11.production Mechanism of Fractured Reservoirs

3/3/2018
11. Production Mechanism of Fractured Reservoirs
By: Sadeghnejad
sadeghnejad@modares.ac.ir
Introduction
 Predicting the future behavior of a fractured reservoir by
history matching through conventional approaches is
impossible
 A matching may be obtained by modifying the basic data
to a unrealistic state (e.g., matching through increasing by
several times the OOIP)
 This is the direct result of specific production mechanism
in fractured reservoir
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Fractured vs. Conventional Reservoir
GOR
 … is substantially lower in fractured reservoir
 The librated gas rapidly segregates toward the top of
reservoir (instead of toward the wells) through the
fracture systems
 Due to the lower pressure drop in fractures, the
segregation of gas is possible (viscose forces < Gravity
forces)
Tendency of gas to flow toward the gas cap
Rate of pressure decline per unit of oil produced
 … is normally low in fractured reservoirs
 Such improvement in conventional reservoir may be
obtained if a large amount of gas (80%) be re‐injected
 This is due to the special mechanism of production in
fractured reservoir (combined gravity, imbibition, fluid
expansion, segregation, convection, …)
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The absence of transition zone
 … represents the specific
characteristic of fractured
reservoirs
 WOC & GOC are represented by
a distinct separation surface
 In a fractured reservoir the
contacts is sharp and horizontal
in both static and dynamic
conditions
Pressure drop around the well
 … is low in fractured reservoirs
 Since the high permeability of fractures even for very high
rates the pressure drop is not so high
 The resulting gradients are sufficient for transportation of oil
though fractures
 But are too small to control the exchange of fluid between
matrix and fracture
 Instead of viscous forces, gravity and imbibition forces play an
important role in fractured reservoirs
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Constant PVT Properties with Depth
 …occurs in fractured reservoirs, if convection process take
place as a result of thermal expansion and fluid
compression condition
 In conventional reservoirs a variable bubble point versus
depth is conventional
 In fractured reservoirs normally a constant PVT properties
versus depth is happen
Reservoir Zoning of Fractured Reservoir
 A reservoir zonation will exist before production (under static
equilibrium) and another zonation will result during the
production (dynamic state)
 The matrix‐fracture interaction depends on the relative position
of a single block in reservoir respective to WOC/GOC
 The extension of zones and subzones is continuously changing
during production due to:
 Exchange of matrix‐fracture fluid
 Fluid segregation in fracture
 Change in phases provoked by gas libration
 Fluid produced from reservoir
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Reservoir Zoning under Static Condition
 The original limits are represented by:
 GOLO (Original gas oil level)
 WOLO (Original water oil level)
 The contacts in the fractured reservoirs are always sharp
Reservoir Zoning under Static Condition
 The bubble point pressure (Pb) is constant through depth
 @ GOLO, the initial static pressure is equal to the Pb
 The pressure increases with depth from GOLO with oil
gravity
 The saturation distribution is as figure “c” (Swi in all zones)
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Reservoir Zones under Dynamic Conditions
Main Zones
 During the production, the initial static reservoir pressure
(Psi=Pb) is reduced to a lower static pressure (Ps<Pb)
 Oil depletion, gas cap expansion, and aquifer
encroachment result in new level contacts (i.e. GOL and
WOL)
 Main zones:
 Water invaded zone between WOLO and WOL
 Gas invaded zone between GOLO and GOL
 Oil zone between WOL and GOL
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Sub Zones
 Due to the pressure decline during the
production, Ps@GOLO < Pb
 Pressure will increase with depth in the
gas invaded zone and oil zone as a
function of gas and oil density,
respectively
 At a level below GOL, Pb intersects with
reservoir pressure (Ps)
 Oil zones divided into two sub zones:
 Gassing zone, between GOL and Ps=Pb
 Under‐saturated zone, between Ps=Pb and
WOL
 Below WOL, the pressure changes as a
function of water density
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Sub Zones
 Gassing zone:
 Because Ps<Pb, gas will be librated
 Production mechanism is influenced
by the presence of free gas in matrix
and fractures
 The interchange of matrix‐fracture
system become a complex process
influenced by gravity and capillary
forces and phenomena of convection
and super saturation
 Under‐saturated zone:
 Ps>Pb, the matrix is saturated with only
oil
 The production mechanism is
influenced by fluid expansion as well
as matrix‐fracture compressibility
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Saturation Distribution
1. Gas invaded zone: Sg=1‐Swi‐S(or)g where S(or)g
depends on gas front advancement and drainage
displacement
2. Oil gassing zone: Sg=oil recovered from matrix
(due to Ps<Pb). The remaining oil saturation in
matrix is higher than Sor of above zones
3. Under‐saturated oil zone: So+Swi
4. Water invaded zone:
Sw = Swi + S(water due to the imbibition) + S(or)w
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How RFT Works?
•Repeat Formation Tester (RFT)
•Repeat Formation Sampler (RFS)
•Formation Multi‐Tester (FMT)
•Modular formation Dynamic Tester (MDT)
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Zoning vs. Pressure Distribution
 The matrix pore pressure is measured by Repeat Formation
Tester (RFT)
 In an open hole well, the wellbore pressure (affected by
fracture network pressure) is different from the RFT results
(matrix pressure) during production
• Why lines A and B are not in top
of each other?
• Why RFT measures multiple
parallel lines? 16
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Zoning vs. Pressure Distribution
 If matrix blocks are small or the reservoir during the RFT is not producing, the parallel line will
not be observed
 Where water/gas displaced the oil, matrix and fracture have the same water/gas gradient.
Non‐displaced zone containing oil has pore pressure based on oil gradient
 Non‐displaced oil will not modify its equilibrium 17
Zonation at the Late Stage of Reservoir Depletion
 At late stage of reservoir depletion a superposition of zones
become possible if the reservoir height is not significant
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Interference of gas‐cap invaded zone with water invaded zone
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Production Mechanism in each Zone
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Production Mechanism in Gas Invaded Zone
 Gravitational drainage displacement mechanism
 The matrix block is completely or partially surrounded by
gas (1 & 2) with different behavior
 The capillary pressure and the block height play an
important role
20
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Single Block Behavior
 In the case of hTH=hc displacement dose not occur if the gas is in
contact with the upper face or even if it reaches at depth of h1<hTH
 Only when the block is surrounded at the depth of h2>hTH=hc will
recovery take place
 Recovery is limited only to the matrix block height h2‐hTH
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Observations
 To calculate the recovery, it is essential to know the
relationship of capillary height vs. block height
 Since gas‐oil interfacial tension (σ) increases with
reservoir recovery, in the absence of pressure
maintenance, the hold‐up height (hth) will increases
 An oil re‐imbibition process may take place and reduce oil
production. The produced oil in fractures re‐imbibed into
the lower blocks
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Block‐Block Infiltration (Saeidi, 1980)
 Between two blocks a wet region may create
a bridge and thus a continuous oil phase
among the blocks (a film of oil remaining
between the blocks in the case of narrow
fracture)
 Oil flow between block 1 and block 2 , due to
capillary continuity, is controlled by capillary
pressure gradient and the gravity difference
 The effective permeability, Ko, depends on
matrix saturation, So: ko ( So* ) dPc dSo*
q ( g- )
o dSo* dz
So  Sor
So* 
1  S wc  Sor
 Such an re‐imbibition will reduce the
efficiency of the gas invaded zone 23
Stack of Blocks Infiltration
 The drainage rate is expressed by:
Q DR  A

 g H g  z  Pc 
g
 MH  1  M  z 
kk rg  
by rearranging :
Q DR  A
 
 g H g  z  Pc
A
Ko H g 
 z  hc

o 1
 MH  1  M  z  o  H  1/ M  1 z 
 
kk ro M  
 The max drainage rate is when Pc=0 (equivalent to hc<<H)
and z=0 (equivalent to z<<H)
Ko
Q DR  Q max  A 
o
 The supply rate from block i‐1 to block i is expressed as
Qi‐1, SUPP, i which may be higher or lower than Qmax
 If Qi‐1, SUPP, i < QMAX,i : all oil coming from above is sucked into
block oil
 If Qi‐1, SUPP, i > QMAX,i : some of the oil (the excess) passes
through the fracture network of blocks i 24
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Stack of Blocks Infiltration
 The supply rate will be:
Q i 1,SUPP ,i  Q DR ,i 1  Q PASS ,i 1
1. The re‐infiltration rate is equal to the rate of supply if i 1
supply rate is lower than the max drainage rate: Qi 1,SUPP ,i
Q REINF ,i  Q i 1,SUPP if Q i 1,SUPP ,i Q MAX ,i
i
2. The passing rate is the excess of the rate which moves Q PASS ,i
through the fractures
Q PASS ,i  Q i 1,SUPP ,i  Q DR ,i if Q i 1,SUPP ,i Q MAX ,i
Q DR ,i  Q max
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Infiltration through Experiments (Sat. Profile)
Q SUPP
 Define Q 
Q MAX
 When Q=0 (means QSUPP=0) the
saturation profile is equal to the
capillary pressure curve

 If 0< Q <1 , the increasing supply
drainage ratio (QSUPP>0) results in higher
oil saturation So*
 If Q =1, oil supplied will compensate for
the oil produced (the saturation in oil in
the block is practically unchanged)
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Drainage Performance of Single block vs. Stack of Blocks
Saeidi et al. (1987)
Drainage performance of typical single Stack of 50 equal, interacting blocks for
block for different ultimate recoveries different ultimate recovery
• As the stack never drains faster than the single‐block rate, the total time required to reach

at ultimate recovery will exceed the single‐block drainage time
• The time is more or less proportional to the number of blocks in the stack.
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Simulation of Heterogeneous Stack of
(Partly) Interacting Blocks
α : degree of block‐block interaction,
(no interaction) 0 ≤ α ≤ 1 (full interaction)
Q REINF ,i    Q i 1,SUPP
 Recovery by depletion (A) is not very sensitive to α.
 Maintaining the pressure at a later stage of production (B) improves the recovery slightly,
but, the improvement is not very sensitive to α.
 Re‐pressurizing (C) and maintaining pressure from the start (D) result in a large
improvement in recovery for α=0, whereas for α =0.75 the additional oil can only be
produced at a very low rate by after‐drainage from the gas‐surrounded stack. 28
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Production Mechanism in Gassing Zone
 This zone is limited by GOL and Pb
 The matrix pore pressure is lower than Pb
 Librated gas expansion + Buoyancy + Imbibition + Convection
mechanisms
 The presences of fractures changes the production mechanism from
a simple solution gas drive to a more complex mechanism
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Librated Gas Expansion Mechanism
 Two sub‐zones may be developed as a result of critical gas
saturation (Sg,cr) vs. effective gas saturation
 If the librated gas expansion is the predominant mechanism,
the matrix block inside the upper sub‐zone (4) produce more
gas in the same time with respect to the lower subzone (3)
30
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 In addition to the librated gas expansion mechanism, other
mechanisms such as:
 segregation of gas inside the matrix block
 interchange of fluid between fracture and matrix
 oil circulation due to the convection phenomena
 contact between the heavier oil of fracture and lighter oil
remaining in the matrix (displacement of matrix oil by fracture oil
due to the gravity forces)
 super‐saturation pressure phenomena (gas remain dissolved in
oil even at pressures under Pb)
 Gas diffusion between oil in matrix and fractures as a result of
higher gas concentration in matrix oil
will develop more complicated transfer function
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Oil Circulation and Implication on PVT Properties
 @ GOLO the reservoir pressure is equal to saturation pressure,
but below this level there are two cases
 Case 1: saturation pressure vary with depth (as in a conventional
reservoir)
 Case 2: saturation pressure remain constant (typical for fractured
reservoirs that have good intercommunicating fracture networks
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Oil Circulation and Implication on PVT Properties
 The constant value of Pb with depth is a result of a convection
process due to:
 Pressure gradient
 thermal gradient
 Under the increasing of pressure with depth, oil contracts and under
the increasing of temperature with depth, it expands (there is a non
equilibrium condition can come to the equilibrium by convection)
 The convection process through fracture networks causes that
heavier oil from the upper part of the reservoir to move rapidly
through fracture to the lower part of reservoir and vise versa
 A homogeneity of PVT properties is the result of this continuous

fluid circulation throughout the fractures
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Segregation vs. Convection
 Segregation means that the heavy and light components of the
reservoir are distributed under gravity forces (no circulation)
 This is responsible for the variation of Pb vs. depth
 Saeidi et al. (1971):
 The isothermal variation of volumetric mass of a compressible liquid
under pressure variation:
 T   0e c P
c : compressibility
 The isobaric variation of volumetric mass of a compressible liquid
under temperature variation:
 P
  0e T
 : cefficient of thermal expasnsion
 For a given oil composition :
 P   T if Positive : Convection  Pb (h)  Cte
 P   T if Negative : Segregation  Pb ( h)  Cte 34
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Super‐saturation Phenomena
 Considering the solution gas‐drive mechanism of conventional
reservoir for a fractured reservoir, it is difficult to match its past
history (history match) without assuming:
 high OOIP, or
 extremely water‐drive system
 To match the material balance results in the gassing zone , it is
observed that the gas saturation should be reduced (higher gas
displacement efficiency)
 Based on the above observations, a theory was developed by
Dumore (1971)
 At low pressure decline rate dp/dt<10‐6 atm/sec (30 kg/cm2year), it
would be a pressure (i.e., super saturation pressure) at which gas
remain in a liquid phase even at pressures lower than bubble point
pressure 35
 The largest pores having a lower Pc would be the first pore in which a gas
bubble would develop during the depletion
 Under low viscous forces (viscous forces < capillary & gravitational forces):
 If pores are uniform of large radii, there is a small Pc and librated gas can push
oil out of the pore
 If pores are non‐uniform of small radii, there is a large Pc and gas bubble traps
in the pore
 The trapped gas can not push oil from the adjacent pores (due to high Pc)
  The solution gas in the neighbor pores can not be out of the oil (there is
no space available) and remain soluble even @ P<Pb super‐saturation
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Note: Diffusion vs. Dispersion
 Diffusive mass transfer, is the spreading of mass from
highly concentrated areas to less concentrated areas
 Diffusive mass flux (is analogous to diffusion) can be
described using Fick's first law:
 Diffusion is caused by random molecular motions
(i.e. Brownian motion) and is a microscopic phenomenon
37
Note: Diffusion vs. Dispersion
 Dispersion can be differentiated from diffusion in that it
is a macroscopic phenomenon
 Dispersion is often more significant than diffusion in
convection‐diffusion problems Flow paths in a porous medium that
Factors causing pore‐scale longitudinal dispersion cause transverse dispersion
Hydrodynamic Dispersion
αL : longitudinal dispersivity
v : average linear velocity
D* : effective diffusion coefficient. 38
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 In fractured reservoir reservoir pressure drops at a very low decline
 there will be enough time for the diffusion (non‐dispersion) of
gas through liquid in the surrounding area to feed the bubble of gas
 Soluble gas moves from higher chemical potential (μ) to lower
potential (from non‐equilibrium thermodynamic state to equilibrium
state)
 P<Pb but due to the super saturation phenomena, gas is in solution
(non‐equilibrium state)
Diffusion
Diffusion
 The gas bubbles grow larger and larger (due to the diffusion)
39
 It was observed that the gas phase is not a continuous stream of
upward moving gas (left fig.), but rather an agglomeration of small
mutually interconnected gas channels forming a continuous stream
until the bubble channel reaches to the boundary of block where
delivers gas to fractures (right fig.)
 The oil at the contact surface of the gas channels will liberate the gas according
to the conventional solution gas‐drive mechanism
 While outside of the gas channels (in matrix) the oil will not liberate gas due to
the super saturation
Dispersion Non‐Dispersion
(conventional reservoirs) (Super saturation)
40
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 If pressure decline rate is high super saturation oil capacity will
be low (classic solution gas drive calculation must be used)
 If reservoir rock is homogeneous no gas trapping (classic
solution gas drive calculation must be used)
 The lower pressure decline rate  lower free‐gas saturation
(diffusion take place )
 Lower free gas saturation  a better Kro will result in the matrix
block
Dispersion Non‐Dispersion
(conventional reservoirs) (Super saturation)
41
Production Mechanism in Under‐Saturated Zone
 Simple expansion drive mechanism
 Only oil exists with no free gas (Ps>Pb)
 The difference in higher pressure of matrix and lower pressure
of fracture is responsible for oil production (expansion) in
matrix
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Convection Process in Gassing and Under‐
Convection Process in Saturated Zone
 Oil in the fractures of the gassing zone will continuously reduces its
dissolved gas during the production
  the oil in fracture of the gassing zone will become heavier than of the oil
in the fracture of the underlying under‐saturated zone
 The heavier oil in top and lighter oil on the bottom will create a convection
mixing (heavier oil moves downward)
 The new density contrast of oil in the fractures and matrices of under‐
saturated zone causes another convectional mixing within the matrix
 The convectional mixing causes more of the dissolved gas to transfer from
matrix to fractures due to the molecular diffusion
Convection
+ + heavy oil in fracture
\\ light oil in fracture
|| heavy oil in matrix
Diffusion \\ light oil in matrix
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Production Mechanism in Water Invaded Zone
 Gravitational + Imbibition displacement
mechanism
 Between current WOL and WOLO the
matrix blocks surrounded with water in
fractures
 The WOC advancement in the fracture
or matrix influences the predominance
of gravity and capillary pressure forces
(6 to 9)
 Critical rate (Mattax 1962) is defined as
equal advancement of WOC in fracture
and matrix
 If WOC ratefracture> WOC ratematrix, the
rate considered above the critical rate 6/7 capillary force is predominant
and vice versa 8/9 capillary + gravity forces
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Production Mechanism in Zones‐Summation
45
Production Mechanism in Zones‐Summation
46
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Notes on Production Mechanisms
 The presence of strong water‐drive may maintain a reservoir
pressure equal to the initial reservoir pressure reduces all
those mechanisms associated reservoir pressure depletion
 In this case, recovery is the result of imbibition displacement
through capillary & gravity forces
 If the aquifer is limited or no exists  oil will produced as a
result of the gas expansion & gravity drainage in the gas‐
invaded zone
 The oil produced from blocks if moving downward in fractures
may be re‐imbibe in the lower located matrix blocks
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• As the stack never drains faster than the single‐block rate, the total time required to reach

 A homogeneity of PVT properties is the result of this continuous

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