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COURSE INTRODUCTION
Geotechnical Materials
1) Soils are discrete particles derived from rock minerals and have extreme variability
2) Soils are cheap and readily available construction materials
3) Soils support all structures located above and below ground
GENERAL PROCEDURE FOR MOST GEOTECHNICAL PROJECTS
D fi Project
Define P j t Concept
C t purpose schedule
purpose, schedule, location
location, plans
Definition of Soil
Soil - All materials, organic or inorganic, overlying bedrock
Soil are natural aggregates of mineral grains that can be separated by such gentle
mechanical
h i l means as agitation
it ti iin water,
t while
hil rocks
k are natural
t l aggregates
t off
minerals connected by strong and permanent cohesive forces.
Based on Origin
Inorganic Soil - derived from chemical and mechanical weathering
Organic Soil - significant parts are derived from growth and decay of plant
and
a da
animala life
e
Inorganic Soils
Residual Soil - located at a place where it was formed
Transported Soil - the soil has been moved to another location by gravity,
water or wind
Alluvium – river and stream deposits
p ((very
y heterogeneous
g mixture of g
gravels,, sands,, and
silts/clays)
Lacustrine – lake deposits; Marine – salt water deposits (beach, swamps); Deltas – deposits at
mouth of streams and rivers
Wind blown – loess – uniform mixture of silts, fine sands and clays
Nature of Soil
VOIDS
Soil is composed of particles
SOLIDS
(Sand/Gravel)
clay
Double layer expands – repulsion
Double layer contracts - attraction
(Clay/Silt)
Dispersive Soil
Replace Na+ - Ca++, Mg++
+ +
+ Clay + +
+ +
+ + + Cl
Clay
+ +
Na+ +
Nearer
Farther attraction
repulsion + +
+ +
+
clay
clay +
+
+
Types of Soil
Types of Soil
Origin of Clay Minerals
1) Inheritance. The clay mineral was formed by reactions
that occurred in another area, was transported to its
present site, and is stable enough to remain inert in its
present environment
environment.
2) Neoformation.
Neoformation The clay has precipitated from solution
or has formed from reaction of amorphous material.
Block Symbol =
Basic Silicate Unit: (2)
Aluminum or Magnesium
Octahedron
Block Symbol =
Successive layers are held together by hydrogen bonds between the hydroxyls of the octahedral
sheet and the oxygen of the tetrahedral
tetrahedral. Since the hydrogen bond is very strong
strong, it prevents
hydration and allows the layers to stack up to make up 70 to 100 layers thick.
Halloysite is related to kaoline. It somehow became hydrated between layers causing distortions
and random stacking of the crystal lattice so that it is tubular in shape
shape. The water can be easily
driven out from between layers by heating or air drying and the process is irreversible.
MONTMORILLONITE sometimes called smectite – composed of 2 silica and one alumnica (gibsite)
sheet
In flush
f sites, where cations are being added, and perhaps silica too, e.g. tropical
swamps, then there is a build-up to montomorillonite or illite. As a simplification in tropical areas,
there are kaolinites in the hillslopes, and montmorillonites in the valley. In temperate regions, there
is less extreme variation and illite is more common and vermiculite are common topsoils for some
reasons.
Most Common Clay Minerals
a) Kaolinite - two-layer unit of Gibbsite and Silica Sheet (7.2oA)
- strong linkage by hydrogen bonding and secondary valence forces
b) Illite - three-layer unit (9.5oA) formed by silica sheet sandwiched by 2 Gibbsite sheets
- very stable
t bl bbonding
di b by secondary
d valence
l fforces and
d potassium
t i iions.
c) Montmorillonite - three-layer unit (9.5oA) formed by silica sheet sandwiched by 2 Gibbsite sheets
- very weak bonding by secondary valence forces and exchangeable ion linkage
- isomorphous substitution of magnesium or iron for aluminum, changes the
character of montmorillonites
Casagrande
Plasticity Chart
Atterberg Limits for
Common Clay y Minerals
4.6 Clay-water system behavior
The clay
y particles
p interact with soil water (p
(pore water)) surrounding
g them. All clay
ypparticles are
charged and they can therefore attract ions on the surface
4.6.2 Broken bonds: The clay crystal is continuous in two directions, however at the
edges there must be broken bonds between oxygen and silicon and between oxygen and
aluminum. The amount of this charge per unit weight of clay increases with decreasing
particle size, because the proportion of edge area to total area is increased. These
b k bonds
broken b d attract hydrogen
h d (H+) or h
hydroxyl
d l (OH
(OH-)) iions ffrom the
h pore water. Th
The
ease with which the hydrogen ion can be exchanged increases as the pH of the pore
water increases.
BROKEN BONDS
ATTRACTIVE AND REPULSIVE FORCES
Flocculated and Dispersive Structures
Colloidal micella
Interaction between negatively charged mineral particles and the surrounding aqueous
solution
l ti (Fi
(Fig. 1)
4
drainage
Solid 3 2 1
5 1 2 3 air drying
oven drying
1) Absorbed water – held by powerful electrical forces virtually in solid state and very thin
(0.005 mm)
- cannot be removed by oven drying at 110oC
2) C b
Can be removed
dbby oven d
drying
i nott b
by air
i ddrying.
i
3) Capillary water held by surface tension, removed by air drying
4) Gravitational water – removable by drainage
5) Chemically combined water – water hydration
within crystal structure – not removable by over drying
EFFECT OF WATER CONTENT
A)) Consistency
y of Cohesive Soils
I) Plasticity of Soils
The term “plasticity” is normally encountered and
applied in fine-grained soils, such as clay.
z Plastic limit
z Shrinkage limit
A)) Atterberg
g Limits
(For soil fraction passing #40 sieve)
1) Liquid Limit (LL)
It is the lowest water content that a soil can behave like a
viscous liquid
liquid.
It is the water content of the soil at which the soil, when
place in a standard liquid limit device in a specified manner,
will cause 25 number of blows to close a specific width
groove for a specified length.
A) Atterberg Limits
((cont’d))
2) Plastic Limit (PL)
It is the lowest water content that a given soil can still
behave plastically, i.e., above PL the soil can be deformed
without volume change or cracking and will retain its
deformed shape
shape.
It is the water content of the soil at which the soil, when
rolled into 3mm diameter threads, will start to crumble.
A) Atterberg Limits
((cont’d))
3) Shrinkage Limit
It is the highest water content at which the
soil mass stopsp to shrink or decrease its
volume upon further decrease of water
content.
It is determined as the water content after
just enough water is added to fill all the
voids of a dry pat of soil.
B) Physical Significance
of Atterberg
g Limits
The greater the amount of water a soil contains
contains, the
less interaction there will be between adjacent
particles and the more the soil should behave like a
liquid.
ωN<PL
ωN >LL
C) Relationship of Atterberg Limits
to Composition of Soil
PI
Activity (A) =
%b
by weight
i ht finer
fi than 2µm
th
Approximate
pp values for the specific
p
surface of some common soil grains
((after Mitchell,, 1976))
Kaolinite 38 to 59 27 to 35 11 to 23
SIEVE ANALYSIS
GRAIN SIZE CURVE
GRAIN SIZE CURVES
GRAIN SIZE CURVES
Well-graded
Gap-graded
Poorly-graded
Fig. 4.2 Sequence of Mineral Transformation Observed from Soil Thin Sections
Fig. 1.25 Profile
residual soil area,
area
indicating stages of
transition from rock to
soil
Fig. 4.6 a – Grain Size Distribution of Samples from Line I, Site No. 1
Fig. 4.7 – Cumulative Percentage of Grain Size Distribution from Site 1 and Site 2 Profiles
HYDROMETER ANALYSIS
Fig. 7.1 Schematic representation of sedimentaion of different particle sizes, and
sampling for particle size analysis (Modified after Chu et al. [140])
Fig. 4.27
Representation of
sedimentation
di t ti process
Fig. 1.11 Soil-separate size limits
of M.I.T., FAA, AASHTO, Corps of
E i
Engineers and
d USBR
Sieve
Analysis
Hydrometer
y
Analysis
UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Example 1
Classify the following soil using USSC. The soil data available for
classification are as follows:
D10 = 0.2mm
0 2mm
D30 = 0.73mm
D60 = 1.27mm
1 27mm
% passing No. 4 sieve = 77.5 (This means 22.5% gravel)
% pass
passingg No.
o 200
00 = 4.00
Solution:
1) Passing No. 200 sieve Î <50% (coarse-grained soil)