GST 201

GENERAL AFRICAN STUDIES (KEY POINTS WITH QUESTIONS)

COURSE OUTLINE

 Traditional Medicine in Africa Dr. Samuel Adejoh

 Culture and Society in Africa
 African Language and Literature
 Social Organization
 Social Change
 Race and Identity
 Geography of Africa
Prof. Fatai A. Badru
Prof. Fatai A. Badru
Dr. Michael Kunnuji
Dr. Waziri Babatunde Adisa
Dr. Khalid Adekoya
Dr. Ayeni A. O & Adeaga O. A

KEY POINTS ON GST 201 (Exhaustible and Rich With Questions)

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 COURSE OUTLINE 1: TRADITIONAL MEDICINE IN AFRICA

By: Dr. Samuel Adejoh

E. H. Ackerknecht (1942), primitive medicine is not a queer collection of errors and superstitions but a
number of living unities in living cultural patterns.

Traditional medicine is also referred to as folk or indigenous medicine. It is a systematic knowledge system
that developed in Africa before the advent of modern medicine. Some scholars have described traditional
medicine as unsystematic; its usefulness cannot be over emphasized. Traditional medicine in Africa, is
considered as holistic means i.e. it involves indigenous herbalism and African spirituality consisting of
diviners, traditional birth attendants and herbalist. Practitioners of traditional African medicine lay claim to
curing different diseases such as psychiatric disorders HBP cholera cancer epilepsy, fever etc.

In essence traditional medicine can be transmitted orally or in written. WHO (1998) defines traditional
medicine as “the sum total of all the knowledge and practices whether explicable or not used in diagnosis,
prevention and elimination of physical mental or social imbalance and relying exclusively on practical
experience and observations handed down from generation to generation whether verbally or in writing”.
Traditional medicine has been in existence often for hundreds of years before modern medicine and is still
in use today without any documented evidence of adverse effects. Aspirin, morphine, quinine, atropine etc.
were all developed through traditional medicine.

Explicable medicine can be described as “crude scientific” and other minerals for healing. The inexplicable
form is “magico – spiritual, supernatural that cannot be scientifically investigated or explained.

WHO estimates that up to 80% of the population in Africa makes use of traditional medicine – leaves,
roots as its primary source of medicine. When traditional medicine is adopted outside of its original setting
or culture it is known as complementary and alternative medicine. Major disciplines which study
traditional medicine include ethno medicine, ethno botany and medical anthropology.

INDIGENOUS HEALERS IN AFRICA

Oyebola (1980) classified traditional healers into 6:

1. Babalawo: Onisegun (or adahunse) Ala sotele (sooth sayer) Olorisa (or Abore)

2. Awon leku – leja (traditional pharmacist)

3. Traditional bone setters

4. Traditional psychiatrists

5. Traditional birth attendants or midwives and the “olola”

6. Miscellaneous group – Afaa (Mallams) and Aladura (spiritual healers).

In South Africa, there are 4 major groups of healers:

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1. Iyangas: They are male (knowledge on curative herbs)

2. Isangomas: They are female (they use ancestral spirit)

3. Umtandazi: They are faith healers or professed Christians

4. Traditional birth attendants: usually elderly women with 15 – 20 years experience.

In Tanzania there are 4 major groups which are known as “fundi” in modern day Tanzania. Before the
modern era, they were called “waganga wa kieniyeji” or “waganga wa judi” (Traditional practitioners or
doctors).

1. Diviners: they are diagnosticians diviners and spiritualists

2. Herbalist: they use plants, roots and bark as medicines to cure illness
3. Herbalist – Ritualist: they use both herbs and ritual to treat and diagnose
4. Faith healers: use koranic phrases or bible. They sometimes use medicines.

Why people use traditional medicine

1. It is perceived to be holistic in its approach

2. Side effects of orthodox medicine
3. Increased interest in faith and spiritualism
4. High cost of orthodox medicine

Common means of diagnosis in African traditional medicine

Dreams, divination, oracles, possession.

Treatment of disease in African traditional medicine

1. Rational treatment: this involves treatment that is devoid of magic. Illnesses in this category are
cured by herbs which are easily accessible within the community. According to Harley (1970) they
are household remedies to cure special maladies.
2. Magical or Ethereal treatment: magical diseases are much more complicated and involve the
supernatural world. The ancestral gods and ghosts, when offended by a descendant could attract
punishment either on the individual or the entire family of the offender.
3. Both rational and magical treatment: this is the mixture of rational and magical process for treating
certain ailments. E.g. using a cock broken bone to heal a human being broken bone.

Traditional medicine is relied upon because of its efficacy, accessibility, low cost etc.

Elements of African medicine (both physical and social)

There are 3 main elements of African traditional healing:

1. Prevention and protection from problems

2. Determination of the causes of these problems

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 3. Elimination of these problems.

Integration of African traditional healing system with the orthodox therapy

1. The declaration of 10 years (2001 – 2010) tagged “decade of traditional medicine in Africa “(31st
of August of every year)
2. Develop policy, legal & regulatory framework & health legislation
3. Promote & conduct relevant scientific research on herb efficacy
4. Register traditional medicine with WHO
5. Establish economic production of traditional medicine and industries.

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 COURSE OUTLINE 2: AFRICAN LANGUAGES AND LITERATURE

By: Prof. Fatai A. Badru

Although written African literatures are now developing in many indigenous African languages such as
Swahili, Hausa, Igbo, and Yoruba. These literatures have not developed as they should because the early
colonialist discouraged indigenous language for imperial reasons. The use of European languages by African
writers was not only due to the colonial heritage, but was perhaps dictated by the fact that no African
language is even now universally used in Africa. Indeed, a piece of literary work written in a non –
indigenous language can justifiably be regarded as African only if it mirrors African culture, thought and
perception of the world, life and existence.

Major African languages

Grimes (1996) puts the number of African languages at 2035; this number is not fixed, as some languages
are still being discovered, while others with few speakers are eliminated. The languages are divided into 4
phyla:

by Joseph Greenberg (1950) classification of Africa languages:

1. Niger Congo – 500 members 1436 languages: it is classified into 2 groups. A & B and it constitute
one of the world’s major language families and African largest in terms of geographical areas. it
makes use of noun class systems. *Niger – Congo language by number of speakers are: Yoruba,
Igbo, Fulani and Shona. *Widely spoken by total number of speakers is “Swahili”. They have
some common features such as: Phonology, consonant and vowel systems, nasality, tone etc.
2. Afro – Asiatic – 371 languages: it was coined by “Maurice Delafosse (1914). It is one of the 4
language families of Africa identified by Joseph Greenberg in his book The Language of Africa
(1963). It is one of the world largest languages families with about 375 living languages and more
than 350 million speakers in North Africa Horn of Africa, South West Asia parts of Sahel and
East Africa. The most widely spoken Afro Asiatic language is ARABIC with 230 million speakers
it include several ancient languages such as ancient Egyptian, Biblical Hebrew and Akkadian.
Geographic distribution of the Afro – Asiatic language include: Ancient Egyptian and Coptic,
Berber (less than 10 languages including Tuareg), Chadic (some 150 – 200 language including
Hausa), Cushitic (some 30 – 50 languages including Somalia, Oromo), Omotic (up to 30 languages
including wollaytta, kofa, and basket), Semitic (some 20 languages including Amharic, Tigrinya,
some Arabic).
3. Nilo – Saharan – 196 languages: it is spoken by some 5o million people in the upper part of Chad
and Nile rivers (hence the term “Nilo”) including historic Nubia, North of where the 2 tributaries
of Nile meet. It extended through 17 nations, in Northern half of Africa (Mali Benin, Nigeria and
Democratic Republic of Congo in South, Sudan – Tanzania in East (Excluding Horn of Africa).
Nilo Saharan include the greater Nile basin and central Sahara desert.
4. Khoisan – 35 languages: it is also known as Khoesan or Khossaan languages. They are click
language of Africa, which do not belong to other language families. It is indigenous to Southern

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 and Eastern Africa. In South Africa their speakers are the Khoi and Bushmen (saan), in Eastern
Africa and Sandawe and Hadza. The Khoi language are restricted to the Kalahari desert primarily
in Namibia and Botswana and to the rift valley in central Tanzania. The only widespread Khoisan
language is Nama of Namibia, with ¼ of million speakers sandawe 2nd in Tanzania with about
40,000 monolingual and juu language spoken by 30000 people. Diffusion of language happened
between the Arabs, Hausa and the Berbers which manifested between the 14th and 18th century due
to relations and the introduction of Islam.

Official languages in Africa

Language is the process of communicating thought and feelings through the use of sounds or symbols.
Official language is the mainstream language of any country. It is used in every social setting such as school,
media, and organization and at individual level.

French is the 2nd most studied foreign language in the world, after English. French is an official language in
30 countries and it is called La Francophone. Swahili is a national or official language of 3 nations:
Tanzania, Kenya and the Democratic Republic of Congo.

Portuguese language is one of the romance languages, which developed from Latin. 5 African countries
speak Portuguese. Arabic is a name applied to a group of languages and dialects of central Semitic. Literary
Arabic is the official language of 26 states, and the liturgical language of Islam since it is the language of the
Qur’an the Islamic Holy Book.

Typologies of Nigerian languages

Nigerian language is part of the Nigerian culture, a citizen of Nigeria that cannot speak his own dialect
apart from the central language may not be regarded as a thorough bred (son) of the soil. Without a
common language men could never have attained solidarity and consensus; Giddens (1996) says language is
a set of rules about how to communicate which is independent of individual.

Brief history of Nigerian language

The documentation of some languages of Nigeria started in the 17th century. The first Nigerian language
was kalabari variety of ijaw. Nigeria is a country of 521 languages, 2 second languages without native
speakers and 9 extinct languages. Nigeria languages can be broadly categorized into 2 types and they are
Niger – Congo languages and Afro – Asiatic languages.

Standard Yoruba came into being due to work of Samuel Ajayi Crowther. Afro – Asiatic language of
Nigeria is divided into 3: Chadic, Semitic and Berber. The Chadic languages predominate with 70 plus
languages. Hausa is the most well known Chadic languages spoken by 24 million and west 15 million more.
Sakkwatanchi spoken in Sokoto, Kastinanchi spoken in Kastina, Arewanchi spoken in Zamfara.

In Nigeria, it shows that Taraba speaks 73 languages, Bauchi speaks 60 languages and Adamawa speaks 58
languages. While states that speaks 60 languages and Adamawa speaks 58 languages. While states that
speaks the least languages include Abia, Ekiti, Enugu, Imo, Ogun, Osun, Oyo, and Zamfara which speaks
only 1 language.

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Yoruba and Egun are Lagos state languages traditionally. Yoruba is the language only for Ogun State and
Abuja has 9 Languages. Yoruba is a Niger Congo language spoken in West Africa by approximately 20
million people origin of oduduwa. Efik is the major member of the Benin – Congo language family called
cross – River. Ibibio language is spoken by about 3 million people of Akwa – Ibom and Cross River state
making it the 6th largest languages. Efik trade about 2 million 2nd language speakers.

Hausa is the most well known Chadic language in Nigeria and it is spoken by 24 million people and the 2 nd
language of 15 million more. Hausa is written in a modified Arabic script known as “Aiami” – Barikanchi is
a pidgin formally used in the military. Kanuri is spoken by some 4 million people of Nigeria in 1978 it
belongs to the western Saharan sub – phylum of Kanuri. It is associated with kanem and Borno empires
which dominated the Lake Chad region for a thousand of years Kanuri extends through 17 nations in
northern half of Africa.

Igbo are approximately 20 million speakers in Nigeria. There are over 20 Igbo dialects, a standard literary
language was developed in 1972 based on the Owerri and Umuahia dialects and the most divergent is
Ekpeye.

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 COURSE OUTLINE 3: SOCIAL ORGANIZATION

By: Dr. Michael Kunnuji

The word social has 2 major meanings: the first is “found or living in groups” or “not alone”. One may
conclude that animals are social animals since they are naturally found living together. The 2nd meaning
suggests connection to society and the way it is organized.

Scott and Marshall (2005) defined society as the network of inter – relationships among members of a
group who share a common culture, occupy a particular territorial area, and have a feeling that they
constitute a unified and distinct entity.

Organization means arrangement and coordination. Social organization can be defined as the manner or
way in which different parts of a society are arranged and made to function together to ensure order and
the achievement of goals they consider worthwhile.

Family and kinship structural varieties

The family is a common way in which societies are organized. Burgess and Locke (2006) defined the family
as a group who are united with the bond of marriage, blood, or adoption and comprising a single
household tat interact and intercommunicate with one another in their various social roles of husband and
wife etc. and creating a common culture.

Murdock (1949) defined family as a group characterized by common residence, economic cooperation and
reproduction. Murdock identified 4 key roles played by families:

i. Sexual relationship
ii. Economic cooperation
iii. Reproduction
iv. Socialization

Murdock definition can be countered because there are gay families, conjugal families and macro families
(extended family). The family of orientation is ones family when one is born into; while the family of
procreation is the family when one creates his own family after leaving his family of orientation. Extended
family combines at least an individual family of procreation and his family of orientation.

People who descend from a common ancestor are categorized under kinship ties. Kinship exist between
people who have consanguineous ties or ties of affinity. In many parts of Africa, kinship groups served as
political units in the absence of nation – states in the pre – colonial era. Kinship groups serve as the basis
for inheritance, succession and regulation of sexual relationships.

The unilineal descent is either matrilineal or patrilineal, but not both. Scott & Marshall (2005) posit that
the bilateral or cognatic descent establishes descent through both the patrilineal and matrilineal system. In
Africa, patrilineal kinship groups are in the majority. (Igbo, Fulani, Nuer of Sudan, the Zulu, & Swazi of
South – Africa) etc.

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Marriage and typologies of marriage in Africa

Marriage is legally recognized relationship between a man and a woman, which confers on them certain
rights and demands certain obligations of them (Scott & Marshall 2005). Marriages can be categorized into
2: monogamy and polygamy (which is sometimes referred to as plural marriage).

Monogamous marriage by divorcing ones partner and remarrying is referred to as “serial monogamy”
(Scott & Marshall 2005).

Polygamy has two major variants which are polygyny and polyandry. Polygyny is marriage of a man to two
or more wives, while polyandry is marriage of a woman to 2 or more men or husbands, and it is common
in Africa and it is for economic function of the family. In addition to this, marriage plays the role of
satisfying sexual desires. Since it is considered unhealthy for women to resume sexual activities immediately
after child birth, the man’s sexual desires are still met while one’s wife recuperates.

Levirate marriage is a situation where a dead man’s brother or closest male relative is married to the wife
of the dead brother to raise children in the name of the dead husband. A similar practice is “widow
inheritance” here the brother or closest male relative raises children for himself not the dead man.

In Sororate marriage a man marries the sister of his deceased wife. If a man marries both sisters
concurrently, this can be described as sororal polygyny or concurrent Sororate marriage.

In ghost marriage a woman pays the bride wealth to marry another woman, and also provides a man
(known as the consort or genitor). A common rule is endogamy which requires that an individual marries
within a defined category while exogamy is a rule that requires an individual to marry from outside a
group. Homogamy requires that an individual marries someone who is culturally similar to him or her.
Homogamy may mean same – gender marriage. i.e. homosexual marriage.

Antecedents of marriage and family

The origin of the family remains unclear. Engels suggests that the family has passed through several stages
before taking the shape it does in contemporary society. Punaluan family, which precludes sexual relations
between brothers and sisters (i.e. people born of the same mother). Lele of Western Congo acquire
hohombe i.e. village wife.

Rules of residence and descent

Societies have rules that guide where a married couple resides after marriage. Patrilocal residence is a rule
of residence that requires a man and his family of procreation to reside with the man’s father. (This is the
commonest rule of residence in Africa). Matrilocal residence, on the other hand, requires the couple to
establish their home near or within the bride’s mother’s home or compound. Avunculocal residence
requires the new family to reside near the house or in the compound of the groom’s maternal uncle. The
Bilocal residence allows the couple to live with either of the spouse’s parents. Ambilocal residence rule is a
form of Bilocal which the couple shifts from residence with the room’s kinship group to residence with the

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bride’s kinship group. Matri – Patrilineal residence is a form of Ambilocal residence. Here, the new family
resides with the brides group for a while and then move to live with the groom’s family indefinitely.
Duolocal means that the new family has no common residence and they remain in their family of
orientation. Neolocal residence has become very popular. This rule of residence requires the new family to
live in a new residence, away from the groups of the groom and the bride. Since modernization has being a
threat to many traditional rules of residence etc. today, the neolocal residence has spread across the greater
part of Africa.

Pre – Colonial economic and political arrangements including dispute resolution

The family served as an economic institution in most African cultures and territories before they were
partitioned into colonies of western powers. Subsistence farming took place among all the people of Africa
to varying degrees. Another was pastoral farming. Herdsmen are mostly nomadic since they must move to
get pasture and food for their animals. People in coastal areas and around river basins are involved in
fishing as a major economic activity.

The political systems of the people of Africa vary from society to society. There were acephalous/stateless
groups as well as state groups. Temne of Sierra Leone, Igbo, Luo, Maasai & Nandi of Tanzania and Kenya,
galla of Ethiopia are examples of acephalous (fyle, 1999). Oyo empire, Zulu empire in South Africa, Lunda
empire of East Africa and Ashanti kingdom of Ghana. These states had highly developed political systems
with political roles attached to offices. In stateless societies, disputes were settled by family heads or village
heads (fyle, 1999).

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 COURSE OUTLINE 4: SOCIAL CHANGE

By: Dr. Waziri Babatunde Adisa

Social change is one of the permanent features of every society on earth. Human life is not static. This
change may be planned or unplanned revolutionary or peaceful, sudden or gradual, quantitative or
qualitative. Social change is inevitable in human history (Giddens 2006; Ritzer 2007). Social interaction
and mass communication across borders of different countries that used to take a longer time, in the 19 th
century, are now carried out today, within few seconds. As new nations are springing up, so also are new
ideas on how to manage the changes are developing faster, often threatening to consume those who are
generating them. Human beings are now living in a world that promises good future, and at the same time
poses many dangers. Most of the third world nations are still at the periphery of the international capitalist
system or what Wallenstein called the world system.

An overview of the concept of social change

The word social change emerges from 2 different words:

1. Social (meaning groups, interaction, companion)

2. Change (noticeable transformation in the life span of an object organic or not)

Social change may be defined as that alteration in the social structure of society, which evolves from the
social interaction of people in the society. It may be a change in the culture, value systems, beliefs,
customs, laws, practices, social organizations, social institutions and technologies of a people. Vago (1996)
has this to say that: “social change may be defined as the process of planned or unplanned qualitative or
quantitative alterations” in social phenomena that can be analyzed in terms of the following interrelated
components: identity, level, duration, magnitude, and rate of change. Individuals who want to conduct
researches on social change will want to know the basic objects they have to look out for on the field of
research. Harper (1998) states that “social change is the significant alteration of social structure and
cultural patterns through time.” Afonja and Pearce (1984), the concept of social change, at least in
sociology, is derived from the idea of evolution. In this context, social change is therefore, taken to mean
the ability of a society to achieve social order, progress, growth, equilibrium, differentiation, adaptation,
and integration through a transition from level of development to a higher level of development.
According to Afonja and Pearce, social change was first systematically analyzed with the concept of
evolution by Auguste Comte and Herbert Spencer.

Vigorously, the development economists of the Liberal school advanced and sold these new concepts to
the 3rd world such as: modernization, economic growth, development, underdevelopment, political
change, technological revolution, industrialization, urbanization etc.

Human history, social change and the social sciences

The history of man is simply a compendium of social changes. Man and his society evolved from social
change. 2 significant events facilitated this process of social change in human history:

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 1. The industrial revolution of 1750 – 1860. This revolution according to stark (1992) and Ritzer
(2007) helped man to shift his mode of production from agrarian to industrial mode of
production.
2. French revolution of 1789. It was the interplay of forces in these two revolutions which laid the
foundation of modern liberal democracy, nationalism, political freedom in Europe and later the
rest of the world.

N:B – the history of social change in human evolution should not however be restricted to these 2
significant human achievements.

Theories of social change

7 theories of social change will be examined namely

1. Evolutionary theory: this approach has its roots in Darwinian Biological evolution of man and his
society. Every human society must pass through certain stages of development usually from
primitive stage to age of civilization. For instance, Comte argues that in his laws of human
progress there is a process of evolution of human mind and of human society through 3 stages:
theological, metaphysical and positive stage. Emile Durkheim in his book “The Division of
Labour in Society” where he describes traditional societies as societies with mechanical solidarity
to organic solidarity. Ferdinand Tonnies: “human society must undergo Gemeinschaft and
Gesellschaft”, Talcott Parsons: particularism to universalism and Karl Marx’s feudalism –
capitalism – communism. Most proponents of evolutionary theory, except Marx, believe so much
in social order and social equilibrium.
2. Functionalist theory: social change is meant to explain the functions performed by social
institutions and implications of this performance for social order. to Durkheim “to explain a
social fact, it is not enough to show the course in which it depends, we must also show the
functions in the establishment of social order. According to Afonja and Pearce (1986), most
functionalist are of the opinion that each institution in society has certain functions it performs,
and it is in the process of performing these functions that social change occurs. Durkheim talked
about the “role of religion, division of labour, and suicide in the French society of his time”.
3. Conflict theory: 2 types of conflict is a necessary precondition for growth of human society.
(Capitalism – feudal lords, replaced with the bourgeoisie). Ralf Dahrendorf believes just as
consensus is necessary for social change to occur sp also is conflict needed.
4. Modernization theory: it is a 1960s version of functionalism, which sought to explain the factors
that were responsible for the differences between the development of western societies and non –
western societies. Economists were among the social scientist who vigorously prompted this
theory. Rostow demonstrates the processes of these changes in his book “the stages of economic
growth: A non – communist manifesto” (1960). Rostow identified 5 stages that the developing
countries will undergo before they could witness modernization: Traditional society, pre –
conditions for take – off to self – sustained growth itself, the drive to maturity and the age of high
mass consumption. This theory did not explain the role of the colonial masters in the
underdevelopment of Africa.

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 5. Dependency theory/Peripheral political economy: this is a set of idea, meant to debunk
modernization theory. Proponents of this approach to development wanted the whole world to
see the causes of underdevelopment in the developing countries. They include Andrew Gunder
Frank, Samir Amir, Frantz Fanon, Claude Ake etc. they argue that it is not that Africa does not
have the capacity to develop but that it is hamstrung by its dependency status, and its peripheral
position in the world system. Samir Amin demonstrates how colonialism served as a tool of
accumulating Africa’s vast resources for the benefits of Europeans. Frantz Fanon in his book “the
wretched of the earth” demonstrates how Africa, particularly Algerians were oppresses and
exploited by the colonial masters.

Types of social change

1. Progressive social change (positive or developed)

2. Retrogressive social change (negative or underdeveloped)
3. Mixed social change (both positive and negative)
4. Planned social change (preferred by the government)
5. Unplanned social change (exogenous or endogenous)

Sources of social change

In social science literature, it has been argued that many factors may be responsible for the emergence of
social change (Vag0, 1996). Some of the factors which have been given scientific attention in social change
literature include. Technology, ideology, competition, conflict, revolution, social structure, polity, economy,
population increase or demographic changes.

Agents of social change

1. Family
2. Social groups
3. Social actors
4. Government
5. Mass media
6. Schools
7. Gender groups

Targets of social change

1. State
2. Institutions of governance
3. Citizens
4. Structure and culture of society

Social change in Nigeria: A discussion of major factors

1. Colonialism: European had their first contact with Nigerians during Atlantic slave trade, abolition
of slave trade was in 1807 and colonialism brought western pattern into Nigeria.

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2. Western education: In 1859 the CMS missionary introduced the first secondary school in Nigeria
in Lagos state. In 1909 the British introduced the kings college in Lagos state, in 1938 the first
tertiary institution i.e. Yaba College of Technology was established. University of Ibadan was the
first University College in Nigeria. (Hence University of Lagos was established a University before
University of Ibadan).
3. The emergence of new class of elites: the first groups of elites were British administrators. The 2nd
groups were the European bourgeois class with the occupation of Royal Niger Company in 1889.
The 3rd were the Nationalist.
4. Military rule: they seized political power from the civilians on January 15th 1966. It led to the sub –
version of the rule of law, creation of new states.
5. Bureaucratization: it started in Nigeria during the colonial era. Public first followed by private
bureaucracies. The 1st bureaucracies were the civil service, courts and the police. 1st supreme court
in Nigeria was established in 1862 (Supreme Court of Lagos), NPF in 1930.
6. Economic growth and development: it is vital for national development. Oil discovery brought
hope in early 1970s. by 1980s mid it has dwindled. There were closures of many universities in
1986. Hitherto Nigeria has no viable manufacturing sector.
7.

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 COURSE OUTLINE 5: CULTURES AND SOCIETY IN AFRICA

By Prof. Fatai A. Badru

During colonialism in Africa, Europeans adopted the attitudes of superiority as a sense of mission. They
live in special areas (GRA) and go to special schools. The French were able to accept an African as French,
if they gave up their African culture and adopted French ways. Kenya social commentator Mwiti Mugambi
avers that the future of Africa can only be forged from accepting and mending the socio – cultural present.
Karenga states that our culture provides us with ethos we must honour in both thought and practice.

African Arts and Crafts

African arts and crafts find expression in a variety of wood – carvings, brass, leather and pottery art works,
etc. it also include sculpture, paintings, pottery, ceremonial and headgear and dress. Maulana Karenga states
that all art must be revolutionary, collective, committing and functional. Masks are used in various
ceremonies depicting ancestors and spirits, mythological characters and deities.

Folklore and religion

Culture and religion share space and are deeply intertwined in African cultures. Religion serves a number
of functions for Nigerians.

Clothing

Many indigenous fabrics are hand woven. Tie and dye in Abeokuta, Aso Oke in Iseyin etc. in Ethiopia
women’s traditional clothes are made from fabric called shemma and used to make habeshagemis about
90cm wide. Men wear pant like cloth and a knee length shirt with a white collar and a sweater. In West
Africa, many of the indigenous attire are influenced by Islamic tradition.

African Cuisine

The African cuisine is a combination of traditional fruits and vegetables, milk and meat products. Cassava
and yams are the main root vegetables. North Africa, along the Mediterranean from morocco to Egypt has
different food habits that Saharan Africans who consume subsistence diet. Tej is the most familiar alcoholic
drink in the interior Africa. Cattle and goats were regarded as a form of currency, and are not generally
consumed as food.

African Music

Traditional sub – Saharan African music is as diverse as the region’s various populations. Sub – Saharan
African music is that it is rhythmic music weaved around drums (Niger – Congo). African music have been
neglected by the youth and rapidly been replaced by the imported music. Modern sub – Saharan African
music has been influenced by music from the new world.

Languages: There are many language in Africa, both written and unwritten. The main ethno – linguistic
divisions are Afro – Asiatic, Niger – Congo, Nilo – Saharan in parts of the sahel and parts of eastern Africa
and southern Africa. FESTAC was held in 1977.

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Sub cultures are groups (area boys) that are part of a larger society. Class sub culture is based on differences
in the ways of life of the different socio – economic classes. Ethnocentrism have been termed as racism and
tribalism. Through cultural diffusion, it should be noted that culture is learned through the socialization
process.

Components of Culture

Chinoy (1967) identifies 3 main groups of the components of culture.

a. Institutions
b. Ideas
c. Material products

Culture patterns

The term culture pattern refers to a cluster of related ways of behaving found in a given culture (Beal &
Hoijer, 1971). Culture patterns can be divided into 2 broad types: ideal patterns and behaviour patterns.

Culture Areas

The concept ‘culture area by Herskovits (1924)’ is an attempt to group together people whose indigenous
ways of life are similar to a great degree. It should be noted that efforts to sketch a culture area map of Asia
persisted into the 1950, as a move to complete the world picture. Organization of data in culture areas
terms persist in standard Anthropological works hitherto.

Fundamental Assumptions of the Concept “Culture Area”

1. There are culture centres in culture areas

2. Culture traits from culture centres tend to diffuse to periphery areas
3. There are peripheries of least concentration of traits
4. Culture areas have similar environment conditions
5. Age area concept i.e. the oldest traits will dominate particular areas.

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 COURSE OUTLINE 6: RACE & IDENTITY

By: Dr. Khalid Adekoya

A blood type (also called a blood group) is a classification of blood based on the pressure or absence of
inherited antigenic substances on the surface of red blood cells (RBCs). Blood types are inherited and
represent contributions from both parents.

The 2 most significant blood group systems were discovered by Karl Landsteiner, a Viennese physician and
a Nobel prize winner during the early experiments with blood transfusion: the ABO group in 1900 and in
cooperation with Alexander S. Wiener the Rhesus group in 1940. 30 human blood group systems are
recognized and registered by the International Society of Blood Transfusion (ISBT) and Over 600 blood
group antigens have been found. Out of the 30 blood group systems 14 are mostly detected:

1. ABO – 1900
2. MNSs – 1927
3. P – 1927
4. Rh – 1940
5. Lutheran – 1945
6. Kell – 1946
7. Lewis – 1946
8. Duffy – 1950
9. Kidd – 1951
10. Diego – 1955
11. Yt – 1956
12. I – 1956
13. Xg – 1962
14. Dombrock – 1965

Blood Types

The common cause in blood type change is a bone marrow transplant. E.g. if a type A bone marrow is given
to type O, the patient’s blood type will eventually convert to the donor’s type.

The ABO System

It is the most important blood group system in human blood transfusion. ABO Igm antibodies are
produced in the first years of life by sensitization to environmental substances such as food, bacteria and
viruses. The O in ABO is often called zero or null in the other language. The ABO system was shown by
Bernstein in 1925 to consist of 3 alleles of a single gene, Isoagglutinogens, IA, IB & IO, forming 4 different
phenotypic groups A(IAIA or IAIO), B(IBIB or IBIO), AB(IAIB) and O(IOIO).

Phenotype Genotype
A AA or AO
B BB or BO
AB AB

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 O OO
Rhesus (Rh) blood group system

The Rh system is the 2nd most significant blood group system in human blood transfusion with currently 50
antigens. It plays an important dominant role in a condition known as haemolytic disease of the newborn
(HDN). Rh was discovered in Rhesus monkeys. There are Rh+ and Rh–. Rh+ individuals make an antigen
that is present on the cell surface, Rh– does not. HDN is a disease that begins during fetal development and
results from an immunologic incompatibility between mother and fetus when the mother is Rh– and the
fetus is Rh+. If a subsequent pregnancy involves an Rh+ fetus, antibodies present in the Rh– mother cross
the placenta and destroy the red blood cells of the fetus. This causes anaemia, jaundice, cerebral damage,
mental retardation and death. It is a condition known medically as erythoblastosis fetalis.

Society and Culture

A popular belief in Japan is that a person’s ABO blood type is predictive of their personality, character and
compatibility with others. The theory reached Japan in 1927 psychologist’s report. The theory has long
since be rejected by scientist, but it was revived in the 1970s by Masahiko Nomi, a broadcaster who had no
medical record.

Blood Transfusion

Much of the routine work of a blood bank involves testing blood from both donors and recipients to ensure
that every individual recipient is given blood that is compatible and is as safe as possible. In cross checking
if agglutination occurs, the particular donor’s blood cannot be transfused to that particular recipient. In a
blood bank, it is vital that all blood specimens are correctly identified, so labeling has been standardized
using a bar code system known as ISBT 128. Frontline German Waffen – SS had blood group tattoos
during World War II. In Nigeria drivers licenses issued by FRSC now carry the individual’s blood group of
ABO and Rhesus.

Paternity Testing

Apart from transfusion, blood group can also be employed in legal medicine. This is achieved by matching
the blood of individuals involved in the cases using the Isoagglutinogens, the result may solve it out rightly
or other parameters will be applied such as DNA, fingerprinting and molecular diagnostics e.g. an AB
individual cannot be the parent of an O individual, two A’s individuals may be the parents of an O
individual if both are AO.

Sex Determination in Humans

There are obvious phenotypic differences between sexes, known as sexual dimorphism.

Sex Chromosomes

In human there are 23 pairs of chromosomes in each of the cell except the sex cells that have 23 units.
Among the 23 pairs, 22 pairs constitute the autosomes, the last pair is called “sex chromosomes” and
responsible for the determination of sex. It is designated as X and Y chromosomes.

Page | 18
XY Mechanisms

What determines maleness or femaleness is a complex interaction between genes and the environment. In
human, on the other hand, sex determination is primarily associated with sex chromosomes (XX) and males
have an X and a Y chromosome (XY). Because the male makes 2 kinds of gametes, he is referred to as
heterogametic, and the female is homogametic, since she makes only 1 type of gamete. Clearly, it is the male
gamete that determines the sex of the offspring. Turner syndrome are female 45X and they are tending
towards masculine shortness, wide chested, underdeveloped breasts and they lack ovarian development
klinefelter syndrome are male with 47 XXY with abnormal numbers of sex chromosomes.

Sex Ratio

The sex ratio at conception, known as the primary sex ratio, should be 1:1. It is thought that the Y –
bearing sperm are lighter and can swim faster and farther than X – bearing sperm. The laboratory methods
for separating X and Y bearing sperm called centrifugation on the basis of weight have been successful and
can be used in conjunction with artificial insemination to produce male and female offspring of choice
75% of the time.

The sex ratio at birth known as the secondary sex ratio is about 1.05 (105 males for every 100 females). The
tertiary sex ratio is the ratio of adults. At 20 to 25 years of age, it is 1:00; thereafter females out numbered
the males in ever increasing proportions. Also accident lead to death among males age 15 to 35 years, some
are environmental & genetic factors.

Pre – Determination of Sex

Apart from billing’s method, it is scientifically possible to determine sex of a child:

1. Amniocentesis
2. Artificial insemination with choice sperm
3. Sperm banks.

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 COURSE OUTLINE 7: THE GEOGRAPHY OF AFRICA

By: Dr. Ayeni, A. O Ph.D & O.A Adeaga Ph.D

Africa is the world’s 2nd largest and 2nd most populous continent after Asia. It has 62 political territories,
representing the largest of the great South ward projections from the main mass of earth’s surface. An area
of 30,368,609 (11,725,385 Sq. mi), adjacent islands covering 6% of the earth total surface area and
20.4% of the land total area with 1.0 billion, it accounts for about 14.75 of the world’s human population
South and North.

The Sahara desert stretches across North African from West to East, containing the mountain massifs of
Hoggar and Tibesti. Mediterranean Africa lying North of the Sahara includes the sharply folded and
eroded Atlas Mountains. South of Sahara Africa may be divided by 3000ft contour line running from the
South – West (Angola) to the North – East (Ethiopia). The rift valleys of East Africa extended South from
the dead sea down the red sea across Ethiopian highlands through Kenya to the sea near the mount of
Zambezi. Lake Tanganyika, Turkana and Nyasa are the largest. The rift valleys are also associated with great
snow capped peaks Kilimanjaro and Mount Kenya. South and West of Zambezi lay the Kalahari and
Namib deserts and the dry highlands of Namibia.

Africa is separated from Europe by the Mediterranean Sea from much of Asia by the Red Sea, Africa
joined to Asia at its North – East extremity by the Isthmus of Suez, 130km (81mi) wide. For geopolitical
purpose the Sinai Peninsula of Egypt East of the Suez Canal is often considered part of Africa.

The continent is also surrounded by bodies of water namely: Mediterranean Sea to the North, both the red
sea and the sue canal along the Sinai to the North – East, the India ocean to the South – East, and the
Atlantic ocean to the west. Arms of the oceans include the Gulf of Aden, the Mozambique Channel and
the Gulf of Guinea. The continent has 54 Sovereign states. Madagascar is the largest island in Africa and
the 4th largest on the earth after Greenland, New Guinea and Borneo. The highest point in Africa is
Mount Kilimanjaro 5,891.8m (19.330ft) in Tanzania. The lowest point is Lake Asal, 153m (502ft) below
sea level in Djibouti.

Physical Characteristics

Africa is the most tropical (hot) of all continents. Sahara desert is the largest of approximate 18ookm
(North to South of over 10.4 Million ), 5600km East – West. Assal’s basin 512ft (156m) below sea
level. Namib Desert is very barren and extremely dry and considered the oldest in the world.

Geology. Relief and Drainage

The continent is made up of very old crystalline, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks of great hardness.
The African plateau is underlain primarily by Precambrian rock that dates back to more than 600 years.
Africa’s coastline is generally straight and relatively short compared with other continents. The only place
with an extended continental shelf is the Agulhas Bank (320 km or 200 miles off shore).

Rivers cut through all parts of the continent except the Sahara, where it barely rains. The only large natural
lake outside Eastern Africa is Lake Chad, on the Southern edge of te Sahara. Some of the world’s largest

Page | 20
and longest rivers are found in Africa. These rivers are not effective as transportation routes due to the
existence of a large amount of rapids and cataracts (a large water fall). Despite being impediments to
transportation most of the rivers provide a great potential for the production of hydro – electricity. The
calculation of the areas of African drainage systems by Dr. A. Bludau.

Africa has number of island which are structurally different from the mainland. Major islands are
Madagascar, Zanzibar and Pemba; the Comoros; Mauritius; Reunion; Seychelles (in India); Cape Verde,
Fernando, Principe, Sao Tome and Annobon (all in Atlantic). Africa linked to Asia by an isthmus that was
cut into a canal in 1869.

Climate and Vegetation

Africa is the most tropical of all continents (very hot). Inter tropical coverage zone (ITCZ). There are very
warm and very cool climates also continental climate when air temperature decreases at an average of 3.
per 1000ft it is called the LAPSE RATE. Africa climatic zones fall into 3 broad categories: humid
equatorial, dry and humid temperate.

Vegetation and Ecology of Africa

1. Tropical Rain Forest

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EXERCISES – CONFIRMED GST 201 10. That culture is dynamic means that:
QUESTIONS WITH SOLVED ANSWERS
BELOW. a. It is static b. It is stable c. It is powerful d. It
changes over time
1. The author of the chapter on Cell Biology and
Genectics in the book Fundamentals of General 11. The manner or way in which different parts of a
African Studies is: society are arranged and made to function together
to ensure order and the achievement of goals is
a. Badru b. Adejoh c. Adekoya d. Ayeni ……………………….

2. The name of the anthropologist who gave the a. Social hierarchy b. Social order c. Social
classical definition of culture is: harmony d. Social Organization

a. Tailor b. Tylor c. Weber d. Durkheim
3. The editors of the book “Fundamentals of General
African Studies” is:
a. Badru & Ninalowo b. Ayeni & Adeaga
Adejoh & Adisa d. Ninalowo & Badru
4. The scholar that espouses the culture area is
called:
a. Otite b. Deseiyi c. Herskovitt d. Malinowski
5. Wife hospitality is a custom of the people below:
12. What is the most fundamental feature of social
organization?
a. Solitary living b. inter – individual feature c.
Socialization d. Social conflict
c.
13. What major factor determines how people relate
to one another in society?
a. How they are born b. Where they are born c.
How they are related d. Their children
14. The family into which an individual is born is
his/her ………………………..

a. The Urhobos b. The Ijaws c. The Tivs d. The a. Family b. Kinship group c. Family of
Yorubas orientation d. Family of procreation

6. Iria practice is a fattening process for the 15. People who are related by blood are
betrothed among: …………………
a. The Urhobos b. The Jukuns c. The Okrikas d. a. Relatives b. Affines c. Consanguines d.
The Efiks Kinsmen

7. Which of the following is a type of society in 16. People who are related either by blood or
Africa? marriage are …………………

a. The Hunters and Gatherers b. The Dancers c. a. Kins b. Relations c. Social Organization d.
The Pipers d. The Boko Haram Consanguines

8. The following constitute a tangible element of 17. The primary factor in determining kinship
culture
ties is relationship by ………………..
a. Ideas b. Values c. Customs d. Artifact
a. Marriage b. Adoption c. Blood d.
9. A marriage between a man and more than one Inheritance
woman is called:

a. Polygamy b. Polygyny c. Polyandry d. Bigamy

Page | 22
18. What is the commonest descent type in
Africa?
a. Matrilineal descent b. Patrilocal residence
c. Duolocal residence d. Patrilineal descent.
19. Which of these groups has a different
descent type?
a. Bemba b. Ashanti c. Tuareg d. Swazi
20. Another word for plural marriage is ………
a. Polyandry b. Polygyny c. Polygamy d.
Levirate marriage
21. Which ethnic group in Africa is known for
practicing polyandry by acquiring a hohombe?
a. Ashanti of Ghana b. Lele of Congo c. Zulu
of South Africa d. Massai of East Africa
22. What is the reversed form of sororal
polygyny?
a. Fraternal polyandry b. Sororal polygyny c.
Fraternal polygyny d. Concurrent Sororate
marriage
23. According to the Marxian evolution of the
family, what type of family replaced the
consanguine family?
a. Hunting and Gathering groups b. The
pairing family c. The modern family d. The
Punaluan family
24. What form of descent suits uxorilocal
residence?
a. Patrilineal descent b. Matrilineal descent c.
Bilineal descent d. Adoption descent
25. In terms of traditional economic activities,
which of these peoples is different from the rest?
a. Ewe b. Luo c. Gun d. Temne
26. The Fulani people are found in all of these
countries but one
a. Mauritania b. Mali c. Beni d. Democratic
Republic of Congo
27. Traditional medicine in Africa consists of
the following except?
a. Diviners b. Traditional birth attendants c.
Wards attendants d. Herbalists
28. Traditional medicine in Africa is
transmitted either …………… or …………….
a. Oral b. Written c. Print media d. Both A
&B
29. Traditional medicine provides treatment for
the following except?
a. Physical b. Emotional c. Psycho – spiritual
d. Mon of the above
30. What percentage of population in Africa
makes use of traditional medicine according to
WHO?
A. 50% B. 40% C. 80% D. 100%
31. Traditional healer makes use of all the
following except?
a. Vegetables b. Animal c. Mineral substances
d. Drugs
32. When traditional medicine is adopted
outside its original setting or culture, it is called
a. Adopted herbs b. Folk medicines c.
Complementary and alternative medicines d.
Imported herbs
33. Oyebola (1980) classified traditional healers
among the Yoruba into?
a. 10 b. 8 c. 6 d. 2
Page | 23
34. There are four major groups of healers in
South Africa.
a. True b. False c. Don’t know d. None of
the above
35. How many groups of healers are in
Tanzania?
a. 2 b.3 c. 4 d. 5
36. Which of the following is not a reason why
people still use traditional medicine?
a. Perceived to be holistic b. Rise in chronic
diseases without cure c. Side effects of
orthodox medicine d. None of the above
37. Which of the following is not a merit of
Africa traditional medicine?
a. Readily available and accessible b. Patients
feel more comfortable with traditional healers
c. May require immediate payment d. it is
relatively cheaper
38. Which date is observed as the African
traditional medicine in all countries of Africa?
a. 31st of August of every year b. 31st of July of
every year c. 31st of January of every year d.
31st of September of every year
39. Africa is the world’s …………… and second
most populous continent
a. Largest b. Second Largest c. Smallest d.
Second smallest
40. The Sahara Desert is ………………
a. Over 10.4 million b. About 7.4 million
c. Approx. 100.4 million d.
About 5.4 million
41. One reason the cultures of North Africa
developed differently from the cultures of the
rest of Africa was that these areas of Africa was
that these areas of Africa were separated by the:
a. Congo River Basin b. Great Rift Valley c.
Sahara Desert d. Arabian Sea
42. The longest river is:
a. Nile river b. River Niger c. River Volta d.
Congo River
43. Most of the highlands and mountains are
the result of recent ………….. Activities:
a. Volcanic b. Plutonic c. Human and
economic d. Hurricane
44. The chief river of Western Africa is …………
a. The Niger b. The orange c. The Zambezi
d. The Limpopo
45. In the deserts themselves, rainfall is
extremely scarce and temperatures are ………….
a. Very low b. Very extreme c. Inconsistence
d. Not experience at all
46. ………………… is characterized by short grass
and plants adapted to a brief growing season but
there are considerable differences due to
altitude:
a. Temperature grassland or veld b. Savannah
c. Mediterranean woodland d. Tropical rain
forest
47. In many parts of Africa colonialism led to
economic development that generally advanced
……………… objectives, which were not
necessarily suited to the needs of Africa itself:
a. American b. European c. Traditional rulers
d. Asian
Page | 24
48. The discovery of diamonds in southern
Africa in the …………. Century signaled Africa’s
rise as a major mineral producer:
a. Late 18th b. Early 19th c. Late 19th d. Early
20th
49. In the early 21st century, Africa saw the
fastest growth in the …………. Telephone
market in the world:
a. Nokia b. Cellular c. LG d. Blackberry
50. ……………. Is the author, who defined social
change as a significant alteration in the social
structure and cultural patterns of society
through time?
a. Charles Harper b. Steven Vago c. Amital
Eztzioni d. Simi Afonja
51. The authors of the book Social Change in
Nigeria are …………… and ……………………..
a. Steven Vago and Charles Harper b. Simi
Afonja and Tola Olu Pearse c. Simi Afonja
and Carolyne Dennis d. Funmi Oluruntimehin
and Ladun Anise
52. …………. Is the radical form of social change,
which often leads to a total transformation of
the structures and culture of a particular
society.
a. Ideology b. Revolution c. Companion d.
Religion
53. ………………… is the type of social change
which indicates a sustained progress in the
development of society.
a. Mixed social change b. Progressive social
change d. Retrogressive social change d.
Social harmony
54. All of the following concepts are often used
in social sciences to describe social change
except one
a. Social evolution b. Progress c. Growth d.
Gravitation
55. ………….. is a theory of sociology that
believes every human society must evolve from
homogenous stage of development to a
heterogeneous stage
a. Diffusion b. Acculturation c. Adaptation
d. Evolution
56. ………….. is the author of the book Origin of
Man
a. Thomas Malthus b. Charles Darwin c. Karl
Marx d. Max Weber
57. Lagos was ceded to the British Empire in
London in ……………..
a. 1818 b. 1865 c. 1861 d. 1872
58. The Headquarters of Colonial British
Administration in Nigeria was first cited in ……
a. Calabar b. Lagos c. Ibadan d. Kaduna
59. The full meaning of ISBT is ?
a. International Society for Blood Transfusion
b. International Society of Blood Transfusion
c. International Sovereign Body of Transfussion
d. International Sovereign Body for Blood
Transporters e. None of the above
60. How many different blood group antigens
have been found in Man?
1. 150 b. 300 c. 200 d. 600
61. In human, 14 of the blood group systems
are commonly detected, which of these is not
one of them?
Page | 25
a. Lewis b. Epselon c. ABO d. Rhesus e.
MNSs
62. Which of the following was the last to be
discovered amongst the human blood group
system and in what year?
a. Lewis, 1965 b. Dombrock, 1965 c. Lewis,
1975 d. Dombrock, 1975 e. None of the
above
63. Which of the following is not likely to
change an individual blood type or group?
a. Transfusion b. Infection c. Malignancy d.
Autoimmune diseases e. Bone marrow
transplant.
64. Which antigen is sometimes associated with
McLeod syndrome?
a. Rhesus b. D c. A d. Kell d. Duffy
65. An individual with O blood group can be
genotypically represented as all the following
except?
a. OO b. II c. d. e. None of the
above
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QUESTION PART II – ANSWER ALL
1. The scholar who coined the word sociology is
a. Herbert Spencer b. August Conte c. Saint
Simon d. Auguste Comte
2. One of these is not a characteristic of culture
a. It can be learned or acquired by man b. It is
transmitted from generation to generation c. It
is static d. All of the above
3. A scholar whose theory of social change is
based on technological determination is ….
a. Durkheim b. Hobbes c. Sayer d. Vebien
4. A scholar whose theory of social change is
based on conspicuous consumption is …
a. Durkheim b. Hobbes c. Sayer d. Vebien
5. The Vive Chancellor of UNILAG in whose
regime the Multi – purpose Hall was conceived
and executed is:
a. Eni Njoku b. Nurudeen Alao c. Jelili
Omotola d. Ibidapo Obe
6. Consanguity refers to
a. Conjugal family b. Herbert union c. Blood
relation d. Constant unit
7. Matriarchy is authority within the family
exercised by …….
a. The son of the female head b. The husband
c. The head of the whole family d. The eldest
female of the family
8. The rule of residence which the family of the
groom established is called ….
a. Matrilocal b. Bilocal c. Patrimatrilocal d.
Patrilocal
Page | 26
9. The practice whereby a woman marries men
from family of orientation is called ….
a. Non – fraternal polyandry b. Fraternal
polyandry c. Sororal polyandry d. Non –
sororal polyandry
10. Endogamy rules
a. Forbid marrying within the same lineage b.
Forbid marrying within the same village c.
Encourage cousin marriage d. Forbid marrying
from outside the village
11. When the newly married couples set up
their homes in a location of their parent it is
called
a. Patrilocal b. Bridolocal c. Groomolocal d.
Neolocal
12. Which of these is not a material culture?
a. BlackBerry phone b. Artifacts c. Proverbs
d. House
13. The scholar who wrote a masterpiece on
division of labour in society is
a. Adam Smith b. Herbert Spencer c. Emile
Durkheim d. Auguste Comte
14. The scholar famous with the idea of ‘Iron
Law of Oligarchy is ………
a. Mosca b. Titmus c. Spencer d. Mitch
15. One of the following aptly specifies the
raison detre for Genera African Studies
a. The race for the supremacy of the African
race b. To gain international sympathy for
Africa c. To represent objectively African
cultural peculiarities d. None of the above
16. One of the following is an effect of the
peculiar tropicality of African continent
a. Narrow continental sea self b. A generally
low diurnal and annual range of temperature
c. The massive concentration of crude oil
deposits along the coast d. None of the above
e. All of the above
17. One of these is not an example of social
institution
a. Religion b. Marriage c. Education d.
None of the above
18. The rationale for the inclusion of the
Geography of Africa in the General African
Studies syllabus is two fold, namely;
a. The global environmental concern and the
increasingly prospects and practice of
development activity at supra natural level b.
The concern about environmental and Nigerian
sovereignty c. The concern about African
cultural refocusing and reparation d. All of
the above.
19. The assessment of African Geosophical
worldview is a theme in culture analysis
subsumed under
a. Man’s standard of expression b. Material
artifact c. Ideational worldview d. All of the
above
20. One of these espouses the classical definition
of culture
a. Tailor b. Durkheim c. Tylor d. White
21. Social Organisation in the Fundamentals of
General African Studies is written by
a. Badru b. Adisa c. Ayeni d. Kunnuji
22. When ancestry is traced from female lines, it
is called?
Page | 27
a. Matrilineal b. Biblical c. Patrilineal
Bilineal
23. Levirate occurs when a man marries
a. The widow of his late elder brother b. The
widow of a senior member of the society c. The
widow of a dead clan mate d. The widow of his
late uncle
24. …….. is the official language in Republic of
Tanzania
a. English b. Swahili c. Hausa d. French
25. The form of marital arrangement where a
woman is married to two or more husbands is
found commonly among
a. Nigerians b. Chinese c. Americans d. The
Southern Indians
26. The topic traditional medicine in Africa was
written by ………….
a. Badru b. Adejo c. Badruu d. Adejoh
27. The word folkways was coined by
a. Blumer b. Spencer c. Sumner d. Summer
28. The family into which an individual was
born is known as
a. Family of recreation b. Family of orientation
c. Family of procreation d. Genetic family
29.Another word for stateless societies is
a. Monarchical societies b. Chiefdom societies
c. Acephalous societies d. None of the above
30. Which of these is not true of traditional
medicine
a. It has methods for diagnosing illness b. The
practices are all the time explicable c. It is
d. handed down from generation to generation d.
It is used to cure mental illness e. a &b
31. A traditional health practitioner is a person
who is
a. Recognized by the WHO b. Acceptable to
the Nigerian Medical Association c. A self
professes healer d. Recognized as competent by
the community where he practices e. a & b
32. Traditional medical practitioners in China
are called
a. Bare hand doctors b. Doctors without
stethoscope c. Barefoot doctors d. Local
doctors
33. The term ‘Indigenous health are
practitioners’ is preferred over the term ‘native
doctor’ because the latter is:
a. Pejorative b. Ethnocentric c. Colonial in
Origin d. Calculated to bring traditional
medicine to disrepute e. All of the above
34. What are incantations?
a. Songs of praise to the deities b. Songs of self
praise c. Poetic verbal expressions to conjure
up forces with medical powers d. Medical
songs peculiar to Africans e. Speaking in
tongues to conjure spirits
35. The indigenous name for Herbal healer
among the Igbos is:
a. Dibi b. Dibio c. Dibie d. Dibia
36. Who among these is regarded as the father
of Western Medicine?
a. Ibn Khaldun b. Archimedes c. Hypocrites
d. Aristotle e. Plato
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37. The meaning of the statement that use of
medical plants in Europe was based on the
doctrine of signature means that
a. Every doctor were not on any drug prepared
by him b. Unsigned drugs were not to be
administered c. Heart shaped leaves for heart
problems etc d. A relative sign for a patient
before treatment e. a & b
38. Knowledge about traditional medical
practice in Sub – Saharan African has been
handed down from generation to generation
mainly through
a. Oral accounts b. Written accounts c. Songs
d. Herbal medical schools
39. Which of these is not a legendary theory of
the origin of traditional Medical practice?
a. Religious rituals b. Mystical rituals c.
Spirits d. Trance revelation e.
Experimentation
40. In Yoruba mythology, the first person to
practice the art of healing is
a. Karunmi b. Orunmila c. Obatala d.
Osanyin e. Sango
41. Disease in traditional medicine may arise
from al these except
a. Supernatural causes b. Toxic substances c.
Evil spirits d. Witchcraft e. Displeasure of
ancestral gods
42. The author of the chapter on African
Languages and Literature in the book
Fundamentals of General African Studies is
a. Badru b. Adejoh c. Adekoya d. Kunnuji
43. The name of the Anthropologist who gave
the classical definition of culture is
a. Tailor b. Tylor c. Weber d. Durkheim
44. The editors of the book Fundamentals of
General African Studies are
a. Badru and Ninalowo b. Ayeni and Adeaga
c. Adejoh and Adisa d. Ninalowo and Badru
45. The scholar that espouses the culture area is
called
a. Badru b. Deselyi c. Herskovits d.
Malinowski
46. Wife hospitality is a custom of one of the
following people
a. The Urhobos b. The Ijaws c. The Tivs d.
The Yorubas
47. Iria practice is a fattening process in culture
of one of the following people:
a. The Urhobos b. The Jukuns c. Okrikas d.
The Efiks
48. The following constitute a tangible element
of culture
a. Ideas b. Values c. Customs d. Artifact
49. That culture is dynamic means that:
a. It is static b. It is stable c. It is powerful d.
It changes over time
50. The manner or way in which different parts
of a society are arranged and made to function
together to ensure order and the achievement of
goals is ………………..
a. Social hierarchy b. Social order c. Social
harmony d. Social organization
51. What is the most fundamental feature of
social organization?
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a. Solitary living b. Inter – individual feature
c. Socialization d. Social conflict
52. What major factor determines how people
relate to one another in society?
a. How they are born b. Where they are born
c. How they are related d. Their children
53. People who are related either by blood or
marriage are ……………..
a. Kins b. Relations c. Social organization d.
Consaguines
54. What is the commonest descent type in
Africa?
a. Matrilineal descent b. Patrilocal descent c.
Duolocal descent d. Patrilineal descent
55. Which of these groups have a different
descent type?
a. Bemba b. Ashanti c. Tuareg d. Swazi
56. Which ethnic group in Africa is known for
practicing polyandry by acquiring a hohombe?
a. Ashanti of Ghana b. Lele of Congo c. Zulu
of South Africa d. Massai of East Africa
57. What is the reversed of sororal polygyny?
a. Fraternal polyandry b. Sororal polygyny c.
Fraternal polygyny d. Concurrent Sororate
marriage
58. According to the Marxian evolution of the
family, what type of family replaced the
consanguine family?
a. Hunting and gathering groups b. The
pairing c. The modern family d. The
Punaluan family
59. The full meaning of ISBT is ?
a. International Society for Blood Transfusion
b. International Society of Blood Transfusion
c. International Sovereign Body of Transfussion
d. International Sovereign Body for Blood
Transporters e. None of the above
60. What form of descent suit uxorilocal
residence?
a. Patrilineal descent b. Matrilineal descent c.
Bilineal descent d. Adoption descent
61. In terms of traditional economic activities,
which of these peoples are different from the
rest?
a. Ewe b. Luo c. Gun d. Temne
62. The Fulani people are found in all of these
countries but one
a. Mauritania b. Mali c. Beni d. Democratic
Republic of Congo e. Senegal
63. What percentage of the population in Africa
makes use of traditional medicine according to
WHO?
a. 50% b. 40% c. 80% d. 100%
64. Africa is the world’s …………… and the
second most populous continent
a. Largest b. Second largest c. Smallest d.
Second smallest
65. The Sahara desert is ……………..
a. Over 10.4 million b. about 7.4 million
c. Approx. 100.4 million d. About
5.4 million
66. One reason the cultures of North Africa
developed from the cultures of the rest of Africa
was that these Africa were separated by the
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a. Congo river basin b. Great Rift Valley
Sahara desert d. Arabian Sea
67. The African longest river is
a. Nile River b. River Niger c. River Volta d.
Congo River
68. Most of the highlands and mountains are
the result of recent ………….. activities
a. Volcanic b. Plutonic c. Human and
economic d. Hurricane
69. The chief river of Western Africa is ………
a. The Niger b. The Orange c. The Zambezi
d. The Limpopo
70. In the deserts themselves, rainfall is
extremely scares and temperature are ……..
a. Very low b. Very extreme c. Inconsistence
d. Not experience at all
71. ………… Is characterized by short grass and
plant adapted to a brief growing season but
there are considerable differences due to
altitude
a. Temperate grassland or veld b. Savannah c.
Mediterranean woodland d. Tropical rain
forest
72. In many parts of Africa, colonialism led to
economic development that generally advanced
a. American b. European c. Traditional rulers
d. Asian
73. The discovery of diamonds in southern
Africa in the ………… century signaled Africa’s
rise as a major mineral producer
th th
a. Late 18 b. Early 19 c. Late 19
20th
c. 74. In the early 21st century, Africa saw the
fastest growth in the ………… telephone market
in the world
a. Nokia b. Cellular c. LG d. Blackberry
75. …………. Is the author, who defined social
change as a significant alteration in the social
structure and cultural patterns of society
through time
a. Charles Harper b. Steven Vago c. Amital
Eztzioni d. Simi Afonja
76. The authors of the book Social change in
Nigeria are …………… and …………..
a. Steven Vago & Charles Harper b. Simi
Afonja & Tola Olu Pearse c. Simi Afonja &
Carolyne Dennis d. Funmi Oloruntimehin &
Ladun Anise
77. ……………. Is the radical form of social
change, which often leads to a total
transformation of the structures and cultures of
a particular society
a. Ideology b. Revolution c. Companion d.
Religion
78. …………….. is the type of social change
which indicates a sustained progress in the
development of society
a. Mixed social change b. Progressive social
change c. Retrogressive social change d. Social
harmony
79. All of the following concepts are often used
in social sciences to describe social change
except one
a. Social evolution b. Progress c. Growth d.
th
d. Early Gravitation
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80. …………. Is a theory of sociology that a. Lewis b. Epselon c. ABO d. Rhesus e.
believes every human society must evolve from MNSs
homogenous stage of development to a
heterogeneous stage 88. The term: Afro – Asiatic was coined by

a. Diffusion b. Acculturation c. Adaptation a. Delafosse b. Maurine c. Ayeni d.

d. Evolution Greenberg

81. ………………. Is the author of the book 89. The most widely spoken Afro – Asiatic
Origin of Man language is

a. Thomas Malthus b. Charles Darwin c. Karl a. Hausa b. Yoruba c. Swahili d. Arabic

Marx d. Max Weber 90. The geographic distribution of the Afro –
82. Lagos was ceded to the British Empire in Asiatic language are into
London in …………… a. 2 b. 4 c. 6 d. 8
a. 1818 b. 1865 c. 1861 d. 1872 91. Greenberg categorized African languages
83. The Headquarters of colonial British into ……… phyla
Administration in Nigeria was first cited in …. a. 2 b. 4 c. 6 d. 8
a. Calabar b. Lagos c. Ibadan d. Kaduna 92. Of the classification of Greenberg ……. Is
84. ………… wrote the masterpiece called the the largest
positive Philosophy a. Afro – Asiatic b. Nilo – Saharan c. Khoisan
a. Comte b. Kante c. Conte d. Persons and d. Lagelafia
Durkheim 93. Yoruba, Igbo, Fulani and Shona are under
85. The full meaning of ISBT is ? the rubric of

a. International Society for Blood Transfusion
b. International Society of Blood Transfusion
c. International Sovereign Body of Transfussion
d. International Sovereign Body for Blood
Transporters e. None of the above
86. How many different blood group antigens
have been found in man?
a. 150 b. 300 c. 200 d. 600
87. In human 14 of the blood group systems are
most commonly detected which of there is not
one of them?
a. Afro – Asiatic b. Nilo – Saharan c. Niger
Congo d. Swahili
94. Nigeria is a multilingual country with ……
living languages
a. 515 b. 520 c. 525 d. 521
95. ………… is the well known Chadic language
in Nigeria
a. Yoruba b. Hausa c. Igbo d. Jukun
THANK YOU & SUCCESS IN YOUR
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