sensors

Article
An Optical Fiber Sensor and Its Application in UAVs
for Current Measurements
Felipe S. Delgado, João P. Carvalho, Thiago V. N. Coelho * and Alexandre B. Dos Santos
Electrical Circuit Department, Federal University of Juiz de Fora, Juiz de Fora 36036-330, Brazil;
felipe.souza@engenharia.ufjf.br (F.S.D.); joao.pedro@engenharia.ufjf.br (J.P.C.);
alexandre.bessa@engenharia.ufjf.br (A.B.D.S.)
* Correspondence: thiago.coelho@ufjf.edu.br; Tel.: +32-9-9916-1712

Academic Editors: Christophe Caucheteur and Tuan Guo

Received: 4 July 2016; Accepted: 6 September 2016; Published: 27 October 2016

Abstract: In this paper, we propose and experimentally investigate an optical sensor based on a novel
combination of a long-period fiber grating (LPFG) with a permanent magnet to measure electrical
current in unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). The proposed device uses a neodymium magnet
attached to the grating structure, which suffers from an electromagnetic force produced when the
current flows in the wire of the UAV engine. Therefore, it causes deformation on the sensor and thus,
different shifts occur in the resonant bands of the transmission spectrum of the LPFG. Finally, the
results show that it is possible to monitor electrical current throughout the entire operating range of
the UAV engine from 0 A to 10 A in an effective and practical way with good linearity, reliability and
response time, which are desirable characteristics in electrical current sensing.

Keywords: current sensor; long-period fiber grating; optical fiber sensor; unmanned aerial vehicle

1. Introduction
Fiber-optic sensors have acquired growing importance in the field of sensor technologies [1–3].
Compared with conventional devices, optical fiber sensors present many advantages [4,5].
These devices are compact, lightweight, easy to install, inexpensive and insensitive to electromagnetic
interference [6], which are key features desired for sensing applications. Thus, optical fiber sensors
are extremely versatile in measuring variations in temperature [7,8], strain [9], external refractive
index [10], pressure [11], humidity [12] and electrical current in high voltage environments [13].
Optical current sensors using optical fibers have been investigated since the 1960s [14,15].
Since then, several researchers have proposed and demonstrated a number of practical applications
using optical fiber current sensors (OFCS) [16–18]. One of the most popular configurations for current
measurements is based on the magneto-optic effect, known as the Faraday rotation effect. For example,
in [16] the authors reported an OFCS based on the Faraday effect for the measurement of plasma
current in tokamaks. In [17] a long-period fiber grating (LPFG) and a Faraday effect sensing element
to measure electrical current in transmission lines are described, whereas in [18], the authors have
proposed the use of the Faraday rotation effect using a LPFG inscribed on a polarization-maintaining
fiber as a sensor demodulator. However, these methods are affected by the fiber birefringence [5]
and limited by the small Verdet constant of silica, which requires a very long fiber to enhance the
sensitivity [19].
Considering these aspects, we have developed and experimentally investigated a novel OFCS
based on a long-period fiber grating combined with a permanent neodymium (Nd2 Fe14 B) magnet
attached to the LPFG sensing region. The new device presents a lightweight setup with compact size
and simple installation, and provides an indirect measurement of the electrical current of an UAV
engine. When the controller activates the drone engines, the battery will supply each one of the four

Sensors 2016, 16, 1800; doi:10.3390/s16111800 www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors

Sensors 2016, 16, 1800 2 of 8
Sensors 2016, 16, 1800 2 of 8

engine. When the controller activates the drone engines, the battery will supply each one of the four
motors according to the desired flight speed and direction. Thus, electrical current flowing within the
wiregenerates
conductor wire generatesa amagnetic
magnetic force
force thatthat deflects
deflects the permanent
the permanent magnet magnet and deforms
and deforms the
the LPFG,
LPFG, which are effective external deformation sensors [9,20,21]. Therefore, according
which are effective external deformation sensors [9,20,21]. Therefore, according to the different shifts to the different
shifts
in in the resonant
the resonant bands of bands of thetransmitted
the LPFG LPFG transmitted
spectrum,spectrum, it istopossible
it is possible detect the to current
detect the current
demanded
demanded
by by the
the aircraft aircraft engine.
engine.
The experimental investigation was carried out under room temperature (27 °C) ◦ C) with
with the
the UAV
UAV
fixed on the lab bench. Further,
Further, the
the electrical
electrical current
current variations
variations were
were measured
measured for for aa single
single UAV
engine, while all the motors were spinning at the same time. Contrary Contrary toto the
the laboratory
laboratory environment,
environment,
complete version
a complete version of
of the
the OFCS
OFCSwould
wouldbe beembedded
embeddedinto intothe
thedrone,
drone,consisting
consistingofofa asimple
simplescheme
scheme ofof
a
a LED
LED light
light source,
source, thethe proposed
proposed OFCS,
OFCS, an optical
an optical filter
filter andand photodetectors,
photodetectors, sincesince the experimental
the experimental tests
tests were
were performed
performed with awith a broadband
broadband light source
light source and an and an optical
optical spectrum
spectrum analyzeranalyzer
in thein the lab.
lab.

2. Unmanned
UnmannedAerial
AerialVehicle
Vehicle Characteristics
Characteristics
In order to operate remotely the UAV,UAV, thethe user
user has
has toto send
send command
command signals to the aircraft, and
thus regulate the rotation speed of the four engines
engines of of the
the UAV.
UAV. In other words, the operator regulates
the pulse-width modulation (PWM) through a wireless radio-control at 2.4 GHz GHz radio
radio frequency
frequency (RF),
(RF),
indicating the desired command. The PWM signals signals dodo not
not act
act directly
directly on
onthe
theUAV
UAV engines.
engines. Actually,
Actually,
the flight control unit (FCU), within the aircraft, receives the PWM signals and transmits them to an
electronic speed control module (ESC). (ESC). The
The ESC
ESC module
module is is powered
powered by by the
the battery
battery of
of the
the UAV,
UAV, and
controls the rotation of thethe engine
engine for
for the
the desired
desired flight
flight conditions.
conditions.
Figure 1 shows the detailed relationship between the duty cycle of the PWM signals and the
electrical
electrical current
currentdemanded
demanded byby
a single engine
a single of theofUAV,
engine measured
the UAV, by a conventional
measured clamp ammeter.
by a conventional clamp
The UAV engine
ammeter. The UAV demands
engine more electrical
demands morecurrent in current
electrical high duty cycles,
in high thus
duty its response
cycles, thus itsisresponse
not linear
is
throughout the entire operation
not linear throughout the entire range and range
operation it reaches
andits rotationits
it reaches speed limitspeed
rotation whenlimit
the PWM
whensignal has
the PWM
asignal
duty has
cycle of 73%,
a duty which
cycle corresponds
of 73%, to 10 A. to 10 A.
which corresponds

Figure 1. Measured electrical current demanded by the UAV engine under test as a function of
Figure 1. Measured electrical current demanded by the UAV engine under test as a function of different
different duty cycles of the PWM signals.
duty cycles of the PWM signals.

In addition to the 2.4 GHz RF transmission of the pilot signals to the aerial vehicle, more
In addition to the 2.4 GHz RF transmission of the pilot signals to the aerial vehicle, more
communications technologies are embedded into the UAV system, such as the global positioning
communications technologies are embedded into the UAV system, such as the global positioning
system (GPS), onboard WiFi signals transferring video signals back to the pilot, and telemetry. There
system (GPS), onboard WiFi signals transferring video signals back to the pilot, and telemetry. There is
is also noise that may cause electrical magnetic interference (EMI) generated by the motors of the
also noise that may cause electrical magnetic interference (EMI) generated by the motors of the aircraft
aircraft and ESCs as well. Thus, considering these aspects, the use of an OFCS provides electrical
and ESCs as well. Thus, considering these aspects, the use of an OFCS provides electrical current
current measurements with reliability, due to its immunity to EMI from the UAV components and
measurements with reliability, due to its immunity to EMI from the UAV components and insensitivity
insensitivity to entangled frequencies in the same band, which conventional sensors do not provide.
to entangled frequencies in the same band, which conventional sensors do not provide.
Sensors 2016, 16, 1800 3 of 8
Sensors 2016, 16, 1800 3 of 8

3. Theory
3. Theory
Long-period gratings (LPFG) are fiber-optic devices that consist of a periodic modulation of the
optical fiber properties,
Long-period which
gratings is normally
(LPFG) a perturbation
are fiber-optic devicesofthat the refractive
consist ofcore index ofmodulation
a periodic a fiber sectionof
[22].optical
the Several techniques
fiber have
properties, been is
which reported
normally concerning
a perturbationthe fabrication process core
of the refractive of the gratings,
index such
of a fiber
as exposure
section to ultraviolet
[22]. Several (UV) have
techniques irradiation [22], irradiation
been reported concerning by femtosecond
the fabricationpulses in the
process infrared
of the (IR)
gratings,
[23], asirradiation
such exposure tobyultraviolet
CO2 lasers (UV)[24], as well
irradiation asirradiation
[22], ion beambyimplantation, etching,
femtosecond pulses mechanical
in the infrared
arrangements,
(IR) and electric
[23], irradiation by CO arc2 discharges
lasers [24],[25–28].
as well Besides,
as ionthe beamLPFG usually has aetching,
implantation, period (Λ) of 100 µm
mechanical
to 1000 µm andand
arrangements, the electric
grating arcpromotes coupling
discharges between
[25–28]. the propagating
Besides, core mode
the LPFG usually has (LP 01) and(Λ)
a period theof m
different
100 µm toco-propagating
1000 µm and thecladdinggrating modes
promotes(LPcoupling
0m). The result
between of the
thecoupling
propagatingbetween propagating
core mode and
(LP01 ) and
co-propagating
the modes that can
m different co-propagating be observed
cladding modes (LP in 0m
the). transmission
The result of the spectrum
couplingofbetween
the LPFG is a high
propagating
attenuation
and of the cladding
co-propagating modes that modes,canrepresented
be observedby in athe
series of attenuation
transmission resonance
spectrum of thebands
LPFGaccording
is a high
to the following
attenuation of theequation
cladding[6,29]:
modes, represented by a series of attenuation resonance bands according
to the following equation [6,29]: 2
2π (1)
m
β co − β cl = Λ (1)
Λ
where and are the propagation constants of the core and the mth-order cladding modes,
where β co and βm are the propagation constants of the core and the mth-order cladding modes,
respectively, andclΛ is the grating period. The propagation constant can be rewritten as 2πneff/λ, being
respectively, and Λ is the grating period. The propagation constant can be rewritten as 2πne f f /λ, being
neff and λ the effective refractive index and the light wavelength, respectively. Thus, from Equation (1) the
ne f f and λ the effective refractive index and the light wavelength, respectively. Thus, from Equation (1)
resonance phase matching condition can be easily determined as [30]:
the resonance phase matching condition can be easily determined as [30]:
Λ (2)
λm = (nco − nm cl ) Λ (2)
where λm is the resonance wavelength of the mth-order cladding mode, and nco and are the
effective refractive indices of the fundamental core mode and the mth-order
where λm is the resonance wavelength of the mth-order cladding mode, and nco and ncl are the effective mcladding mode,
respectively.
refractive indicesChanges
of the in the temperature,
fundamental core mode strain,
and refractive
the mth-order index of themode,
cladding external medium
respectively.
surrounding the LPFG sensor can alter the grating period as well as the
Changes in the temperature, strain, refractive index of the external medium surrounding the LPFG differential refractive index
of the core and cladding modes and thus, lead to variations in the resonance
sensor can alter the grating period as well as the differential refractive index of the core and cladding condition due to the
rejection
modes andwavelengths
thus, lead (λ ) dependence
to mvariations to resonance
in the external parameters
condition variations
due to the[31–33].
rejectionTherefore,
wavelengthsit is
possible to extract the environmental information from the analysis of the
(λm ) dependence to external parameters variations [31–33]. Therefore, it is possible to extract the shifts occurring at the λm
parameter.
environmental information from the analysis of the shifts occurring at the λm parameter.

4. Experimental
4. Experimental Setup
Setup and
and Sensing
Sensing Principle
Principle
The experimental
The experimental setup
setup is
is shown
shown in
in Figure
Figure 2.
2. It
It consists
consists of
of aa broadband
broadband light
light source
source (BBS),
(BBS), an
an
optical spectrum
optical spectrum analyzer
analyzer (OSA,
(OSA, Thorlabs
Thorlabs Fourier
Fourier Transform Spectrometer,
Spectrometer, Thorlabs,
Thorlabs, Newton,
Newton, NJ,
USA), the proposed OFCS
USA), OFCS (LPFG
(LPFG++permanent
permanentmagnet)
magnet)placed
placedinside thethe
inside arm of the
arm vehicle,
of the andand
vehicle, the
UAV.
the UAV.

Figure 2.
Figure 2. Experimental
Experimental setup
setup for
for UAV
UAVcurrent
currentsensing.
sensing.

The sensing device is obtained fixing with an epoxy resin a neodymium (Nd2Fe14B) magnet, the
LPFG and the flexible holder structure. This configuration, shown in Figure 3, provides unidirectional
Sensors 2016, 16, 1800 4 of 8

Sensors 2016,
Sensors 2016, 16,
16, 1800
1800 44 of
of 88
Sensors 2016,sensing
The 16, 1800 deviceis obtained fixing with an epoxy resin a neodymium (Nd2 Fe14 B) magnet,4 of the8

LPFG and the flexible

displacements holderthe
to deform
deform structure.
LPFG This configuration,
sensing shown the
head. Further,
Further, in Figure 3, provides
proposed sensorunidirectional
displacements to the LPFG sensing head. the proposed sensor isis compact,
compact,
displacements to deform the LPFG sensing head. Further, the proposed sensor is compact, lightweight
lightweight and
lightweight and easy
easy toto install,
install, these
these characteristics
characteristics allow
allow itit to
to be
be easily
easily employed
employed according
according to to any
any
and
UAV easy to install,
features, such these
as characteristics
conductor wires,allow
ESCs itand
to be easily employed
engines position according
and size. to any displacements
Possible UAV features,
UAV features, such as conductor wires, ESCs and engines position and size. Possible displacements
such as conductor
in other
other directionswires, ESCs
can be and engines
be mitigated
mitigated position
using anotherandgrating
size. Possible
without displacements
the magnet
magnet as in
as other
can be directions
be seen inin
in directions can using another grating without the can seen
can be mitigated using another grating without the magnet as can be seen in literature [34].
literature [34].
literature [34].

Figure 3.
Figure
Figure 3. Schematic
3. Schematic representation
Schematic representation of
representation of the
of the proposed
the proposed optical
proposed optical fiber
optical fiber current
fiber current sensor
current sensor (OFCS)
sensor (OFCS) combining
(OFCS) combining aaa
combining
Figure 3. Schematic representation of the proposed optical fiber current sensor (OFCS) combining a
LPFG
LPFG with
LPFG with aaa neodymium
with neodymium permanent
neodymium permanent magnet.
permanent magnet.
magnet.
LPFG with a neodymium permanent magnet.

An LPFG
An
An LPFG sensor
LPFG sensor
sensorwas was fabricated
wasfabricated
fabricatedin ininthe
the Laboratory
theLaboratory
Laboratory ofof
of Instrumentation
Instrumentation
Instrumentation and
and andTelemetry
Telemetry
Telemetry (LITel) at
(LITel)
(LITel) at
Federal
at Federal
Federal University
University
University of Juiz de
of Juiz
of Juiz Fora
de Forade Fora (UFJF).
(UFJF). Figure
(UFJF). 4
FigureFigureshows
4 shows the
4 shows fabrication scheme
the fabrication
the fabrication of
scheme scheme the LPFG
of the
of the LPFG sensors.
LPFG
sensors.
It was
sensors. manufactured
It was in
manufactured a single-mode
in a optical
single-mode fiber (SMF28)
optical fiber using
(SMF28) the
It was manufactured in a single-mode optical fiber (SMF28) using the electric arc discharges method electric
using the arc discharges
electric arc method
discharges
[25,35]. The
method
[25,35]. The fiber
[25,35].
fiber Thewas
was arc-induced
fiber was arc-induced
arc-induced using aausing
using fusion
fusion splicersplicer
a fusion
splicer (KL-300T,
(KL-300T, Jilong,Jilong,
(KL-300T,
Jilong, Nanjing,
Nanjing, China)
Nanjing,
China) with
China)
with
electrical
with arc discharges
electrical
electrical arc discharges
arc discharges of 20
of 20 bits
ofbits
20 bitsandand
and 470470
470 ms,ms,
ms, grating
grating
grating period
period
period of ΛΛ== =500
ofofΛ 500 µm
500µm and
µmand constant
andconstant external
constant external
tension of 2 g weight [28]. During the fabrication process, an optical
tension of 2 g weight [28]. During the fabrication process, an optical spectrum analyzer was used spectrum analyzer was used to
to
monitor
monitor the
monitor the transmission
the transmission spectrum
transmission spectrum characteristics.
spectrum characteristics. Further,
characteristics. Further, these
Further, these fabrication
these fabrication parameters
fabrication parameters
parameters werewere chosen
were chosen
chosen
in
in order
order
in order to
to achieve
achieve coupling
coupling
coupling of
of the
the highest
highest possible
possible cladding
cladding mode
mode near
near λ
λ =
= 1550
1550
possible cladding mode near λ = 1550 nm, which would nm,
nm, which
which would
would
provide higher sensitivity to external parameters
provide higher sensitivity to external parameters sensing [30,31]. The sensing [30,31]. The LPFG
The LPFG
LPFG sensorsensor microphotograph
sensor microphotograph
microphotograph
after
after the
the manufacturing
manufacturing process
process is
is shown
shown in
in Figure
Figure 5.
5. There
There
after the manufacturing process is shown in Figure There is periodical diameter reduction is
is aa periodical
periodical diameter
diameter reduction and
reduction and
and
elongationof
elongation
elongation of the
the fiber, which,actually,
fiber, which, actually, were
actually, were introduced
introduced by by the
the tapering
tapering geometric
geometricdeformation
deformationafter
deformation after
the arc
the arc
the discharges
arc discharges [36]. [36].

Figure 4.
Figure 4. Fabrication
Fabrication scheme
scheme used
used for
for fabrication
fabrication of
of the
the LPFGs.
LPFGs.
Figure 4. Fabrication scheme used for fabrication of the LPFGs.

Figure 5.
Figure 5. Microphotograph
Microphotograph ofof the
the side
side view
view ofof the
the long-period
long-period grating
grating sensor
sensor produced
produced byby arc
arc
Figure 5. Microphotograph of the side view of the long-period grating sensor produced by arc
Figure 5. Microphotograph of the side view of the long-period grating sensor produced by arc discharges.
discharges.
discharges.
discharges.

The
The neodymium
neodymiummagnet magnetpresent in the
present inLPFG sensing
the LPFG
LPFG region can
sensing be attracted
region can be or repelledor
be attracted
attracted depending
repelled
The neodymium magnet present in the sensing region can or repelled
on the position
depending on of
on the its magnetic
the position
position of
of itspoles. In
its magnetic the
magnetic poles.experiment,
poles. In
In the we have
the experiment,
experiment, weplaced the
we have magnet
have placed
placed thewith
magnetLPFG
the
the magnet with
depending with
in
theorder
LPFG toinprovide
order toaprovide
repulsivea electromagnetic
repulsive force, due
electromagnetic to the
force, due electrical
to the currentcurrent
electrical variations in the
variations
the LPFG in order to provide a repulsive electromagnetic force, due to the electrical current variations
in the
in the conductor
conductor wire
wire of
of the
the UAV
UAV engine.
engine. TheThe force
force repels
repels thethe magnet
magnet and
and thus,
thus, causes
causes lateral
lateral
deformation on
deformation on the
the LPFG
LPFG sensor,
sensor, leading
leading toto displacements
displacements of of the
the resonant
resonant attenuation
attenuation band
band of
of the
the
LPFG.
LPFG.
Sensors 2016, 16, 1800 5 of 8

Sensors 2016, 16, 1800 5 of 8

conductor wire of the UAV engine. The force repels the magnet and thus, causes lateral deformation on
the LPFG sensor, leading to displacements of the resonant attenuation band of the LPFG.
Finally, it is possible to measure indirectly the electrical current demanded by the UAV engine
Finally, it is possible to measure indirectly the electrical current demanded by the UAV engine
according
Sensorsto the16,desired
2016, 1800 PWM control signals. This is the basic principle of the proposed optical 5 of 8fiber
according to the desired PWM control signals. This is the basic principle of the proposed optical fiber
current sensor.
current sensor.
Finally, it is possible to measure indirectly the electrical current demanded by the UAV engine
according to the desired PWM control signals. This is the basic principle of the proposed optical fiber
5. Experimental Results
5. Experimental
current sensor. Results
The response of the current sensor was experimentally investigated by applying PWM duty
The response of the current sensor was experimentally investigated by applying PWM duty cycles
cycles5.inExperimental
the range fromResults
45% to 73%, which corresponds to an electrical current of 0–10 A supplied to
in the range from 45% to 73%, which corresponds to an electrical current of 0–10 A supplied to a single
a single UAVTheasmotor, asof
response shown in Figure
the current 1. We
wasmeasured and recorded thebytransmission spectrum of
UAV motor, shown in Figure 1. Wesensor
measured experimentally
and recorded the investigated
transmission applying
spectrumPWM duty
of the LPFG
the LPFG
cyclessensor during
in the range the45%
from process ofwhich
to 73%, the experiment,
corresponds and
to anitelectrical
presented a significant
current change to
of 0–10 A supplied in the
sensor during the process of the experiment, and it presented a significant change in the transmission,
a single UAV
transmission, due motor, as shown in
to the electrical Figure variation,
current 1. We measured and recorded
as shown in Figure the6.transmission spectrum of
due to the electrical current variation, as shown in Figure 6.
the LPFG sensor during the process of the experiment, and it presented a significant change in the
transmission, due to the electrical current variation, as shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6.
6. Transmission
Transmission
FigureFigure lossloss
loss
6. Transmission spectra
spectra ofthe
of
spectra thethe
of LPFG
LPFG sensor
sensor
LPFG under
under
sensor different
underdifferent
different electrical
electrical
electrical current
current
current demanded
demanded
demanded by
by
thethe
UAVUAV
by engine.
engine.
the UAV engine.

Figure
Figure 7. Dip
7. Dip wavelength
wavelength andtransmission
and transmission loss
loss versus
versusPWM
PWMcontrol signals.
control signals.

Figure 7. Dip
The attenuation wavelength
band and1539.36
shifted from transmission
nm to loss versus
1544.02 nm,PWM
with control signals.
a spectral variation shift of
The
4.66 attenuation band
nm. In addition, shifted
the dip of thefrom 1539.36loss
transmission nmshifted
to 1544.02 nm, dB
from −16.32 with a spectral
to −11.03 variation
dB, varying shift of
5.29 dB.
4.66 The
nm. In addition,
We attenuation the dip
band shifted
can see the detailed of the
response transmission
from 1539.36
curves loss
nmLPFG
of the shifted
to 1544.02 from
for thenm,
PWM − 16.32
with dB to
a spectral
signals − 11.03
in Figure dB,
variation varying
7, and shift
its of
5.29nm.
4.66 dB. Weaddition,
In can see the
corresponding the detailed
wavelength
dip response
of theand curves
intensity
transmission lossofshifted
the LPFG
responses for for the PWM
electrical
from −16.32 current signals in Figure
in Figures
dB to −11.03 dB, 8 and
varying 7,5.29
and its
9, dB.
respectively.
corresponding In Figure
wavelength 7, we
and observe
intensity that the response
responses for for PWM
electrical duty
currentcycle
We can see the detailed response curves of the LPFG for the PWM signals in Figure 7, and its in signals
Figures presents
8 and 9,the same
respectively.
behavior
In Figure 7, weasobserve
corresponding the electrical
wavelength current
that the
and variation,
response
intensity because
for PWM of their
duty
responses for correlation,
cycle as shown
signals presents
electrical current in
thein Figure
same 1. As
8 the
behavior
Figures andas the
9,
electrical current
electrical current demanded
variation, by the UAV engine increased, the dip wavelength shifted towards higher
respectively. In Figure 7, webecause
observeofthat their
thecorrelation,
response for as PWM
showndutyin Figure
cycle 1. As thepresents
signals electrical
the current
same
wavelengths. By data fitting, the sensitivity of 0.4703 nm/A was achieved with high degree of
behavior as the electrical current variation, because of their correlation, as shown in Figure 1. As the
electrical current demanded by the UAV engine increased, the dip wavelength shifted towards higher
wavelengths. By data fitting, the sensitivity of 0.4703 nm/A was achieved with high degree of
Sensors 2016, 16, 1800 6 of 8

Sensors 2016, 16, 1800 6 of 8

demanded by 16,
Sensors 2016, the1800
UAV engine increased, the dip wavelength shifted towards higher wavelengths. 6 of 8
By data
electrical currentsensitivity
fitting, the of 0.4703bynm/A
linearity, confirmed was achieved
the R2 coefficient derivedwith high
from the degree of electrical
fitting process, as seencurrent
in
electrical
linearity,
Figure 8. currentby
confirmed the R2confirmed
linearity, byderived
coefficient the R2 coefficient
from thederived
fitting from the fitting
process, as seenprocess, as seen
in Figure 8. in
Figure 8.

Figure 8. Experimental data fit of the dip wavelength as a function of electrical current.
Figure 8. Experimental data fit of the dip wavelength as a function of electrical current.
Figure 8. Experimental data fit of the dip wavelength as a function of electrical current.

Figure 9. Experimental data fit of the transmission loss as a function of the electrical current.
Figure
Figure 9. Experimental
9. Experimental data
data fitfitofofthe
thetransmission
transmission loss lossasasa afunction
functionof of
thethe
electrical current.
electrical current.
On the other hand, Figure 9 shows the transmission loss decreasing as the electrical current
On the
increases. other hand,this
Furthermore, Figure 9 shows
intensity the transmission
changes behavior can loss decreasing
be fitted well byas anthe electricalfunction
exponential current
On the other
increases. hand, Figure
Furthermore, this 9 shows
intensity the transmission
changes behavior can beloss
fitteddecreasing
well by an as the electrical
exponential current
function
with a R coefficient value of 0.996 over the sensing range. The exponential curve in Figure 9 can be
2
increases.
with Furthermore,
used atoRcalibrate
2 coefficient this
thevalue intensity changes
of 0.996between
nonlinearity over thethe behavior
sensing canThe
range.
transmission be fitted well
lossexponential
and the by an in
curve
electrical exponential 9 canfunction
Figurevariation
current be
with used 2 coefficient
toOFCS.
aforRthe calibrate the
valuenonlinearity
of 0.996 between
over the the transmission
sensing range. loss
The and the electrical
exponential curvecurrent
in variation
Figure 9 can be
In addition, the behavior of the transmission loss agrees well [23], and is based on the
for the
used periodic OFCS.
to calibrate In addition,
the nonlinearity
refractive the behavior
index modulationbetween of the
caused transmission
thebytransmission loss agrees well
loss and theWhen
the external deformation. [23], and
electrical is based
current
the LPFG on the
variation
is placed
periodic
for the OFCS.
under refractive
In addition,
deformation, index modulation
the behavior
it generates a periodiccaused
of the by the external
transmission
strain field owinglossdeformation.
to the agrees When
well
expanded thesection
[23],
cross LPFG
and is placed
is area,
basedandon the
under deformation,
thusrefractive
affects the index it generates
refractive a periodic
index periodic strain fieldof
distribution owing to the fiber
the optical expanded cross section
and produces area, and
anLPFG
attenuated
periodic modulation caused by the external deformation. When the is placed
thus dip
affects thespectrum,
refractive asindex periodic distribution
6. fieldofowingthe optical fiber and produces an attenuated
underloss in the
deformation, it generates shown in Figure
a periodic strain to the expanded cross section area, and
loss dip in the spectrum, as shown in Figure 6.
thus affects the refractive index periodic distribution of the optical fiber and produces an attenuated
6. Conclusions
loss dip in the spectrum, as shown in Figure 6.
6. Conclusions
We have proposed and experimentally investigated a simple and effective optical fiber sensor
We have
for UAV proposed
current
6. Conclusions and experimentally
monitoring. investigated
The novel sensor a simple and
based on long-period effective
fiber optical
gratings fiber sensor
combined with a
for UAV current
permanent monitoring.
neodymium magnetTheprovides
novel sensor basedway
a practical on long-period
to measure fiber gratings
indirectly the combined with a
electrical current
We have proposed
permanent and
neodymium experimentally
magnet investigated
provides a practical way toa measure
simple and effective
indirectly optical fiber
the electrical sensor
current
for UAV current monitoring. The novel sensor based on long-period fiber gratings combined with a
Sensors 2016, 16, 1800 7 of 8

permanent neodymium magnet provides a practical way to measure indirectly the electrical current
flowing within the conductor wire of the UAV engine. The electrical current sensing has been achieved
successfully by measuring the displacements of LPFG spectrum based on wavelength shifts or intensity
changes with the entire UAV operation range from 0 A to 10 A, as observed in Figures 8 and 9.
The results showed a good wavelength linear sensitivity of 0.4703 nm/A, observed in Figure 8.
Besides, using the proposed method, we can also monitor the electrical current in the UAV engine
based on intensity changes in the transmitted spectrum, as shown in Figure 9.
Finally, we can extend the proposed method to a portable OFCS system and thus, monitor electrical
current in every engine of the UAV, since there is no concerns about EMI from the aircraft devices
using the proposed OFCS measurement scheme. The portable sensor system would be embedded into
the UAV, and would consist of a simple scheme of a LED light source, the proposed OFCS, an optical
filter, photodetectors and a simple electronic unit.

Acknowledgments: The authors thank for the support provided by Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora, Capes
and FAPEMIG. Duke Energy and ANEEL (Agência Nacional de Energia Elétrica) financially supported this work.
Author Contributions: Felipe S. Delgado and João P. Carvalho performed the experiments and Thiago V. N. Coelho
and Alexandre B. D. Santos conceived and designed the experiments. All authors wrote the paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The founding sponsors had no role in the design
of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, and in the
decision to publish the results.

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