core parts are partially involved. Since these parts have quite different vibration properties, reasonable
seismic force distribution is proposed based on eigen value analysis.

KEYWORDS: Hybrid structure of wood and RC, Vibration property, Seismic force distribution

1 INTRODUCTION 12 plan. It intends three stories school buildings having RC

core part in X4 to X5 and X11 to X12.
In Japan, construction of wood structures for public
buildings is encouraged for environmental reason. A B (*) All stories have the same floor plan.
Nowadays, large wood buildings are built with the help of Y3

8000 8000
hybrid structure. For example, low rise large floor wood

168000
Y2
building has core parts which are usually reinforced
Y1
concrete structure as shown in Figure 1. Structural design 8000 8000 8000 8000 8000 8000 8000 8000 8000 8000 8000 8000
is difficult without core parts because wood building has 24000 8000 48000
112000
8000 24000

flexible floor diaphragm and requires a lot of shear walls. X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 X6 X7 X8 X9 X10 X11 X12 X13 X14 X15
Therefore, it is important to evaluate vibration properties
of the horizontally combined structure and to propose Wood Core Wood Core Wood
simple seismic design method. Figure 2: Floor plan of prototype building

(Usually RC)
Core part 3 VIBRATION PROPERTIES
Eigen value analysis is carried out using simple shear
spring model as shown in Figure 3. Properties of the model
are shown in Table 1. The characteristics of important
modes are discussed here. Two pairs of “wood part
dominant modes” and “core part dominant modes” are
Wood part obtained as shown in Figure 4. The most important thing is
(It must be less than 3,000m2) that wood parts and core parts do not act in the same
modes. Additionally, Natural periods of wood and core
Figure 1: An example of hybrid structure of wood and RC part dominant modes are quite different.

2 PROTOTYPE OF HYBRID STRUCTURE 4 DISCUSSION OF EARTHQUAKE

Architectural Institute of Japan(AIJ) provided a prototype
of hybrid structures of wood and RC in order to show the
procedure of structural design. Figure 2 is the typical floor
1 Japanese seismic code for allowable stress design. Table 2
Yoshihiro Yamazaki, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Nagatsuta
4259, Midori-ku, Yokohama, Japan. Email:
yamazaki.y.ai@m.titech.ac.jp
2
Hiroyasu Sakata, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan
RESPONSE
Earthquake response of the hybrid structure is discussed
using spectral method. Pseudo acceleration spectrum as
shown in Figure 5 is assumed, which is modeled on
shows contribution of each mode to base shear force, floor
shear force and floor moment at A and B part of 2nd floor
(see Figure 2). Most of base shear force is derived from 1st,

235
TRACK 4: BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES
2nd, 3rd, 33th, 34th and 35th modes. These are the most Table 2: Contribution of each mode to response
dominant modes of wood parts and core parts. However,
floor shear force and floor moment are derived from 1st, 2nd, Floor Floor
Base Floor shear Base Floor shear
Mode moment Mode moment
3rd, 5th, 9th, 10th and 12th modes, which are wood part shear
A B A B
shear
A B A B
dominant modes. Therefore, stresses of wood part 1 126 5 84 47 1342 24 1 0 0 0 0
elements are likely to be calculated using wood part 2 51 91 -2 824 -36 25 1 0 0 22 0
dominant modes. 3 55 1 -2 7 -29 26 0 0 0 0 -1
4 3 0 0 0 0 27 1 0 0 0 0
5 4 37 0 67 0 28 0 0 0 0 0
6 0 -2 0 5 0 29 0 0 0 0 0
RC floor 7 0 0 0 0 0 30 0 0 0 0 0
Wood floor 8 4 0 0 0 0 31 0 0 0 0 0
9 5 0 9 0 139 32 0 0 0 0 0
10 2 6 0 -42 -3 33 0 0 0 0 0
11 2 0 1 1 -9 34 86 0 0 0 0
12 8 -1 11 4 -92 35 87 0 0 0 0
Wood interior wall 13 0 0 0 0 0 36 15 0 0 0 0
14 0 0 0 0 0 37 15 0 0 0 0
RC frame
15 0 0 0 1 0 38 0 0 0 0 0
Ground 16 1 0 1 0 18 39 0 0 0 0 0
acceleration Wood exterior wall 17 0 0 0 0 0 40 0 0 0 0 0
18 0 0 0 0 0 41 0 0 0 0 0
Figure 3: Vibration analysis model
19 0 0 0 0 0 42 3 0 0 0 0
20 0 0 0 0 1 43 3 0 0 0 0
Table 2: Stiffness of shear springs (Unit: kN/cm) 21 0 0 0 0 0 44 0 0 0 0 0
22 1 0 1 0 18 45 0 0 0 0 0
Wood RC 23 0 0 0 0 0 (kN) (kN) (kNm)
Lateral Floor 135 Floor 28200
Interior wall 97.2 3F frame 27430
Vertical Exterior wall 256.2 2F frame 40550 5 CONCLUSIONS
1F frame 54170 In this paper, prototype of hybrid structure of wood and
RC was shown, and basic vibration properties were
discussed. We found that wood parts and core parts do not
Acceleration (cm/sec2)

0.2G
act in the same modes, and most of stresses of wood part
elements are derived from wood part dominant modes.

T36-T37
0.08G REFERENCES
(0.2G*0.4) T34-T34
T10-T12 T1-T3 [1] Architectural Institute of Japan:
Daikibomokuzoukenchikuno gijutsutekikadaito
0.16 0.64
Period (sec)
kaiketsuhoho(in Japanese). Material of AIJ annual
Figure 5: Pseudo acceleration spectrum
meeting 2012, 2012

Wood part dominant modes Core part dominant modes

1.5 3F 1.5 RF
Participation vector

Participation vector

RF 3F
1 2F 1 2F
0.5 0.5
0 0
-0.5 2nd mode 1st mode 3rd mode -0.5 35th mode 34th mode
(T2 = 0.51s) (T1 = 0.52s) (T3 = 0.51s) (T35 = 0.08s) (T34 = 0.08s)
-1 -1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
X-frame No. X-frame No.
1.5 10th mode 12th mode 11th mode 1.5
Participation vector

Participation vector

36th mode 37th mode

1 (T10 = 0.24s) (T12 = 0.24s) (T11 = 0.24s) 1 (T36 = 0.03s) (T37 = 0.03s)
0.5 0.5
0 0
-0.5 -0.5
-1 -1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
X-frame No. X-frame No.
Figure 4: Participation vector of wood/core part dominant modes

236
TRACK 4: BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES

EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON SEISMIC PERFORMANCE OF

WOODEN SCHOOL BUILDING

Mitsuhiro Miyamoto1 and Naoki Utsunomiya2

ABSTRACT: The objective of this study is to grasp the seismic performance of wooden school buildings based on the full-
scale static lateral loading tests. Total three specimens are used, which are main seismic elements of wooden school
buildings; the wooden frame, single brace and knee brace specimen. In addition, the ultimate lateral strength of wooden
frames is estimated from the fracture mode and is compared with the test results to examine the accuracy of estimation.

KEYWORDS: Wooden school building, Static lateral loading test, Knee brace, Brace

1 INTRODUCTION 123
In Japan, after Building Standard Law is revised in 1950,
wooden school buildings were shifted to reinforced
concrete school buildings. These buildings are now
evaluated as a cultural heritage. But seismic diagnostics
and retrofit are not progressing very much because there
are few experts. The objective of this study is to grasp the
seismic performance of wooden school buildings based on
the full-scale static lateral loading tests. From the results of
tests, the fracture mode and load angle relationship of
wooden frames are examined. In addition, the ultimate
lateral strength of each frame is estimated from the fracture
mode in the tests and is compared with the test results to
examine the accuracy of estimation.
2 OUTLINE OF EXPERIMENT
2.1 SPECIMEN
Total three specimens are used for the tests shown in
Figure 1-3. In addition to wooden frame, single brace and
knee brace specimen are used because they are main
seismic elements of wooden school buildings. The
dimension of each specimen is 1820 × 2752.5mm. The
dimension of column, ground sill and brace is 135 ×
135mm, beam is 135×180mm and knee brace is 90×
90mm. Column and ground sill are made of cedar, beam
and knee brace are made of Douglas fir, and ground sill is
made of Japanese cypress. The short tenon with metal
connector is used at each column-to-beam connection. The
dimension of short tenon is 90mm in width, 30mm in
thickness and 67.5mm in height. The dimension of metal
connector, which is fixed on column with six nails, is
40mm in width, 5mm in thickness and 270mm in height.
Column, beam and ground sill are lacked 15mm in depth at
each connection of brace and knee brace. Brace and knee
brace are also lacked to be fixed on column with a bolt.
2.2 LOADING METHOD
The ground sill of a specimen is fixed with anchor bolts.
The beam of a specimen is subjected to lateral loads
through a servo actuator by the tie-rod system. Specimens
are subjected to cyclic lateral loads, gradually increasing
the real shear deformation angle 0 symmetrically from
1/450, 1/300, 1/200, 1/150, 1/100, 1/75, 1/50, 1/30, 1/20 to
1/15rad. The number of cyclic loading is three. Finally,
specimen is loaded to 1/10rad at one end. But single brace
specimen is loaded only to 1/30rad.
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 LOAD ANGLE RELATIONSHIP

1
Mitsuhiro Miyamoto, Research Assoc., Dept. of Safety Systems
Construction Eng., Kagawa Univ., Hayashicho 2217-20,
Takamatsu City, Kagawa Prefecture, Japan, Dr. Eng.
Email: miyamoto@eng.kagawa-u.ac.jp
2
Naoki Utsunomiya, Assoc. Prof., Dept. of Residential
Environment, Shikoku Polytechnic College, Gungecho 3202,
Marugame City, Kagawa Prefecture, Japan. Dr. Eng.
Email: utsunomiya@shikoku-pc.ac.jp
Figure 4 shows the comparison of load angle relationship
envelopes for each specimen. The deformation angle is
positive when the stress of a brace is compressive. The
maximum load of single brace and knee brace specimen is
almost same, when the stress of a brace is tensile. The
maximum load of compressive brace is about 21 times,
tensile brace is about 2.7 times and knee brace is about 3
times as much as that of wooden frame specimen.

237
TRACK 4: BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES
3.2 FAILURE MODE
Figure 5-7 show the fracture modes of each specimen. The
crack of a beam is found on wooden frame specimen at
1/10 rad. The embedment fracture of a beam and ground
sill by a brace is found on single brace specimen at 1/75rad
when the stress of a brace is compressive. The crack of a
brace around a bolt at 1/75rad and the embedment
deformation of a brace around a bolt hole after the
demolition are found on single brace specimen when the
stress of a brace is tensile. The bending fracture of a
column is found on knee brace specimen at 1/15 rad
because of the cracks by wood drying.
3.3 ESTIMATION OF LATERAL STRENGTH
The ultimate lateral strength of each specimen is estimated
considering the fracture mode of each member from the
results of tests. The material constants are estimated from
the results of material tests after the demolition of each
specimen. The estimation results are compared with the
test results to examine their accuracy.
4 CONCLUSIONS
In this paper, full-scale static lateral loading tests are
conducted for main seismic elements of wooden school
buildings. The ultimate lateral strength is estimated
considering the fracture mode of each frame. The accuracy
of estimation is examined, compared with the test results.

Brace(135× 135)
Column(135× 135)
Metal Connector
(5 × 40× 270)
2,610

2,610

60
Bolt(M12)

45
Short Tenon(90× 30× 67.5)

15
Ground Sill(135× 135)

1,820 1,820

Figure 1: Wooden frame specimen Figure 2: Single brace specimen

80
Wooden Frame
500

Single Brace
60
Lateral Load P[kN]

500 Knee Brace

Knee Brace(90× 90)
Bolt(M12) 40
2,610

45

90

Column(135× 135)
20
15
0

1,820 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15

Deformation Angle 0[rad]
Figure 3: Knee brace specimen Figure 4: Load angle relationship

Figure 5: Embedment of beam Figure 6: Hole of bolt Figure 7: Fracture of column

238
TRACK 4: BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES

A SEISMIC DESIGN OF 3-STORY BUILDING USING JAPANESE

“SUGI” CLT PANELS

Kazuyuki Matsumoto1, Tatsuya Miyake2, Takeshi Haramiishi3,

Takahiro Tsuchimoto4, Hiroshi Isoda5, Naohito Kawai6 and Motoi Yasumura7

ABSTRACT: In this paper, the general process and results of the seismic design on a 3-story building with Japanese Sugi
CLT construction based on the time history response analysis as the only legal structural design method in Japan at the
present moment, are shown. As a result, it is recognized that the building has enough seismic performance for the regulation
of seismic design in Japan.

KEYWORDS: Japanese “Sugi” CLT panels, Seismic design, Dynamic analysis

1 INTRODUCTION 123 plan is rectangular of 8.0m x 12.5m. The height is 9.950m.

The composition of the structure is as shown in Figure 2.
In Japan, recently some research projects on CLT (Cross The thickness of CLT panels is 150mm for vertical planes,
Laminated Timber) construction are conducted to establish 180mm for diaphragms including roof panels. Tension-
the law on the design method of CLT buildings suited with bolts and screws with steel plates are applied each to
the Japanese regulations of seismic design. However, at the tensile and shear connections.
present moment, building with CLT construction have to
be structurally designed only under “Approval route”
where seismic performance of objective building is
verified through the time history response analysis to
obtain the approval by the minister of MLIT, since the law
concerned with practical structural design of CLT
construction is not yet issued. In this paper, dealing a 3-
story building shown in Figure 1 with Sugi (Japanese
cedar) CLT panels as the objective, general process and
results of the structural design under “Approval route”,
based on the results of structural tests on the CLT panels
and the connections that were carried out as a part of the
projects above mentioned, are shown.

2 BUILDING FOR STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Figure 1: Objective building
The objective building is box-shaped 3-story wall structure
with CLT panels used for a company house. The shape of
3 PROCEDURE OF SEISMIC DESIGN
1
Kazuyuki Matsumoto, Nihon System Sekkei Architects & As mentioned below and shown in Figure 3, the seismic
Engineers, 2-9-5 Ningyo-cho, Nihombashi, Chuo-city, Tokyo, design was processed under the procedure according to the
Japan. Email: matsumoto@nittem.co.jp
2
Tatsuya Miyake, Nihon System Sekkei Architects & Engineers,
regulation of “Approval route”.
Japan. Step 1 (static analysis); For the load incremental analysis
3
Takeshi Haramiishi, Meiken Lamwood Corporation,Japan (“static analysis” in the followings), the structure was
4
Takahiro Tsuchimoto, Building Research Institute, Japan.
5 transformed into 3-dimensional model where CLT panels
Hiroshi Isoda, Kyoto University, Japan.
6
Naohoti Kawai, Kogakuin University, Japan. and connections were expressed each as the shell elements
7
Motoi Yasumura, Shizuoka University, Japan. and the spring elements. The mechanical properties of
these elements were set based on the test results.

239
TRACK 4: BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES

[TC2] unit: mm
[TC1] Washer 80×150

Tension bolt Tension bolt M16

M24

Washer 80×150
Washer 80×150 180

[TC1] wall-floor-wall [TC2] lintel-wall

Plate-4.5 360 Screw holes

690 φ6.7 510
[SC3]
120
Screw holes φ6.7 80
Screw holes Plate-4.5
φ6.7 Anchor bolt holes Plate-4.5 80
φ30
[SC1] [SC2]
[SC1] wall-foundation [SC2] wall-floor, roof [SC3] lintel-wall
Figure 2: Composition of the CLT construction

Step 3: Stress for Level 1, 2 Step 4: Verification

Stress on 1/200rad,
1/100rad deformation

Load-deformation
properties of each
story

Step 1: Static analysis Step 2: Dynamic analysis

Figure 3: Process of the seismic design

Step 2 (dynamic analysis); For the time history response
analysis (“dynamic analysis” in the followings), the
structure was transformed into 3-mass model. The load-
deformation properties of each story were set based on
results of the static analysis. The seismic motions were
amplified to make their maximum velocity 25kine for
Level 1 and 50kine for Level 2 which corresponded each
to moderate and large earthquake.
Step 3 (stress for Level 1, 2 motions); Stress of the shell
elements and the spring elements from the static analysis
when the maximum story drift angle was 1/200rad and
1/100rad were each regarded as the stress for Level 1, 2.
Step 4 (verification of story drift and stress); The
maximum story drift angle from the dynamic analyses and
Table 1: Design criteria
Seismic Story drift Stress
motion angle
Level 1 ≤ 1/200 ≤ allowable stress
Level 2 ≤ 1/100 ≤ ultimate strength
stress of the elements from the static analysis were
examined according to Table 1. The allowable stress and
the ultimate strength were set based also on the test results.
4 RESULTS OF VERIFICATION
As shown in the right end of Figure 3, the maximum story
drift angle from Level 1 motions was 1/213, and from
Level 2 motions was 1/109 which satisfied the criteria
above mentioned. The ratio of the maximum stress of the
shell elements and the spring elements on 1/200rad
deformation to the allowable stress was 0.86 or less, and
the ratio of the maximum stress on 1/100rad deformation
to the ultimate strength was 0.78 or less.
5 CONCLUSIONS
The general process and results of the seismic design on a
3-story building with Japanese Sugi CLT construction
based on the time history response analysis as the only
legal structural design method in Japan at the present
moment, are shown. As a result, it was recognized that the
building had enough seismic performance for the
regulation of seismic design in Japan.

240
TRACK 4: BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES

QUANTITATIVE EVALUATION FOR INFLUENCE OF

ECCENTRICITY TO DESIGN ASYMMETRIC HOUSING
STRUCTURE WITH FLEXIBLE RIGIDITY AT FLOORS

Yoichi Mukai1, Sanshiro Suzuki2, Yoshiyuki Suzuki3

ABSTRACT: Seismic behaviours of wooden frame structures built up by the Japanese traditional constructing way were
considered. In this paper, seismic vibrations according to eccentricity of the structures are focused on. Target structure is
adopted as the single story of wooden frame specimen which was examines through shaking-table tests at "E-defense" in
Hyogo, Japan in 2011. Numerical case studies are carried out on the parameter modified models in this study. Seismic
response evaluations are observed at the point of horizontal torsion motion of floor and shearing gaps between load resistant
lines under un-satisfying rigid-floor condition. As a result, it is assured that "eccentricity ratio" could be adequately used
adequately the index to estimate influence of unbalanced seismic vibration even if the floor stiffness is not regarded as being
rigid.

KEYWORDS: Eccentricity, Asymmetry of structure, Flexible floor stiffness, Wooden housing

1 INTRODUCTION 123 unbalanced structure expanded to un-satisfying rigid-floor

condition.
A number of practical housing structures have eccentricity
due to unbalancing in stiffness or weight localization, to a
greater or less extent. Those are originated by imbalance
2 MODELING AND VALIDATION ITEMS
of wall location in housing plan or second floor part in Target structural model is adopted as practically being
housing elevation. Eccentricity of structures causes torsion examined on the shaking table. Testing specimen is full-
vibration when earthquake motion is acting on. In general scale wooden frame which has single-story and 2 x 3 spans.
structural design procedures, extent of eccentricity are At first, parametric surveys
S9
estimated by considering the "index for eccentricity ratio" are carried out for finding
of designing buildings. Where, eccentricity ratio is the out adequate values of
index defined under the assumption that the floor's S5
structural parameters of
stiffness can be regarded to be rigid enough. However, numerical model to
floor stiffness of most of wooden structures is hard to reproduce seismic
consider as being rigid and such a condition is really S1 responses of examining
different from the designing cases for Steel or RC L1 L5 L9 L13
wooden frame specimen.
constructions.
Figure 1: Plan view of evaluative specimen
In this paper, asymmetric models of wooden structures are
investigated to consider effects of eccentricity of the model Figures 1 shows a pattern of wall arrangements of the
on seismic responses. Through those studies, floor stiffness testing frames used in the shaking table examination. The
of the structural model is considered for range from soft to size of every diaphragm is designed as square of 3,640 x
rigid. Namely, "eccentricity ratio" of the structural model 3,640 [mm]. As seen in this figure, column supports are
is re-examined to use an index for seismic response of arranged at every corner of diaphragms, the longer-length
direction (L) of 3 spans to stretch has 4 built-up column
rows (L1, L5, L9 and L13). Foundations of this frame
1
structure are not anchored to its basement, so that those
Yoichi Mukai, Kobe University, Japan. Email: bottoms of columns are made to slip under large seismic
ymukai@port.kobe-u.ac.jp
2 excitation.
Sanshiro Suzuki, Kansai University, Japan
3
Yoshiyuki Suzuki, Ritsumeikan University, Japan

241
TRACK 4: BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES

2.1 ANALYTICAL MODEL 180 L1 L5 L9 L13

150
As seen in Figure 2, analytical model are adopted multi- 120

displacement(mm)
90
degree of freedom system and every mass is allowed two-
60
dimensional horizontal motions. Each floor's mass are 30
concentrated at each lattice point (which column is 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
located) intersecting on load resistant lines, and volume of Eccentricity ratio

each mass is distributed by its responsible floor area. Each (a): Eccentricity of stiffness
floor's mass are supported by column at the lattice point, 180 L1 L5 L9 L13
and two-directional shear springs are located at those 150

column positions. 120

displacement(mm)
90
60
RFL 30
0
S9 2,880 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Eccentricity ratio
S5 1FL
3,640
3,640
S1 GL 520 (b): Eccentricity of weight
z L1 L5 L9 L13
y x 3,640 3,640 3,640 (mm) Figure 4: Inter-story displacement (1F-2F)
Figure 2: Analytical model 250 L1 L5 L9 L13

200

Displacement(mm)
2.2 CONSIDERING ISSUES 150

100
In this study, two kinds of cases of unbalanced model,
50
eccentricity of weight and eccentricity of stiffness (or
0
strength) are estimated (as shown in Figure 3). Extent of 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Floor stiffness
eccentricity is indexed by eccentricity ratio in both cases. (a): Eccentricity of stiffness (Rey =0.30)
: Center of gravity : Center of rigidity
250 L1 L5 L9 L13
Larger mass smaller mass smaller stiffness Larger stiffness
200
Displacement(mm)

150

100

50

L1 L5 L9 L13 L1
Unbalanced mass model
Figure 3: Conceptual diagram of case studies
2.3 COMPARISON OF ECCENTRICITY OF MASS
AND STIFFNESS
Seismic response analyses are carried out for two kinds of
eccentricity model. Figures 4 shows those two cases, (a) is
corresponding to unbalanced strength and (b) is to
unbalanced mass. As seen in those figure, shearing gaps
between load resistant lines are likely to occur at the
border part of changing mass. The maximum responses are
almost same in the both cases if the eccentricity ratio (Rey)
is the same value.
2.4 INFLUENCE OF FLOOR'S STIFFNESS
Influence of the floor stiffness is also evaluated. Figures 5
shows those two cases, (a) is corresponding to unbalanced
strength and (b) is to unbalanced mass. As seen in those
figure, if a certain extent of value of stiffness at the floor
could be gained, the maximum response is not much
changed by changing the value of floor stiffness. And also,
it is observed to be almost same in the both cases of the
eccentricity source.
0
L5 L9 L13 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Floor stiffness
Unbalanced stiffness model
(b): Eccentricity of weight (Rey =0.30)
Figure 5: Inter-story displacement (1F-2F)
3 CONCLUSIONS
Asymmetric models of wooden structures are investigated
in this paper to consider effects of eccentricity through
numerical seismic response analyses.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This report is associated with research activities in
"Committee of Design Method and Performance
Verification Experiment for Traditional Wooden
Buildings" financially supported by the Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism.
REFERENCES
[1] Y, Mukai, M.Yonezawa, M. Koshihara, Y. Saito, Y.
Suzuki: Numerical Modeling of Traditional Japanese
Wooden Structures BASED on Full-scale Shaking-
table Test Results. In: World Conference on Timber
Engineering 2012, 429-436, 2012.

242
TRACK 4: BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES

SHAKING TABLE TESTS OF COMPOSITE STRUCTURE OF

REINFORCED CONCRETE AND TIMBER FRAME

Hiroshi Isoda1, Manabu Nakagawa2, Naohito Kawai3, Mikio Koshihara4,

and Yasuhiro Araki5

ABSTRACT: The horizontal composite structure consisting of reinforced concrete and timber frame is tested at full scale
shaking table tests in parameters of specification of the floor and number of stories. Although the eccentricity of this model
is large, there was no damage against a artificial wave in return period of 495 years. Moreover, it turned out that
modification of a timber frame can be reduced by raising the rigidity of horizontal diaphragm to concentrate the shearing
force at the reinforced concrete wall. In a two-story specimen, the connection between a timber frame and the reinforced
concrete wall was damaged. This is considered the second story is easy to be shaken because the rigidity of timber frame
falls. Furthermore, the relation between a real action and the design method was considered.

KEYWORDS: Composite structure, Timber frame, Reinforced Concrete, Shaking table test, In-plane floor stiffness

wooden structure. In this case, instead of the structure of

1 INTRODUCTION 123
Japanese government announced the law to promote the
use of wood on 2010. The one of the purposes of this law
is to facilitate timber based structures in pubic low-rise
buildings. The public buildings are office facilities,
educational facilities such as schools, sports facilities such
as the gym, and social education facilities such as libraries.
In addition to construct the structure with only timbers and
wood-based materials, timber building complex combining
a steel frame and reinforced concrete and wood structure is
also one of the target structural forms. Here, when
focusing on the structural design method of the structure in
combination in reinforced concrete shear wall system and
timber frame, two methods are considered. One is a
method of providing an expansion joint in the connection
between reinforced shear wall system and the timber
structure and the other is designed to be integrated as
transmitted to horizontal force to be imposed on the
structure between them. When designing as an integral
structure, the wood shear wall and/or cross section of
wood-based materials are minimized open and the
structural system is attractive by transferring to the
different structure horizontal force to be supported the
1
Hiroshi Isoda, Kyoto University, Gokasho, Uji, Kyoto, 611-
0011, Japan. Email: hisoda@rish.kyoto-u.ac.jp
2
Manabu Nakagawa, Shinshu University, Japan
3
Naohito Kawai, Kougakuin University, Japan
4
Mikio Koshihara, The University of Tokyo, Japan
5
Yasuhiro Araki, Building Research Institute, Japan
suppressing the eccentricity by placing proportionately the
wall, the eccentricity of the building becomes large. It is a
structure which may not be allocated structural safety in
the current building standard.
In this study, full-scale shaking table tests for structure in
combination in a plane the reinforced concrete and wood
structure were carried out to confirm the structural safety
under severe earthquake. The parameters of the specimen
were the specification of the floor, the number of the
stories. The relationship of the seismic performance and
design values obtained from designing several methods
decided with reference to current building standard was
also discussed.
2 SPECIMEN
The specimen consists of a reinforced concrete shear wall
system and timber based column and beam structure. The
footprint of RC concrete shear wall system is 8 × 4m and
timber frames is 2 × 4m as shown in Figure 1. The
excitation is a short-side direction of the specimen. The
specimen is comprised of a total of three different
specifications and floor in-plane shear performance as
shown in Table 1. In the specimen of one story building,
the purpose is the understanding of the extent of stress
transfer to the R/C concrete shear wall due to differences
in floor stiffness such as reinforced concrete floor and
nailed plywood floor from timber structure. In the
specimen of two story building, the tests was carried out
to evaluate the stress transfer in the difference of the
number of layers and to observe damages under extremely

243
TRACK 4: BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES
severe earthquake. In addition to the live load, the weight
of the concrete finishing material (thickness of t = 40mm)
are loaded on a timber floor. It is equivalent to the weight
of the seismic force calculation for the weight of the RC
floor and timber floor. Shear wall of the RC structure is
made of a wall thickness of 180mm and length of
2,000mm both excitation direction and perpendicular
direction of excitation. Timber beam and column were
used for structural laminated timber (E105-F300) of a 120
x450mm and 170x170mm dimension respectively.
Connection between timber beam and column is called as a
tension bolts type consisting of square steel bar embedded
in screw and M16 bolt. A split ring was used in a surface
with beam and column to resist the shear force. The
connection between reinforced concrete system and timber
Figure 1: Outline of Specimen
floor is five M12 bolts in one surface shear connection.
Further, the joints tree beams orthogonal direction
oscillating obsess the RC concrete system, to obtain a
tension bolts form of timber frame similar using the
hardware shown in the lower part of Figure 2. Timber floor
of JAS second grade structural plywood (thickness of
t=24) was fastened to the timber beams at 50mm intervals
periphery using the CN75 nails. The RC slab of thickness
of 80mm and D10@100 was connected to reinforced
concrete system by D16 embedded 150mm depth.

3 TEST RESULT
After the BCJ wave of maximum acceleration 350gal
which is an artificial wave with almost same destructive
power of the Japanese building standard law and 1995
JMA Kobe wave of 818gal, no damage and no residual
displacement appeared in both specimens of the timber
floor and the RC slab. In the two story specimen, no
damage and no residual displacement appeared after them,
but the crack and destruction were occurred after the JMA
Kobe scaled in 110% of original wave. Concrete surface
was damaged by the compression and slitting was occurred
in the timber connection. Shear bolts between timber floor
and reinforced concrete system were all broken by shear
force. Figure 3 shows the shear force loaded in each frame
and reinforced concrete shear wall in specimen of one
story and timber floor. It is found that the shear force of Figure 2: Connections
timber frame is reduced.

4 CONCLUSIONS
In floor specification set in this specimen in spite of timber
floor, the shear force produced in timber frame under
earthquake was transmitted to the reinforced shear wall
system. As described in this study, it was confirmed
through shaking tests that the method for building with
Figure 3: Shear Distribution in One Story R/C Floor
high eccentricity can be designed with structural safely

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Authors are grateful to members of the committee for

This study was carried out as the Project of Development discussing structural design method and specimen and for
and Research on Timber Based Composite Structure. cooperating the execution of shaking table tests.

244
TRACK 4: BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES
FULL-SCALE SHAKING TABLE TEST OF TRADITIONAL
TIMBER STRUCTURE WITH GABLE ROOF PLACED FREE ON
FOUNDATION
Kyosuke Mukaibo1 and Yoshiyuki Suzuki2
KEYWORDS: Shaking table test, Traditional timber building, Roof shape
1 INTRODUCTION 123
There exist many timber houses built by a traditional post
and beam construction method in Japan. Their columns are
often placed on the stone foundation without using a
ground sill. Since the bottom of column is not fixed to the
ground, the building can move or slide during severe
earthquake motions. In many of timber buildings, their
plans are rectangular-shaped, not square. There are two
ways of putting a roof purline: one way is to put it parallel
with the longitudinal direction, another is to put it in the
orthogonal direction. It seems that the vibration
characteristics and seismic behaviors of buildings with two
types of gable roof frame are different.
Figure 1: Appearance of the testing specimens.
1
Kyosuke Mukaibo, Ritsumeikan University, 1-1-1 Noji-higashi,
Kusatsu, Shiga, Japan. Email: mukaibo@fc.ritsumei.ac.jp
2
Yoshiyuki Suzuki, Ritsumeikan University, Japan
245
In the seismic performance evaluation of traditional timber
buildings, many researchers have dedicated their efforts to
the structural characteristics and the seismic resisting
capacity of the bearing walls and the connection joints.
The influences of the sliding behavior and the roof shape
on the seismic performance of a whole building have not
been clarified yet.
In this paper, to make clear these problems, vibration tests
of timber buildings were conducted with a shaking table,
E-defense, in the National Research Institute for Earth
Science and Disaster Prevention.
2 OUTLINE OF TEST
The tests were performed by focusing on the sliding
behavior of columns which were placed free on flat stone
foundations and the influence of the roof direction. Testing
specimens were one-storied timber frameworks, and their
dimensions were 10.92m×5.46m in plan as shown in
Figure 1. The heights of the top roof purline were 5.1m
and 6.1m. The four types of the arrangement of bearing
walls were tested in order to investigate the effect of
eccentricity as shown in Figure 2.
3 TEST RESULTS
3.1 VIBRATION MODE
The difference of the vibration characteristics between two
types of roof frame was observed: the higher specimen had
the 2nd vibration mode, and the lower didn’t, as shown in
Figure 3. However, the maximum story deformations of
two specimens were almost same. The maximum
responses were mainly related to not the roof direction but
the amount and the arrangement of walls.
TRACK 4: BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES

Y7

Y5

Y1

Column Dry-mud panel

X1 X3 X5 X7 X9 X11 X13
Dry-mud panel (hanging wall)

Figure 2: Shear wall arrangements.

母屋レベル -0.25 to the roof direction: the lower specimen slid in one
1.25
1.02
1.0
direction, and the higher slid in two direction as shown in
1.0 桁レベル Figures 4 and 5.
1.0

4 CONCLUSIONS
2.0Hz 1.9Hz 振動台レベル 7.3Hz
a) Lower specimen b) Higher specimen From the full-scale shaking table tests, it was found that
Figure 3: Observed vibration mode shapes the way of putting a roof purline affects a higher order
vibration mode and sliding direction under large earth
ground motion.
3.2 SLIDING BEHAVIOR The past experimental researches like this paper are few,
From the test results, it was found that the sliding behavior and the obtained results will contribute to the improvement
could occur in traditional timber buildings even under an of the seismic performance of traditional timber buildings.
earthquake motion whose amplitude of acceleration was
about 0.3G, and the sliding characteristics varied according
250
X1
Displacement[mm]

X5 178.5mm
X9

79.6mm
X13 X13
0
X9

X5
-250
5 10 15 20 X1
time[s] 8.0 8.9 9.3 9.8 10.3 10.9 11.1[s]
a) Time history of the displacement of column bottom b) Positions of column bottoms at each instant
Figure 4: Sliding behavior of the higher specimen.

250
X1
Displacement[mm]

X5 210mm
67.7mm

X9
X13 X13
0
X9

X5
-250
5 10 15 20 X1
time[s] 8.0 8.9 9.3 9.8 10.3 10.9 11.1[s]
a) Time history of the displacement of column bottom b) Positions of column bottoms at each instant
Figure 5: Sliding behavior of the lower specimen.

246
TRACK 4: BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES

RACKING PERFORMANCE OF SHEATHED SHEAR WALL

FASTENED WITH NAILS AND SCREWS TOGETHER

Yasunobu Noda1, Masahiko Toda2, Takuya Fujiwara2

ABSTRACT: Almost all panels of sheathed shear walls are fundamentally fastened with a single type of fastener. However,
a combination of different types of fasteners can be required in certain construction situations. In this study, the racking
performance of a sheathed shear wall which composed of 30 mm-thick three-layered panels made of Todomatsu (Abies
sachalinensis) was evaluated. The panels were nailed to the frame and screwed with each other using connecting members.
The story deformation angle of the wall was predicted by modelling the rotational deformation of each panel at every
loading level, and considering the relationship between the load and the slip of the nail and the screw, obtained from a
single fastener shear test. The predicted relationship between the lateral load and the story deformation angle showed good
agreement with that observed in the initial deformation region.

KEYWORDS: Nailed joint, screwed joint, combined joint, bearing wall.

1 INTRODUCTION 123 Todomatsu. The end margin of faster was 25 mm.

For the construction of conventional posts and beams in
Japan, shear walls are important elements of consideration,
as they resist seismic forces. Applying Tuomi assumption
[1] or Kamiya’s equation [2], racking performance to
sheathed walls can be predicted on the basis of load-slip
performance of a single fastener. Murakami [3] also
derived an advanced theory for asymmetrical nailed
situations, which is well known in HOWTEC reference [4]
as a typical analysis method. This study attempts to
customise Kamiya’s equation for a combination of
fasteners – nail and screws – used to fasten the same panel.
2 EXPERIMENTS
Load
2.1 SHEAR TESTX OF Displacemnet gage
Loading protocol was determined as ±0.5, ±1, ±2, ±4, ±8,
and +25 mm. Five screws and 10 nails were employed as
specimens for the test.
2.2 RACKING TEST OF SHEAR WALL
The shear wall specification is shown in Figure 2. Those
panels were connected to the frame using CN75 nails at a
pitch of 200 mm. And those panels were connected to each
other using connecting member on the outside with screws
from the inside. Loading schedule was determined as
±1/450, ±1/300, ±1/200, ±1/150, ±1/100, ±1/75, ±1/50 and
1/15 rad of story deformation angle with 3 repeats. Three
specimen were tested.
1820
22.5

SINGLE FASTENER 30 mm thick 3-layer 1/200× 50mm

Screw
200

Cross-laminated
δy δ
200 232.5

Panel Nail

910
Single fastener shear tests
22.5 232.5

Nail or Screw δx
Unit:mm
of a nail (CN75) and a
Todomatsu P
screw (Nedanotto ND5-70) Lumber
22.5

(50x50x200mm)
were conducted. Shear test
200
h =910

of single fasteners is shown

200 232.5
1

910
22.5 232.5

in Figure 1. The main bolt： M8

member was Todomatsu Connecting member

2,910
h =910

and the side member was

200 232.5 22.5
2

30 mm thick three-layer Figure 1: Specification of single

232.5 200

cross-laminated panel of fastener shear specimen.

h =910

910

Hold Down(U35)
3

Anchor Bolt
22.5

1
Yasunobu Noda, Forest Products Research Institute, Hokkaido 22.5 200 200 200 200 22.5
200 200 175 200 200
Research Organization, 1-10 Nishikagura, Asahikawa, Hokkaido,
Japan. Email: noda-yasunobu@hro.or.jp
2
Masahiko Toda and Takuya Fujiwara, Forest Products Research Figure 2: Specification of shear wall specimen.
Institute, Hokkaido Research Organization, Japan.

247
 racking performance of shear wall
TRACK 4: BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES

3 THEORY 1.37 times of the nail. The initial stiffness of the screw was
higher than the nail.
Regarding the sheathing panel as rigid body, shear
2.5
deformation angle of the wall depends on each fastener’s
slip i on each panel. Kamiya's equation [2] defined 2
moments (xM, yM) obtained for components x and y of the

Load (kN)
1.5
slip (xi, yi) of each fastener on the panel, focusing on each
panel’s rotation. The equation can be further extended by 1
Nail
taking into account the rotational centre of the panel as 0.5
Screw
follows.
0


0 5 10 15 20 25 30
xM  x qi ( yi  yG ) (1) Slip (mm)
Figure 3: Relation between load and slip of single fastener.

4.2 COMPARISON BETWEEN OBSERVED AND

yM   y qi ( xi  xG ) (2) LLLCALCULATED RACKING PERFORMANCE
LLLOF SHEAR WALL
Here, xqi and yqi are of the x and y component forces of Figure 4 shows observed P- curves enveloped. The Initial
each fastener, (xi, yi) is the coordinate of each fastener, and stiffness of predicted curve shows good agreement with
(xG, yG) is the coordinate of rigidity centre of all fasters. observed curve. The obtained maximum loads are higher
The rigidity centre is derived from the equilibrium of than the predicted. This could have been due to the friction
component forces of all fasteners at every story of the edges of each panel in the actual experiment.
deformation angle. xqi and yqi are obtained from i, as 35
follows.
30

25 Observed
i  i2  y i2 (3)
Load (kN)

x 20 Predicted
15

i y i
10

x qi 
x
f  i  , y qi  f  i  (4)
i i 5
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
f() is applied to the observed curves in single shear test. Story deformation angle (rad)

For the equilibrium of the moment, lateral force P of the Figure 4: Comparison between observed and predicted
wall can be expressed by resisting force Pj and height hj of performance of shear wall racking test.
each panel, as follows.
5 CONCLUSION
P
 Pj h j
(5) Kamiya’s equation can be developed to predict curve
h j
expressing the relationship between the load and the story
deformation angle of sheathed shear wall in case of
combined fasteners.
Work subjected to lateral force, PU, and total work of all
fasteners, FU, in a panel, are defined as
REFERENCES
Pj h j  f  i  i

[1] Tuomi, R.L. and MaCutcheon, W.J.: Racking Strength
PU j  , FU j  (6) of Light-Frame Nailed Wall, Journal of Structural
2 2
Division, ASCE, Vol. 104, No. ST 7, Jul. 1978.
[2] Kamiya F.: Theoretical Studies on Racking Stiffness
The relationship between P and  can be obtained when PU
and Strength of Wooden Sheathed Wall. Trans. of
= FU.
A.I.J. No. 309, pp. 86-94, Nov. 1981.
4 RESULTS [3] Murakami, M. and Inayama M.: Formulae to Predict
the Elastic and Plastic Behaviour of Sheathed Walls
4.1 SHEAR TEST OF SINGLE FASTENERS with Any Nailing Arrangement Pattern, J. Struct.
The results of the average of single fasteners shear test is Constr. Eng., AIJ, No. 519, pp. 87-93, May 1999.
shown in Figure 3.The maximum load of the screw was [4] Japan Housing and Wood Technology Center:
Allowable Stress Design of Conventional Post and
Beam Structures, HOWTEC, 2008 (in Japanese).

248
TRACK 4: BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES

SEISMIC ASSESSMENT OF WOODEN HOUSES FOR

TEPHRA FALLS OF KIRISHIMA MOUNTAIN
(SHINMOEDAKE) IN SOUTHERN KYUSYU, JAPAN
Takeshi Yamamoto1, Kei Tanaka2 and Masafumi Inoue3

ABSTRACT: There are some eruptions involving tephra fall and their effects on roofs, however, there has been no study
that tried to assess seismic performance of wooden houses before and after tephra fall. In this paper, measuring tephra
densities, water absorptions and particle size distributions at 21 sites around Mt. Kirishima and estimating the structural
vulnerability of 420 wooden houses to tephra load and seismic load based on analytical studies are carried out. Tephra
densities were 1200 to 1600 kg/m3 for dry tephra and 1500 to 2000 kg/m3 for wet tephra. When the accumulated tephra
thickness exceeds 30cm, it is quite likely the roofs with no enough strength against tephra load will collapse after rainfall. If
such an earthquake which causes slight damages to buildings occurs after tephra fall, the houses with no enough strength
against seismic load will collapse under a load of 15cm of tephra.

KEYWORDS: Volcanic Eruption, Tephra Fall, Volcanic Earthquakes, Kirishima Mountain, Wooden House

1 BACKGROUND 1 Over the past several years, several studies have been
Kirishima Mountain (Shinmoe-dake) which is located
between Miyazaki prefecture and Kagoshima prefecture,
erupted on January 26th in 2011. Large amounts of
volcanic ash have been confirmed in all parts of the
prefecture and the tephra fall caused serious damage to
buildings and massive disruption to human activity.
A primary concern during tephra fall is the potential
collapse of buildings from the accumulation of tephra on
roofs, which can lead to widespread injuries and deaths.
For example, the collapse of roofs from falling ash during
the explosive eruption of Mount Pinatubo on June 15, 1991,
killed about 300 persons.
The problems of loading by tephra are similar to those
from loading by snow, but the effects of tephra
accumulation are much more severe: the load due to tephra
is typically much greater, tephra doesn't melt, and the
tephra can cause buildings to collapse, especially after
rainfall.
1
Takeshi Yamamoto, Miyakonojo National College of
Technology, 473-1 Yoshio-cho, Miyakonojo City, Japan.
Email: stones@miyakonojo-nct.ac.jp.
2
Kei Tanaka, Faculty of Engineering,Oita University, 700 Dan-
no-haru,Oita,Oita, Japan.
Email:kei@oita-u.ac.jp
3
Masafumi Inoue, Faculty of Engineering,Oita University, 700
Dan-no-haru,Oita,Oita, Japan.
Email:inoue@oita-u.ac.jp
made on vulnerability of buildings under tephra load on
their roofs. However, little attention has been given to
seismic vulnerability of buildings under tephra load after
volcano eruption. It is needed to assess it for mitigation in
volcanic areas.
The purpose of this study is to investigate the actual
condition of tephra fall near the Mt. Kirishima, to examine
vulnerability of wooden houses near a volcano and propose
some recommendations for mitigation.
2 METHODS
2.1 FIELD SURVEYS
The tephra deposition was deeper in Miyakonojo
city(location on Figure 1) than other town. Samples of
tephra were gathered at 21 sites within 20 km from vent
(locations on Figure 1) from April 20th to September 10th
in 2011 considering the effect of distance from the
volcano’s vent along the plume and along the axis
perpendicular to the plume. Ash densities, water
absorptions and grain size were measured in author’s
laboratory.
To estimate volcanic and seismic vulnerability of wooden
houses around Mt. Kirishima, 420 wooden houses were
investigated in Miyakonojo city according to the method of
seismic diagnosis of wooden house.

249
TRACK 4: BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES
2.2 STRUCTURAL VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT Figure 3 shows the distribution of seismic performance of
wooden houses before and after tephra fall. The tephra
The structural vulnerability assessments were carried out
load is considered to be 15cm thickness of tephra on the
by Japanese building code in two phases. The first phase is
roofs after rainfall. This result indicates that a tephra fall
a tephra fall assessment and the second phase is a seismic
reduces the seismic performance of wooden houses
assessment under tephra load after the volcano eruption.
especially after rainfall.
The assessment is a general seismic vulnerability
assessment method which is based on a quantitative 100

approach to identify the seismic deficiencies in the 90

building. It determines whether the house, in its existing
condition, has the desired seismic performance. 80

70
Seismic performance is given by the formula;

Cumulative Volume (%)

NO.1

60 NO.2
Seismic performance = Pd / Qr (1) NO.8
50
where ‘Pd’ is existing horizontal load-carrying capacity, NO.9

NO.10
‘Qr’ is necessary horizontal load-carrying capacity. 40 NO.14

NO.16

2.3 STATIC ROOF LOAD

30
NO.20

20
The roof load depends on tephra density and tephra
thickness. Tephra load is defined by the formula; 10

Tephra load = ρ·g·h (2) 0

～0.075 0.075 0.15 0.3 0.6 1.2 2.5 5 10
2
where ‘g’ is Gravitational acceleration (m/s ), ‘h’ is Tephra Particle Size (mm)

thickness (m) and ‘ρ’ is Tephra density (kg/m3). Figure 2: Tephra grain size distributions

Mt. Kirishima
After tephta fall

OK(Pd/Qr ≧1)
NG(Pd/Qr <1)
Miyakonojo city
Before tephra fall
N

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

2.5km
Figure 1: Locations of sampling of tephra
3 RESULTS
Tephra densities within 20 km of an erupting point of Mt.
Kirishima were 1200 to 1600 kg/m3 for dry tephra and
1500 to 2000 kg/m3 for wet tephra. When the accumulated
tephra thickness extends 30cm, it is quite likely the roofs
with no enough strength against tephra load will collapse
after rainfall.
Figure 2 shows the tephra grain size distributions of eight
samples based on sieve analysis. The tephra grain size
distributions vary not only with distance from the
volcano’s vent along the plume but also along the axis
perpendicular to the plume.
Figure 3: Distribution of seismic performance
4 CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions are obtained.
1) If tephra fall is expected, a survey should be carried out
for the strength of roofs in the area and the maximum
thickness of tephra to prevent collapse. Such surveys must
take into account the density of both dry and wet tephra.
2) For new buildings, the most straightforward mitigation
measure would be to make roofs stronger.
3) Changing the roof’s angle or shape to encourage tephra
to slide off rather than to accumulate would be an option.
4) To prevent the failure due to tephra accumulating on a
building, the structure could be strengthened by reinforcing
walls.

250
TRACK 4: BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES

THE STRUCTURAL POTENTIAL OF BIDIRECTIONAL RAHMEN

STRUCTURE USING A WOOD BONDED COMPOSITE PANELS METHOD
FOR MEDIUM- AND HIGH-HEIGHT STRUCTURES

Hisamitsu Kajikawa1, Yoko Miyamoto2, Hiroyuki Noguchi3

ABSTRACT: The bidirectional rahmen structure using wood bonded composite panels (FWS construction method) is
assumed for large-scale 3 to 5 story structures. The first report[1] described a 3-story office building built using this
construction method. For this paper the author conducted the structural calculation and response analysis for medium- and
high-height structures (10, 20, and 30 stories) built using the FWS construction method and having the same column
spacing and details as other construction methods. This verification is used to discuss the structural potential and problems
of the FWS construction method for medium- and high-height structures.

KEYWORDS: Wood bonded composite panel, Bidirectional rahmen structure, Medium- and high-height structures ,
Structural planning ,Response analysis

1 OUTLINE OF BIDIRECTIONAL
RAHMEN STRUCTURE USING A
WOOD BONDED COMPOSITE PANELS
1.1 DETAIL OF STRUCTURE
Fig. 1 is a photograph of the frame of a FWS construction
method 3-story office building[1]. Fig. 2 shows partial
details of the structural frame. The built-up beams and
built-up columns are hollow structure members formed by
adhesively bonding together the wood bonded composite
panels with laminated lumber, and bolts are embedded in Figure 1: Picture of structure
the ends of the laminated lumber for connecting with other
materials. These built-up beams and built-up columns are
bi-directionally connected via steel fittings to form a
rahmen. The number of wood bonded composite panels is
changed to match the size of the building to change the
structural performance of the built-up beams and built-up
columns (Fig. 2 is a detail showing when 2 wood bonded
composite panels are used).

1.2 STRUCTURAL DEVICE OF THE FWS

CONSTRUCTION METHOD
・
This construction method uses joint metal to bind the
wood bonded composite panels with hoops to achieve
very high rigidity and durability
・
In this structure the wood bonded composite panels
bear the horizontal force and the laminated lumber
columns bear the vertical force, so the role of bearing
the external force is distributed.
Figure 2: Detail of structure
1
Hisamitsu Kajikawa, Misawa Homes Institute of Research and
Development Co., Ltd., 1-1-19 Takaido-Nishi, Suginami-ku,
Tokyo,Japan., Email:Hisamitsu_Kajikawa@home.misawa.co.jp
2
Yoko Miyamoto, Misawa Homes Co., Ltd., Japan
3
Hiroyuki Noguchi, Meiji University, Japan

251
TRACK 4: BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES

2 STRUCTURAL STUDY OF THE FWS 3 6525 1.18 8.76 24.10

CONSTRUCTION METHOD MEDIUM- 2 6525 1.09 9.20 25.29
AND HIGH-HEIGHT BUILDINGS 1 6525 1.00 9.49 26.10
(T=0.12,Rt=1.2,Z=1.0)
Structural calculation and response analysis for medium-
and high-height structures (10, 20, and 30 stories) built 2.1.3 Study of the compression forced generated over
using the FWS construction method and having the same the long term
column spacing and details as other construction methods The compression forced generated over the long term is
(Steel framed, reinforced concrete, steel reinforced borne by the built-up columns (laminated lumber column
concrete) were performed. 360×360mm×4 columns/built-up column ×1 column).
Tab.4 shows the compression stress of the built-up
2.1 STUDY OF A 10-STORY BUILDING columns for the first floor.
2.1.1 Building settings Table 4: The compression stress of the built-up columns
The building assumes a 10-story office building. The built- (the first floor)
up column spacing and cross-section had the same
dimensions as those of a steel framed 10-story building of Compressive stress of the pillar 2.44 N/mm2
the same size. The built-up column spacing was long side compression stress generated over the
6 m and short side 3.75 m (floors 1 to 5) and long side 6 m long term of the pillar 11.00 N/mm2
and short side 6 m (floors 6 to 10), and the built-up column
cross-section was 900×900 mm (laminated lumber 2.1.4 Study of Seismic Load
columns 360×360, wood bonded composite panels 4 Seismic forces are borne by the built-up column wood
sheets). The height was 4 m for each floor. The building bonded composite panels (wood bonded composite panel
plane area was a square 30×30 m. ×8 panels/built-up column ×1). Tab.5 shows shear
strength. Tab.2 shows seismic force.
2.1.2 External force and load
Tab.1 shows fixed load. Tab.2 shows live load. Tab.2 Table 5: Shear strength
shows seismic force.
Acceptable short-term 1～5F 16.72 kN（×10３）
Table 1: Fixed load strength (damage limit) 6～10F 11.15 kN（×10３）
Ultimate Strength 1～5F 28.42 kN（×10３）
Floor 1050 N/floor 1m2
(safety limit) 6～10F 18.95 kN（×10３）
Roof 900 N/floor 1m2
built－up column 52 kN/piece 2.2 STUDY OF A 20-STORY BUILDING
built－up beam（6m） 24 kN/piece Details are described in full paper.
built－up beam（3.75m） 15 kN/piece 2.3 STUDY OF A 30-STORY BUILDING
joint metal 12 kN/piece
Details are described in full paper.
Table 2: Live Load
3 SUMMARY
Floor 2900 N/floor 1m2
The following can be said for a 1-story building using the
Column or beam 1800 N/floor 1m2
FWS construction method when the details are the same as
seismic force 800 N/floor 1m2 for the other construction methods.
・ There is high stability for the long-term allowable
Table 3: Seismic load
stress.
Qi（Co=0.2） Qi（Co=0.2,s=0.55） ・ There is a low safety factor for seismic forces.
Wi Ai
（damage limit） （safety limit） Since with this structure the wood bonded composite
panels bear the horizontal force and the laminated lumber
story kN kN（×103） kN（×103）
columns bear the vertical force, the dimensions and
10 3906 3.00 1.87 5.15 numbers of these can be changed to make it possible to
9 5697 2.21 3.40 9.35 build even medium- and high-height structures.
8 5697 1.89 4.63 12.74
7 5697 1.69 5.69 15.63 REFERENCES
6 5697 1.54 6.59 18.12 [1] Hisamitsu Kajikawa, Haruhiko Ogawa, Hiroyuki
5 6525 1.41 7.47 20.54 Noguchi ... : Development of bidirectional rahmen
4 6525 1.29 8.19 22.52 structure, WCTE 2014

252
TRACK 4: BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES

DISCRETE BRACING OF TIMBER BEAMS SUBJECTED TO

GRAVITY LOADS

Anders Klasson1, Roberto Crocetti2 , Eva Frühwald Hansson3

ABSTRACT: Slender timber beams subjected to gravity loads may buckle in the out-of-plane direction. Normally, the
same bracing system that is used to prevent lateral movements of the beams, caused by external transversal loading, also
serve to increase the buckling strength of the beams. For the idealized case of a perfectly straight beam with full-bracing
there is no force in the braces even at buckling because there is no displacement at the brace points. However, in real beams
brace forces do develop during loading.  This paper describes experimental and analytical studies performed on slender
glulam beams subjected to gravity loads laterally stiffened by means of discrete bracing. In particular, the influence of
relevant parameters such as i) brace stiffness, ii) brace position, iii) shape and magnitude of initial imperfections on the
brace force were investigated.

KEYWORDS: Lateral torsional buckling, Braces, Brace forces, Brace stiffness

1 INTRODUCTION 123 will nearly always develop as a consequence of gravity

Heavy snow loads in Sweden recently caused the collapse
of a large number of roof structures [1]. The majority of
the collapsed roofs were of a slender and light weight type,
made either of steel or timber. Forensic investigations [2,
3] have shown that numerous of the failed structures had
an inadequate bracing system.
Different building codes, e.g. Eurocode 5, recommend
design rules for design of brace systems with regard to
both strength and stiffness requirements. However, such
design rules are rather rough and in certain cases they may
lead to non-conservative design. Thus, more adequate
analyses which include material and geometrical
nonlinearity are normally required in order to gain a better
understanding concerning the mechanism of brace forces
generation.
It should be emphasised that if a beam without any
geometrical imperfections is solely subjected to gravity
loads there won´t be any forces in the braces. On the other
hand, beams, as well as other structures, always do have
geometrical imperfections. Therefore, forces in the braces
1
Anders Klasson, Lund University, Sweden. Email:
anders.klasson@kstr.lth.se
2 were investigated. The results from laboratory tests were
Roberto Crocetti, Lund University, Sweden. Email:
roberto.crocetti@kstr.lth.se
3
Eva Frühwald Hansson, Lund University, Sweden. Email:
eva.fruhwald@kstr.lth.se
loads acting on the structure.
The aim of this paper is to investigate the lateral forces -
also referred to as brace forces - in the stabilizing system,
which arises as a consequence of gravity loads acting on
beams with initial out-of-plane deflections.
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
Laboratory tests were performed on slender glulam beams
subjected to gravity loads and laterally stiffened by means
of discrete bracings with different stiffness. The test results
were then utilized to calibrate a numerical model which
enabled the study of a number of different beams with
various slenderness ratios and initial imperfections, as well
as different magnitudes of brace stiffness and different
brace positions.
2.1 LABORATORY TESTING
A number of laboratory tests were performed in order to
gain a better understanding of how brace position and
brace stiffness affect the overall behaviour of braced
timber beams subjected to gravity loads. In particular, the
buckling mode of the beam and the force in the braces
also utilized to calibrate the FE-models described below.

253
TRACK 4: BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES
Non-destructive four-point bending with one brace in mid-
section tests were conducted on two nominally identical
glue laminated timber beams with specifications according
to Table 1. The principle of the test setup is shown in
Figure 1.
Table 1: Test specimens
Quality GL30c
Cross section 90x450mm
Span 7500mm
Before testing, physical parameters, such as initial
imperfections, bending stiffness, density and moisture
content of the test specimens, were determined.
The bracing system consisted of steel wires and/or rods
connected at one end to the glulam beam and at the other
end to an (in practice) infinitely stiff structure. Steel wires
and/or rods with different stiffness properties were utilized
in the tests. Transducers to monitor displacements (vertical
and out of plane), brace forces and applied gravity load
were used in the tests.
Figure 1: Test set up
2.2 NUMERICAL MODELS
Non-linear numerical analyses using the commercial FE-
programme Abaqus were carried out on models calibrated
with results from laboratory testing previously obtained.
The investigations focused on the study of the influence of
relevant parameters on both the brace force and the first
buckling mode. The studied parameters were: i) brace
stiffness, ii) brace position, iii) shape and magnitude of
initial imperfections.
3 RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS
Brace stiffness:
A relationship between the force measured in the brace and
the stiffness of the brace has been found. In general, the
stiffer the brace is the smaller will the obtained brace force
be. It has also been found that the brace stiffness has an
impact on the buckling mode. If the brace is stiffer than the
‘ideal stiffness’, see Figure 2, an extra half sine wave is
added to the shape of the buckled mode.
254
Figure 2: a) Brace stiffness < “ideal stiffness”
b) Brace stiffness > “ideal stiffness”
Brace position:
A relationship between the distance from the compressed
side of the cross section and the attachment point of the
brace has been found. The most effective position to put
the brace is on the compressed side of the cross section
(the top side in this test), see Figure 3.
Figure 3: Different cross sectional brace point
positions used in the test.
Shape and magnitude of initial imperfections:
A relationship between how fast the brace forces develop
and the magnitude of the initial imperfections has been
detected. The initial imperfections have also an impact on
the appearance of the buckled mode, e.g. in which
direction the beam buckles and the precise shape of the
buckled mode.
4 DISCUSSIONS
The test data of the tested glulam beams is currently being
more deeply analysed. Further research on other structural
elements such as trusses, frames and arches is scheduled.
More thourough explanations and presentation of test
results will be published in a full sized article.
REFERENCES
[1] Swedish Board of Housing(2011): “Erfarenhet från
takras i Sverige vintrarna 2009/10 och 2010/11”,
Retrieved from:
http://www.boverket.se/Global/Webbokhandel/Doku
ment/2011/Takras-20110531.pdf
[2] Wetterberg, E.,”Stagningens inverkan på bärförmågan
hos slanka träbärverk”, Department of Structural
Engineering, Lund Institute of Technology, 2011
[3] Johansson, C., Lidgren, C., Nilsson, C., Crocetti, R.,
”Takras vintrarna 2009/2010 och 2010/2011”, SP
Technical Research Institute of Sweden, Borås, 2011
TRACK 4: BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES
SEISMIC RESPONSE ANALYSIS FOR DAMPED TIMBER STRUCTURE
BY SIMPLIFIED SPRING MODEL
Kazuhiro Matsuda1, Kazuhiko Kasai2, Hiroyasu Sakata3
1 INTRODUCTION 123
In order to mitigate the damage of wooden houses and
seismic response, K-brace energy dissipation wall was
developed and a lot of experimental studies using the wall
were carried out. However, analytical studies need to be
carried out to develop more effective passive control wall
and to propose the design method.
There are some design methods to apply the passive
control scheme to wooden houses, and one of them is
seismic response analysis. Although it is rare for seismic
response analysis to be adopted to small wooden houses,
considering the seismic response analysis of wooden
houses leads to increasing options of design and research.
It is desirable for wooden house model to be composed of
simple models which are able to be used by generalized
software. Therefore this paper proposes a simplified
seismic response analysis for damped timber frame.
2 SYMPLIFIED SPRING MODEL
In order to carry out the simplified seismic response
analysis, degrees of freedom of the energy dissipation wall
are reduced to two. The model is composed three springs,
pseudo-brace, pseudo-frame and pseudo-damper (Figure 1).
Where pseudo-brace, pseudo-frame are linear elastic
springs which have stiffness Kbs and Kfs. Every damper is
classified roughly into two kinds, deformation-dependent
damper and velocity-dependent damper. The hysteresis of
velocity-dependent damper is modeled by linear stiffness
Kds and viscous coefficient Cds (so-called ellipse shape).
The hysteresis of deformation-dependent damper is
modeled by linear stiffness Kd1s, second stiffness ratio ps,
yield strength Fdys (so-called parallelogram shape).
3 PROPOSED ANALYSIS METHOD
The relationship between system force and system
deformation could be obtain in each deformation by using
1
Kazuhiro Matsuda, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Nagatsuta
4259-G5-14, Midori-Ku, Yokohama-shi, 226-8502, Japan.
Email: matsuda@serc.titech.ac.jp
2
Kazuhiko Kasai, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan
3
Hiroyasu Sakata, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan
255
State-NR estimation[1], however seismic response analysis
of nonlinear system is not able to be carried out yet, since
the spring specification is not equal in each deformation.
Therefore, convergent calculation will be carried out in
keeping with the flowchart of Figure 2.
At first, deformation Δu is assumed, then seismic response
analysis of simplified spring model is carried out by using
the specification of the assumed deformation. Secondary,
maximum deformation Δumax is obtained from the previous
analysis, then seismic response analysis of simplified
spring model is carried out again by using the specification
of the new deformation umax. This iteration continues until
the variation of Δumax becomes small. In the case of using
velocity-dependent damper, eigen frequency f is also
assumed at first. And then, eigen frequency is also
included in the iteration by estimating from the seismic
response analysis.
4 ACCURACY VERIFICATION
In order to confirm the accuracy of proposed seismic
response analysis in chapter 3, the comparison of detailed
frame model[2] and simplified spring model will be
discussed. A simplified spring model will be created by
using a detailed frame model whose accuracy is verified
through comparison with shake table test. After that,
START
Simplyfied spring model (Fig. 1) can
be constructed by State NR
Estimation and assumed deformation
Δu (also eigen frequency f if velocity-
dependency damper)
Obtain maximum deform. Δu = Δumax
Δu = Δumax
Δumax from seismic f = feq
response analysis by using
simplifed spring model.
Yes
Estimate equiv.
No No
Def.-Depen. eig frequency feq
Δu ≒ Δumax?
Damper ? from seis. resp.
Yes analysis result.
END
Figure 2: Analytical model Flowchart of seismic response analysis
TRACK 4: BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES
comparison of seismic response analysis between detailed REFERENCES
frame model and simplified spring model will be discussed. [1] Kasai, K. and Iwasaki, K. (2006): “Reduced Expression
(Figure 3 and 4) for Various Passive Control Systems and Conversion to
Shear Spring Model”, Journal of Structural and
5 CONCLUSIONS Construction Engineering, No.605, pp.37-46 (In Japanese)
A method to analyze timber frame with passive control [2] Matsuda, K., Kasai, K. and Sakata, H. (2012): Earthquake
scheme by using simplified spring model was proposed. Response Analysis of 2-Story Timber Frames with Passive
Through the comparison with detailed frame model, the Control Scheme by Detailed Frame Model, WCTE2012,
accuracy was confirmed. CD-ROM, Auckland, New Zealand, 2012.7

Fbs Fds Kds Fbs Fds

Cdsud,max ud,max
Kbs Kbs Fdys
Kds
ubs uds ubs uds
Pseudo Brace Pseudo Pseudo Brace Pseudo
Kbs Damper Kbs Damper ps·Kds

Ffs Kfs Ffs Kfs

Pseudo Frame Kfs ufs Pseudo Frame Kfs ufs

(a) Velocity-dependant Damper (b) Deformation-demendent Damper

Figure 1: Simplified Spring Model of Energy Dissipation Wall

1/240rad. 1/120rad. 1/60rad. 1/45 or 1/30rad.

F, u
Vel.-Dep. Damper

12 F, Fs [kN] 24 F, Fs [kN] 48 F, Fs [kN] 64 F, Fs [kN]

-12 12 -24 24 -48 0 48 -64 64

Fs, us u, us [mm] u, us [mm] u, us [mm] u, us [mm]
-12 -24 -48 -64
F, u
15 F, Fs [kN] 30 F, Fs [kN] 30 F, Fs [kN] 30 F, Fs [kN]
Def.-Dep. Damper

-12 12 -24 24 -48 48 -96 96

Fs, us u, us [mm] u, us [mm] u, us [mm] u, us [mm]
-15 -30 -30 -30

Figure 3: Flowchart of seismic response analysis by simplified response Detailed model Simplified model
analysis

Time History of Story Disp. Hysteresis of System Hysteresis of Damper

Vel.-Dep. Damper

20 u, us [mm] 24 F, Fs [kN] 60 Fd, Fds [kN]

0 20 40 60 -20 20 -5 5
u, us [mm] u, us [mm] ud, uds [mm]
-20 -24 -60
40 u, us [mm] 24 F, Fs [kN] 60 Fd, Fds [kN]
Def.-Dep. Damper

0
0 20 40 60 -40 40 -10 10
u, us [mm] u, us [mm] ud, uds [mm]
-40 -24 -60

Figure 4: Comparison between detailed model and simplified model by state- Detailed model Simplified model
NR estimation

256
TRACK 4: BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES

SEISMIC PROTECTION OF TIMBER PLATFORM FRAME

BUILDING STRUCTURES WITH HYSTERETIC ENERGY
DISSIPATORS. FEASIBILITY STUDY

Edgar Segués1, Francisco López Almansa2, Inmaculada R. Cantalapiedra3

ABSTRACT: This paper describes a numerical study of the efficiency of energy dissipators for seismic protection of thin-
plated timber buildings; the dissipators are based on plastification of metals and are newly designed. This research belongs to
a project to promote the use of timber in seismic regions; this project involves experiments and advanced numerical
simulation. Preliminary results point out the seismic efficiency of the proposed dissipators compared to the unprotected
buildings; comparison with other earthquake-resistant solutions is in progress.

KEYWORDS: Timber platform frame building structures, energy dissipators, earthquake-resistant design

1 INTRODUCTION 123 2 TIMBER PLATFORM FRAME

If wood is collected from local and sustainably exploited BUILDING STRUCTURES
forests, timber construction offers relevant environmental 2.1 GENERAL REMARKS
benefits since promotes the plantation of trees and itself
The timber platform frame constructions with thin-paneled
stores carbon during its lifetime. Apart from sustainability
walls (also known as “Micro-panel Wall System”) consist
issues, wooden construction presents other advantages: high
of an assembly of load-bearing vertical and horizontal
reusability and recyclability, moderate cost, high resistance
wooden framed panels [1]. The horizontal panels (floors and
/ weight ratio, simpler foundations because of the timber
roofs) are slabs constituted by a top wood-based sheathing
lightweight, construction rapidity, insulating qualities, and
board (plywood, particleboard, oriented strand board, etc.)
nice-looking aspect. Conversely, constructional and
supported by side and inner timber beams. The vertical
structural timber has some drawbacks: limited strength,
panels (cladding or partitioning walls) are formed by two
heterogeneity and anisotropy, hygroscopicity, shrinkage,
wood-based sheathing boards (plywood, oriented strand
swelling, controversial fire resistance, degradability,
board, hardboard, particleboard, etc.) inner-framed with
maintenance requirements, difficulty of connections and
timber studs; the top and bottom sides of each panel are
contentious seismic performance. This research aims to
reinforced with binders (also known as rails or plates). The
contribute to overwhelm the last two limitations by
vertical panels are commonly one-story high and can be
proposing dissipative connections to protect wooden
either whole (unpierced) or with openings (doors or
members from damage generated by seismic inputs. The
windows). The sheathing boards are nailed to the framing
proposed solutions are oriented to timber platform frame
elements (beams in the horizontal panels and studs, and
buildings. This research is a part of a wider project aiming
binders in the vertical panels). The connection between the
to promote the structural and constructional use of timber in
floor and wall panels is commonly established by nailing the
Mediterranean countries and other seismic prone regions.
binders to the beams. This construction type is usually
That project involves experimental research and advanced
considered only for buildings not exceeding six floors.
numerical simulation of the proposed devices.

1 E. Segués, Technical University of Catalonia, Barcelona.

2
F. López Almansa, Technical University of Catalonia,
Barcelona. Email: francesc.lopez-almansa@upc.edu
3 I.R. Cantalapiedra, Technical University of Catalonia,

Barcelona.

257
TRACK 4: BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES
2.2 SEISMIC BEHAVIOR
Wooden constructions might exhibit a highly satisfactory
seismic performance due to their lightweight, their high
structural redundancy (in thin and thick paneled buildings),
the high damping of wood, and the increased resistance of
timber to rapidly varying forces. However, under severe
earthquakes, the constructions need to be ductile; contrary
to a certain common belief, timber is a rather brittle material
that cannot provide enough ductility to the construction. The
traditional solution to this problem consists of providing
ductility to the connections among structural members.
Three major types of connections exist: traditional
(craftsman), chemical (glued) and mechanical (using metal
elements); only the last type can be ductile. Mechanical
connections are ductile but if they are damaged after severe
ground motions, such damage is mainly concentrated in
timber, thus preventing any possibility of repair. Current
research has focused in designing connections with higher
energy dissipation capacity [2], but in such connections the
damage initiates in timber instead of concentrating only in
the metal elements. In other words, mechanical connections
are capable of absorbing part of the input energy but such
energy is absorbed through irreparable damage in the
structural timber; moreover, in most of the cases, the energy
absorption capacity is only limited. Conversely, a more
clever approach consists of incorporating energy
dissipators, as discussed next.
The seismic performance of thin-plated timber buildings has
particular features: high structural redundancy, extreme
lightweight construction, and limited horizontal resistance.
About this last issue, the lateral strength is mainly provided
by the shear capacity of the vertical sheathing boards and by
the nailed connections between the studs and the boards. In
some cases, this lateral capacity is increased by stiffening
some wall panels with steel elements or by complementing
the vertical studs with diagonal timber or steel bracing studs.
3 PROPOSED DISSIPATIVE SYSTEM
Energy dissipators [3] are devices that do not participate in
the gravity-loads-carrying system. They are connected to
the structure as experiencing important deformations under
seismic inter-story drift motions; usually they are installed
between adjoining floors of framed buildings. Through
these deformations, the dissipators absorb energy thus
protecting the rest of the construction; in other words, they
are structural fuses”, i.e. the “weakest links”, of the
structural chain. These elements can be replaced after being
damaged by strong earthquakes. The proposed devices can
be classified as hysteretic (plastification of metals), friction,
viscoelastic, viscous, shape memory alloys, among others.
The hysteretic devices are chosen in this study since provide
excellent performance being cheaper, simpler and more
reliable than the other dissipators. The devices will be
installed between the timber beams of the slabs and the
upper and lower sheathing boards of the vertical panels; in
that way, the sliding between slabs and walls (interstory
drift) will be used to generate strains in the dissipators and
258
thus absorbing energy. To avoid premature failure of the
timber members connected to the devices, local steel
reinforcements will be considered.
The proposed devices are described in Figure 1. Each device
consists of two steel rigid plates (“anchorage plates”, to be
connected to the slab beam and the wall sheathing board,
respectively) and a series array of parallel flexible steel
plates; each flexible plate is clamped at both ends to a
clamping set anchored to a groove carved in the rigid plate
parallel to the sliding direction. The sliding motion between
both rigid plates generate plastic bending deformation of the
flexible plates, thus dissipating energy.
Flexible steel plates Separators
Clamping set
End rigid body
Grooves
Anchorage plate
Figure 1: Proposed dissipative devices
4 FEASIBILITY STUDY
Energy dissipators should not only be compared with
unbraced buildings but also with braced frames, tied frames
and base isolation. A numerical parametric analysis is
carried out; the performance indexes are: interstory drift
(maximum and cumulated), absolute acceleration and base
shear. Nonlinear time-history analyses and energy-based
approaches based on energy spectra [4] are considered.
5 CONCLUSIONS
Preliminary results show that energy dissipators reduce the
seismic response of thin-plated timber buildings compared
to unprotected buildings. Comparison with other
earthquake-resistant solutions is in progress.
REFERENCES
[1] Handbook 1-Timber Structures. TEMTIS. European
Commission, 2008.
[2] Piazza M., Polastri A., Tomasi R. Ductility of timber
joints under static and cyclic loads. Structures and
Buildings, 164:79–90, 2011.
[3] Soong T.T., Dargush G. Passive energy Dissipation
Systems in Structural Engineering. John Wiley, 1997.
[4] López-Almansa F., Yazgan U., Benavent-Climent A.
Design energy input spectra for high seismicity regions
based on Turkish registers. Bulletin of Earthquake
Engineering, 11:885–912, 2013.
TRACK 5: SERVICEABILITY /FIRE SAFETY / REHABILITATION

NUMERICAL SIMULATION OFTHE TEMP ERATURE FIELD

IN A WOOD-CONCRETE COMPOSITE CROSS SECTION IN
FIRE

Julio Cesar Molina1, Carlito Calil Junior2

ABSTRACT: In this work was evaluated the behavior of wood-concrete composite beams with cross-section T in fire
situation focusing on the metallic connection system used in the wood-concrete interface. It was performed the numerical
simulation of the temperature in a cross section of the composite beam from the use of ANSYS software, version 10.0,
which is based on the Finite Element Method. The evolution of the temperature was performed based on ISO 834:1999
standard. The numerical results show the temperatures for different points of the cross section considering a total time of 60
minutes of exposure to fire.

KEYWORDS: Composite beams, timber-concrete, numerical model, fire

1 INTRODUCTION 123 2 NUMERICAL MODEL

Nowadays is of great interest the analysis of structural
The numerical modelling was performed from a bi-
elements in fire so that we can ensure the safety of the
dimensional model using the software ANSYS, version
system in relation to the premature failure. In this context,
10.0, that has with base the Finite Element Method (FEM).
fire resistance is defined as the ability of a material or
The temperature in the composite cross section was
structural element to remain during a certain time,
measured for a total of 60 minutes of exposition to fire.
performing the functions for which it was designed, under
Figure 1 shows the configuration of the composite cross
the action of fire.
section considered in the numerical model.
In Brazil most studies has been a character essentially
numeric because the first horizontal furnace of Brazil for
the tests in structural elements began in operating at the
beginning of the second half of 2012.
The main aim of this work was the simulation, through
numerical modeling, of the temperature field in a wood-
concrete composite beam, of section T, with connectors
(12.5 mm of diameter) formed by steel rods in vertical
position to the grain.
From the numerical model proposed will be possible the Figure 1: Cross section of the composite beam with steel
presentation of the main finite elements used in the connector considered in the model
numerical model which consider the variation of
temperature and determinate the depth of carbonization of 2.1 FINITE ELEMENTES
wood besides the temperature into the concrete and the
The numerical model developed in this work was
temperature in the connection area with reasonable
performed with base in pre-definite elements and available
approximation.
in the internal library of the software ANSYS. The cross
section from the composite beam was modelled for bi-
1 dimensional elements of type plan (PLANE 77) and for the
Julio Cesar Molina, University of São Paulo, 400 Trabalhador
São carlense Avenue, São Carlos, São Paulo, Brazil. Email: elements type surface (SURF 151) which were used for the
juliocesarmolina@yahoo.com.br implementation of boundary conditions of convection and
2
Carlito Calil Junior, University of São Paulo, Brazil radiation to the model. The element SURF 151 has two or
tree nodes and considers a extra node located out of mesh

259
TRACK 5: SERVICEABILITY /FIRE SAFETY / REHABILITATION
of finite elements to the control of temperature other nodes
with shown in figure 3.
2.2 MESH OF FINIT ELEMENTS
The mesh of finite elements related to the composite cross
section was discretized in plan elements (PLANE177)
having each element dimensions of 1 cm x 1 cm totalling
1020 finite elements as shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2: Mesh of finite elements used in the model
The surface showed in the top of concrete was used for
simulation of a constant value for the temperature equal to
20 oC. The cross section was exposed to the fire only on
three sides, i. e, the top surface of the concrete slab has not
been exposed with show Figure 3.
Figure 3: Border (radiation and convection) exposed to the
standard fire and fire on three sides of the section
The ISO 834:1999 standard recommends the Equation (1)
to the curve of standard fire model.
θg = θ0 + 345 log(8t + 1) (1)
where θg = temperature of the gases in the environment in
flame (0C), θ0 = temperature of the gases in the moment
(usually taken equal to 20 0C) and t = time (minutes)
3 RESULTS
3.1 TEMPERATURE IN CROSS SECTION
The results of the temperature field were obtained for the
cross section considering a total time of 60 minutes of
exposition in fire according Equation (1) presented in [3].
260
Figure 4 show some results of temperature obtained for the
analysed cross section considering a time of 30 minutes of
exposition to fire.
Figure 4: Temperature field obtained in the numeric
analysis by the software ANSYS for time of 30 minutes
4 CONCLUSIONS
The results of the numeric model developed were shown
satisfactory when compared to the experimental and
numerical results obtained by [1] and [2]. The model
presented can be used for the determination of the
temperature in the cross section with reasonable approach.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors thank FAPESP (São Paulo State Research
Support Foundation, Brazil) for its financial backing of
this work.
REFERENCES
[1] E. M. Pinto, “Determinação de um modelo de taxa de
carbonização transversal a grã para o eucalyptus
citriodora e eucalyptus grandis,” Ph.D. dissertation,
Departamento de Arquitetura e Urbanismo da Escola
de Engenharia de são Carlos da Universidade de São
Paulo, São Carlos-SP, Brazil, 2005.
[2] R. Regobello, “Análise numérica de seções
transversais e de elementos estruturais de aço e mistos
de aço e concreto em situação de incêndio,” Ph.D.
dissertation, Departamento Engenharia de Estruturas
da Escola de Engenharia de São Carlos da
Universidade de São Paulo, São Carlos-SP, Brazil,
2007.
[3] International Standard. Fire resistance tests - Elements
of building construction, Part 1: General requirements,
ISO 834-1:1999.
[4] R. Regobello, E. M. Pinto, J. Munaiar Neto, C. Calil
Junior, “Análises numérica e experimental da
evolução de temperatura na madeira de eucalyptus
exposta ao fogo,” Proceedings X EBRAMEM,
Encontro brasileiro em madeira e em estruturas de
madeira, São Pedro, Brazil, 2006, pp. 1-15
[5] J. C. Silva, “Comportamento de estruturas metálicas e
mistas em situação de incêndio-modelagem e
aplicações,” Ph.D. Dissertation, Universidade Federal
do Espírito Santo, Vitória-ES, Brazil, 2002.
TRACK 5: SERVICEABILITY /FIRE SAFETY / REHABILITATION

PREDICTION OF FLAME SPREAD ALONG A WOODEN

SURFACE OF WALL AGAINST LOCALIZED FIRE

Koji Harada1, Noriyuki Hirai2, Yuji Hasemi3, Kazuhiko Fujita4, Masafumi Inoue5

ABSTRACT: In this paper, experiments were carried out by using a burner in order to predict flame spread along the
wooden surface of wall in the case of localized fire scenario and the result was compared with the values obtained by using
numerical model. On the basis of agreement between the theoretical and experimental results, the calculation for flame
spread of localized fire of 3MW for 1200 seconds was carried out.

KEYWORDS: flame spread, wood, fire resistance verification method, localized fire

1 INTRODUCTION 123
2 EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
Fire resistance verification method in case of localized fire
scenario is reasonable way to adopt timber construction for The test was carried out under the condition of free
roofs of gymnasiums as shown in Fig.1, if the performance burning along a vertical panel. Fig.2 shows the shape of
for fire resistive buildings or quasi-fire resistive buildings specimen for the test. The size of the test panel was 2.0 m
is required. But in order to use this method, the prediction width and 3.08 m height from the top of it to the surface of
of flame spread for the wall is necessary if wood is chosen the floor ,which were covered with silicic acid calcium
as material of the front surface of the wall. And in order to board with 25 mm depth, of the equipment. The front
be easier for practical engineers to handle this method, the surface of the test wall was covered with boards made of
way to calculate has to be simplified such as using spread cryptomeria which has a thickness of 18 mm on silicic acid
sheets which are very popular and convenient for most of calcium board with 25 mm thickness.
them. Therefore in this paper, the solutions relative to
flame spread obtained by using spread sheets on basis of
theoretical model was compared to the result of
experiments made with a burner, prior to predicting of
flame spread along a wooden surface of wall against
localized fire of 3MW with 1.5 m×1.5 m (dimensionless
energy release rate=0.98) for 1200 seconds.

1Koji Harada, Graduate school of Oita University, 700 Dan-no-

haru,Oita,Oita, Japan.
Email: cozy_in_woodstock@nifty.com
2 Noriyuki Hirai, Kajima Corporation(formerly Graduate School

of Architecture, Waseda University),6-5-30,Akasaka, Minato-ku,

Tokyo, Japan Figure 1: Timber structure by using fire resistance
Email:hiraino@kajima.com verification method in case of localized fire
3 Yuji Hasemi,Faculty of Science and Engineering, Waseda scenario( gymnasium for elementary school in
University,3-4-1,Okubo,Sinjuku-ku,Tokyo.Japan Noshiro,Akita,Japan)
Email:hasemi@waseda.jp
4Kazuhiko Fujita,Hiroshima Prefectural Technology Research

Institute Forestry Research Center,
4-6-1,Higashi,Tokaichi,Miyoshi,Hiroshima,Japan
Email:k-fujita83939@pre.hiroshima.jp
5Masafumi Inoue, Faculty of Engineering,Oita University, 700
Dan-no-haru,Oita,Oita, Japan.
Email:inoue@cc.oita-u.ac.jp
The width of the burner set up to the floor of the
equipment was 0.5 m and 0.5 m and one side of the burner
was attached along the panel. The energy release rate of
the burner was 192.5 kW( dimensionless energy release
rate= 0.98). Then test was carried out for 1200 seconds.

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board of
board 6 DISCUSSION
of
cryptomeria In this paper, the upward wall flame spread which is
silicic
asid considered more complicated to predict was ignored
calcium because the height of solid flame is higher than 3m which
is the height of the wall covered with wooden board in
case of gyms like the one shown by Fig.1 against localized
board of fire of 3MW. To utilize noncombustible materials or fire
steel retardant materials at the part of a surface of wall higher
silicic burner frame than 3 m leads to simplify to employ fire resistance
asid
calcium verification method in case of localized fire scenario.
minutes experimental result
burner steel frame to reach of ignition
steel frame
Figure 2: Diagram of equipment for test of flame spread
with a burner

direction to
3 CALCULATIONS predict
The mathematical formulation to predict flame spread is
the conduction equation and the initial condition and the
boundary condition lead to the following equation(1).
m
(1)

Figure 3: Prediction of flame spread (relationship

where Ts: temperature of the surface(℃) between the distance from the center of the board and
T0:ambient temperature(℃) ignition time of the surface of board in case of localized
I: heat flux(W/m2) fire of 192.5kW)
h:convection heat transfer coefficient(W/m2･K),
25 minutes
k:thermal conductivity(W/m･K)
α:thermal diffusivity(m2/s),
t:time(s). 20
Horizontal propagation was calculated for 1200 seconds.
The relationship between the distance from the center of
15
the board and ignition time of the surface of board is
shown in Fig.3.
10
4 COMPARISON BETWEEN
CALCULATED VALUE AND 5
EXPERIMENTAL RESULT m
The length of the surface to have been ignited was 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
measured after the experiment. It was about 90 cm each
from the center of the board, that is in agreement with the Figure 4: Prediction of flame spread (relationship
between the distance from the center of the board and
value of the theoretical result in general.
ignition time of the surface of board in case of localized
fire of 3MW)
5 DEVELOPMENT
The flame spread along the board made of cryptomeria
against localized fire of 3MW with 1.5 m×1.5 m for 1200 REFERENCES
seconds can be predicted by using the numerical model [1] Noriyuki Hirai’s master’s teesis,2010-Effect of
shown in Fig.4. initiation and growth of fire in case to apply fire
resistance verification to a wooden gymnasium for
school
[2] The Buildimg Center of Japan-guide to construction
fire safety engineering.

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INTERACTIVE VISUALISATION BETWEEN WOOD-MOISTURE

RELATIONS AND MOISTURE-INDUCED DEFORMATIONS

Rafael Novais Passarelli1, Luis Carli2

ABSTRACT: This work intends to provide a more comprehensive form for visualising shrinkage values and equilibrium
moisture content (EMC) of wood in different locations along the year. Furthermore, the visualisation should allow quick,
yet precise, comparison between different wood species, grain directions and places. At first, historical weather data for
maximum a minimum average temperature and humidity by month from 19 cities was retrieved. Then, wood EMC and
wood shrinkage value by month for 19 different wood species were calculated using computer algorithms. Finally, a data
structure was developed in order to represent and manipulate graphic design visualisation using d3.js Javascript framework,
from which three different interactive diagrams were generated.

KEYWORDS: hygrothermal behaviour; dimensional changes; wood design; information visualisation

1 INTRODUCTION 1 2 variation of some wood species in specific locations and

As most natural materials, wood is hygroscopic, i.e. it
exchanges moisture with its surrounding environment.
Bellow fibre saturation point, as a piece of wood loses
moisture it shrinks and as wood gains moisture back it
swells. Nevertheless, dimensional changes due to moisture
exchange in wood can lead to defects such as warping,
buckling, checking or splitting that may compromise the
wood based product's performance and aesthetics. Hence,
most of the challenges of utilising wood in architecture or
engineering involve understanding wood-moisture relation
and its influence in wood's dimensional stability. However,
conventional visualisation methods for wood shrinkage
values and moisture content deal manly with isolated
variables, thus failing to provide an overall picture of
wood-moisture relations.
This work intends to provide a more comprehensive form
for visualising shrinkage values and equilibrium moisture
content (EMC) of wood in different locations along the
year. Furthermore, the visualisation should allow quick,
yet precise, comparison between different wood species,
grain directions and places. Finally, it also aims to provide
a design tool for most wood-workers (from architects to
cabinet-makers) that could quickly estimate dimensional
1
Rafael Novais Passarelli, University of São Paulo, Av.
Trabalhador San Carlense 400, São Carlos, Brazil. Email:
architect@rafaelpassarelli.com
2
Luis Carli, University of São Paulo, Rua Maranhão 88, São
Paulo, Brazil. Email: info@luiscarli.com
then implement necessary design modifications in order to
accommodate wood dimensional changes.
2 METHOD
At first, historical weather data was collected for 19 cities
across five continents (5 from America, 8 from Europe, 3
from Asia, 1 from Africa and 1 from Oceania). The
weather information gathered for each city includes
maximum and minimum average values for temperature
and relative humidity by month and it was retrieved from
<www.weatherBase.com>. All the weather information
was put on a database file and utilised in order to calculate
maximum and minimum EMC of wood by month in each
city. The EMC values were automatically generated by a
computer algorithm developed using Equation 1 [1].
Utilising the maximum and minimum EMC values
previously obtained, wood shrinkage by month for 19
wood species was automatically calculated by a computer
algorithm for each selected city using Equation 2 [1]. The
information on wood shrinkage ratios was obtained from
wood properties handbooks [2][3][4]. Finally, a data
structure was developed in order to represent and
manipulate graphic design visualisation using d3.js
Javascript framework.
1,80 Kh K1Kh+2K1K2K2h2
EMC = [ + ] [(1)
W 1-Kh 1+K1Kh+K1K2K2h2

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Where h is relative humidity and the parameters W, K, K1 3.3 RELATIVE DIMENSIONAL CHANGES
and K2 depend on temperature. For temperature T in C: DIAGRAM
W=349+1.29T+0.0135T2; K=0.805=0.000736T-
Figure 3 displays “relative dimensional changes” diagram.
0.00000273T2; K1=6.27-0.00938T-0.000303T2;
It shows wood's dimensional changes (swelling, extending
K2=1.91+0.0407T-0.000293T2.
above horizontal white line and shrinkage, extending
x bellow horizontal white line) by month for 19 wood
Sx = S0 ( 1 - ) [(2) species in 19 different cities after wood has reached a state
MCfs of equilibrium.
Where S0 is percent shrinkage from the green condition to
ovendry (radial, tangential or volumetric) a MCfs is fibre
saturation moisture content. If MCfs is not known, 30%
MC can be used as an approximation [1]

3 RESULTS
As a result, three interactive diagrams were developed.

3.1 TEMPERATURE, RELATIVE HUMIDITY AND

MOISTURE CONTENT DIAGRAM
The first diagram (Figure 1) shows the maximum and
minimum EMC values by month (grey bars) as a function
of Temperature (red bars) and Relative humidity (blue
bars) in 19 different cities (left column). EMC is expressed
as percentage and estimated, according to Equation 1, as
the ratio of the weight of water in the piece to the weight
of wood when it is completely dry.
Figure 3: Relative dimensional changes diagram.
4 CONCLUSIONS
The first two diagrams provide a more comprehensive
form for visualising EMC and shrinkage values of wood in
different locations along the year, allowing quick, yet
precise comparison between different wood species, grain
directions and places. The last one provides a design tool
for most wood-workers that could quickly estimate
moisture induced dimensional deformation of some wood
species in specific locations and then implement necessary
design modifications in order to accommodate wood
dimensional changes. The interactive diagrams will be
available for consulting at <www.woodchanges.com>.

Figure 1: Temperature, relative humidity and moisture
content diagram.
3.2 ABSOLUTE DIMENSIONAL CHANGES
DIAGRAM
The second diagram (Figure 3) shows shrinkage values
range (tangential/radial) by month and along the year for
19 wood species (right column) in 19 different cities (left
column). The shrinkage values are shown as a percentage
of green wood's dimensions.
REFERENCES
[1] Forest Products Laboratory (FPL). The wood
handbook: wood as an engineering material. United
States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Wisconsin, 2010.
[2] Hoadley, B. R. Understanding wood: a craftsman
guide to wood technology. The Tauton Press,
Newtown: 2000.
[3] Instituto de Pesquisas Tecnológicas (IPT). Madeira:
uso sustentável na construção civil, São Paulo, 2003.
[4] M. Volz. Anatomy of Wood. In: T. Herzog, editor,
Timber Construction Manual, pages 31-46,
Birkhäuser, Berlim, 2008.

Figure 2: Absolute dimensional changes diagram.

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ACOUSTIC PERFORMANCE OF TIMBER AND TIMBER-

CONCRETE COMPOSITE FLOORS

Marc Schluessel 1, Rijun Shrestha2, Keith Crews3

ABSTRACT: A major problem in light-weight timber floors is their insufficient performance coping with impact noise in
low frequencies. There are no prefabricated solutions available in Australia and New Zealand. To rectify this and enable the
implementation of light-weight timber floors, a structural floor was designed and built in laminated veneer lumber (LVL).
The floor was evaluated in a laboratory setting based on its behaviour and then modified with suspended ceilings and
different floor toppings. Twenty-nine different floor compositions were tested. The bare floor could not reach the minimum
requirement set by the Building Code of Australia (BCA) but with additional layers, a sufficient result of R'w+Ctr 53 dB and
L’nT,w + CI 50 dB was reached. Doubling of the concrete mass added a marginal improvement. With concrete toppings and
suspended ceiling it is possible to reach the goal in airborne and impact sound insulation. The best result was achieved by
combining of additional mass and different construction layers.

KEYWORDS: Acoustics, acoustic insulation, light weight floor, timber floor, timber-concrete composite

123
1 INTRODUCTION timber is available but no acoustic insulation solutions.
The Structural Timber Innovation Company (STIC), a
Multi-storey timber buildings are a sustainable alternative
research consortium based in Australia and New Zealand,
to the dominating concrete structures. Timber is a different
is working towards solutions using local materials. STIC
material to concrete, therefore there are specific ways to
designed a floor in laminated veneer lumber (LVL). This
manipulate and use it. There are, however, challenges
extended abstract outlines the results of the acoustic testing
which have to be overcome to use timber as a competing
of the LVL floor carried out at the University of
solution. Timber floors do not provide sufficient insulation
Technology Sydney (UTS). Acoustic tests were
for impact sound in low frequencies. This acoustic
undertaken to receive airborne and impact sound test
behaviour and lack of knowledge about structural timber
results, in accordance with BS EN ISO 10140 and BS EN
constructions are reasons why there is no noteworthy
ISO 717-1 and 717-2.
market for multi-storey timber buildings, especially in
Australia. There are no prefabricated solutions available, in 2 THE AIM OF THE PROJECT
Australia and New Zealand, which provide a sufficient
The aim for this project was to build a structural floor in
insulation of sound. The industrial fabricated construction
acoustic compliance with level two and three buildings in
the Building Code of Australia (BCA). The requirement is
1
Marc Schluessel, University of Technology Sydney, 15 a weighted sound reduction index R’w + Ctr adaption term
Broadway, Ultimo, NSW, Australia. Email: of ≥ 50 dB and a weighted standardized impact sound
marc.schluessel@uts.edu.au pressure level L’nT,w + CI adaption term of ≤ 62 dB.
2
Rijun Shrestha, University of Technology Sydney, 15 3 TESTING FACILITY
Broadway, Ultimo, NSW, Australia. Email: rijun.shrestha-
1@uts.edu.au An acoustic enclosure was built in the laboratories at the
3
University of Technology Sydney (UTS). The enclosure
Keith Crews, University of Technology Sydney, 15 Broadway, was designed and constructed, to ensure it is suitable for
Ultimo, NSW, Australia. Email: Keith.crews@uts.edu.au
testing timber panels. It conforms to the standards related

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to the laboratory measurement of airborne and impact modifications. The suspended ceiling resulted in a
sound insulation. significant enhancement on both airborne, and impact
sound insulation. An improvement of 11 to 19 dB for
4 FLOOR DESIGN impact and 8 to 13 dB for airborne sound reduction. The
The floor was constructed in three different ways. Initially concrete topping also significantly improved the airborne
the bare timber floor was tested. Secondly a suspended and impact sound insulation but did not reach the goal
ceiling was added. Finally the timber floor with a concrete without a suspended ceiling. It is possible that the best
topping and a suspended ceiling was examined. All constructions exceeded the limit of the testing facility.
compositions were in addition tested with an impact
insulation rubber mat and ceramic or laminate floor Table 1: Selected results of the acoustic tests
finishing. The LVL floor contained seven LVL modules R'w+Ctr L’nT,w+ Compl.
(Figure 1) with a total dimension of 4.2 m by 3.15 m or [dB] Ci [dB]
13.25 m2.
Bare timber floor 31 88 No
Ceramic tile, rubber mat,
suspended ceiling with two 46 61 No
layers of plaster board.
Laminate, rubber mat, 60 mm
concrete, susp. ceiling with
two layers of plaster board and 53 50 Yes
insulation wool in the cavity.

Figure 1: Section of a LVL module Laminate, rubber mat, 120 mm

of concrete, LVL floor,
suspended ceiling with two 52 50 Yes
4.1 SUSPENDED CEILING layers of plaster board and
insulation wool in the cavity.
Clips with rubber insulation were used to fix the suspend
ceiling to the LVL floor (Figure 2). A cavity of 100 mm
between the floor and the plasterboard was filled with 5.1 FAVOURITE COMPOSITION
50 mm insulation wool. All the floor compositions were
tested with either one or two layers of 13 mm fire-rated The favourite composition (Figure 4) contains a layer of
plasterboard (Figure 3). concrete with a floor finish. This was combined with
ceramic tiles or laminate flooring on a rubber mat
(Regupol). It included a suspended ceiling with insulation
wool in the cavity and two layers of 13 mm fire-rated
plasterboard, screwed on wooden battens. The result: R'w+
Ctr 53 dB and L’nT,w + CI 50 dB
Floor section Depth of material [mm]

Figure 2: Genie clip Figure 3: Suspended ceiling

4.2 CONCRETE TOPPING

A concrete topping with non-structural purpose was
poured on top of the LVL floor to add mass. Due to
building and logistic restrictions concrete flags with the
dimension of 520 x 520 x 50 mm were used. The concrete
had a density of 2400 kg/m3, which resulted in additional
mass of 120 kg/m2.To simulate poured concrete; a layer of
mortar was poured between LVL floor and the concrete
slab. After the tests with 50 mm slabs, another layer of
50 mm concrete was installed.
5 RESULTS
The performance of the bare LVL floor was as expected,
poor, but provided the basis for the upcoming
Figure 4: Favourite composition
6 CONCLUSIONS
The bare floor, due to its low mass, is insufficient for
multi-storey buildings. The addition of mass to the
construction helps to improve the sound insulation. There
was only a marginal improvement after doubling the
concrete mass. This showed that in addition to the mass it
is important to add layers of different materials with
different characteristics. This process effectively insulates
more frequencies.

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ENHANCEMENT OF DEFLECTION SERVICEABILITY

PERFORMANCE OF METAL WEB JOIST TIMBER FLOORS
USING STRONGBACKS

Binsheng Zhang1, Abdy Kermani2, Tony Fillingham3, Martin Cullen3, Tony Kilpatrick4

ABSTRACT: This paper presents the study on the serviceability performance of the floors constructed with metal web
joists with focus on the deflection at floor centre under 1 kN point load. The studied parameters included spacing of joists,
type, size, number and location of strongback, and ceiling. The test results indicate that joist spacing, strongback bracings
and ceiling significantly influenced the maximum displacement of metal web joist floors. The decrease in joist spacing, the
increase in number and size of strongback bracings, and the use of ceiling all largely reduced the maximum displacement of
the floors. On average, the calculated displacements based on the design equations in the UK National Annex to Eurocode 5
are close to those measured.

KEYWORDS: Timber floors, Metal web joists, Strongback, Serviceability Limit States, Deflection, Eurocodes

1 INTRODUCTION 123 ceiling (with or without). Figure 1 shows a typical metal

web joist floor (Floor A). Figure 2 shows a strongback
In the past few decades, metal web engineered timber fitted along mid-span of a floor.
joists have been largely used to construct intermediate-
span timber floors in low-rise houses and long-span floors
in commercial buildings. However, their design is often
controlled by unit point load deflection serviceability limit
state criterion according to EN 1995-1-1 and the UK
National Annex. A project Experimentally evaluating the
vibrational performance of metal-web joist floors
enhanced using strongback bracing was conducted on
behalf of the Metal Web Working Group, comprising ITW
Alpine, Gang Nail Systems, MiTek Industries Ltd and
Wolf Systems. The series tests on metal web joist floors
were intended to experimentally evaluate the effects of
joist spacing, strongback bracings and ceiling on the
vibrational performance of the floors so as to assess Figure 1: A typical metal web joist floor (Floor A)
Eurocode 5 design criteria.

2 EXPERIMENTAL WORK
Nine floors (Floors A to I) were included for this series of
tests, with the variations on the following parameters: joist
spacing, strongback (with or without), number and location
of strongback, size of strongback, type of strongback and

1
Binsheng Zhang, Glasgow Caledonian University, Cowcaddens
Road, Glasgow, UK. Email: Ben.Zhang@gcu.ac.uk
2
Abdy Kermani, Edinburgh Napier University, UK
3
Tony Fillingham, MiTek Industries Ltd., UK
4
Martin Cullen, Glasgow Caledonian University, UK
5
Tony Kilpatrick, Glasgow Caledonian University, UK Figure 2: A TR26 strongback at mid-span in Floor E

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3 TEST RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Maximum displacements under 1 kN point load
Figure 3 shows the measured maximum displacements at
the floor centre under 1 kN point load for all nine floors.
2.0
1.8
1.6
Displacement w [mm]
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
Floor A Floor B Floor C Floor D Floor E Floor F Floor G Floor H
Displacement 1.80 1.11 1.08
Figure 3: Measured maximum displacements under 1 kN
point load for all floors
For the same flooring configuration, a reduction in joist
spacing largely decreased the maximum displacement. For
the floors without strongback and ceiling (Floors A and G),
the maximum displacement w decreased from 1.80 mm to
1.44 mm, down by 0.36 mm or 20%. For the floors with
strongback but without ceiling (Floors E and H), w
decreased from 1.25 mm to 0.96 mm, down by 0.29 mm or
23.2%. For the floors with strongback and ceiling (Floors
F and I), w decreased from 0.97 mm to 0.86 mm, down
0.11 mm or by 11.3%, which is not as much as those for
the floors without ceiling.
The introduction of ceiling significantly enhanced the
stiffness of the floor so as to reduce the displacement. For
the floors with 600 mm joist spacing (Floors E and F), the
maximum displacement w decreased from 1.25 mm to 0.97
mm, down by 0.28 mm or 22.4%. For the floors with 400
mm joist spacing (Floors H and I), w decreased from 0.96
mm to 0.86 mm, down 0.10 mm or by 10.4%, which is not
as significant as those with 600 mm joist spacing.
The use of strongbacks greatly enhanced the stiffness of
the floor and lowered the maximum displacement. For the
floors with 600 mm joist spacing (Floors A, E and D), the
maximum displacement w decreased from 1.80 mm to 1.25
mm for the floor with a single strongback at the mid-span
(Floor E) and to 1.28 mm for the floor with two
strongbacks each situating at the third-span (Floor D),
down by 0.55 mm and 0.52 mm or 30.5% and 28.9%
respectively. This means that the effectiveness of
enhancement in stiffness largely depends on the location
where the strongback is put. The nearer the strongback is
put to the mid-span, the more effective the stiffness
enhancement is. Meanwhile for the floors with 400 mm
joist spacing (Floors G and H), w decreased from 1.44 mm
to 0.96 mm, down 0.48 mm or by 33.3%.
The increase in the size of strongbacks greatly enhanced
the stiffness of the floor so as to lower the maximum
displacement when strongbacks were placed at the same
location. For the floors with 600 mm joist spacing (Floors
A, E and B), the maximum displacement w decreased from
1.80 mm to 1.25 mm for the floor with a 35 mm  97 mm
TR26 strongback at the mid-span (Floor E) and further to
1.11 mm for the floor with a 47 mm  147 mm TR26
strongback at the mid-span (Floor B), down by 0.55 mm
and 0.69 mm or 30.5% and 38.3% respectively.
Similar to the size of strongbacks, the type of strongbacks
should also influence the stiffness of the floor. The stiffer
the strongback, the stiffer the floor and the lower the
maximum displacement. In this investigation, two
strongbacks had similar stiffnesses, 12669 N/mm2 for the
47 mm  147 mm TR26 strongback versus 11200 N/mm2
for the 45 mm  147 mm Kerto S strongback. Very little
enhancement in floor stiffness was expected and also little
variation in the maximum displacement was observed,
1.11 mm for the floor with 47 mm  147 mm TR26
Floor I
1.28 1.25 0.97 1.44 0.96 0.86
strongback (Floor B) versus 1.08 mm for the floor with 45
mm  147 mm Kerto S strongback (Floor C).
The increase in strongback size had little effect on the first
two modal frequencies of the floors but largely influenced
the higher modal frequencies. The increase in strongback
size largely increased the higher modal frequencies.
3.2 COMPARISON WITH EC5-1-1 AND UK NA
The maximum deflection of a timber floor under 1 kN
point load is normally checked for assessing the vibrational
performance of the floor. The design equations provided
by the UK National Annex to EN 1995-1-1 were used to
calculate the maximum deflections of all floors under 1 kN
point load and compare with the measured ones.
On average, the calculated maximum displacements were
only 2% larger than those measured. However, the
variations were very large, from -16.1% (Floor G) to
+31.1% (Floor F). No clear trend was observed between
the calculated and measured maximum displacements.
The design limit for the deflection of all testes floors was
calculated as 1.36 mm. Clearly, all the floors with
strongbacks are adequate to the serviceability requirements
with respect of deflection except the two without
strongbacks. This indicates for the current span,
strongbacks are desperately needed to evenly distribute the
floor loading and lower the maximum displacement.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The Metal Web Working Group, comprising ITW Alpine,
Gang Nail Systems, MiTek Industries Ltd. and Wolf
Systems, are greatly appreciated for their support.
REFERENCES
[1] B. Zhang, A. Kermani, and T. Fillingham.
Experimental investigations of vibrational
performance of timber floors constructed with metal
web joists. Engineering Structures, 52, 2013.
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INTERMEDIATE-SCALE FURNACE TESTS FOR

ENCAPSULATION MATERIALS FOR USE IN PROTECTING
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

J.Z Su1, G.D. Lougheed, N. Benichou, R. Berzin, P-S. Lafrance and P. Leroux

ABSTRACT: The National Building Code of Canada generally does not permit the use of combustible structural
loadbearing elements in buildings otherwise required to be of noncombustible construction. A project was undertaken to
develop an “alternative solution” to this restriction using encapsulation materials to protect the combustible structural
materials to delay any effects of the combustible structural elements on the fire severity. As part of this project,
intermediate-scale furnace tests were conducted to investigate the performance of four encapsulation materials: 12.7 mm
and 15.9 mm thick Type X (fire-resistant) gypsum board, 12.7 mm thick cement board and gypsum-concrete. The results of
these tests are discussed in this paper.

KEYWORDS: Encapsulation, Intermediate-scale furnace, gypsum board, cement board, gypsum-concrete

1 INTRODUCTION 123 2 TEST METHOD AND SETUP

The acceptable solutions provided in the 2010 National
Building Code of Canada (NBC) Division B [[1]] limits
the use of combustible construction based on building
height and area requirements. For buildings that exceed the
height and area requirements for combustible construction,
the NBC requires that noncombustible construction is
used.
The 2010 NBC generally does not permit the use of
combustible structural loadbearing elements in buildings
otherwise required to be of noncombustible construction.
As part of an ongoing project to develop an alternative
solution to meet the NBC fire safety requirements for mid-
rise buildings (5 – 6 stories), encapsulation materials are
being investigated for use in protecting the combustible
structural materials to delay the effects of the fire on the
combustible structural elements and, as a result, delay the
contribution of the combustible structural elements to the
fire severity. As part of this project, four materials were
selected for investigation as encapsulation materials for
combustible structural elements: 12.7 mm and 15.9 mm
thick Type X gypsum board, 12.7 mm thick cement board
and gypsum-concrete. The investigations included. The
results of a series of tests using an intermediate-scale
furnace tests are discussed in this paper.
1
Fire Safety, National Research Council, Ottawa, Canada.
E-mail: Joseph.Su@nrc.gc.ca.
Intermediate scale furnace tests were conducted to evaluate
each encapsulation material. The objective of these tests
was to provide comparative data for the four encapsulation
materials with the same test arrangement and time-
temperature fire exposure.
2.1 INTERMEDIATE-SCALE FURNACE
The intermediate-scale fire experiments were conducted
using a 1.33 m by 1.94 m horizontal furnace [2]. For 9
tests, the temperature in the furnace followed the standard
time-temperature curve given in CAN/ULC S101 [3]. Two
tests were conducted using a non-standard time-
temperature curve based on temperatures measured in full-
scale fully furnished bedroom fire tests [4].
2.2 Test Assembly
The test assembly consisted of a structure constructed
using 2x4 wood studs spaced at 406 mm O.C. Gypsum
board (12.7 mm thick Type X) was mounted on the
unexposed side of the test assembly. For all except one
test, two layers of 15.9 mm thick softwood plywood were
mounted on the fire-exposed side of the test frame as the
substrate for the encapsulation material. In the other test, a
single layer of 15.9 mm thick softwood plywood was used.
For all of the tests, the encapsulation material was
attached/applied directly to the plywood substrate. The
encapsulation materials included one and two layers of the

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 TRACK 5: SERVICEABILITY /FIRE SAFETY / REHABILITATION
board specimen materials (gypsum board and cement
board) and 25 and 38 mm thick gypsum-concrete.
2.3 INSTRUMENTATION
The primary measurements were using a set of 9
thermocouples located at the interface between the
encapsulation material and the plywood substrate. The
thermocouples were located at the quarter- and mid-
lengths along the centerlines of the test assembly. In
addition, thermocouples were located at the quarter points
of the assembly. Additional thermocouples were located
throughout the test assembly to monitor the heat transfer.
3 DISCUSSION AND SUMMARY
Two initial tests were conducted using 12.7 mm Type X
gypsum board to investigate the effect of the thickness of
the plywood substrate to which the encapsulation material
was attached on the temperature increase at the interface
between the encapsulation material and the substrate. It
was determined that the temperature increase was faster for
the assembly with a thicker substrate (2 layers of 15.9 mm
thick plywood) than with the single layer of plywood. Two
layers of plywood were used for all subsequent tests.
A primary objective of this study was to investigate the use
of intermediate-scale testing to determine the relative
performance of the four encapsulation materials for use in
protecting structural elements. However, in order to
evaluate performance of the encapsulation material, a
criterion is required. In this project, three existing criteria
used in standard testing were investigated (Table 1).
Table 1: Temperature criteria
Criteria Average ΔT (°C)
1 [3] 140
2 [5] 195
3 [6] 250
The times at which the three criteria were exceeded in each
test will be discussed in the paper. The encapsulation times
for the materials based on Criteria 3 are shown in Figure 1
for tests conducted using the time-temperature curve used
in standard fire resistance tests [3].
80
12.7 mm cement board
70 12.7 mm Type X gypsum board
15.9 mm Type X gypsum board
60
25 mm and 38 mm gypsum concrete
50
Time (min)
40
30
20
10
0
12.7 mm CB 2x12.7 mm CB 12.7 mm GB 2x12.7 mm GB 15.9 mm GB
Encapsulation Material
Figure 1: Encapsulation time using Criteria 3
Two tests were conducted using a non-standard fire
exposure derived from the average upper layer temperature
measured in a full-scale fire test [4]. The time to reach
Criteria 3 was reduced by 5.25 min (24%) and 5.17 min
(20%) for a single layer of 12.7 mm and 15.9 mm Type X
gypsum board, respectively. For two layers of 12.7 mm
thick Type X gypsum board, the time at which Criteria 3
was reached was reduced by 23.58 min (40%).
The results will be compared to encapsulation times
determined in full-scale fire resistance tests and the full-
scale apartment tests to determine whether the results can
be scaled.
4 CONCLUSIONS
The performance of four encapsulation materials were
investigated using intermediate-scale furnace tests. These
materials can be used to delay the effects of a fire on
combustible structural elements.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Financial and in-kind support for the project provided by
the following organizations is gratefully acknowledged:
Canadian Wood Council (CWC), Forestry Innovation
Investment BC, FPInnovations, Ontario Ministry of
Municipal Affairs and Housing, National Research
Council Canada, Natural Resources Canada, and Régie du
Bâtiment du Québec.
Extensive technical input by staff from collaborating
organizations is also gratefully acknowledged: R. McPhee
and I. van Zeeland, CWC and C. Dagenais, M. Mohammad
and L. Osborne, FPInnovations.
REFERENCES
[1] 2010 NBC, National Building Code of Canada,
Single Point ΔT (°C) National Research Council, Ottawa, Ontario, 2010.
180 [2] M.A. Sultan, Y.P. Seguin, J.C. Latour, P. Leroux and
250 J.P. Henrie, Intermediate-scale Furnace: A New Fire
270 Resistance Test Facility at the National Research
Council Canada, Research Report 213, National
Research Council, Ottawa, ON, 2006
[3] CAN/ULC-S101, Standard Methods of Fire
Endurance Tests of Building Construction and
Materials Underwriters Laboratories of Canada,
Ottawa, Ontario, 2007.
[4] Bwalya, A., Gibbs, E., Lougheed, G. Kashef, A.,
Characterization of Fires in Multi-Suite Residential
Dwellings - Part 1: A Compilation of Post-Flashover
Room Fire Test Data, Research Report, National
Research Council, Ottawa, Ontario, 2013.
[5] CAN/ULC-S124, Standard Method of Test for the
Evaluation of Protective Coverings for Foamed
2x15.9 mm GB 25 mm GC 38 mm GC
Plastic, Underwriters Laboratories of Canada, Ottawa,
Ontario, 2006.
[6] Östman, B., Mikkola, E., Stein, R., Frangi, A., König,
J., Dhima, D., Hakkarainen, T. and Bregulla, J., Fire
Safety in Timber Buildings, SP Report 2010:19, SP
Technical Research Institute of Sweden, Boras,
Sweden, 2010.
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TRACK 5: SERVICEABILITY /FIRE SAFETY / REHABILITATION

INFLUENCE OF FIRE EXPOSURE ON THE MECHANICAL

PROPERTIES OF WOOD
– Exposure temperature dependence of Young’s modulus and bending strength of Japanese Cedar and
Zelcova under and after heating–

Chihiro Kaku1, Yuji Hasemi2, Noboru Yasui3, Mizuho Yasukawa4, Daisuke

Kamikawa5, Asami Suzuki6, Naohisa Kameyama7, Tetsuro Ono8, Mikio
9 5 10
Koshihara , Hirofumi Nagao , Ichiro Hagiwara , Shuitsu Yusa11,

KEYWORDS: young's modulus, bending strength, Japanese cedar, Zelkova, fire heating

1 PURPOSE OF STUDY In this paper, authors have tested temperature dependence

In recent years, the wooden building has been noted of Young’s modulus and bending strength of Japanese
from various perspectives, low-carbon and management of Cedar and Zelcova under and after heating by experiment.
forest resources etc. In Japan, the Public Buildings Wood
Utilization Promotion Law has been enforced in 2010 and 2 BENDING TEST UNDER AND AFTER
cases of new wood utilization to public buildings, Large- HEATING
scale Timber-based Buildings, are increasing. 2.1 EXPERIMENTAL OUTLINE
On the other hand, buildings of fire-resistive and semi-
In this experiment, authors measured Young’s modulus
fireproof construction are evaluated the mechanical fire
and bending strength of Japanese Cedar and Zelkova under
safety performance to prevent the collapse risk of the
heating and at cooling after heating on a scale of 1 to 5
building. If a fire occurs in Large-scale Timber-based
except carbonization. The specimens are hewed out from
Buildings, fire damages are partial because buildings are
same log without knots and dewatered to approximately 2
large scale. Therefore it is highly possible to keep and
% moisture content. The size is 20mm×20mm×320mm
reuse structural members of Large-scale Timber-based
(fig.1). The test was conducted as provided by JISZ2101
Buildings after a fire except the case of deep fire damages.
“The examination method for the bending strength” and
Although mechanical behaviours of woods that are cooled
to normal temperature after heating is not studied and it is taken place in compression testing machine with heat-
necessary to understand the residual strength of the controlled chamber (picture.1). The experimental procedure
structural members after a fire for keeping and reusing is shown in fig.2.
fired wooden buildings.
2.2 SUMMARY OF RESULT
1
Chihiro KAKU, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, 2.2.1 Remaining rate of Young’s
modulus
Waseda University, 3-4-1 Okubo, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, 169-8555,
chihiro.k.lilla@fuji.waseda.jp From the result (table1, 2, fig.3 and .4) the fact listed
2
Yuji HASEMI, Prof.,Department of Architecture, Waseda below was concluded. Remaining rate of Young’s modulus
University, Dr.Eng, 3-4-1 Okubo, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, 169-8555,
hasemi@waseda.jp
3
Noboru YASUI, Visiting Researcher, RISE, Waseda University,
PhD specimen
4
Mizuho YASUKAWA, Tokyo Metropolitan Government Office Vertical load
5
Daisuke KAMIKAWA, Hirofumi NAGAO, Forestry and Forest
Products Research Institute
6
Asami SUZUKI, Obayashi Corporation mm
280 mm
7
Naohisa KAMEYAMA, Kameyama Construction Co.
8 mm
Tetsuro ONO, Sugiyama Women’s University
9 mm
Mikio KOSHIHARA, Institute of Industrial Science, University
of Tokyo Figure 1: Images of specimens
10
Ichiro HAGIWARA, Building Research Institute Picture 1:
11
Shuitsu YUSA, The Centre for Better Living Compression testing
machine with heat-
controlled chamber

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TRACK 5: SERVICEABILITY /FIRE SAFETY / REHABILITATION
is defined as the ratio of Young’s modulus under heating Table 1: Remaining rate of Young’s modulus under heating
or at cooling after heating to Young’s modulus at normal Tree species
normal
Japanese Cedar
normal
Zelkova

temperature. Temperature temperature 100℃ 150℃ 200℃ 230℃ temperature 100℃ 150℃ 200℃ 250℃

Young’s modulus under heating

Arithmetic average 0.99 0.91 0.84 0.66 0.49 1.00 0.87 0.81 0.53 0.31

Remaining rate of Young’s modulus decreased in value Table 2: Remaining rate of Young’s modulus at cooling
with increase in heating temperature both Japanese cedar after heating
and Zelkova. Tree species
Temperature
normal
Japanese Cedar
100℃ 150℃ 200℃ 230℃
normal
100℃
Zelkova
150℃ 200℃ 250℃
Young’s modulus at cooling after heating
temperat ure temperature

Arithmetic average 0.99 1.01 1.02 1.01 0.97 1.00 0.99 0.98 0.97 0.93
The minimum value of Zelkova was 0.79 at cooling after
250℃ heating, and Japanese cedar was 0.90 at cooling Table 3: Bending strength under heating (N/mm2)
after 230℃ heating. Tree species Japanese Cedar Zelkova
normal normal
Temperature temperat ure 100℃ 150℃ 200℃ 230℃ temperature 100℃ 150℃ 200℃ 250℃

2.2.2 Bending strength Arithmetic average 73.93 51.05 44.29 30.65 19.87 119.15 83.15 72.69 38.95 18.59

From the result (table3, 4, fig.5 and .6) the fact listed
below was concluded. Bending strength was derived from Table 4: Bending strength at cooling after heating (N/mm2)
maximum load of bending test. Tree species
normal
Japanese Cedar
normal
Zelkova

Bending strength under heating

Temperature temperature 100℃ 150℃ 200℃ 230℃ temperature 100℃ 150℃ 200℃ 250℃
Arithmetic average 73.93 76.86 77.16 67.42 58.89 119.15 120.48 113.16 99.7 55.27
Bending strength decreased in value with increase in
heating temperature both Japanese cedar and Zelkova. 1.2
Bending strength at cooling after heating
1.2

Bending strengths after heating at 100 and 150℃ were

the same level of normal one both Japanese cedar and 1 1

Zelkova. On the other hand, bending strength of some

Remaining rate of Young's modulus

specimens after heating at more than 200 ℃ were

Remaining rate of Young's modulus

0.8 0.8

approximately 50% of normal one.

3 CONCLUSIONS
0.6 0.6

As a result of the consequence tests, the facts listed

below were revealed. 0.4 0.4

(1) The Young's modulus of cooled Japanese Cedar after

heating at 100~230℃ was more than 80% of normal one. 0.2 0.2

(2) The Young's modulus of cooled Zelkova after heating

at normal temperature at normal temperature
under heating under heating

at 100~250℃ was more than 80% of normal one. 0

at cooling after heating
0
at cooling after heating

(3) The bending strength of cooled Japanese Cedar 0 100 200 300 0 100 200 300

(Zelkova) after heating at 100 and 150℃ was the same Temperature (℃) Temperature (℃)

level of normal one. Figure 3: Remaining rate of Figure 4: Remaining rate of

(4)The property trend of the Young's modulus and bending Young’s modulus of Japanese Young’s modulus of Zelkova as
strength under and after heating are nearly same Cedar as function of temperature
function of temperature
between Japanese Cedar and Zelkova. 180 180

160 160
Authors acquired basic information of influences on
structural performance of wooden buildings under and after 140 140

fire heating. 120 120

Bending strength (N/mm²)

Bending strength (N/mm²)

All specimens：measure of Young’s modulus at normal temperature 100 100

<a> normal <b> 100℃ <c> 150℃ <d> 200℃ <e> 250℃ ※
temperature 80 80
16 specimens 32 specimens 32 specimens 32 specimens 32 specimens
60 60
<a> <b1> <c1> <d1> cooling <e1>
cooling cooling cooling
bending strength bending bending bending bending
40 40
test at normal strength strength strength strength
temperature test at <b2> test at <c2> test at <d2> test at <e2>
100℃ bending 150℃ bending 200℃ bending 250℃ bending 20 20 at normal temperature
at normal temperature
strength strength strength strength under heating under heating
test at test at test at test at at cooling after heating at cooling after heating
normal normal normal normal 0 0
tempera tempera tempera tempera 0 100 200 300 0 100 200 300
-ture -ture -ture -ture
Temperature (℃) Temperature (℃)
Japanese Cedar＝230℃
Figure 5: Bending strength of Figure 6: Bending
Figure 2: The experimental procedure Japanese Cedar as function of strength of Zelkova as
temperature function of temperature

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ESTIMATION OF SHEAR STRENGTH OF NAIL DRIVEN INTO

DECAYED WOOD

Takuro Mori1, Kei Tanaka2, Takumi Nakahata2, Kotaro Kawano2, Yoshiyuki

Yanase 3, and Hiroshi Kurisaki 4

ABSTRACT: This study was aimed at evaluating and estimating the shear strength properties of nailed wood connection
damaged by decay. Steel and stainless steel nails were driven into specimens, then the specimens were decayed by the
compulsion method using cultured brown rot fungi (Fomitopsis palustris). The Pilodyn’s penetration depth and the
embedding strength were measured to estimate the shear strength of nailed connection damaged by decay. The single face
shear tests were conducted to investigate relationships between Pilodyn penetration depth and shear strength. It was found
that the stainless steel nails resulted in slightly decreased yield load with increasing penetration depth. However, the steel
nails showed an opposite tendency due to rust. The deeper the penetration depth caused the lower the embedding strength.

KEYWORDS: Bio-deterioration, Penetration depth, Embedding strength test, Single shear test, Brown rot fungi

1 INTRODUCTION 123
2 EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
Currently, various studies wooden houses are carried out
regarding durability in Japan. It is important to establish 2.1 SPECIMENS
the methods for evaluating the surviving strength of
The wood used in the test was Japanese cedar (Sugi). The
structural members and joints to ensure the safety of a
dimensions of a specimen were 50mm in width, 50mm in
wooden structure over time and to decide if the members
thickness and 250 mm in length.
and joints should be repaired and replaced. Even in the
case of non-destructively evaluation method using existing
diagnostic equipment, data obtained is still insufficient. In 2.2 COMPULSION DECAY METHOD
this study, the single face shear joint tests for steel and The specimens were decayed by the compulsion method
stainless steel nails driven into the decayed wood were using brown rot fungi (Fomitopsis palustris) [1]. At first,
carried out and measured the penetration depth using the fungi were inoculated in the central part of 250 mm
Pilodyn about the same specimens. After shear tests, some length shown in Fig. 1 (Left). The specimens experienced
specimen are separated to cut damaged part and non- the forcible decay from four to eighteen weeks.
damaged part, and the embedding strength and the
penetration depth were measured to estimate the shear Decayed specimen
strength.

Control specimen

Figure 1: Conditioning of specimen (Left: Single shear

specimen, Right: Embedding specimen)

1 Takuro Mori, Research Institute for Sustainable Humanosphere,
Kyoto University, Gokasho, Uji, Kyoto, Japan. Email:
moritakuro@rish.kyoto-u.ac.jp
2 Kei Tanaka, Takumi Nakahata, Kotaro Kawano, Oita University,
Japan.
3 Yoshiyuki Yanase, Kyoto University, Japan.
4 Hiroshi Kurisaki, Toyama Prefectural Agricultural, Forestry &
2.3 MEASUREMENT OF DIAGNOSTIC
EQUIPMENT
The penetration depth of a needle, moisture content and
density of wood were measured using the non-destructive
evaluation methods such as Pilodyn for penetration depth.

Fisheries Research Center, Japan.

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2.4 SINGLE FACE SHEAR TEST METHOD

Nailed wood specimens were prepared as shown Fig. 2.
The nails used in the specimens were steel nails (SS) in 45
mm length, 2.45 mm diameter and stainless steel nails
(SUS) in 45 mm length, 2.3 mm diameter, respectively.
Nails were driven in depth 42 mm into the heartwood
surface and sapwood surface of a specimen. Thus one
specimen had four nails. Shear tests were carried out using
Figure 2: Dimension of specimens (unit: mm) and set-up
the tensile monotonic load via a 2000 kN universal testing for single shear test
machine with a 2 kN load cell.

2.5 EMBEDDING STRENGTH TEST METHOD

The central part and the edge part were cut from the
specimen after the shear test as shown in Fig. 1 (Right).
Embedding specimens were applied under the monotonic
load in the parallel to the grain direction shown in Fig. 3.
The dimensions of a pin were 45.4 mm in length and 2.75 Figure 3: Dimension of specimens (unit: mm) and set-up
mm in diameter. The 100 kN universal testing machine for embedding strength test
was used. The load and the displacement between the cross 2.0
1.8
head and the specimen were measured. Control
1.6
Decay

Yield strength (kN)

1.4
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 1.2
1.0
Fig. 4 and Fig. 5 show relationship between penetration 0.8
depth and yield load for single face shear tests with SS and 0.6

SUS nailed connection, respectively. As for SUS, the yield 0.4

0.2
load decreased slightly with increasing the penetration 0.0
depth. However, SS ones showed an opposite tendency due 0 5 10 15 20 25
Penetration depth (mm)
30 35 40

to rust. Fig. 6 shows relationship between penetration

depth and embedding strength. The larger the penetration Figure 4: Relationship between duration of decay and yield
depth, the lower the embedding strength. load of single shear test (SS)
2.0
4 CONCLUSIONS 1.8
Control
1.6
1) The stainless steel nails in slightly decreased yield load Decay
Yield strength (kN)

1.4

with increasing penetration depth. 1.2

1.0
2) The steel nails showed an opposite tendency due to rust. 0.8
3) The deeper the penetration depth caused the lower the 0.6
embedding strength. 0.4
0.2
From results and discussion, an estimation method will be 0.0
conducted as shown in full paper. 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Penetration depth (mm)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Figure 5: Relationship between penetration depth and yield

load of single shear test (SUS)
This work was supported by Grant-in-Aid for Scientific
50
Research (A) (Head: Yoshihisa Fujii, 25242032) and 45 Control
Collaborative Research Program RISH Kyoto University.
Embedding strength（N/mm2）

40 Decay
35
30 y = 308x -0.725
REFERENCES 25
20
[1] T. Mori, K. Kawano, K. Tanaka, and et al.: Propose of
15
Decay-acceleration Method for Real Size Column-sill 10
Joint and Evaluation of Strength Properties, 5 Standard Embedding strength
=19.4 N/mm2
Proceedings of the WCTE 2012, USB, Auckland, New 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Zealand, 2012. Penetration depth （mm）

Figure 6: Relationship between penetration depth and

embedding strength

274
TRACK 5: SERVICEABILITY /FIRE SAFETY / REHABILITATION

FIRE RESISTANCE OF TIMBER FRAMED FLOOR WITH

ISOLATED CEILING ASSEMBLY

Joo-Saeng Park1, Sang-Joon Lee2, In-Hwan Yeo3

ABSTRACT: Fire resistance test was performed for a floor assembly, of which stiffness was reinforced by shortening the
span of floor joists by adding glulam beam in the middle of the original span, and which an additional ceiling component
was installed apart from floor part. These factors are expected to show good insulation performance of timber framed floor
against heavy impact sound. From full scale fire test, it is conclude that the designed and manufactured floor achieved 1
hour of fire resistance rating.

KEYWORDS: Fire resistance, Timber framed floor, Isolated ceiling, Sound insulation performance, Heavy impact
sound

1 INTRODUCTION 123 2.1 BASIC FLOOR

For multi-story buildings including apartment building, Basically, a floor used in this study was typical light
fire resistance of floor assembly should be considered timber framed one installed in the post and bema structure.
along with the sound insulation performance against light Solid wood joists of Japanese Larch(38mm by 184mm)
or heavy impact sound. In typical light timber framed were placed at 400mm intervals and structural
building, a floor assembly shows a certain level of fire OSB(18.3mm thick) floor sheathings were attached on the
resistance by attaching adequate fire resistant gypsum joists.
boards(required for targeted fire resistance rating) beneath
the basic floor structure, which are composed of floor
joists and floor sheathings. Many researchers have reported
that these timber joist floors showed bad insulation
performance against heavy impact sound. It has been well
known that major factors affecting the insulation
performance of floor against heavy impact sound are
stiffness of floor structure, sound absorption layer and
additional ceiling assembly isolated from floor.
In this study, fire resistance of timber framed floor was
evaluated in the points of reinforcement of floor stiffness Figure 1: Basic floor and stiffness reinforcement
and addition of isolated ceiling components.
2.2 STIFFNESS REINFORCEMENT
The span of joists was shortened by making an addition of
a glulam beam at the middle of the original span for the
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS purpose of reinforcing the stiffness of whole floor. And
Fire resistance test was performed for floor assembly with 12.5mm thick type-X gypsum boards were attached
double layers of fire resistant parts such as ceiling and directly beneath the floor joists by screws.
floor components.
2.3 ADDITION OF CEILING
1
Joo-Saeng Park, Korea Forest Research Institute, 57 Hoegiro The ceiling component was installed 30mm apart from
Dongdaemun-gu Seoul, Korea, Email: jusang@forest.go.kr floor part. 38mm by 89mm ceiling joists were placed
2
Sang-Joon Lee, Korea Forest Research Institute, Korea perpendicular to floor joist direction at 600mm intervals
3
In-Hwan Yeo, Korea Institute of Construction & Tech., Korea

275
TRACK 5: SERVICEABILITY /FIRE SAFETY / REHABILITATION
and blocked at the same intervals. And 15mm thick type-X
gypsum boards were attached directly beneath the ceiling
joists by screw.
3.2 DEFLECTION OF FOOR ASSEMBLY
After 60 minutes, the maximum deflection measured at the
mid-point of floor was about 7mm, which was smaller than
1/360 of floor span. From this results, it is thought that
there was no structural damage during fire test(1hour) and
test floor satisfied 1 hour of fire resistance rating.

Figure 2: Ceiling component and fire test

2.4 FIRE RESISTANCE TEST

Fire resistance test for manufactured floor assembly was
carried out in accordance with Korean Standard(KS F
2257-5). During the test, constant load of 48.84
kN(=3kN/m2) was applied uniformly. This load was
calculated by adding the general live load(2kN/m2) for
living room in a residential building and dead load
increase(1kN/m2) caused by concrete topping(5mm thick)
addition, which is expected to show better insulation
performance against heavy impact sound. Temperatures at Figure 4: Temperature changes within floor structure
4 different points(non-fire side of gypsum board attached
to ceiling joist, fire and non-fire side of gypsum board, and
50mm deep in glulam placed in the middle of floor) were
measured during fire tests. And the deflection of tested
floor was measured at the mid-point of whole floor, which
was expected to be shown maximum value.

Figure 5: Comparison of glulam cross-section

between before and after fire test

Figure 3: Positions for temperature measurement

4 CONCLUSION
Timber framed floor, of which stiffness was reinforced and
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION which additional ceiling component was installed apart
from floor, showed 1 hour of fire resistance rating. This
3.1 TEMPERATURE WITHIN FLOOR floor is expected to show good insulation performance
against heavy impact sound.
As shown in Figure 4, temperature inside the 15mm thick
type-X gypsum board increased rapidly after 20 minutes.
This meant that fire resistant performance of this gypsum
board was lost. The temperature inside the second gypsum
board increased rapidly after about 45 minutes. From this
moment, wood joists might start to be charred.
Temperature within glulam increased very slightly even
after 60 minutes.

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STIFFNESS OF SHEATHING-TO-FRAMING CONNECTIONS IN

TIMBER SHEAR WALLS – IN SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATE

Ida Näslund1, Helena Lidelöw2

1 INTRODUCTION 123 particleboard and hardboard. One wall segment is 1.2x2.4

m2, width and height, respectively. Distance between each
Due to the low mass density of wood medium-rise timber connector is set to 200 mm.
buildings can experience large lateral displacements when
subjected to lateral loads, e.g. from wind. For the design of Table 1: Material properties
higher buildings, it is not unusual that the displacement, Elastic Shear
Poisson´s Density
Material modulus modulus
movement and deformation aspects in the serviceability ratio [kg/m3]
[N/mm2] [N/mm2]
limit state are the determining criteria, rather than the Timber Not
capacity in the ultimate limit state. To stabilize a medium- 11000 Not used 420
C24 used
rise light-frame timber building, shear walls are usually Particleboard 2000 960 0. 4 778
used. Stabilizing shear walls consist of a timber frame Hardboard 4600 1900 0.2 1077
(studs, top and bottom rails) and sheathing connected to it.
The sheathing-to-framing connections usually determine Different types of connectors and diameters were used to
both the strength and stiffness of the stabilizing element. study the displacement when changing the connector
Different models have been proposed to predict the stiffness. In Table 2, connector stiffness range is presented.
capacity of a shear wall, in ultimate limit sate, subjected to The stiffness was calculated according to Eurocode 5 [5].
static lateral load, analytical and numerical, elastic and
plastic, e.g. [1, 2, 3, 4]. With respect to deformations and Table 2: Connector stiffness
stiffness in the serviceability limit state, no clear Connector, Connector,
limitations for static displacement in structures are without pre-drilling, with pre-drilling,
established in Eurocode 5 [5]. When using the finite Material Ks [N/mm] Ks [N/mm]
element method, FE, to calculate the deformations in shear d=8
d=2 mm d=8 mm d=2 mm
walls and whole buildings, there is a need to reduce the mm
number of parameters in the model to make it more Particleboard 793 2404 1188 4754
manageable. A first step is to replace the total effect of the Hardboard 1012 3069 1517 6067
individual connector stiffness along the framing members
with an equivalent stiffness of fictitious connectors only in Matlab R2013b with a finite element toolbox, CALFEM,
the corners of the shear wall. The aim of this study is to was used for the numerical calculations. The shear wall
evaluate the equivalent stiffness of the sheathing-to- consists of three basic elements: frame members, sheathing
framing connections in the serviceability limit state, using and connectors. Beam elements with three degrees of
both analytical and numerical methods. freedom are used to model the frame. A plane stress
isotropic element is used for the sheathing with two
degrees of freedom in each node. The frame member and
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS the sheet are connected in the translation direction in the
The assumed timber strength class is C24 for the timber- corner by two linear springs [6], see Figure 1. The studs
frame with two different sheathing materials are used; are pin jointed to the top and bottom rail. Two finite
hardboard and particleboard. Material properties are element models were created for numerical calibration to
presented in Table 1. The cross-section of the timber arrive at a stiffness value for the corner connectors. One
element is set to 45x120 mm2 and the thickness of the model with connectors along the perimeter of the sheathing
sheets was 12 mm and 8 mm, respectively, for and one with connections only in the corners were created.
A corresponding analysis was conducted using the
1
Ida Näslund, Ph.D. Student, Division of Structural Engineering analytical method presented in [3]. The analytical model
– Timber Structures, Luleå University of Technology, SE-971 87 presupposes the same connector stiffness for parallel and
Luleå, Sweden. Email: ida.naslund@ltu.se perpendicular to grain directions, rigid framing members
2
Helena Lidelöw, Ass. Prof., Division of Structural Engineering and sheathing. Also, the stud-to-rail connection is assumed
– Timber Structures, Luleå University of Technology, Luleå, hinged, i.e. it represents a fully anchored situation.
Sweden.

277
TRACK 5: SERVICEABILITY /FIRE SAFETY / REHABILITATION
Figure 1: Detail of connection
3 RESULT
The stiffness for one connector has been varied between
0 N/mm and 6000 N/mm to study the influence on the
displacement. In Figure 2, uframe of the shear wall with
connectors around the perimeter are presented both for the
FE method (particleboard and hardboard) and the
analytical method.
Figure 2: Top displacement uframe vs. connector stiffness,
0-6000 N/mm
To obtain the equivalent stiffness of the sheathing-to-frame
connection using the FE method a calibration model was
used and for the analytical method derivations of equations
was performed. The analytical calibration factor is constant
see Figure 3. When using the FE method the overall
stiffness matrix for the shear wall will not increase linearly
since only the fastener stiffness represented by springs are
changed which leads to the decrease of the calibration
factor when applying higher stiffness. By increasing the
connector stiffness the whole shear wall will behave more
as a rigid body.
278
Figure 3: Calibration factor
4 CONCLUSIONS
The FE method is in good agreement with the analytical
solution when comparing overall behaviour of the shear
wall element top displacement. The overall conclusion is
that approximations by only using connectors in the corner
in the FE method are suitable for displacement
calculations. The FE calculations are on the safe side since
the analytical model presents lower displacements as
compared to the FE model. The calibration factors are
shown to differ between the two methods.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors wish to acknowledge the financial support
from the centre for Lean Wood Engineering sponsored by
VINNOVA in Sweden, and SWECO Structures in
Sweden.
REFERENCES
[1] Foschi, R., 1977. Analysis of wood diaphragms and
trusses - 1 Diaphragms. Canadian journal of civil
engineering, 4, pp. 345-352.
[2] Falk, R.H. and Itani, R.Y., 1989. Finite Element
Modeling of Wood Diaphragms. Journal of Structural
Engineering, 115(3), pp. 543-559.
[3] Källsner, B. and Girhammar, U.A., 2009. Analysis of
fully anchored light-frame timber shear walls-elastic
model. Materials and Structures, 42(3), pp. 301-320.
[4] Källsner, B. and Girhammar, U., 2009. Plastic models
for analysis of fully anchored light-frame timber shear
walls. Engineering Structures, 31(9), pp. 2171-2181.
[5] Swedish Standards Institute (SIS), 2009. SS-EN 1995-
1-1:2004 Eurocode 5: Design of timber structures -
Part 1-1: General - common rules and rules for
buildings. Stockholm: SIS.
[6] Judd, J.P. and Fonesca, F.S., 2005. Analytical Model
for Sheathing-to-Framing Connections in Wood Shear
Walls and Diaphragms. Journal of Structural
Engineering, 131(2), pp. 345-352.
TRACK 6: PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE

FUZZY VENTILATION CONTROL FOR WOOD-BASED

HOUSES IN TROPICAL CLIMATES

Carmen Riverol1, Veronica Pilipovik2

ABSTRACT: The aim of this work is to evaluate the performance of a ventilation control system for improving the thermal
comfort in wood-based houses in the Caribbean. The fuzzy control system is based on the idea of fuzzy weighting local
values and environmental conditions during the dry season only due to the rainy season (hurricane season), the conditions
are unpredictable. The results have confirmed a good performance and effectiveness system such that the room temperature
was maintained at 24.5°C, varying within a small range (0.20°C to 0.43°C). Also, the energy consumption in the house
without controller was 198.22 kWh and with controller 200.44 kWh in the same period indicating that the electricity bill
does not increase significantly using the control system proposed in this article.

KEYWORDS: Fuzzy control, passive cooling, Caribbean, wood-based house, Multi input multi output

1 INTRODUCTION 123 2 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND

According to the World watch Institute, buildings consume
about 40% of the world’s energy production [1]. As a
result, buildings are involved in producing about 40% of
the sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides that cause acid
rain and contribute to smog formation. The growing of the
non-renewable energy sources and the adverse
environmental impacts of fossil-fuel dissipating processes
has stimulated the interest towards adoption of passive
cooling techniques for buildings. A ‘passive’ cooling
design involves the use of natural processes for heating or
cooling to achieve balanced interior conditions [2] and [3].
Passive design should include passive heating provision
for winter in all climates except high humid (tropical). In
this situation, in order to estimate the achievable energy
savings a method to lab scale is proposed where the control
system was tested and implemented using MATLAB (real
time toolbox).
1 Carmen Riverol University of the West Indies,St. Augustine,
Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. Email:
Carmen.riverol@sta.uwi.edu
2 Veronica Pilipovik, JC Engineering, Caracas, Venezuela
RESULTS
An external room 3 m height and 10 m long where a
corrugated zinc sheet supported on a wood ceiling were
used. Several PT-100 (temperature sensors) were installed
in the room for determining the hotspot. The hotspot is
located on the opposite side to the main door as is
predictable and it was detected between 12:00 noon and
3:00 pm. Is important to indicate that the room has one
window (right side), the window is open all day and night.
Is important to notice that according to the Figure 1, the
temperature can decrease until 21°C at night thus that the
controller can remain off until 7:00 am for saving energy.
The ceiling fan can operate manually all night. All
measurements, temperature and heat flux were recorded on
a laptop during all day in the dry season. The room has a
ceiling fan with a sloped ceiling adaptor that can
accommodate angled ceilings. The adaptor can incline the
fans six degrees maximum with respect to the vertical axis
at the top. During this exercise, the maximum
environmental temperature during the dry season was
330C. Basically, the MIMO fuzzy controller uses the top
temperature sensor and heat flux for adjusting the fan
speed and angle according to the room temperature. In
order to predict the performance and design a control
system under similar conditions a model should be put
forward. The net heat flux should take into account
radiation and convection. The model assumes that the heat
flux at the bottom surface is rather small compared to the

279
TRACK 6: PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE

heat flux at the top surface. The analytical solution is as

follows: By analysing the results in terms of temperature, it can be
noticed that the controller increases the indoor temperature
(1) during the period when heat flux is low in order to provide
a better thermal comfort sensation. When the heat flux
becomes higher, the indoor temperature decreases
Where q0, t k, x, l and Ti are heat flux, time, thermal proportionally in order to provide adequate thermal
conductivity, distance to midpoint, slab thickness and sensation to the occupants. On the other hand, the
initial temperature respectively. However this model is not temperature signal does not vary due to changes on the
enough for describing the real behaviour of the system humidity, which affects the indoor thermal comfort. The
such that the orientation of the fan changes with the energy consumption was measurement with/without
direction and speed of the wind. In consequence, the fuzzy control system. Using the controller, the energy
logic and fuzzy control can help to control the process. consumption was 198.23 kWh and with controller, the
energy consumption was 200.44 kWh in the same period.
2.1 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Hence, the electricity bill does not increase significally
using this control system. Future studies should
Basically, the fuzzy controller operates in a closed-loop
concentrate on real-size residential to determine the impact
system in real time. A whole set of such “If-Then” rules is
of environmental conditions on similar passive cooling
loaded into the rule-base, and an inference strategy is
systems.
chosen, then the system is ready to be tested to see if the
closed-loop specifications are met. This is a very tedious
procedure. Table 1 shows a summary of the parameters
used. Afterwards, the rules were developed in the IF- 3 CONCLUSIONS
THEN format. Only 8 rules were necessary to cover each The experimental results demonstrate excellent
possible scenario of the process. The controller was performance and effectiveness of the fuzzy control system.
implemented using MATLAB v7.0 and Real time toolbox The set point temperature was fixed at 24.5 °C , vary
[4]. The final results are shown in the Table 2. within a small range (0.20°C to 0.43°C) during the dry
season. The results also indicate that the house can reduce
Table 1: Summary of variables and their parameters used the typical thermal load by over 70% controlling thermal
Variables Terms Range
fluctuations. The newly designed the ceiling fan with an
Temperature Less Setpoint 0-17°C optimal orientation reduces the midpoint temperature of a
Setpoint 18-25°C wood-based house significantly. Despite the variability of
Greater Setpoint 17-32°C the outdoor climatic conditions, the regulation shows a
Heat Flux (W/m2) Less Setpoint 60-108
very stable behaviour, allowing an effective and fast
Setpoint 78-150 control of the indoor temperature
Greater Setpoint 145-211

Speed (switch- Stop Cool 0-1.0

position) ContOffCool 1.0-3.0 REFERENCES
ContCool 2.0-4.0
Continue 2.0-3.0 [1] Bansal N. K., Hauser G. and Minke G. Passive
Fan-orientation Stop angle 0-3.0 Building Design – A Handbook of Natural Climatic
(degree) Contangle 1.6-4.2 Control. Elsevier Science B.V., Amsterdam, 1994.
Bigangle 3.8-5.6 [2] Batty W. J., Hinai H. and Probert S. D. (1991) Natural-
Continue 4.2-6.0 Cooling Techniques for Residential Buildings in Hot
Climates, Applied Energy, UK, 39, 301-337.
[3] Kumar R., Garg S. N. and Kaushik S. C. (2005)
Table 2: Sample of data
Performance evaluation of multi-passive solar applications
Temperature Setpoint Heat Speed Orientation of a non air-conditioned building. International Journal of
°C temperature flux Environmental Technology and Management, 5 (1) 60-
°C 75.
24.2 24.5 101 2.0 Continue
24.5 24.5 99 1.5 Continue
[4] O’ Connor B., Riverol C., Kelleher P., Plant N.,
24.8 24.5 100 2.0 Bigangle Ruane G., Bevan R., Hinchy E. and D’ Arcy J. (2002),
24.7 24.5 111 1.5 Bigangle Integration of fuzzy logic based optimized control
24.5 24.5 98 2.0 Stop angle procedures in brewing. Food Control, 43 (1), pp-23-31
25.0 24.5 105 3.0 Bigangle
24.9 24.5 112 2.0 Bigangle
24.5 24.5 99 3.0 Bigangle
24.4 24.5 100 2.0 Bigangle
24.8 24.5 103 2.0 Bigangle

280
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CROSS LAMINATED ROUND-WOOD PANEL: DESIGN

GUIDELINES IN THE STATE OF SÃO PAULO

Rafael Novais Passarelli1, Akemi Ino2

ABSTRACT: This paper aims to present a preliminary proposal for a cross laminated solid wood panel better suited to the
State of São Paulo forestry resources and timber industry. At first, the main features of the State of São Paulo's forestry and
timber industry were analysed in order to create an overall picture of the possibilities and restraints offered by the local
forestry sector. After, a preliminary proposal for a cross laminated round-wood solid panel was developed. Then, the
proposal was analysed and topics for further research on the theme were presented. It was found that a better suited cross
laminated solid wood panel in the State of São Paulo should favour the use of young Eucalyptus round-wood in a labour
intensive production process.

KEYWORDS: Solid Timber; Panel Design; Eucalyptus; Forestry; Timber Industry

carefully evaluated in order to adapt the concept of a cross

1 INTRODUCTION 1 2 3
In the last 10 to 15 years, wood utilisation in construction
has been through meaningful changes, especially in the
field of mid to high-rise buildings. These changes have
occurred as a result of development and diffusion of new
timber products that enable fast and high performance
wood construction. Perhaps, the most representative
among the recent developed timber products is Cross
Laminated Timber (CLT), a solid timber panel made from
soft-wood lamellae, stacked and glued together in a cross
layer arrangement.
During the aforementioned period, European CLT
production has grown from 25 thousand cubic meters on
2000, to 340 thousand cubic meters in 2010 [1]. However,
CLT was developed in Central Europe and therefore, it is a
solution created in an specific context, taking into account
the possibilities and restraints offered by European forestry
and timber industry, such as softwood timber availability
and capital intensive production system. These features
relate to the main forest resources and established
economical and technological context in Europe,
respectively. Hence, CLT solution may not suitable for
places with rather different natural and socio-economic
circumstances. In this cases, local context should be
1
Rafael Novais Passarelli, University of São Paulo, Av.
Trabalhador San Carlense 400, São Carlos, Brazil. Email:
architect@rafaelpassarelli.com
2
Akemi Ino, University of São Paulo, Av. Trabalhador San
Carlense 400, São Carlos, Brazil. Email: inoakemi@sc.usp.br
laminated solid wood panel into local sustainable
solutions.
This paper aims to present a preliminary proposal for a
cross laminated solid wood panel better suited to the State
of São Paulo (located in the southeast of Brazil) forestry
resources and timber industry.
2 METHOD
At first, the main features of the State of São Paulo's
forestry and timber industry were analysed in order to
create an overall picture of the possibilities and restraints
offered by the local forestry sector. The information was
retrieved from reports of the statistics research institutes in
the country. Hereafter, taking into account the information
gathered previously, a preliminary proposal for a cross
laminated round-wood solid panel was developed.
3 RESULTS
3.1 FORESTRY RESOURCES
The State of São Paulo has 24,819.696 hectares (IBGE,
2010) with about 22 % of it covered by forests [2], most of
it native forests. Even though planted forests accounts only
for 4.5% of São Paulo's forest cover rate, it supplies most
of the industry due to its extremely high annual growth,
ranging from 37 m3/year/ha (for Pine species) to 40
m3/year/ha (for Eucalyptus species) [3].

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TRACK 6: PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE

About 86% of the planted forest's area in the State of São

Paulo is cultivated with Eucalyptus species and the last
16% are cultivated with Pine species [4].

3.2 TIMBER INDUSTRY

Wood species distribution in planted forests in the State of
São Paulo reflects timber industry demand: i.e., the largest
amount of Eucalyptus round-wood harvested is processed
by the paper and pulp industry and the smaller Pine
volume harvested is processed by milling industry
especially veneer and plywood production [4]
However, regarding the direct jobs in each industry, an
opposite trend can be noted: despite its bigger size, pulp Figure 2: Sectioned building element perspective view
and paper industry accounts about half of the direct jobs of
the smaller saw-mill industry in the State of São Paulo [4]. 4 CONCLUSIONS
This suggests labour intensive practices are employed in
The material selection corresponds to the possibilities of
sawn mill segment.
São Paulo's forestry sector, highly oriented towards paper
and pulp industry segment, as it have been accessed
3.3 CROSS LAMINATED ROUND-WOOD PANEL
throughout the survey. Hence, a large amount young
Figure 1 shows the cross section of the proposed panel. Eucalyptus round-wood is employed as the main
Instead of utilising softwood lamellae as the main component of the panel, followed by a smaller quantity of
component, the proposed panel consists predominantly of Pine plywood and pressure treated Pine sawn timber.
young Eucalyptus round-wood: half-sawn (100 mm Furthermore, production process employs labour-intensive
diameter) and quarter-sawn (200 mm diameter), which system, thus avoiding investments in expensive production
carry the main vertical loads. In addition, Pine plywood machinery for automation.
(20 mm thick) is employed in the core of the panel as the
As this is still a relatively new topic in Brazil the work
cross layer and it is responsible for taking the horizontal
presented a preliminary proposal aiming to solve
loads as well as providing dimensional stability and air-
exclusively the problems pointed out by the analysis of
tightness. At least, pressure treated pine sawn timber (20
São Paulo's forestry sector. Further studies on the subject
mm thick) is fixed along the edges of the panel in order to
that can be developed includes cost estimation, production
create a protected perimeter against insects attack. All the
system design, mechanical performance, thermo-acoustic
pieces are fixed together by means of gun driven nails,
performance, etc., improving the proposed solution or even
thus creating a labour intensive production system.
developing new solutions for solid wood panels suited to
the local context.

Figure 1: Cross Laminated Round-wood panel cross
section
After the cross laminated round-wood solid panel is
completed, it can be insulated and cladded conventionally,
i.e., with mineral wool and gypsum boards, or in an
alternative fashion, utilising wood-cement composite
(Figure 2) or even wattle and daub. The panels can be
employed as large vertical elements, in the height of the
building, in order to speed up the assembling time,
lowering construction costs.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author acknowledges the financial support provided
by CAPES IAU-USP Post-graduation program scholarship
during the research.
REFERENCES
[1] Schickhofer, G. CLT – European Experiences. Lecture
at Institute For Timber Engineer And Wood
Technology. Vancouver, 2011.
[2] Instituto brasileiro de Geografia Estatística (IBGE).
IBGE Estados@, São Paulo, 2010.
[3] Associação Brasileira de Produtores de Florestas
Plantadas (ABRAF). Anuário estatístico ABRAF
2010, ano base 2009. Brasília, 2010.
[4] Associação Brasileira de Produtores de Florestas
Plantadas (ABRAF). Anuário estatístico ABRAF
2011, ano base 2010. Brasília, 2011.

282
TRACK 6: PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE

TIMBER ARCHITECTURE EDUCATION USING ACTIVE LEARNING

METHOD. SHORT-COURSE CASE STUDY ON UNIVERSITY OF SÃO
PAULO’S FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE

Rafael Novais Passarelli1

ABSTRACT: Due to the lack of disciplines devoted to the study of wood properties and wood design at Faculty of
Architecture in University of São Paulo, a 5-days short course was developed. The course employed active learning
methods as well as traditional lectures and practical activities. It was found that active learning clearly improved the
engagement of students in the course that became more prone to make question and reflect upon the content of the course,
on the other hand as students engaged in the course activities its content was slightly reshaped by the students’ specific
doubts and interests.

KEYWORDS: architecture education; wood properties; wood design; active learning

The first part contained the theoretical activities, and was

1 INTRODUCTION 1 2
Due to the lack of disciplines devoted to the study of wood
properties and wood design for undergraduate and
postgraduate students at Faculty of Architecture -
University of São Paulo (FAU-USP), a big gap in the
education of young architects in FAU-USP is created
regarding the basic concepts of wood utilization in
architecture. This lack of knowledge often results in
inappropriate use of this material, therefore, strengthening
untrue biases such as low durability and overall
unsuitability of wood construction in Brazil.
The analyzed short course's main objective was to present
the basics of Brazilian timber industry, timber processing
and wood properties to architecture students from FAU-
USP. The short course was held from July 2nd to 6th,
2012, in the Laboratory of Models and Testing (LAME) at
FAU-USP and ministered by the author. It included
theoretical and practical activities, with a total work-load
of 20 hours (4 hours per day) and was offered for 15
students regularly enrolled in FAU-USP, selected among
100 applicants by a motivation letter.
2 METHOD
The Mini Course was divided into two parts:
1 The first activity’s theme was "Native wood vs. Planted
Rafael Novais Passarelli, University of São Paulo, Av.
Trabalhador San Carlense 400, São Carlos, Brazil. Email:
architect@rafaelpassarelli.com
held in the first two days (8 hours total). It included
traditional lectures as well as active learning activities,
aiming at discussing key issues about wood properties and
timber processing. Active learning refers to techniques
which engage students actively in high-order thinking
tasks such as analysis, synthesis and evaluation [1], as
opposed to traditional lecture procedure where students
passively receive information.
The second part was held in the last 3 days of the course
and contained the practical activities in which the students
were asked to design and manufacture each a three-
dimensional object made of wood (that could be inscribed
in an invisible cube with edges of 200 mm). The project
should be thought of as an abstract object that presents one
or more technical, aesthetic or subjective features of wood.
The activities were arranged as follows:
• First day: standard lecture and active learning activity
• Second day: standard lecture and active learning activity
• Third, fourth and fifth days: practical activities and final
presentation (fifth day).
3 RESULTS
3.1 FIRST DAY
forest wood" and presented a lecture about wood resources
and forest certification programs in Brazil. The lecture
adopted the traditional format in which the lecturer spoke

283
TRACK 6: PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE
for about two hours about the subject. At the end of the
lecture students were asked to make questions but none
were made.
The second activity’s theme was "Wood properties" and
aimed at discussing wood macro-structure, anisotropic
behavior, wood-moisture relation and moisture induced
dimensional changes. The activity adopted active learning
collaborative learning method [2]. The students were
divided in tree groups and each of was given a different
piece of timber to analyze (Figure 1). The pieces were
about 2 meter long tangential cut from pine, eucalyptus
and pink-cedar. After five minutes, students were required
to talk about the meaning of what they have seen in their
piece of timber. After the tree groups had presented their
findings, the same groups were given a different piece to
analyze. This way, students were encouraged to further
analyze the statements and doubts presented by the
previous group about a given piece of timber. This activity
proved to be very efficient at engaging the students in the
process of learning as many questions were made, some
even anticipating issues that would be discussed in the
following day.
Figure 1: Groups of five students analyze different pieces
of timber.
3.2 SECOND DAY
The third activity’s theme was "Wood processing" and
presented a lecture about the chain of wood products from
the log to the sawn timber. The lecture adopted the
traditional format in which the lecturer spoke for about two
hours about the subject. At the end of the lecture students
were asked to make questions. Many questions were made
some of them relating the content of the second and third
activities.
The fourth activity consisted on demonstrating how to
safely operate wood working machines available at
LAME. The activity adopted active learning cooperative
learning method [2]. The group of 15 students was
required to discuss the correct order to process a rough
piece of lumber and which machines to utilize, followed by
the actual demonstration on the machines. The machines
utilized were planer, table saw, rotary, bend-saw and
sanding machine.
284
3.3 THIRD FOURTH AND FIFTH DAYS
Students developed the proposed task aided by laboratory
technicians and the course's lecturer. On the last day
students were asked to present their models and explain its
main ideas (Figure 2). At last, participants were
encouraged to share their opinions about the short course
experience.
Figure 2: Students present their models.
4 CONCLUSIONS
The activity learning experience (activity 2) clearly
improved the engagement of students in the course that
became more prone to make question and reflect upon the
content of the course. This was true for the active learning
activities as well as the traditional lectures that followed on
the second day. The excitement about the chance to
analyze the timber pieces by themselves was also stated by
three students in the discussion about the course in the fifth
day.
It should also be noted that as students engaged in the
course activities its content was slightly reshaped by the
students’ specific doubts and interests, for instance, having
to explain in much deeper detail issues as knots formation
and wood-moisture relations. This required a good amount
of flexibility from the lecturer. Lastly, five students also
pointed out as good the opportunity to understanding
theoretical aspects such as moisture induced dimensions
during the first day and them seeing it in reality during the
practical activities.
ACKNOWLEGEMENTS
The author gratefully acknowledges University of São
Paulo's Faculty of Architecture (FAU-USP), especially the
Laboratory of Models and Tests (LAME) and its staff for
embracing and financing the short course activities.
REFERENCES
[1] Bonwell, C. C., and J. Eison. Active Learning:
Creating Excitement in the Classroom. ASHEERIC
Higher education report 1, Washington, 1991.
[2] Prince, M. Does Active Learning Work? A Review of
the Research. Journal of Engineering Education 93(3),
pages 223-231, 2004.
TRACK 6: PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE

SMALL SCALE MODELS, TIMBER CONSTRUCTION AND THE

TEACHING OF ARCHITECTURE: A BRAZILIAN EXPERIENCE

Ivan do Valle1, Akemi Ino2, Anaïs Guéguen3

ABSTRACT: Timber construction demands institutional and educational support in order to divulge its traditions,
techniques and constructive characteristics. The goal of this work is to present the results achieved by a group of Brazilian
teachers that have been using small scale models as a tool in the teaching of architecture and timber constructions. With
simple techniques and direct methodology undergraduate students deepen their knowledge of wood buildings by producing
small scale models that reproduce real life situations from the building site. This experiment has been happening for 18
years in the University of Brasília and lately has been applied in the Institute of Architecture and Urbanism of the
University of São Paulo.

KEYWORDS: Small scale models, Timber construction, Teaching of architecture

1 INTRODUCTION123 Brasília [3] and, in 2013, the Institute of Architecture ad

Urbanism of the University of São Paulo, as can be seen in
The employment of small scale models as a teaching and figure 1, offers a course with the same theme and
learning tool of the timber construction culture, for methodology.
students of schools of architecture, has shown itself to be a
valuable reference and kindled the interest of students for
the correct employment and good constructive techniques
with the use of this material [1].
The teaching of timber construction, strongly advocated in
the northern hemisphere [2], demands for more support of
higher education institutions in Brazil, with aims to
promote its constructive culture and its values from the
viewpoint of environmental, social, economic and political
sustainability.
The objective of this work is to present an experience in
the use and application of small scale models as a means to
enhance the repertoire of students of civil construction and
related areas to the structural and constructive
technologies, the correct use of materials and techniques Figure 1: Studio at the USP Architecture in São Carlos
and its correlations with the structural and architectonic
project of the timber structures. Architectural projects built in wood are researched from
the architectonic point of view, passing through the
2 METHODS constructive techniques, up until the understanding of the
structural system. This sort of deepening, by itself,
The method of work has been applied for some time in the represents a gain for the student, for it makes a
School of Architecture and Urbanism of the University of differentiated approach of the building, making it closer to
the work that will be represented in the small scale.
1
Ivan do Valle, Universidade de Brasilia, FAU-UnB, Brasília, Specific techniques are taught to the students for the
Brazil. Email: vallefau@unb.br
2 transposing of the studied project to its representation in
Akemi Ino, Universidade de São Paulo, IAU, São Carlos,
Brazil. Email: inoakemi@sc.usp.br the small scale model [4].
3
Anaïs Guéguen, IAU/USP, Habis Researcher, São Carlos,
Brazil. Email: anaisgueguen@gmail.com

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TRACK 6: PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE

Whenever possible, the confection of a small scale model
of certain productive techniques of carpentry is asked of
the student, bringing adequate and relevant language to the
learning process, as the example in figure 2, bringing
school and building, theory and practice, designer and
carpenter closer together.
Figure 2: Students working on a project
initiative; and to the School of Architecture and Urbanism
of the University of Brasília.
REFERENCES
[1] Silva, Suely F. da. Zanine: sentir e fazer. AGIR: Rio
de Janeiro, 1991.
[2] Nattterer, J.; Herzog, T.; Schweitzer, R., Winter, W.;
Volz, M. Timber Construction Manual. Detail –
Birkhäuser: Basel, 2004.
[3] Valle, Ivan M. R. Modelo Reduzido no Ensino de
Construção em Madeira. In: Anais do VII
EBRAMEM: São Carlos, SP, 2000.
[4] Knoll, W.; Hechinger, M. Maquetas de Arquitectura -
técnicas y construcción. GG: México, 1998.

3 RESULTS
Always applying the same material as in the real structure,
and making approximations and simulations with the
remaining materials, the students get to assimilate new
knowledge and learn to work and design with wood in a
correct and sustainable way.
The resuming of the teaching of timber construction in the
schools of architecture of Brazil brings along with itself,
not only a greater understanding of constructive
techniques, but the rescue of a forgotten historical value,
environmentally important discussions and the valuing of
those who, despite the obstacles, continue to work with
timber and maintain alive the production of good
architecture built with this material.
The schools of architecture acknowledge the relevance of
the teaching offered the students and strengthen the
necessity of a greater effort and dialogue between the
remaining participants in the productive chain of timber.
4 CONCLUSIONS
The rescuing of the constructive culture long employed in
our country, and the new approaches from the
sustainability point of view bring new relief to timber
building and more motivation to the resuming and
employment in the curricula of schools of architecture. The
small scale model has been employed, not only as a
motivation, for its ludic aspect, but also as an important
teaching and learning tool of the timber constructive
techniques and structural systems.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Special thanks to Pró-reitoria de Cultura e Extensão
Universitária – PRCEU, of the university of São Paulo for
sponsoring the realization of the Course of Small Scale
Models as a Tool for the Conception, Record and
Divulging of the Timber Constructive Culture; to the
Institute of Architecture and Urbanism of the University of
São Paulo, to the Habis Research Group that supported the

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THE CONTRIBUTION OF ZANINE CALDAS TO TIMBER

CONSTRUCTION IN BRASILIA: FOUR PROJECTS OF SELF-
TAUGHT ARCHITECT

Ivan do Valle1, Giselle M. C. Chain2, Pedro dos Santos3, Matheus Maramaldo 4

ABSTRACT: Architectural references built in timber are not commonplace in Brazil. Zanine Caldas has legated some great
buildings. The goal of this work is to present this architect’s works from the 1960s up until the 1980s and, furthermore, to
present some constructive characteristic that have made it unique, showing beautiful examples of timber construction in
Brazil’s central region. Visits have been made to many buildings, along with interviews, photographical records and other
gathering of information, attesting the quality of constructive and structural details, besides architectonic components from
the work of this self-taught architect, developed in the mid-west region of Brazil.

KEYWORDS: Zanine Caldas, Timber construction, Brasília

1 INTRODUCTION 123 His apprenticeship took place in the persistent and constant
accompaniment of the growing Brazilian architecture of
In the 1980s, in Brazil, the architecture of Zanine Caldas the 1950s, following architects of the modern school of
has become synonym of quality timber construction, but architecture, such as Niemeyer, Alcides da Rocha Miranda,
his works are better known in the state of Rio de Janeiro, Sérgio Rodrigues, and many other professionals. He began
with a great number of buildings in the Joatinga his work in the 1940s with a small scale models atelier,
neighborhood [1]. However, the collection of his works in and this practice has marked his work, besides the good
Brasília also stands out for the amount and quality of its quality of his wood constructions.
architecture.
Zanine passed away in Rio de Janeiro, in 2002, leaving a
legacy of relevant interest for the quality of his
architecture, besides a characteristic technique that has
marked his architecture: the constant application of wood
in the structural systems of his works.
Even though Zanine did not have a formalist training in
any official architecture school, his accomplishments
include striking passages in the Museée des Arts
Decoratifs, in Paris, in 1990, or the receiving of public
acclaim from Lúcio Costa for the legal exercise of the
profession during the Brazilian Congress of Architecture in
1991. Still, he had a space reserved in the Architecture
d’Aujourd’hui magazine, in 1988 [2], presenting one of his
houses.

Figure 1: Outside view of the house Bethiol

1
Ivan do Valle, University of Brasilia, FAU-UnB, Brasília,
Brazil. Email: vallefau@unb.br The main objective of this paper is to present a part of the
2
Giselle M. C. Chain, University of Brasilia, FAU-UnB arch- work, as in the example of Figure 1, from this unique
student, Brasília, Brazil. Email: gisellecormier@gmail.com architect in the city of Brasília, located in the mid-western
3
Pedro dos Santos, University of Brasilia, FAU-UnB arch-
region of Brazil, and the most striking characteristics of his
student, Brasília, Brazil. Email: destroybabylon80@hotmail.com
4
Matheus Maramaldo, University of Brasilia, FAU-UnB arch- work.
student, Brasília, Brazil. Email: mmaramaldo@gmail.com

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2 METHODS This collection of work from Zanine Caldas in Brasília

Due to the lack of any record of Zanine’s works in
Brasília, the research included the gathering of its
information, which was made possible by authorized visits
to the houses designed by the architect at the Brazilian
capital.
The methodology included, firstly, the prediction and, then
the confirmation of Zanine’s designed houses within the
architecture of the city. The next step included the contact
and interviews with the current residents, which were not
necessarily the original owners of each place.
During the visits of the twelve selected houses, the work
consisted in registering, by taking general and detailed
photographs, recording the authorized informal
conversations with the residents and, thus, rescuing
information from the constructive details and the history
behind the architecture of each place.
3 RESULTS
The first work accomplished with the information from the
visits to Zanine’s works in Brasília was the confection of
small scale models of approximately 15 of his projects.
This work is still in the process of being presented in the
form of an exhibition in the University of Brasília.
The remaining results of the registry of his works will be
presented in the variety of door and window frames, in the
constructive details of the structural connections, in the
different types of solutions for the flooring structures, and
also, in the diversity of the roof carpentry, as in the figure
2.
comprises the period from 1960s up to the early 1990s,
when he returns to the city of Rio de Janeiro.
4 CONCLUSIONS
The diversity of characteristics to be highlighted in the
work of Zanine Caldas in Brasília, be it for the carpentry of
the floors and roofs, the wealth of connection details and
even for the design of doors and windows, demonstrates by
itself the importance of this collection of four examples of
projects in the Brazilian capital. His work shows a quality
that stands out for its beauty associated with the simplicity,
as well as for the good example of wood buildings.
Particularly, his projects in Brasília, continue to show the
same relevance of quality wood architecture, more than
twenty years after his most recent works, not only for the
attention given by the owners, but also because of the
solutions found by the architect.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Special thanks to the members of the Work Group for
Wood in the Small Scale Models Laboratory in the School
of Architecture of the University of Brasília. Deserving
attention in this gratitude are the families that allowed the
visits to their houses, supplying the necessary information,
relevant sources, to the results of this research.
REFERENCES
[1] Silva, Suely F. da. Zanine: sentir e fazer. AGIR, 3ª ed.:
Rio de Janeiro, 1991.
[2] Especial Brésil. l’Architecture d’Aujourd’hui, nº 251.
Archipress & Associés: Paris, juin 1988.

Figure 2: Internal detail

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COMPARISON OF CONSTRUCTION TYPES USING ANALYTIC

HIERARCHY PROCESS – CASE STUDY TIMBER PASSIVE
HOUSE

Manja Kitek Kuzman1, Milan Šernek2, Petra Grošelj3, Mirko Kariž4

ABSTRACT:
In this study, in order to determine the advantages and disadvantages of the most common construction materials, different
constructions types for passive houses, such as solid wood, wood-frame, aerated concrete, and brick, were compared with
each other. The analytic hierarchy process (AHP) was applied to quantify the comparison. The analysis of different
construction types based on quantifying different criteria for passive houses was performed on a case study. The wood
construction was considered as one of the most suitable options for passive houses. In the light of the growing importance of
energy-efficient building methods, it could be said that wood construction would play an increasingly important role in the
future.

KEYWORDS: Passive house; Timber construction; Building criteria; Analytic hierarchy process;

1 INTRODUCTION 123 be met through a variety of technologies, designs and

Energy efficiency is essential in the efforts to achieve a
20% reduction of primary power consumption by 2020. It
is widely recognized that the potential of energy saving in
buildings is large. Considering the tendencies of energy
production and price, it is becoming urgent to reduce
energy consumption in buildings. In Europe, the most
comprehensive and widely used concept of ultra-low
energy, more precisely, the passive house concept was
presented by Dr. Wolfgang Feist of the Passive House
Institute. It sets forth the maximum permissible energy
consumption for the heating of the building and limits the
total primary energy consumption. In its essence, it is an
upgrade of the low-energy house standard. The term
‘passive house’ refers to a construction standard that can
1
Manja Kitek Kuzman, assistant profesor, University of
Ljubljana, Department of Wood science and technology,
Biotechnical Faculty, Slovenia.
E mail:manja.kuzman@bf.uni-lj.si
2
Milan Šernek, full profesor, University of Ljubljana,
Department of Wood science and technology, Biotechnical
Faculty, Slovenia. E mail:milan.sernek@bf.uni-lj.si
3
Petra Grošelj, assistant, University of Ljubljana, Department of
Wood science and technology, Biotechnical Faculty, Slovenia. E
mail:petra.groselj@bf.uni-lj.si
4
Mirko Kariž, assistant, University of Ljubljana, Department of
Wood science and technology, Biotechnical Faculty, Slovenia.
E mail:mirko.kariz@bf.uni-lj.si
materials such as solid and wood structures. The following
considerations are particularly important when choosing
the material and the construction type: the construction
type should be standardized; the construction system
should be based on natural and environmentally friendly
materials; the thermal envelope should meet the standards
of a passive house; the construction should be wind-tight,
airtight and diffusion open. In order to design and
implement a high-quality passive house project, attention
should be paid to the materials used. The choice depends
on personal preferences, in particular on the cost. Over the
past few years, the number of passive houses has been seen
a continuous increase in Europe. Architects and
civil/structural engineers facing with the challenges of
climate change have recently focused their efforts on
finding environmentally friendly solutions and
construction methods that bolster energy efficiency and
thus reduce the environmental burden. The choice of a
construction material is the most important decision with
long-term consequences for the owner of the building. The
scale of the external environmental impact depends on the
materials used and the energy sources utilized.
The theoretical and practical aspects of a passive house’s
life cycle and its environment were reported in various
research articles and projects. However, based on an
extensive literature search, the AHP or another multi-
criteria decision model has not been used to rank
construction materials for passive houses. The construction
of a passive house is a complex and multidisciplinary field.

289
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2 METHOLOGY
The AHP analysis is a widely used multi-criteria decision
model for ranking alternatives or selecting the optimal
alternative on the basis of a hierarchical tree structure of
goal, criteria, and sub-criteria. The AHP analysis is based
on pair-wise comparisons of the elements on the same
level of the hierarchy in respect of the parent element on
the higher level of hierarchy. Comparisons can combine
measurable and non-measurable, tangible and intangible,
quantitative and qualitative elements. The objective is to
evaluate different types of construction for a passive
house. The components of the decision tree are goal,
criteria, sub-criteria, and alternatives. We focused on
finding the best alternative for a passive house. The answer
can be obtained by assessing the criteria that present the
core of the decision tree. We decided to choose the most
important criteria among the collection of many criteria.
The criteria of mechanical resistance and stability, fire
safety, and energy efficiency are set forth by construction
standards and have therefore been omitted from the
ranking. The remaining criteria were combined into tree
main criteria groups: the economic aspect, the
environment, and well-being. Each group contained five
sub-criteria. Based on the decision tree, in the first phase a
questionnaire was drafted with paired comparisons of
construction criteria in respect of the three criteria groups
and the criteria groups with regard to the objective. We
sought to establish which criterion is more important for
the selection of the construction material for passive
houses and to which extent. Eight experts from the field of
architecture, wood science and technology, mechanical
engineering, and civil engineering, along with eight
passive house dwellers-users were selected. The results
were obtained from all eight experts and from seven
dwellers. The transfer of expert knowledge into the model
increased the credibility of the final model. In the second
phase, the first six criteria were selected with the highest
weight by all the interviewees (Fig. 1). The alternatives
were assessed according to the selected criteria.
Figure 1: Analytical model
The estimates for the measurable criteria (end-of-life
disposal, emissions of material in their life cycle and
functionality) were acquired from the literature whereas
the ‘soft criteria’ based on subjective data (health aspect,
psychological aspect and aesthetics) were compared using
AHP scale by two experts.
290
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The results of the evaluation of three criteria groups
combined, and experts and dwellers are individually
presented in Fig. 2.
Figure 2: The results of evaluation of three criteria groups.
The priorities of each construction material type
(alternative) were obtained through the matrix
multiplication of weights of alter-natives and vector of
priorities of the criteria. The final priorities were
normalized so that the sum of all priorities equals one (Fig.
3).
Figure 3: The final priority ranking of different
construction types for a passive house.
4 CONCLUSIONS
This case study showed the application results of AHP
method could be used for analyzing the decision criteria
related to a passive house. Based on the findings obtained
from the study, it can be said that the AHP analysis is one
of the most suitable models for comparing different
construction types used in a passive house. The analysis
showed that wood as a renewable raw material was one of
the best choices for energy-efficient construction. The
AHP analysis method can help professionals and future
dwellers to make a reasonable choice on further optimizing
and developing a particular aspect of the building process
by giving them the possibility of comparing different
alternatives on a common and comprehensive basis.
Moreover, it can identify the weak and strong aspects of
using a material for a passive house and thus open up a
new dimension to the promotion and marketing of passive
wood houses by allowing a better appreciation of the
impact of individual parameters on other performance
criteria. The findings of AHP analysis can be further
integrated into strategies to increase the usage of wood as a
construction material. The links between the selected
criteria remained unexplored.
TRACK 6: PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE

SEISMIC PERFORMANCE OF AGED AND DETERIORATED

WOODEN JOINTS OF JAPANESE TRADITIONAL TIMBER
STRUCTURES

Yu Ooka 1, Kazuyuki Izuno2, Hideaki Tanahashi3 and Yoshiyuki Suzuki4

ABSTRACT: This paper describes the evaluation of seismic performance of wooden joints of Japanese traditional wooden
structures in consideration of aging and deterioration. First, the tests of old healthy members were conducted. The results
showed that most of old healthy members had similar or larger restoring force characteristics comparing to new ones. Next,
the tests of old members deteriorated by Anobiidae were conducted. As a result of the tests, stiffness and maximum moment
of restoring force characteristics were reduced greatly compared with new ones.

KEYWORDS: Japanese traditional wooden structure, Old wooden members, Aging, Deterioration, Anobiidae

1 INTRODUCTION 123 wooden structures [3]. However, it is not clear that the
relation between the grade of deterioration and restoring
There are many old traditional wooden temples, shrines force characteristics. The damaged member due to
and town houses recognized as invaluable cultural heritage Anobiidae is shown in Figure 1. The aged and deteriorated
in Japan. It is very important to prevent the cultural members were Japanese cedar, Japanese cypress, Japanese
heritage from earthquakes. Many kinds of wood species red pine obtained from old traditional wooden structures
are used for the structural members. The stiffness and which had been after the elapse of from 90 to 180 years.
strength change of wood due to aging depends on the
species [1, 2]. It is, however, difficult to evaluate the
seismic performance of old traditional wooden structures
because an estimation method is not available for aging
and deterioration of wooden members. In particular, it is
necessary to evaluate the restoring force characteristics of
aged and deteriorated members for accurate evaluation of
seismic performances of old traditional wooden structures.
The object of this research is, therefore, to evaluate seismic
performance of existing old traditional wooden structures
in consideration of aging and deterioration of wooden
members by means of the loading tests and nonlinear
earthquake response analysis.

2 OLD WOODEN SPECIMENS FOR

TESTS
Figure 1: Damaged members due to Anobiidae
We carried out loading tests of joints to evaluate the
restoring force characteristics of aged and deteriorated
members due to Anobiidae. Anobiidae is an insect which 3 TEST METHOD
often eats old wooden members of Japanese traditional The setup of horizontal loading tests for cross piece type of
column-beam joints is shown in Figure 2. Cyclic loadings
1
Yu Ooka, Ritsumeikan University/JSPS, Noji-higashi 1-1-1, for positive and negative directions were controlled three
Kusatsu, 525-8577, Japan. Email: y-ooka@fc.ritsumei.ac.jp times at the same deformation angle of 1/240, 1/120, 1/60,
2
Kazuyuki Izuno, Ritsumeikan University, Japan 1/30, 1/20, 1/15, 1/10, 1/5 rad. Displacement and rotations
3
Hideaki Tanahashi, Ritsumeikan University, Japan of the beam were measured by displacement transducers.
4
Yoshiyuki Suzuki, Ritsumeikan University, Japan

291
TRACK 6: PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE
on the earthquake responses of the Japanese traditional
wooden structures. Figure 5 shows a numerical model.
Figure 6 shows the displacement-time histories of the
Steel Column 500
Beam 30×100×1200
healthy wood and the deteriorated structures. Figure 6
Transducer
shows that the deterioration affects greatly on the
maximum response of the structures.

500

500 500
Figure 5: Numerical model of a structure
Figure 2: Test setup of column-beam joint

25
4 TEST RESULTS Healthy

Displacement (cm)
15
Deterioration
Figure 3 shows restoring force characteristics of aged 5
Japanese red pine. It shows that most of old healthy
-5
members have similar or larger restoring force
characteristics comparing to new ones (maximum moment -15
at 1/30: about 90-170% of new ones). On the other hand, -25
in deteriorated members, stiffness and maximum moment 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time (s)
of restoring force characteristics are reduced greatly
compared with new ones (maximum moment at 1/30:
Figure 6: Displacement-time histories
about 10-85% of new ones) as shown in Figure 4.

2000
Moment (kNmm)
6 CONCLUSION
1500
The loading tests showed that deterioration of Anobiidaes
1000
had a great influence on restoring force characteristics. The
500 nonlinear earthquake response analysis including the effect
0
rad
of aging and deterioration is, also, useful to evaluate the
-0.1 -0.08 -0.06 -0.04 -0.02 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
-500 seismic performance of cultural heritage such as temples,
-1000 red pine (new wood)
shrines and town houses from earthquakes.
red pine (elapsed years: 80)
-1500

-2000
red pine （elapsed years:170）
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Figure 3: Restoring force characteristics (aged) This research was supported by the Grant-in-Aid for
2000
Research Activity start-up from Japan Society for the
Moment kNmm Promotion of Science.
1500

1000
REFERENCES
500

0
rad [1] Hirajima, Y., Sugihara, M., Sasaki, Y., Ando, Y. And
-0.1 -0.08 -0.06 -0.04 -0.02
-500
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Yamasaki, M. Strength propeties of aged wood.
red pine (new wood) Tensile strength properties of aged Keyaki and
-1000
red pine (deteriorated member No.1) Akamatsu woods. Jounal of Wood Science. 50:5. 301-
-1500
red pine (deteriorated member No.2) 309, 2004
-2000
[2] Hirajima, Y., Sugihara, M., Sasaki, Y., Ando, Y. And
Figure 4: Restoring force characteristics (deterioration) Yamasaki, M. Strength propeties of aged wood.
Compressive strength properties, shearing strength
and hardness of aged Keyaki and Akamatsu woods.
5 NUMERICAL ANALYSIS Jounal of Wood Science. 50:6. 368-375, 2004
As the loading tests showed that the restoring force [3] Komine, Y., et al. Survey of wood-boring anobiids ar
characteristics of wooden members were reduced greatly Rinnohji temple in Nikko. Science for conssevation.
across the grade of deterioration, the numerical analyses 49. 173-181, 2009
were conducted to figure out the effect of the deterioration

292
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HUT EMERGENCY EVACUATION IN THE EVENT OF A

DISASTER OF USING THE WOODEN PANEL

Akito Kikuchi1, Hisamitsu Kajikawa2,

ABSTRACT: This project aims to quickly and inexpensively deliver, to people who have lost their homes due to a variety
of reasons, safe and secure huts that use wooden panels and can be used for longer periods than tents. The huts will be
provided to people in areas including those stricken by natural disasters such as earthquakes, as well as war zone refugee
camps, thereby aiding them in their recovery from disasters and conflict.

KEYWORDS: wooden panel, constructability

1 PROJECT SUMMARY 123

1.1 PARTS
The parts composing the hut include wooden panels, a
plastic foundation, metal components, a waterproof sheet,
and ropes. The parts are easily obtainable even in times of
disaster, are cheap in price, and are easily transportable in
size and weight.（Figure1）
1.2 WOODEN PANELS
The wooden panels are composed of structural plywood,
frame member, insulation and adhesives.
The wooden panels are produced and managed at the
factory, and they are characterized by high levels of
precision and load resistance. Furthermore, the panels can
be adapted for use in various regions by varying the types
of wood and insulation materials composing the panels.
3. Characteristics of the Hut（Figure2）

Figure 2: Panel overview diagram

1.3 THE SIZE OF THE HUT AND ITS USES

The horizontal dimensions of the hut are 4mx4m; its height
Figure 1: Diagram is 2,500mm.
About a few years is envisioned for the period of use.
1
Akito Kikuchi ,Akito Kikuchi Architect & Associates,2-379- All parts, apart from the waterproof sheet, are made to be
2,Hasama,Funabasi,Chiba,274-0822, recyclable. The hut is envisioned for such uses as a
JPN.Email:kikuchiakito.aa@gmail.com temporary shelter, workplace, or meeting place.
2
Hisamitsu Kajikawa,Misawa Homes Institute of Research and （Figure3,4）
Development, JPN

293
TRACK 6: PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE

Figure 3: Plan

Figure 5: Section detail

2.3 TRANSPORTATION EFFICIENCY

In disaster–stricken areas, roads are often blocked or
narrowed by factors such as rubble from collapsed
buildings and land subsidence. In this project, one unit can
be transported with one 3–ton truck. Transportation is
possible with small trucks. Furthermore, each part can be
carried by two adults and can thus be transported quickly
Figure 4: Section
to various regions.（Figure6）

2 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE HUT

2.1 HIGH LEVEL OF SAFETY

By employing wooden panels, the hut provides the
structural capability to withstand earthquakes, strong
winds, and snow cover.

2.2 QUICKLY ASSEMBLED AND

DISASSEMBLED,EVEN BY THE LAYMAN
The hut is possible to assemble and disassemble in a short
Figure 6: Transportation efficiency
period of time, even by inexperienced personnel. Each
joint is created using simple tools such as ratchets and
utility knives and does not require specialized tools. By 2.4 LOW PRICE
employing few parts, simple joints, and simple building Employing commercially available materials and a design
procedures, the hut is made so that even the amateur enabling construction by even inexperienced personnel, the
builder can construct a high–safety building in a short hut is obtainable at a very low price and allows fast and
period of time. stable delivery to disaster–stricken areas.
The envisioned construction time is 2 hours for three
people to build one unit.（Figure5）

294
TRACK 6: PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE
ANALYSIS OF WESTERN WOODEN STRUCTURE
TECHNOLOGY'S INFLUENCE ON YANGZHOU WOODEN
ARCHITECTURE IN MODERN TIMES
Zhang Jianxin1, Liu Yan2
KEYWORDS: Western Wooden Construction Technology; Chinese Wooden construction Technology; Church
Architecture; Yangzhou Modern Architecture
ABSTRACT 123
Wooden construction architecture had a history of more
than three thousand years in ancient China. Wooden
construction was used in from palaces, temples and
gardens, to prince's palaces, vernacular dwellings and folk
public buildings. During the long history of the
development, some changes happened in the order of
building components, but such changes were not
fundamental.
Post and lintel construction order,
column and tie construction order, and
log cabin construction order are all accumulations of
constructing experience, so no revolutionary breakthrough
happened. Compared with Western construction,
traditional Chinese wooden construction architecture is
wasteful in materials. Besides, the unitary construction
shape could not satisfy the needs of the social development
of modern times.
However, in the West, with the scientific development and
progress, not only traditional wooden truss technology, but
also wooden construction dwelling technology have
developed from experience to science, and have become
the mainstream of global contemporary wooden
construction development.
Yangzhou city has an urban history of about 2500 years,
and is among the first group of 24 historic cities authorized
by the government of China. It has been one of the central
cities in economy and culture in the history of China.
Benefiting from the canal transportation and the
accumulation of wealth obtained through salt business, the
urban construction, dwelling and garden construction were
on a high level, so Yangzhou traditional wooden
construction technology remained comparatively mature.
1
Zhang Jianxin, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu,
P.R.C. Email: sdjz9999@163.com
2 buildings need continuous lower story large space or multi-
Liu Yan, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, P.R.C.
Email:liuyan@yzu.edu.cn
295
Until now there still exist old buildings of about 500,000
square meters of Ming dynasty, Qing dynasty and
Republican China, among which about 6,000 have been
maintained well. Some buildings of high historic value,
artistic value and academic value have been classified into
different levels’ of cultural relics protection units,
including 16 national key cultural relics protection units,
21 provincial level cultural relics protection units, 171
municipal culture relics protection units and 37 historic
architecture buildings.
These traditional buildings mainly adopted traditional
Chinese wooden construction technology, but among some
traditional buildings in modern times, there existed
obvious influence of Western wooden construction
technology.
First of all, the influence is embodied in the complete
transplant of Western traditional wooden construction
technology to Church architecture in Yangzhou. Though
Yangzhou was not an open city, the Western influence on
Yangzhou architecture was evident, such as Church
hospital (Today’s Subei Hospital), church school (today’s
Yucai Elementary School). church (Emmanuel Church)
and missionary’s dwelling (Today’s Western Style House,
No.6 in Xiapu Street)(See Figure1-5).
Though neither the number nor the scale of the remaining
buildings is great, the quality is well preserved, and the
buildings are still in use today and become a very
important part of Yangzhou traditional architectural relics.
Secondly, the influence is embodied in the combination of
Chinese and Western wood construction technologies. A
lot of buildings of Republican China adopted modern
Western wood roof truss technology in bent while
continuing to use traditional Chinese wooden construction
technology.
Thirdly, Western technology was actively used in modern
business, service and industrial buildings. Because these
story large space, and even with clerestory on the roof,
TRACK 6: PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE
they usually gave up traditional brick-wood construction,
but used masonry-timber structure, that is, with brick wall
and brick column to carry the building weight in the
outside, with wood column, wood beam and wood floor in
the inside, and with western wood truss on the roof.
Finally, there is the influence of Western wooden
construction on decoration details, such as hanging fasciae,
stair railings, and corridor railings.
This paper summarizes the differences between Chinese
and Western wood construction technologies on the basis
of reviewing the development of Chinese and Western
wooden construction technologies, and tentatively analyses
Figure 3: Yangzhou Bath House(built in 1928)
the influence of Western traditional wood construction on
Yangzhou modern architecture and the causes from the
perspectives of society, economy and culture. It points out
that the fundamental way out of future wooden
construction technology lies in learning, integrating and
developing Western contemporary wooden construction
technology, and in the combination of science and
experience.

Figure 4: Jiyuan Inn( built in 1912)

Figure 1: Emmanuel Church(built in 1924)

Figure 5: Workshop of Yangzhou Seed Station

(built in 1917)
Figure 2: Church School(built in 1888)

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VERIFYING THE VALIDITY OF STUDYING AND ARCHIVING

DESIGN LANGUAGE BASED ON TIMBER STRUCTURES
FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF ADAPTATION TO ACTUAL
CONSTRUCTION

Atsushi Tabuchi 1, Shinsuke Kawai 2, Shinsaku Munemoto 3

ABSTRACT: As preparation for future urgent projects, we studied construction design language, which forms the core of
the design process, through 5 years wood-workshops and archived the results. At the great earthquake in 2011, we selected
a design language prepared previously and students attempted to self-build a temporary gathering place.

KEYWORDS: Design language, Design process, Timber structure, Wood – workshop, Studying and archiving

1 INTRODUCTION 123 2 BACKGROUND AND OBJECT

During the design process, architects always analyse and
On the 11th of March, 2011, Japan was hit by the greatest
then consider the proposed shape for consideration in order
earthquake on record. In disaster-stricken areas, people are
to arrive at the most desirable shape for the conditions.
forced to live in so-called “temporary” regions, homes and
They then further explore the new proposed shape for
communities for a number of years. Japan is a country with
consideration by consolidating the analysis results. As the
an abundant supply of forests and by nature has many
medium for determining conditions and shape, design
wooden houses. Also, because of the ease of processing
language evaluates the suitability of shape and conditions.
timber, the majority of this “temporary” housing is made
The role fulfilled by design language is significant.
up of timber structures, which are constructed quickly. It is
Within the architectural design process, the spiral model in
certain that further large-scale earthquakes will occur in
which this cycle of analysis, consolidation and evaluation
Japan in the near future.
is repeated while ideas are output and in which the design
process is progressed from the abstract stage to the
2.1 PROBLEMS AND PAST STUDIES
concrete stage is widely known. In addition, there also
exists a mapping model in the form of chart that is It is not possible to apply a modelling design process to the
comprised of an abstract-concrete axis and a whole-part construction required immediately after an earthquake,
axis. This model allows for individual differences in such as “temporary” housing. It is necessary to take
thought entry points. In other words, the design process is shortcuts, by using the spiral model or the mapping model,
not regarded as a predetermined route or stage, but as a to lead to an appropriate response to people’s needs. In
free route or stage and is ultimately portrayed as a map that other words, our first problem is to determine whether or
encompasses all points. not preparations can be put in place in advance for urgent
From a practical project perspective, construction has a projects.
wide variety of condition levels and in some cases it is In our previous study [1], we demonstrated the effect of
difficult to apply a modelling design process. wood-workshops on the systemisation of learning. We
clarified the main challenges for understanding structural
1 mechanics. However, we approached this from an
Atsushi Tabuchi, Kyoto Prefectural University, 1-5 Shimogamo
Nakaragicyo, Sakyoku, Kyoto-City, Japan. Email: educational perspective and we did not touch upon the
a-tabuchi@kpu.ac.jp social significance.
2
Shinsuke Kawai, Kyoto Prefectural University, 1-5 Shimogamo
Nakaragicyo, Sakyoku, Kyoto-City, Japan. Email: 2.2 OBJECT OF STUDY
s_kawai@kpu.ac.jp
3
Shinsaku Munemoto, Ritsumeikan University, 1-1-1 (1) As preparation for future urgent projects, study
Nojihigashi, Kusatsu-City, Shiga Pref., Japan. Email: construction design language, which forms the core of the
munemoto@fc.ritsumeikan.ac.jp

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design process and requires considerable time to put 4.2 ADAPTATION TO ACTUAL CONSTRUCTION
together, through wood-workshops and archive the results. IN DISASTER-STRICKEN AREAS
(2) Through projects that actual utilise design language
In Omoe in Miyako City, which was stricken by the
from the archives, verify the validity of the archives and
tsunami following the Great East Japan Earthquake, there
their significance for the university.
is a gathering place for people forced to live in temporary
housing. The gathering place was self-built by architects
3 METHODOLOGY and 30 students. The structure is a dome (diameter 10.3m)
At our university, wood-workshops have been carried out in the shape of a truncated icosahedron soccer-ball cut in
continuously for 5 years, from 2008 to 2012. Members of half and is comprised of regular hexagons and regular
the workshops are student volunteers, teaching staff and pentagons. The faces of the hexagons are wood panel
practicing architects. The consistent rules of the workshops structures and the faces of the octagons are openings to
are that (a) Structures are timber structures, (b) Every which film has been attached. It is vital that the
effort is made not to use special hardware and (c) Every construction is simple and low-cost and therefore the
effort is made not to use anything other than handheld structural panels are comprised of ribs of dimension
tools. Seizing the opportunity presented by the great lumber and structural plywood and film was used for the
earthquake in 2011, we selected a design language openings instead of glass.
prepared previously and students attempted to self-build a
temporary gathering place. In addition to temporary
housing, a gathering place is a facility required in a
disaster-stricken area in an emergency to maintain a sense
of community among local residents. Therefore, we
selected the 2009 “Soccer-ball Dome” from the archive.
4 CONCLUSIONS
4.1 STUDYING AND ARCHIVING OF DESIGN
LANGUAGE

Table 1: 5 years Wood-workshops

2008 “The Arbour”: The framework assembled Figure 1: Actual construction of “Soccer-ball Dome”
from small members contributes to the ease of
transporting the parts and the interesting
combination of face elements and three- 4.3 SUMMARY
dimensional elements. It uses traditional Japanese
timber structure interlocking joints. Engagement We obtained the following results from a series of design
of the wooden pieces is used for the interlocking
joints and these are strengthened using studies, archiving and actual construction.
embedment as the resistance element. (1) The study and archiving of design languages as a
2009 “The Soccer-ball Dome”: Using only a means of preparation was extremely useful because we
single stable and easy to produce geometric unit
called a hexagon, a sphere with a hexagonal or were able to put the archives to direct use following an
octagonal geometric pattern is created. ARARE, actual earthquake. However, we clarified that it is
which is so-called box joints, are used to join the
hexagonal panels. By forming polyhedrons from necessary to study creating an expansive space that is not
the panels it’s possible to reinforce the strength of too rigidly fixed in relation to purpose.
the panels and increase the stability of the dome.
2010 “The Helix”: The Helix is an attempt at a
(2) We found that it was easy to carry out the study on
dynamic form using straight line members. A timber structures and that timber structures were also easy
tunnel-shaped space and biotic form is created to construct by volunteers at actual construction.
using only single L-shaped units. Interlocking
joints were adopted for the members as the (3) The fact that we were able to illustrate the development
resistance element against the flat planes. The L- flow of study into actual construction through wood-
shaped units were created using tenon-mortise
joints and each unit was joined by interlocking. workshops and that we were able to demonstrate the social
2011 “The Object”: This motif can be seen significance of this through construction in disaster-
often. This design is characterised by the stricken areas by volunteers may be considered one
unpredictability of timber structures. Nobody can
predict the spectacle of square timber floating and element of forging links with society, which is one
the aim is to dispel the sense of weight. With challenge for university education.
tensegrity it is easy to recognise tension-bearing
members and compression bearing members.
2012 “The Arbour 2”: A shelter with a REFERENCES
wonderful form is created by joining together five
HP shells. HP shells consist of a combination of
straight frame members around the perimeter and
[1] Shinsuke KAWAI, Atsushi TABUCHI: Research on
internal curved surfaces. Plywood is used to experienced architectural education method of using
produce the curved lines and therefore it is timber structure, World Conference on Timber
necessary to deal with compaction direction
buckling. Engineering 2012 (poster papers), pp.538-542, 2012.7

298
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TIMBER GRIDSHELLS: DESIGN METHODS AND THEIR

APPLICATION TO A TEMPORARY PAVILION

Dragos Naicu1, Richard Harris2, Chris Williams3

ABSTRACT: This paper describes timber gridshell design methods and building techniques. The authors’ experience with
such projects is used to highlight the advantages of timber gridshells. Relevant built examples are presented and their form-
finding and analysis methods are discussed. The relevance of the timber gridshell technique is illustrated by a recently built
project in Cluj, Romania that builds upon previous knowledge and takes advantage of modern computational tools that are
available for both architects and engineers.

KEYWORDS: Timber structure, Gridshell, Form finding, Structural analysis

1 INTRODUCTION 123
Timber gridshells are a solution to the growing interests of
free-form architecture in the context of an ever increasing
awareness of the natural limitations of our environment.
The characteristics of timber gridshells - long-span, light-
weight, affordable and sustainable - argue that it should be
a perfect fit to the architectural programmes of our time.
However, their use has so far been limited to experimental
pavilions and a few very worthy, large-scale, permanent
buildings. In this paper, we present existing gridshells that
have answered the needs of architecture and discuss
various methods used to design them, including physical
and computational methods. We conclude by presenting a
recent example that was informed directly by the
construction process.
2 BACKGROUND
Gridshells, also referred to as lattice shells or reticulated
shells, are defined as structures “with the shape and
strength of a double-curvature shell, but made of a grid
instead of a solid surface” [1]. The materials out of which
such structures can and have been constructed include
aluminium, steel, timber, cardboard or glass-fibre
composites.
straight timber laths into a doubly curved shape. This is
made possible by the low torsional stiffness of timber and
by ensuring that nodal rotations are allowed [2]. Using a
double-layered system, with 4 sets of laths arranged in two
directions, allows such structures to achieve higher
curvatures and hence, more exciting architectural
expressions.
Due to the two-directional arrangement of members,
timber gridshells can support forces along the two
directions and out-of-plane bending. In order to provide in-
plane shear strength and stiffness, the structures need to
have diagonal bracing in the form of cross ties, rigid
bracing or an active covering system.
This technique was first used on a large scale for the
Mannheim Multihalle in 1975. The building, shown in
Figure 1, featured a 60m x 60m span dome achieved by
50mm x 50mm hemlock sections [3].

2.1 TIMBER GRIDSHELLS

The timber gridshell technique was first developed by
Professor Frei Otto and involves deforming a flat grid of

1
Dragos Naicu, University of Bath, 6 East Claverton Campus, Figure 1: Mannheim Multihalle: exterior with two domes
Bath, UK. Email: d.i.naicu@bath.ac.uk and connecting pathways; interior of one of the domes
2
Richard Harris, University of Bath, UK (images – SMD Arquitectes)
3
Chris Williams, University of Bath, UK

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2.2 MODERN EXAMPLES
The Weald and Downland gridshell was built in 2002,
more than two decades after the Mannheim project. It
features an uninterrupted floor space which is 48 m long
and between 11 and 16 m wide, enclosed by a corrugated
barrel vault shape.
The Savill Garden gridshell was built in 2006 and is also a
corrugated barrel vault that spans over a 90 m long and, at
its widest, a 25 m wide space. The gridshell roof is
supported all along its perimeter on a tubular steel beam
raised above ground on slanted columns.
3 DESIGN AND ANALYSIS
Form-finding timber gridshells has evolved, together with
computational technologies. At first, hanging chain models
were used to produce funicular shapes, including the one
of the Mannheim project.
The Weald and Downland gridshell was developed from
the architectural concept using physical models. In the
initial stage, these informed a computational process that
led to a non-funicular, corrugated form. Since the self-
weight of the building was relatively small, this form was
better suited to resisting lateral wind loads [4].
The Savill Garden project departed entirely from the use of
physical modelling. The computational process involved
translating the architectural shape into a geometric
definition using a damped sine wave for the centre line and
varying size parabolas for the cross-sections. A regular
grid was then imposed on the surface generated [5].
Figure 2: Form-finding: flat grid to final shape
More recently, a double-layered timber gridshell was
designed during a student workshop in Cluj, Romania with
the widely used digital physics modelling package
Kangaroo Live Physics.
Unlike the aforementioned gridshells, the form-finding,
seen in Figure 2, was based on the proposed construction
process by starting with a flat grid and pushing the support
nodes towards a desired support configuration, while also
pushing the grid upwards. Areas of high curvature around
300
the entrances used 2 thin laths in place of a single one,
ensuring the desired shape could be achieved. The
gridshell subsequently functioned as a temporary cultural
venue, spanning 18 m x 13 m and it is shown in Figure 3.
The structural analysis of timber gridshells requires a non-
linear study to evaluate buckling behaviour.
For the projects described here custom computer programs
were used, as well as commercial software packages.
Figure 3: Gridshell in Cluj (image – Dragos Naicu)
4 CONCLUSIONS
Timber gridshells offer the attractive possibility of creating
complex surfaces and spaces using a set of straight
elements that are bent into shape. This makes them
affordable and relatively easy to build. Their design and
analysis methods are diversified and have evolved over
time, while the convergence of sustainability concerns and
computational abilities makes the technique relevant now.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The first author is a PhD Candidate with a University
Research Studentship from the University of Bath. The
open-source nature of Kangaroo and the participation of its
creator, Daniel Piker, made possible the realisation of the
project in Romania.
REFERENCES
[1] Douthe, C., Baverel, O. & Caron, J.F: Form-finding of
a Grid Shell in Composite Materials. Journal of the
International Association for Shell and Spatial
Structures, 47:53-62, 2006.
[2] Harris, R., Dickson, M., Kelly, O. & Roynon, J: The
Use of Timber Gridshells for Long Span Structures.
In: 8th International Conference on Timber
Engineering. Lahti, 2004.
[3] Happold, E. & Liddell, W.I: Timber Lattice Roof for
the Mannheim Bundesgartenschau. Structural
Engineer, 53:99-135, 1975.
[4] Harris, R., Romer, J., Kelly, O. & Johnson, S: Design
and Construction of the Downland Gridshell. Building
Research and Information, 31:427-454, 2003.
[5] Harris, R., Haskins, S. & Roynon, J: The Savill
Garden Gridshell: Design and construction. Structural
Engineer, 86:27-34, 2008.
TRACK 6: PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE

THE UNTAPPED POTENTIAL OF WOOD IN DEVELOPING

ENERGY-EFFICIENT LIVING SPACES

Katja Vahtikari1, Mark Hughes2, Yrsa Cronhjort3, Lauri Linkosalmi4

ABSTRACT: In 2013, Aalto University started an interdisciplinary research project called “Wood Life- Energy-efficient
living spaces through the use of wooden interior elements”, where the focus is on the wood material's potential to enhance
the energy-efficiency of housing. One part of the project is bringing the research themes into interdisciplinary teaching as
well. This paper discusses the collaboration in the project between the disciplines of architecture and wood technology and
the first results of the studies carried out by students in the Aalto University course “Integrated Interior Wooden Surfaces”
during the 2013-2014 Academic Year.

KEYWORDS: design & build, interdisciplinary, teaching and research, wooden floor, Wood Life

1 WOOD HAS IT ALL 123
Wood, a hydroscopic and truly renewable material with
low-embodied energy and carbon storage ability, is already
used extensively as a building material. In addition to its
excellent structural properties it can act as moisture [1, 2],
and thermal [3, 4], buffer. This ‘buffering’ ability of wood
and natural fibres could, in turn, lead to a reduced energy
demand [5, 6], and gives wood great potential to passively
mediate the internal climate of a living space.
A person’s sensation of warmth can be influenced not only
by the ambient temperature, but also by the prevailing
relative humidity (RH), mode of heat transfer (convection,
conduction or radiation), airflow rate, as well as
psychological aspects.
Simply investigating the material’s potential to achieve a
reduction in energy use in isolation is insufficient; it is
imperative to combine the use of materials with spatial
design that maximises this potential and to judiciously
modify the properties of wood to enhance its functionality.
Aalto University has started an interdisciplinary research
project “Wood Life- Energy-efficient living spaces through
the use of wooden interior elements“, where the focus is on
the wood material's potential in enhancing the energy-
efficiency of housing. One part of the project is bringing
the research themes in to interdisciplinary teaching as well.
1
Katja Vahtikari, Aalto University, Tekniikantie 3, Espoo,
Finland. Email: katja.vahtikari@aalto.fi
2 group had members from the disciplines of architecture
Mark Hughes, Aalto University, Finland
3
Yrsa Cronhjort, Aalto University, Finland
4
Lauri Linkosalmi, Aalto University, Finland
Wood architecture and wood construction are taught in
three different schools at Aalto University: the Department
of Architecture at the School of Arts, Design and
Architecture, the Department of Civil and Structural
Engineering at the School of Engineering, and the
Department of Forest Products Technology at the School
of Chemical Technology.
This paper describes how aforementioned research themes
are brought to the project based course “Integrated Interior
Wooden Surfaces” in the spring term 2014. The leading
principle in the course is to bring together Master level
students of wood products technology, wood architecture
and wood construction [7].
2 INTERACTIVE LEARNING AND NEW
APPROACHES
Adjusting to the various approaches to the project and to
the learning of students from different fields is a challenge,
but also an opportunity to bring new energy and ideas to
research, development and teaching [8]. In co-operation
with Wood Life, the project-based course “Integrated
Interior Wooden Surfaces” (4 ECTS) was organised in
spring 2014. The leading principle in the course has been
to bring together Master’s level students of wood products
technology, wood architecture and wood construction.
Project-based learning enforces students to be active
participants, but concurrently develops their working life
skills [9].
The project work was carried out in small groups. Each
and wood technology; one was also a student of structural
engineering. The course work included multi-scientific

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research, the writing of a pre-assignment and learning
diary, empirical studies and a small-scale design and build
project. The approach allowed students of various
backgrounds to utilize their strengths at different stages of
the project and to learn from each other’s experience and
know-how. The final results will be exhibited in 2014.
2.1 EXPERIENCING WOOD
The selected theme for the course project was to study,
design and build an example of a pleasant wooden floor
surface utilizing the multifunctional properties of wood
material. In this course, the functional properties of wood
included thermal, acoustic, moisture buffering,
antibacterial and aesthetic properties, as well as wood
material’s psychological and physiological effects on
humans. As part of the course, the project groups carried
out background research and multi-scientific empirical
studies with regard to the subjective user perceptions of
floor surfaces.
Students were asked how the functional properties of wood
could be utilized in floor applications and what makes a
wooden floor pleasant and desirable. All groups were
given the freedom to choose their own approach to the
topic.
3 CONCLUSIONS
In co-operation with project Wood Life, the course
“Integrated Interior Wooden Surfaces” took place in spring
2014. As part of the course, multi-scientific, empirical
studies with regard to subjective user experiences of floor
surfaces were commenced. Work was realized in
collaboration between the disciplines of architecture and
wood technology. The aim was for a holistic approach to
the project including research, empirical studies and a
design & build project as for all participating students to be
able to add with their own expertise. The results are in line
with earlier studies and the final floor samples show
innovative approaches to the recycling, replacing and
sensation of wooden floors. The topic will be explored
further at the Aalto University as part of project Wood Life
- Energy-efficient living spaces through the use of wooden
interior elements utilizing existing test pods [10].
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Project Wood Life - Energy-efficient living spaces through
the use of wooden interior elements“, leading to these
results has been funded through the Aalto Energy-
Efficiency Research Programme. Project Wood Life is
based on the collaboration of four disciplines at the Aalto
University: Architecture, Energy, Environmental
Psychology and Forest Products Technology.
302
REFERENCES
[1] Li, Y., Fazio, P., Ge, H. and J. Rao: An investigation
of moisture buffering performance of wood panelling
at room level and its buffering effect on a test room.
Building and Environment, 47(1):206-215, 2012.
[2] Yang, X., Fazio, P., Ge, H. and J. Rao: Evaluation of
moisture buffering capacity of interior surface
materials and furniture in a full-scale experimental
investigation. Building and Environment, 47(1):188-
196, 2012.
[3] Brueckner, C, Nore, K. and A.Q. Nyrud: Investigating
latent heat exchange of untreated wood panels.
Proceedings of the 8th meeting of the Northern
European Network for Wood Science and
Engineering, pages 70-78, 2012
[4] Hameury, S. and T. Lundström. Contribution of
indoor exposed massive wood to a good indoor
climate: in situ measurement campaign. Energy and
Buildings. 36(3): 281-292, 2004.
[5] Osayintola, O.F. and C.J. Simonson. Moisture
buffering capacity of hygroscopic building materials:
Experimental facilities and energy impact. Energy and
Buildings. 38(10): 1270-1282.
[6] Orosa, J.A. and A.C. Oliveira. Energy saving with
passive climate control methods in Spanish office
buildings. Energy and Buildings. 41(8):823-828.
[7] Vahtikari, K., Silvo, J. and M. Kairi. Project-based
learning for Master students – Case “Integrated
Interior Wooden Surfaces". Proceedings of the 12th
World Conference on Timber Engineering, 2012.
[8] Vahtikari, K, Mauno, A, Kairi, M, Absetz, I and P.
Heikkinen. Interactive Development of Wood
Construction Education. Proceedings of the 9th World
Conference on Timber Engineering, 2006.
[9] Vahtikari, K., Kiviluoma, P., Lampinen, M. and A.
Lähteenmäki. Experiences and insights into tutoring
and assessment on interdisciplinary project-based
learning. Proceedings of the SEFI 2013 Annual
Conference. September 16-20, 2013.
[10] Winter, S., Schulte-Wrede, M. and K. Jebens. Highly
insulated wooden structures in Nordic climate.
Proceedings of the 12th World Conference on Timber
Engineering, 2012.
TRACK 6: PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE

LOW-COST HOUSING WITH PREFAB WOOD-BAMBOO

PANELS

Vladimir Rodriguez Trujillo1, Gabriella de Angelis2, Camila Burgos3

ABSTRACT: The construction of low cost housing is a priority in developing countries. Millions of people live in
precarious buildings in regions near rainforests without benefiting sustainably farm waste wood to improve their homes.
This research has developed a prefabricated construction system using small sections of timber and non-timber products as
structural materials for building prefabricated houses. The proposal is located in the jungle region of Guarayo, in eastern
Bolivia. It is designed and built according to various parameters such as the spatial needs of the users, climate, economic
resources, and natural resources of the environment. By building a module has been shown the great potential of
prefabrication to build low-cost housing in environments of scarcity and need.

KEYWORDS: Prefabrication, low-cost housing, bamboo, timber

1 INTRODUCTION 123 2 ARCHITECURAL DESING

The low cost construction is a pressing need in the growing
It is determined a module 6 m x 3 m and a roofed porch
populations of tropical and subtropical countries, as the
1.90 m x 3 m. Depending on the needs it can grow on the
case study, Guarayos region east of Bolivia. One important
sides and these in turn can be repeated, leaving a courtyard
resource here is wood, with abundant species prized by the
between them. Sub-modules were designed for the kitchen
commercial, underused or high percentage discarded,
of 3 m x 3 m, and the bath of 1.50 m x 1.50 bath. The floor
burned after the sawmill. For the vast majority of poor
and deck are ventilated. In the first case the deck is
people, this wood has been identified with the poor huts, so
elevated from the soil. In the second case, it is a single
it is considered a material for poor construction and
slope, has two levels to leave an opening for cross
temporary. Wood is part of the local building tradition. It is
ventilation of the drop ceilings.
widespread use by the ease of getting it in the nearby
rainforests and sawmills of the towns, not how durable
construction material and aesthetic pleasure. This project
aims to continue the traditional use of wood in the house,
but changing the perception of substandard materials and
poor. For optimal results with sustainable principles, the
technical team has worked together with community
leaders in the region interested in the project to design the
architectural proposal, simulate energy balance and
subsequently build a prototype.

1
Vladimir Rodriguez, -LITA-Universitat Politècnica de
Catalunya. BarcelonaTech. Spain. Email:biotectura@gmail.com
2
Gabriela De Angelis, UPC-BarcelonaTech. Spain
3
Camila Burgos, FACTEC-Universidad de Santiago de Chile

Figure 1: 3d modeling

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3 THERMAL SIMULATION
For optimal indoor comfort and following bioclimatic
principles, different thermal simulations were performed
using the computer program DesignBuilder ®. They
pretend the behavior of two types of walls 15 cm and 20
cm of thick, with wooden structure, bamboo and mud. To
compare the above walls, a third wall of brick with thick of
16 cm. Regarding the climatic parameters of the location,
it was used two dates, the first in winter and in summer the
second. The following graph shows the inner surface
temperature variation by time on the west wall of the 3
types of walls. The wall of 20 cm in magenta is the best
performing.
Table 1: Inside surface temperature by type of wall
4 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
The structure consists of prefabricated panels 1.20 m x
2.40 m. The perimeter frame and wooden beams are
verdolago (Terminalia Amazon) 1 ½ x 3 ". To reinforce the
structure are placed in diagonal strips of section 1 x 1 ½ ".
Subsequently woven into the fabric light bamboo slats in
order to stiffen the panel and provide greater support area
to the positioning of the mud. All prefab panels are moved
to where they build the module and then begins with the
assembly.
Figure 2: Wood-bamboo frame
304
Figure 3: Panels assembly
Before assembly should be placed the deck and perimeter
columns supported on concrete footings. Nailing are used
to joint between panels. After, panels are placed that will
form the roof slope. Above them support beams and
battens that are placed on fiber cement boards of the roof.
Once it is completed the entire skeleton begins to fill with
mud inside and outside of the panel to form the wall
thickness.
5 CONCLUSIONS
The architectural design, numerical simulations and the
prototype built, demonstrate the feasibility of
prefabrication and construction system for low-cost
housing. The use of solutions adapted to the socio-
economic conditions of the site and to the local natural
resources are the best solutions to alleviate the housing
shortage in this region. It will improve the living
conditions of the inhabitants and prefabricated construction
techniques can be a business opportunity to offer
elsewhere.
The building system can fit in areas with similar climate
and economic conditions in many tropical and subtropical
regions of Africa, America and Asia.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This project has been possible thanks to the support of
Development Cooperation Agency of Catalonia and the
Agency Supporting Innovation and Internationalization of
Catalan Companies - ACC10. Participated as local partner
the Private University of Santa Cruz, Bolivia – UPSA.
REFERENCES
[1] Arriola, V.; Tejada, U.:Manual de Quincha
Prefabricada para maestros de obra. Lima, 2008.
[2] Junta de Cartagena: Manual de diseño para maderas
del Grupo Andino.
TRACK 6: PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE

A NEW VERSION OF TIMBER STRUCTURES AT THE

CERRADO’S EXCELLENCE CENTRE IN BRASÍLIA, BRAZIL

Roberto Lecomte1, Catharina Macedo2, Ana Carolina Salviano3

ABSTRACT: Based on several buildings designed and built with timber structures, it was proposed the new Cerrado’s
Excellence Centre, to be implanted at the visitor’s area of the Brasília Botanical Garden, in Brazil’s federal capital. The
Brasília Botanical Garden is one of the world’s largest botanical gardens, with a representative area of the original cerrado
ecosystem that surrounded the city 50 years ago.

The building was designed according to bioclimatic guidelines, in order to be fully adapted to local climate. Some
requirements as natural ventilation and illumination, thermal inertia, green covering and protection against sunlight in the
facades were added to the architectural design, aiming to build a “sustainable building”. In its first version, timber structures
were designed according to a spiral shape and rounded eucalyptus beams supported a green covering.

For its new version, the eucalyptus skeleton was remodelled in order to support a thermo-acoustic metallic covering and
new inclined pillars were added to the timber frame in a remarkable design that highlights the presence of wood. The use of
this sustainable and locally sourced material illustrates the several possibilities of building in wood in our region, based in
the fact that wood materials are desirable for their strength, durability, beauty and cost-effective construction.

KEYWORDS: Timber structures, Sustainable building, Wood.

1 INTRODUCTION 123  To be designed according to bioclimatic

Eucalyptus wood is becoming an alternative to the tropical
hardwood in our country and its use in the rounded shape
results in a cost-effective application of the material,
besides providing an economical form of construction.
Starting from the experience of previous works executed
with the structural use of rounded eucalyptus wood, it was
proposed a new version of the Cerrado’s Excellence
Center, to be implanted at the visitor’s area of the Brasília
Botanical Garden, in Brazil’s federal capital. The Brasília
Botanical Garden is one of the world’s largest botanical
gardens, with a representative area of the original cerrado
ecosystem that surrounded the city 50 years ago.
2 METHODOLOGY
The design of the new version of theCerrado’s Excellence
Center was conceived based in the following premises:
1 structure. The location of the building in the site will allow
Roberto Lecomte, Spirale Architecture, CLN 112 Bloco D Sala
206, Brasília, Brazil. Email: roberto.lecomte@gmail.com
2
Catharina Macedo, Spirale Architecture, Brazil
3
Ana Carolina Salviano, Spirale Architecture, Brazil
guidelines, in order to be fully adapted to local
climate, aiming to build a “sustainable building”;
 To be in consonance with the existing facilities
(made of timber structures) and to harmonize with the
surrounding environment;
 To propose mixed building solutions between
traditional concrete structures and timber structures,
aiming to promote “greenest materials”;
 And finally to highlight the imposing architectural
aesthetics that comes from the presence of timber
buildings in natural areas.
3 DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT
The building was redesigned in order to enrich the timber
structure solution with new inclined pillars that gives it a
contemporary aesthetics and remarkable architectural style.
As illustrated in Figure 1, the central area of the Centre has
8,00m high and exposes the imponence of the timber
the visitors to have a panoramic view of the Botanical
garden's natural reserve and part of the city, in the same
direction of the sunset.

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TRACK 6: PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE

Figure 1: Cross section of the central area of the new

version of the Cerrado’s Excellence Centre

4 CONCLUSIONS
The use of timber structures in the new version of the
Cerrado’s Information Center is an evidence of the
flexibility of this sustainable and locally sourced material.
It should be pointed out the importance of demystifying
the use of timber structures as “non-ecological” in our
country, because wood is the only choice for a renewable
and sustainable building material and wood materials are
desirable for their strength, durability, beauty and cost-
effective construction.

306
TRACK 6: PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE

THIS IS HARDCORE: CNC PROTOTYPES FOR TIMBER CORES

– Designing multi-storey timber buildings from the inside out

Alex Kaiser1, Magnus Larsson2, Ulf Arne Girhammar3

ABSTRACT: No architect will make a dent in the universe by designing an excellent services shaft or HVAC system, and
yet architects could certainly do a lot worse than focusing on redefining the hidden innards supporting our built
environment. Digitally manufactured building designs made from wood can help produce extraordinary cores for multi-
storey timber buildings. This study aims at investigating the possibilities of such novel building cores. Based on the thesis
that contemporary technologies supporting the production of large-scale timber structures offer unique opportunities to
redefine the visceral parts of multi-storey buildings, which in turn has architectural effects throughout, the research shows
how a combination of mass production and mass customisation strategies can be applied to timber architecture. The end
result is a novel design and production strategy based on innovative manufacturing methods that give rise to new
construction strategies, new structural ideas, new buildings, and new ways of using those buildings.

!
KEYWORDS: Wood architecture, multi-storey timber buildings, building services, building cores, living units, CNC,
!
evolutionary solvers, evolutionary algorithms, prototype, branching, branching algorithms, Grasshopper, Moelven, Trä8,
!
Martinsons, Byggma Masonite, WCTE 2014

!
!
!
!
1 INTRODUCTION 1

Heating, ventilation, cold and hot water supplies, air
conditioning, drainage, sanitation, gas, electricity, refuse
and sewage disposal, access control, communications, oil
installations, fire fighting facilities, and transportation
provisions: building services are in many ways responsible
for the artificial environments in which we live and work.
Their scientific history goes a long way back to (at least)
Archimedes’s “spiral for movement of water” innovation
and the underfloor heating of Roman palaces.1 While most
of these electromechanical systems tend to be hidden from
public view, they do account for between 50% and 75% of
total construction costs, and can take up in the region of
15% of a building’s volume.2 At a point in time where we
are not only increasingly aware of the detrimental effects
humanity’s historical reliance on fossile fuels has had, but
also understand that buildings account for at least one third
of all human carbon emissions,3 the engineering of the
cores that service our built environment plays a significant
role in our quest for a more sustainable architecture.
The cores are of such importance, in fact, that the
architectural and engineering community cannot simply
hand over the responsibility for them to a motley crew of
sub contractors, consultants, and building services
engineers; we need to reconsider the importance of the
building core and allow it to take centre stage by devising
strategies for how to make its services more intelligent –
more efficient, flexible, sustainable, and architecturally
generative. Some contemporary technologies supporting

1 AlexKaiser, Founding director, Ordinary Ltd, Unit 3A/4A, Regent Studios, 8 Andrews Road, London, E8 4QN, UK.

!
E-mail: alex@ordinarystudio.com

2Magnus Larsson, Founding director, Ordinary Ltd, Unit 3A/4A, Regent Studios, 8 Andrews Road, London, E8 4QN, UK.

!
E-mail: magnus@ordinarystudio.com

3Ulf Arne Girhammar, Professor, Timber Structures, Division of Structural and Construction Engineering, Luleå University of Technology, SE-971 87
Luleå, Sweden. E-mail: ulf.arne.girhammar@ltu.se

307
TRACK 6: PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE
the production of large-scale timber structures offer unique
opportunities to redefine the visceral parts of such
buildings; this paper outlines one possible core strategy
based on a mass-produced/mass-customised panel design
that internalises the services within the building’s CNC-
routered walls, allowing the structure to adopt a highly
flexible branching arrangement that would previously have
been too expensive or too complicated or both.
! choosing the tree itself. You will want to do this quite
2 THE PRE-ROUTERED PANEL
The smallest scale of branching in the present building is
found within each living unit, where the central input and
output points must be connected to the use points within
the living unit. That is to say, the electrical input point
must be wired to each plug and light, and the water input
point must be piped to each sink, toilet and shower.
The standard model for routing these services is to
enclose them within the wall, floor and ceiling build-up.
This makes the services inaccessible, inflexible and time
consuming to install on site. Current pre-fabricated timber
structures have identified this issue and supply panels with
services pre-installed, with only end connections needing
to be made on site. Whilst this greatly reduces installation
time, it does not improve accessibility or flexibility. We
propose that all wall, floor and ceiling panels should be
routed to a standardised pattern on their internal face,
providing an open and efficient network of recessed
channels through which services can be passed freely to
their destination. This allows for mass customisation of a
standardised product on site, as well as fast and simple
alterations at a later date. If left exposed, the panels would
also turn the service routes into a key visual element of the
interior spaces, much like an inverted version of the
exterior of the Pompidou Centre or the Lloyd’s Building.
! for upcoming housing schemes made from wood.
3 CONCLUSIONS
This is Hardcore started out as a speculation on how a
CNC-routered plug-in services panel could allow for a new
kind of branching typology scheme, and ended up as a
novel combination of a series of rhizomatic living units
suspended within an arborescent structural branching
geometry: not so much a new kind of treehouse as a new
kind of treehousing.
3.1 SITES AND BRANCHES
While we tend to think of tree houses as recreational
follies, the Korowai (a Papuan tribe in the southeast of
Irian Jaya, the western half of New Guinea, a province of
Indonesia) might beg to differ. They still use stone tools,
have no knowledge of the outside world, and lead their
lives in tree houses – some nearly 40 metres off the ground
– as protection against a tribe of neighbouring headhunters,
the Citak.3 Tree-sitting activist Julia Butterfly Hill
famously went higher, as she occupied a Californian
Redwood for 738 days, saving the tree by living on two
3m2 platforms some 60 metres above the ground.4
308
If you were Korowai, or Hill, what would you consider
when building your tree house? The first step might be a
site analysis: where within the tree might there be a good
“structural site” where your living platform can be
positioned? What other “sites” within the tree’s branches
might you need to consider? Camouflage? Distance to the
ground? Wind shelter? Proximity to tasty apples?
Maybe the process actually begins one step earlier, with
carefully: your tree house will only work within the
ramifications and possibilities of what the tree allows. The
tree, or structure, determines the possible “sites,” or living
units. This is the regular scenario for a standard stacked-
floor skyscraper typology.
But what if you could design the tree itself after the
fact? Then you could begin by finding the optimal “sites”
within the volumetric envelope (as opposed to the
structural system), and then connect those sites using an
branching system optimised through evolutionary
algorithms.
This is the logic deployed in the present scheme. The
part (the pre-routered panel) makes way for the whole (the
freely positioned living units sitting within the branching
structure). The cores adapt to the locations of the living
units, yet the system optimises the core structures for
efficiency. The resulting building becomes an essay in
services detailing, in the unique combination of mass
production with mass customisation made possible through
contemporary fabrication technologies, and in the diving
tower-like branching structure that acts as static and
services support. This innovative multi-storey timber
building is thus designed from the inside out; the ordinary
flows of fluids, energies, and sewage tracing the
unconventional outline of an extraordinary future typology
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors express sincere appreciation for the financial
support from the Regional Council of Västerbotten, the
County Administrative Board in Norrbotten, and The
European Union's Structural Funds – The Regional Fund.
REFERENCES
[1] Fred Hall & Roger Greeno, Building Services
Handbook (Amsterdam, Elsevier, sixth edition,
2011), p. 17.
[2] P.O. Babalola, Electromechanical Systems in Building
Services Engineering (Proc. ICCEM (2012) pp.
89 - 114).
[3] Lourens J. de Vries & Gerrit J. van Enk. The Korowai
of Irian Jaya. (Oxford, Oxford University Press,
1999. Part of the Oxford Studies in
Anthropological Linguistics series.)
[4] Paula Henderson & Adam Mornement. Treehouses.
(London, UK: Frances Lincoln Ltd., 2005), p. 65.
TRACK 6: PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE

AGAINST THE GRAIN: REDEFINING THE LIVING UNIT –

Advanced slotting strategies for multi-storey timber buildings

Alex Kaiser1, Magnus Larsson2, Ulf Arne Girhammar3

ABSTRACT: Using Charles and Ray Eames’s famous 1950s House of Cards slotting toy as both design metaphor and
structural precedent provides the starting point for a novel building logic (utilising three existing Swedish timber systems)
that allows volumetrically slotted units to stack inside of and support each other. Contemporary computer-aided fabrication
techniques based on evolutionary algorithms and CNC manufacturing strategies are used to produce a methodology for
designing a kit-of-parts system at the scale of the skyscraper, based on the slotting together of cross-laminated timber (CLT)
panels. A catalogue of novel slotting methods is produced, and a number of alternative slotted joint treatments identified that
hold promising potential for further development, parametrically design and control volumes, understand the fabrication
workflow and constructional sequence on site, and build prototypes of the chosen slotting configurations at scales ranging
between 1:50 and 1:1.

KEYWORDS: Wood architecture, multi-storey timber buildings, slotting, living units, cnc, evolutionary solvers,
evolutionary algorithms, prototype, Charles and Ray Eames, House of Cards, porosity, volumetric slotting, retrofitting,
gas holder, Moelven, Trä8, Martinsons, Byggma Masonite

1 INTRODUCTION 1 2 SCALAR SLOTTING

This project is about slotting two-dimensional massive
timber panels into three-dimensional volumes, then
slotting those volumes into each other, a formal move that
creates countless opportunities for alternative and
compelling layouts of living units, based on organisational
principles that are directly derived from the internal logic
of the system of slotted timber panels. We are also
interested in finding ways of broadening this concept of
slotting to internalise within the scheme other congruent
ideas at different scales: not just the slotting together of the
laminate boards that make up the CLT panels, or the
slotted joints prevalent within traditional timber
construction, but the slotting of entire programmatic
functions: a kitchen slotting into a bathroom, a terrace
slotting into a bedroom, and so on.
This novel architectural concept of slotting two- and three-
dimensional elements together at varying scales is used to
investigate the slotting of an entire building into an
existing site, the slotting of living units into the building’s
structural framework and grid, as well as the slotting of
panels to construct those units. Merging conceptual ideas
with practical knowledge of different types of slotted joints
(that is, how they work and fit inside each other), a highly
consistent project is created, whereby the different notions
of slotting feed back into and reinforce each other.
Projecting from large to small, beginning at the scale of
the building, our first slot is the entire building slotting into
another site and structure. At the scale of the living units,
our second move is to slot these volumetrically into and
around each other. At the scale of the single unit, our third

1 AlexKaiser, Founding director, Ordinary Ltd, Unit 3A/4A, Regent Studios, 8 Andrews Road, London, E8 4QN, UK.

!
E-mail: alex@ordinarystudio.com

2 Magnus Larsson, Founding director, Ordinary Ltd, Unit 3A/4A, Regent Studios, 8 Andrews Road, London, E8 4QN, UK.

!
E-mail: magnus@ordinarystudio.com

3Ulf Arne Girhammar, Professor, Timber Structures, Division of Structural and Construction Engineering, Luleå University of Technology, SE-971 87
Luleå, Sweden. E-mail: ulf.arne.girhammar@ltu.se

309
TRACK 6: PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE
move is to slot panels together in a two-dimensional
fashion. The bespoke wall panels of each unit are
prefabricated on site, and then slotted together before
being craned into place and volumetrically slotted together
as described above.
! spaces can be tuned to provide certain programmatic
3 SITE AND EXISTING BUILDING
Ever since the Victorian era, gasholders – occasionally
referred to as gasometers – have cast their iconic long
shadows across the pavements of almost every British
town. This project was born out of a fascination with a
particular gasholder site, located just five minutes from our
east London studio. The Bethnal Green gasholders are an
industrial feature, intact and unlisted, surviving from the
late-19th century and through the Blitz. The
decommissioned site is a forgotten space within the city.
Owned by the National Grid, no gas is now stored on site.
Through the retrofitting scheme we propose here, it could
deliver new public and open space, as well as an enhanced
public realm and activated waterspace, while connecting
two significant networks: the Regent’s Canal waterway
and the Cambridge Heath Road main high street. It would
breathe new life into an abandoned space. Furthermore, the
significance of the canal site as a public amenity could be
secured: ecologically important to the borough, it is
already recognised as a Site of Metropolitan Importance
for Nature Conservation.1 The gasholders are large
structures with a sizeable boundary that makes them open
and flexible. Their cylindrical skeletons of columns and
girders enable us to work with a guide frame and a point of
reference for structural and formal design features.
! The slotted building traces the gasholder’s cylindrical
4 HODOLOGICAL INTERNAL
ORGANISATION
Big buildings are boring. That is to say, many tall buildings
tend to be tedious – the obvious importance of optimal
structural design comes at the price of variation and
diversification. The end result is more often than not a vast
expanse of repetition at a vast expense of difference.
Planimetrically constrained organisations (monotonous
series of unvarying spaces unimaginatively positioned one
after another inside a perfectly symmetrical grid) makes
for mind-numbingly characterless floor layouts and dulled
architectural experiences.
The traditional aim of the designer to use the same
structural frame for all functions was sustained by what we
believe is a valid principle of economy. The unimaginative
aspect only enters the picture when this grid is utilised in
an oversimplified fashion, often in two dimensions, rather
than as the open-ended indicative lattice it could be. The
strategy we have here adopted adds variety within a
structurally uncompromised, repetitious (radial) grid: our
hodological spaces2 are created as the result of a series of
pathways through different spatial units within this three-
dimensional framework; pathways that are in turn the
310
results of productive compromises between conflicting
objectives.
Rather than merely being a formal exercise, due to the
conflict/compromise relationship underpinning the
parameters fed to the evolutionary solver, the resulting
relationships and functional features – providing views,
multiple egress routes, and access to outdoor space from
all living units, for example, while creating dynamic
interior spatial relationships, allowing daylight to enter
even the smallest of apartments, and so on. The process
also makes it possible to adjust the ratio and relative floor
area of smaller to larger living units (which in the current
example has been set to be between 50 and 400m2).
!
5 ARCHITECTURAL ANALYSIS
Our building is a mixed-use scheme combining residential
housing and commercial units. It offers a new hybrid and
retrofitted typology organised around a central core
courtyard. Conceived conceptually as a slotted building, it
presents itself as an open, permeable and re-invigorated
addition to the local east London regeneration process.
This is a building that is utterly site-specific: its strategic
location connecting two main urban arteries, the
watercourse, Regents Canal, and high street, Cambridge
Heath Road, demands the built form to reflect and
communicate its industrial past, sustainable future, radical
form, mix of old and new materials, and commanding
silhouette – complementing those of Hawksmoor, Wren,
Foster, Rogers, and Piano in the city’s skyline.
skeleton without touching it (the two are in fact set apart
by 500mm. The contrast between the harsh existing steel
structure and the soft new timber frame addition celebrates
their material and phenomenological differences. The
existing gasholder’s proportions and apertures provide an
important framing device for the inserted tower (within a
single band of horizontal members we have slotted three
storeys of new structure). This logic is carried throughout
the building, although extending for an additional six
storeys above the gasholder’s current height.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors express sincere appreciation for the financial
support from the Regional Council of Västerbotten, the
County Administrative Board in Norrbotten, and The
European Union's Structural Funds – The Regional Fund.
REFERENCES
!
[1] London Borough of Tower Hamlets, Regent’s Canal
Conservation Area, 04 November 2009, p.12.
!
[2] Otto Friedrich Bollnow, Human Space (New York:
Princeton Architectural Press, 2011).
LIST OF AUTHORS

Absi, Joseph, 53 Deng, Shu-Yu, 147

Amadio, Claudio, 149 Dias, João, 221
Ando, Naoto, 55 do Valle, Ivan, 285, 287
Angeli, Albino, 193 Dopeux, Jérôme, 53
Antonio Rocco Lahr, Francisco, 93 dos Santos, Pedro, 287
Aoki, Kenji, 191 Doudak, Ghasan, 51, 165, 167, 189
Arai, Rika, 151 Dubois, Frédéric, 53, 177
Araki, Yasuhiro, 55, 77, 243
Aratake, Shiro, 65 Farias, Henrique, 91
Archila, Hector, 81 Faye, Carole, 145
Assis, Albert, 73 Fecht, Simon, 113
Ayina Ohandja, Louis Max, 43 Fillingham, Tony, 267
Azim, Riasat, 173 Flach, Michael, 63
Fournely, Eric, 19
Ballarin, Adriano, 73 Fragiacomo, Massimo, 149
Battisti, Annalisa, 149 Francisco Dias Junior, Ananias, 71
Bedon, Chiara, 149 Franke, Bettina, 31
Benichou, N., 269 Franke, Steffen, 33
Berzin, R., 269 Frühwald Hansson, Eva, 253
Bezerra, Luciana, 221 Fujishiro, Azuma, 133
Bhat, Pooja, 173 Fujita, Kaori, 223
Bleron, Laurent, 175, 177 Fujita, Kazuhiko, 261
Bocquet, Jean-François, 175, 177 Fujiwara, Takuya, 247
Bower, Dick, 121 Fukawa, Naoto, 79
Breysse, Denys, 43 Fukumoto, Mitsuo, 21, 23
Brinkmeier, Conrad, 63
Brunner, Maurice, 213 Gianni, Dal Ri, 193
Burgos, Camila, 303 Girardon, Stéphane, 175
Girhammar, Ulf Arne, 307, 309
Calil Júnior, Carlito, 61, 85, 93, 259 Gjinolli, Agron, 121
Calil Neto, Carlito, 93 Goh, Hyun-Moo, 225
Cantalapiedra, Inmaculada, 257 Gong, Meng, 35
Carli, Luis, 263 Gotou, Masami, 211
Carvalho, Ricardo, 221 Grédiac, Michel, 19
Cesar Molina, Julio, 259 Grošelj, Petra, 289
Chain, Giselle, 287 Grunwald, Cordula, 113
Chaplain, Myriam, 43 Gu, Jianzhong, 209
Chen, Zhiyong, 165, 189 Guéguen, Anaïs, 285
Cheng, Xiaowu, 161
Chui, Ying Hei, 35, 57, 165, 187, 189 Haba, Ryota, 141
Correal-Mòdol, Eduard, 89 Haedicke, Wolfram, 125
Crews, Keith, 265 Hagiwara, Ichiro, 271
Crocetti, Roberto, 253 Hagiwara, Shintaro, 21
Cronhjort, Yrsa, 301 Hagman, Olle, 69
Cullen, Martin, 267 Hao, Jiannan, 161
Hara, Mariko, 171
Daly, Deng, 101 Harada, Koji, 261
de Angelis, Gabriella, 303 Haramiishi, Takeshi, 239
Degura, Tatsuya, 153 Harris, Richard, 299
Del Menezzi, Cláudio, 91 Hasemi, Yuji, 261, 271
Hayashi, Yasuhiro, 231 Kikuchi, Akito, 293
Henrique Pace, José, 71 Kilpatrick, Tony, 267
Hida, Takenori, 169 Kim, Chul-Ki, 87
Hideyoshi Icimoto, Felipe, 85 Kim, HyungKun, 87
Hirai, Noriyuki, 261 Kim, Kwang-Mo, 115, 225
Hirai, Takuro, 123 Kitamori, Akihisa, 135, 141, 157
Hirasawa, Hideyuki, 233 Kitek Kuzman, Manja, 289
Honda, Hideyuki, 207 Klasson, Anders, 253
Hori, Aya, 39 Knorz, Markus, 75
Hughes, Mark, 301 Kobayashi, Sunao, 231
Koga, Kazuya, 185
Icimoto, Felipe, 61 Kögl, Josef, 63
Iida, Fukuji, 211 Kohara, Katsuhiko, 21, 23
Iinuma, Kota, 159 Komatsu, Kohei, 157
Ikeda, Tomoki, 219 Kondoh, Kazuo, 39
Inayama, Masahiro, 99 Koshihara, Mikio, 117, 199, 217, 227, 243, 271
Ino, Akemi, 281, 285 Koumoto, Kazuyoshi, 21, 23
Inoue, Masafumi, 109, 111, 117, 171, 249, 261 Kunugi, Atsushi, 219
Inoue, Terusato, 185 Kurisaki, Hiroshi, 273
Ishiyama, Hiroki, 129 Kuwano, Toshihiro, 171
Isoda, Hiroshi, 135, 141, 157, 239, 243
Ito, Hiromichi, 133 Lacroix, Daniel, 167
Ito, Kazutoshi, 117 Lafrance, P-S., 269
Ito, Takumi, 79 Lara Palma, Hernando, 73
Iwasaki, Akinori, 111 Larsson, Magnus, 307, 309
Izuno, Kazuyuki, 291 Lathuilliere, Damien, 177
Lecomte, Roberto, 305
Jahreis, Markus, 125 Lee, Jun-Jae, 87
Jeong, Gi Young, 119 Lee, Sang-Joon, 115, 225, 275
Jiang, Yuan, 75 Lee, Wonwoo, 117
Jianxin, Zhang, 295 Lehmann, Martin, 83
Jin, Liang, 27 Leroux, P., 269
Jinjie, Gu, 101 Li, Haibo, 27
Lidelöw, Helena, 277
Kaestner, Martin, 125 Lin, Yu-Li, 147
Kaiser, Alex, 307, 309 Ling, Zhibin, 103
Kajikawa, Hisamitsu, 181, 201, 251, 293 Linkosalmi, Lauri, 301
Kaku, Chihiro, 271 Lissouck, René Oum, 43
Kambe, Wataru, 79, 109 Liu, Weiqing, 103, 161
Kameyama, Naohisa, 271 Liu, Yingyang, 195
Kamikawa, Daisuke, 271 López Almansa, Francisco, 257
Kamiya, Fumio, 191 Lougheed, G.D., 269
Kanazawa, Mitsuaki, 21 Lu, Weidong, 103, 161
Kariž, Mirko, 289
Karube, Yasuteru, 99 Macedo, Catharina, 305
Kasai, Kazuhiko, 255 Magalhães de Souza, Amós, 85
Kato, Masaya, 111 Malone, R. Terry, 163
Kawachi, Takeshi, 39 Maramaldo, Matheus, 287
Kawai, Naohito, 199, 239, 243 Marto, João, 33
Kawai, Shinsuke, 297 Masoudnia, Reza, 203
Kawano, Kotaro, 109, 273 Matsuda, Kazuhiro, 255
Kawase, Hiroshi, 151 Matsumoto, Akihiro, 65
Kennedy, Shawn, 139, 143 Matsumoto, Kazuyuki, 239
Kermani, Abdy, 267 Matsumoto, Naoyuki, 223
Matsumoto, Shinya, 97 Nomoto, Kohe, 95
Matsushima, Manabu, 47, 59 Nomura, Takeshi, 23
Matsutani, Yuichiro, 151 Nott, Alex, 165
McConnell, Emma, 179
McPolin, Daniel, 179 Odani, Ryuki, 133
Méité, Mamadou, 53 Ogawa, Haruhiko, 181
Melzerová, Lenka, 49 Oh, Jung-Kwon, 87
Misztal, Barbara, 25 Ohashi, Yoshimitsu, 95
Mitsui, Shuhei, 39, 97 Ohira, Takumi, 133
Miyake, Tatsuya, 227, 239 Ohkubo, Takaaki, 97
Miyamoto, Mitsuhiro, 47, 59, 237 Ohtsuka, Akiko, 79
Miyamoto, Yoko, 251 Okada, Yuka, 181, 201
Miyamoto, Yuji, 219 Ono, Tetsuro, 271
Miyamura, Masashi, 185 Ono, Yasushi, 185
Miyatake, Atsushi, 55, 77 Ooka, Yu, 291
Mohammad, Mohammad, 139, 143, 165, 189 Oonishi, Satoshi, 99
Mohammed Elachachi, Sidi, 145 Ormarsson, Sigurdur, 45, 69
Mohareb, Magdi, 51
Monteiro de Carvalho, Alexandre, 71 Pan, Jinglong, 155
Mori, Takuro, 127, 129, 141, 171, 273 Park, Ji-young, 171
Morita, Hideki, 127 Park, Joo-Saeng, 275
Motoyoshi, Takamitsu, 131 Park, Moon-Jae, 115, 119, 225
Moutou Pitti, Rostand, 19 Passarelli, Rafael, 263, 281, 283
Muguruma, Noriko, 181 Pilipovik, Veronica, 279
Mukai, Yoichi, 241 Polastri, Andrea, 193
Pommier, Régis, 43
Mukaibo, Kyosuke, 245
Pop, Octavian, 53
Müller, Andreas, 213
Popovski, Marjan, 173
Munemoto, Shinsaku, 297
Munoz, Williams, 139, 143
Que, Zeli, 35, 157
Murata, Koji, 29
Quenneville, Pierre, 137, 203
Nagano, Masayuki, 169 Raftery, Gary, 41
Nagao, Hirofumi, 271 Rautenstrauch, Karl, 125
Naicu, Dragos, 299 Riverol, Carmen, 279
Nakada, Yuuta, 207 Rodríguez, Vladimir, 303
Nakagawa, Manabu, 243
Nakagawa, Takafumi, 77, 199 Sadeghi, Masoud, 107
Nakahata, Takumi, 109, 273 Saito, Yukio, 199
Nakajima, Masao, 129 Saitoh, Yukio, 215
Nakajima, Shiro, 55, 77 Sakata, Hiroyasu, 133, 197, 235, 255
Nakao, Masato, 159, 185 Salenikovich, Alexander, 139, 143
Nakashima, Shoichi, 135, 157 Salles Ferro, Fabiane, 61, 85
Nakatani, Makoto, 127 Salviano, Ana Carolina, 305
Nambu, Yasuhiro, 231 Sasaki, Yoshihisa, 123
Namiki, Hirokazu, 105 Sato, Hiromi, 227
Näslund, Ida, 277 Sato, Tetsuya, 233
Nasu, Hideyuki, 99, 105, 151, 153 Sato, Toshiaki, 169
Ni, Chun, 165, 187, 189 Sattler, Derek, 143
Niederwestberg, Jan, 57 Sawata, Kei, 123
Niemz, Peter, 69 Schaffrath, Jörg, 75
Nishimura, Toku, 211 Scharmacher, Florian, 213
Noda, Yasunobu, 129, 247 Scheibmair, Felix, 137
Noguchi, Hiroyuki, 181, 201, 251 Schluessel, Marc, 265
Schusser, Anna, 31 Utsunomiya, Naoki, 47, 59, 237
Seale, R. Daniel, 67
Segués, Edgar, 257 Vahtikari, Katja, 301
Šejnoha, Michal, 49 Vallée, Till, 113
Šernek, Milan, 289 van de Kuilen, Jan-Willem, 75
Shiiba, Atsushi, 65 Varacca, François, 177
Shin, Yukyung, 115, 225 Verdret, Yassine, 145
Shiota, Yoko, 131 Vicente de Figueiredo Latorraca, João, 71
Shmulsky, Rubin, 67 Victor Fernandes, Caio, 85
Shrestha, Rijun, 265 Vieira dos Santos, Pablo, 71
Siqueira, Milton, 91 Vilches Casals, Marcel, 89
Smith, Ian, 107 Volkmer, Thomas, 31, 83
Song, Changsuk, 117
Sotomayor-Castellanos, Javier-Ramón, 37 Wahrhaftig, Alexandre, 221
Stecher, Georg, 63 Wan, Hui, 69
Steinnes, Jan Roar, 45 Wang, Xiaodong, 69
Su, J.Z, 269 Wang, Xueliang, 27
Suda, Tatsuru, 205 Watanabe, Chiaki, 231
Sugano, Yutaro, 123 Watanabe, Ryutaro, 153
Sugimoto, Ken-ich, 191 Wei, Zheng, 101
Sumioka, Osamu, 95 Weidong, Lu, 101
Sun, Youfu, 35 Williams, Chris, 299
Sundqvist, Bror, 69 Winter, Stefan, 75
Suzuki, Asami, 271 Wu, Guofang, 155
Suzuki, Kento, 197
Suzuki, Sanshiro, 241 Xiao, Qiuwu, 51
Suzuki, Yoshiyuki, 199, 215, 241, 245, 291 Xiong, Haibei, 195

Tabata, Chikako, 183 Yamada, Koji, 215

Tabuchi, Atsushi, 131, 297 Yamagishi, Kuniaki, 211
Tahara, Masaru, 185 Yamaguchi, Nobuyoshi, 55
Takahashi, Daisuke, 233 Yamaguchi, Yoshinobu, 77
Takanashi, Ryuya, 123 Yamamoto, Hiroto, 231
Takatani, Tomiya, 229 Yamamoto, Takeshi, 249
Takeuchi, Caori, 81 Yamanaka, Minoru, 47
Takino, Atsuo, 219 Yamazaki, Yoshihiro, 133, 197, 235
Takiyama, Noriko, 231 Yan, Liu, 295
Tanahashi, Hideaki, 291 Yanase, Yoshiyuki, 273
Tanaka, Kei, 109, 111, 117, 171, 249, 273 Yang, Bonnie, 67
Tannert, Thomas, 113, 173 Yang, Huifeng, 103
Taylor, Su, 179 Yang, Xiaojun, 35
Terui, Kiyotaka, 95 Yasui, Noboru, 271
Toda, Masahiko, 247 Yasukawa, Mizuho, 271
Tonuma, Jun, 233 Yasumura, Motoi, 77, 239
Toussaint, Evelyne, 19 Yeh, Min-Chyuan, 147
Triboulot, Pascal, 175 Yeo, In-Hwan, 275
Trujillo, David, 81 Yi, Ji-Woon, 225
Tsai, Mengting, 217 Yusa, Shuitsu, 271
Tsuchimoto, Takahiro, 129, 239
Zhang, Binsheng, 267
Uematsu, Mikihiro, 201 Zhou, Hejian, 155
Uetsuji, Mayuka, 39 Zhou, Jianhui, 57
Ukyo, Seiichiro, 29 Zhou, Lina, 187
Umeda, Danhei, 21 Zhu, Enchun, 155
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