LINEAR AND PLANAR ARRAYS

• ARRAYS OF TWO ISOTROPIC SOURCES: Various cases

• LINEAR ARRAY OF N ELEMENTS WITH UNIFORM AMPLITUDE
- Broadside
- Ordinary end-fire
- Increased directivity end-fire
- Scanning array
• PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MULTIPLICATION
• PLANAR ARRAYS
• LINEAR ARRAYS WITH NON-UNIFORM AMPLITUDE
• ARRAY SYNTHESIS (Sulkaunoff Method)
ARRAYS OF TWO ISOTROPIC POINT SOURCES
 TWO ISOTROPIC POINT SOURCES OF SAME
AMPLITUDE AND PHASE
Total Field
E = E 0 e − j β r 1 + E 0 e − j β r2
2π
P β= k =
λ
d
r1 ≅ r + cos Φ
d
2
cosΦ θ
r1

r
r2 ≅ r −
2
d
2
cos Φ
−
− jβ r
} r >> d
Φ = 90 − θ
 j β d2 c o s Φ jβ
d
cos Φ 
r2 E = E 0e  e + e 2

 
φ ψ ψ
− jβ r  
− j j
2 E = E 0e  e 2
+ e 2

1 d/2
 
d
ψ πd 
E = 2 E 0 cos   = 2 E 0 co s  cos Φ 
 2  λ 
2π d
ψ = β d cos Φ = co s Φ = d r cos Φ
λ
2π d
ψ = β d sin θ = sin θ
λ
TWO ISOTROPIC POINT SOURCES OF SAME
AMPLITUDE AND PHASE
NORMALIZED
 dr  Ψ
E = cos  cos Φ  = Cos
 2  2
For d = λ / 2
π 
E = cos  cos Φ 
2 
φ 0° 90° 60°
E 0 1 1/√2

HPBWs = 60°, 360°

 ORIGIN AT ELEMENT 1
y dcosφ

ψ
d x
1 2

− j ψ/2 jψ/2
− jψ jψ/2  e + e  jψ/2 ψ
E = E0 (1+ e ) = 2E0e   = 2E0e cos
 2  2
jψ/2 ψ
E = 2E0e cos
2
ψ
En = cos
2
 TWO ISOTROPIC POINT SOURCES OF SAME
AMPLITUDE BUT OPPOSSITE PHASE

E = E0e j ψ/2 − E0e− jψ/2

ψ d 
E = 2 jE0 sin = 2 jE0  r cosΦ
2 2 
For d = λ / 2

π 
E =sin cosΦ
2 

φ 0° 90° 60°
HPBWs = 120°, 120°
E 1 0 1/√2
TWO ISOTROPIC POINT SOURCES OF SAME AMPLITUDE
AND IN PHASE QUADRATURE
 d π   d π 
E = E0 exp + j  r cosΦ +  + E0 exp − j  r cosΦ + 
 2 4   2 4 
d π
E = 2E0 cos  r cosΦ + 
2 4
Letting 2E0 = 1 and d = λ / 2
π π
E = cos  cosΦ + 
2 4

φ 0° 60 90° 120° 180°

|E| 1/√2 0 1/√2 1 1/√2
TWO ISOTROPIC POINT SOURCES OF SAME
AMPLITUDE AND IN PHASE QUADRATURE

If the spacing between the source

is reduced by λ/4

π π
E = cos  cosΦ + 
4 4

φ 0° 900 120° 150° 180°

|E| 0 1/√2 0.924 0.994 1

HPBW = 180°
TWO ISOTROPIC POINT SOURCES OF SAME
AMPLITUDE AND ANY PHASE DIFFERENCE

ψ = d r cos Φ + δ
− j ψ/2 jψ/2 ψ
E = 2 E0 (e +e ) = 2 E0 cos
2
LINEAR ARRAYS OF n ISOTROPIC POINT SOURCES OF
EQUAL AMPLITUDE AND SPACING

θ = 90°
jψ j2ψ j3ψ j ( n −1) ψ
E = 1+ e + e + e + ..... + e
Where ψ is the total phase difference of the fields
from adjacent sources as given by
2π d
ψ= cos Φ + δ = d r cos Φ + δ
λ
Where δ is the phase difference of adjacent sources, i.e.,
source 2 with respect to 1, 3 with respect to 2, etc.
E e j ψ = e j ψ + e j 2 ψ + e j 3jnψψ + . . . . . + e j n ψ
1- e sin( n ψ / 2)
E − Ee jψ = 1 - e jnψ ⇒ E = =
1 - e jψ sin (ψ / 2)
N O R M A L IZ E D : F O R L IN E S O U R C E S :
1 s in ( n ψ / 2 )
ψ → 0
n s in (ψ / 2 )
s in ( n ψ / 2 )
E =
nψ / 2
 UNIVERSAL FIELD PATTERN CHART

Arrays of various number n of isotropic point sources

of equal amplitude and spacing.

FSLL=20log0.22=-13.15 dB. If ψ is known as a function of Φ, then the field

pattern can be obtained directly from the above figure.
 BROAD SIDE ARRAY
(SOURCES IN PHASE AND SAME AMPLITUDE)

2π d
ψ= cos Φ + δ
λ
δ =0
ψ = π cos Φ
sin( n ψ / 2)
E=
nψ / 2
φ ψ E

0° π 0
60° π/2 0
Zr01=BWFN = 120° 90° 0 1
BROAD SIDE ARRAY(SOURCES WITH PHASE ANGLE
δ=-π AND SAME AMPLITUDE)
δ = −π
ψ = π (cos Φ -1)
Null Position :
nψ 2kπ
= ±kπ ; k = 1,2..... ⇒ ψ = ±
2 n
nπ d
cosΦ+δ = ±2kπ / n
λ
−1  2kπ  λ 
Φ = cos  ± − δ  directionof null
BWFN = 120°
 n  2π d 
 END-FIRE ARRAY WITH INCREASED DIRECTIVITY

π
ψ = dr (cosΦ -1) -
n

H
a
n
s
u
n
a
n
d
W
o
o
d
y
a
r
d
c
r
i
t
e
r
i
a
:
(a) ψ = dr (cosΦ -1)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 NORMALIZED
d d
d=λ/4
 π  sin(nψ / 2)
E = sin  
(b)  2n  nψ / 2
Field Patterns of end-fire arrays of 10 isotropic sources
spaced λ/4 apart . The pattern (a) has the phase adjusted
for increased directivity(δ=0.6π) while the pattern at (b)
has the phasing of an ordinary end-fire array(δ=0.5π)
ARRAY WITH MAXIMUM FIELD IN AN ARBITRARY
DIRECTION

For Φ = 60°
ψ = 0 = d r cos 60° + δ
δ = −π / 2

Field Patterns of array of 4 isotropic sources of equal

amplitude with phasing adjusted to give the maximum
at Φ=60°. The spacing is λ/2.
 NULL DIRECTIONS AND BEAM WIDTHS BETWEEN FIRST
NULLS FOR LINEAR ARRAYS OF N ISOTROPIC SOURCES OF
EQUAL AMPLITUDE AND SPACING
Beamwidth
Type of Array Null Directions Null directions between first
(array any length) (long array) nulls
(long array)

 ±2 K π  1 
General Case φ0 = arccos   − δ 
 n  dr 

Kλ 2λ
Broadside  K λ  γ0 ≃ ± 2 γ 01 ≃ ±
γ 0 = a rc s in  ±  nd nd
 nd 
 K λ  2K λ 2λ
Ordinary end-fire φ 0 = 2 a r c s i n  ±  φ0 ≃ ± 2φ01 ≃ ±2
 2nd  nd nd
Beam width between first nulls as function of nda for
End-fire with arrays of n isotropic point sources of equal amplitude. For
increased directivity
long arrays, nda is approximately equal
(Hansan and λ  to arrayλlength. λ
φ0 = 2 arcsin  ± φ
(2 K − 1)  0 ≃ ± (2 K − 1) 2φ01 ≃ ± 2
Woodyard) 4 nd nd nd
 
For n ≥ 2. The angles in columns 3 and 4 are expressed in radians.
 NULL DIRECTIONS AND BEAM WIDTHS BETWEEN FIRST
NULLS FOR LINEAR ARRAYS OF N ISOTROPIC SOURCES OF
EQUAL AMPLITUDE AND SPACING

Beam width between first nulls as function of nda for arrays

of n isotropic point sources of equal amplitude. For long
arrays, nda is approximately equal to the array length.
DIRECTIONS OF MINOR-LOBE MAXIMA FOR LINEAR
ARRAYS OF N ISOTROPIC POINT SOURCES OF EQUAL
AMPLITUDE AND SPACING.
Directions of minor-lobe maxima for linear
Type of Array arrays of n isotropic point sources of equal
amplitude and spacing.

 ±(2K + 1)π 1

General Case φm ≃ arccos  − δ 
 n  dr 
 ± ( 2 K + 1) λ 
Broadside φm ≃ a rc c o s  
 2nd 
 ± ( 2 K + 1) λ 
Ordinary end-fire φm ≃ arcco s  + 1
 2nd 
End-fire with increased
 λ
directivity φm ≃ arccos  (1 ± (2 K + 1) ) + 1
(Hansan and Woodyard)  2nd 
NON ISOTROPIC BUT SIMILAR POINT SOURCES AND
(THE PRINCIPLE OF PATTERN MULTIPLICATION)
DIPOLE PATTERN
E 0 = E 0' sinΦ
Ψ
AF = cos
2
Ψ
Radiation Pattern (Total Field) E = sin Φ cos
2
where ψ = d r cos Φ + δ
AF For δ=0
DIPOLE
 PATTERN MULTIPLICATION

DIPOLE PATTERN

E0 = E0' cos Φ
π 
E = cos Φ cos  cos Φ 
2 
DIPOLE AF

Non Isotropic sources with respect

to the coordinate system

a) Individual b) Array of two c) Product of

nonisotropic source isotropic Pattern
and pattern sources
ARRAYS WITH MISSING SOURCES

Field patterns of linear array of 5

isotropic point sources of equal
amplitude and λ/2 spacing
(a) all 5 sources on,
(b) one source(near to the edge) off
(c) one source(at the centre) off and
(d) one source (at the edge) off.
 DIRECTIVITIES AND BEAMWIDTHS OF ARRAYS AND
APERTURES
Directivity for Lλ or
Array Directivity d λ equal to Half-power
(or aperture) formula 1 10 100 1000 beam widths
Linear
50.8
broadside array of 2Lλ 2 20 200 2000 * 360 °
length Lλ Lλ
Ordinary
108°
End-fire array of 2πLλ 6.3 63 630 6300
length Lλ Lλ
Increased-directivity 52°
End-fire array of 4πLλ 12.6 126 1260 12600
length Lλ Lλ
Square 5 0.8 ° 5 0.8 °
Broadside aperture 4πLλ2 12.6 1260 126000 1.26*107 *
with side length Lλ Lλ Lλ

Circular 58°
Broadside aperture π2 dλ2 9.9 990 99000 9.9*106
dλ
with side length Lλ
 DIRECTIVITIES AND BEAMWIDTHS OF ARRAYS AND
APERTURES
Directivity for Lλ or
Array Directivity d λ equal to Half-power
(or aperture) formula 1 10 100 1000 beam widths
Flat array (length Lλ ) of
ordinary end-fire π Lλ 8 Lλ E
antennas (length LλE)§
Same but square
(length LλE)§ π 8Lλ 3 8.9 281 8900 281000

Flat array (length Lλ ) of

increased-directivity end- 4π Lλ Lλ E '
fire antennas (length
LλE)§
Same but square
(length LλE)§ 4π Lλ 3 12.6 398 12600 398000

nd
Lλ = d= inter-element spacing
λ
 PLANAR ARRAY
AF = ( AF ) x .( AF ) y
32400
D=
θ xθ y
For broadside or near broadside direction
D = π cos θ 0 Dx D y * ; when θ 0 = 0, cos θ 0 = 1
Dx & D y are directivity in x and y direction
4π A 2Lx 2Ly
D= 2
; Dx = , Dy =
λ λ λ
2Lx Ly 4π A
D = π .4 = 2
λ2 λ
 HPBW
1
In e le v a tio n : θn =
 c o s 2 φ0
2 s in 2 φ0 
cos θ 0  2
+ 
 θ x0 θ y02 
θ 0 , φ0 → B e a m m a x p o s itio n
θ x 0 , θ y 0 → H P B W o f M & N e le m e n t in x & y d ir e c tio n
1
In a z im u th : φn =
 s in 2 φ0 c o s 2 φ0 
 2
+ 2 
 θ x0 θ y0 
For Square array :
θ x0
θn = = θ x 0 sec θ 0
cos θ 0
sec θ 0 is always >1; Therefore on increase for θ0 beam broadens for scanning.
φn = θ x 0

Beam broadens only in elevation not in azimuthal, that is

why only cos θ0 has come only once in * .
 PLANAR ARRAYS

 M   N 
 1 s in  2 ψ x    1 sin  ψ 
 
y
A F n (θ , φ ) =    2
 
 M sin  ψ x    N s in  ψ y  
 
  2     2  

where
ψ x = kd x sin θ cos φ + β x
ψ x = kd y sin θ sin φ + β y

β x = − kd x sin θ0 cos φ0 for ψ x = 0 }⇒ tan φ0 =

βydx
βx d x
2 2
2  βx 1   β y 1 
β y = − kd y sin θ0 sin φ0 for ψ y = 0 sin θ0 =   *  
 2π / λ d x   2π / λ d y 
 PLANAR ARRAYS

The principal maximum(m=n=0) and the grating lobes can be located by

kd x (sin θ cos φ − sin θ0 cos φ0 ) = ±2mπ m = 0,1, 2

kd y (sin θ sin φ − sin θ0 sin φ0 ) = ±2nπ n = 0,1, 2

Which, when solved simultaneously, reduce to For m = 0, n = 0

−1
φ = tan (
sin θ0 sin φ0 ± nλ / d y
sin θ0 cos φ0 ± mλ / d x
) m = 0,1, 2
} = φ0
 s in θ0 sin φ0 
φ = tan −1 
 sin θ0 cos φ0 


−1 
 sin θ0 cos φ0 ± mλ / d x  s in θ0 sin φ0 ± nλ / d y 
θ = sin −1   = sin   ⇒ θ = θ0
 cos φ   sin φ 
 Effect of Inter-element Spacing d

Three dimensional antenna pattern of a planar array of isotropic elements with a spacing of
da=db= λ/4 , and equal amplitude and phase excitations.
 EFFECT of Inter-element Spacing d

Three dimensional antenna pattern of a planar array of isotropic elements with a spacing of
da=db= λ/2 , and equal amplitude and phase excitations.
 LINEAR BROADSIDE ARRAYS WITH NONUNIFORM
AMPLITUDE DISTRIBUTIONS
Normalized field patterns of broadside arrays of 5 isotopic point sources spaced λ/2 apart.
All sources are in the same phase
The relative amplitudes have four different distributions;
(b) uniform
(c) binomial
(d) optimum and
(a) edge
 NON-UNIFORM AMPLITUDE
Amplitude distribution of nonuniform amplitude linear arrays

Dolph-

Normalised Amplitude
Tschebyscheff

0.5

Taylor

Binomial

Element number(from center) l = 4λ

Uniform Taylor d = λ / 4, N = 17
Binomial Dolph-Tschebyscheff
Amplitude distribution of uniform, binomial, Taylor, and Dolph-Tschebyscheff element arrays.
 NON-UNIFORM AMPLITUDE
Amplitude distribution of nonuniform amplitude linear arrays

Normalised Amplitude
cos
0.5

cos2

Element number(from center)

Uniform Cosine-squared L = 4λ
Triangular Cosine d = λ / 4, N = 17

Amplitude distribution of uniform, triangular, cosine and cosine squared discrete-element arrays.
 RADIATION CHARACTERISTICS FOR LINE
SOURCES AND LINEAR ARRAYS
DISTRIBUTION UNIFORM TRIANGULAR COSINE SQUARE

 2  π  π 
Distribution In I0 I1 1 − z '  I2 cos  z '  I3 cos2  z ' 
 l  l  l 
(analytical)
I0 I1 I2
Distribution I3

(graphical) l l l l
2 2
Space factor(SF)  u   
 sin(u)  l  sin( )    l sin(u)  z2 
I0l   2 π cos( u )
u=(πl/λ)sinθ  u  I1   I 2l   I3  
2 u 2   π 2  2 u  π 2 − u2 
   −z 
 2   2  

Half Power
beamwidth 50.6 73.8 68.8 83.2
(degrees) (l / λ ) (l / λ ) (l / λ ) (l / λ )
l >λ
 RADIATION CHARACTERISTICS FOR LINE
SOURCES AND LINEAR ARRAYS
DISTRIBUTION UNIFO TRIANGULAR COSINE SQUARE
RM

114.6 229.2 171.9 229.2

First null
(l / λ ) (l / λ ) (l / λ ) (l / λ )
beamwidth
(degrees l>λ)
First side lobe max.
−13.2 −26.4 −23.2 −34.5
(to main max.)
(dB)
Directivity factor l    l    l    l 
2  0.752  0.812  0.567 2  
(l large)  λ   λ    λ 
  λ

D  2l 
2
 2l 
2

π  π 0.75* 
(square λ  λ
array)=πDx2
RADIATION CHARACTERISTICS FOR CIRCULAR APERTURES AND
CIRCULAR PLANAR ARRAYS WITH CIRCULAR SYMMETRY AND
TAPERED DISTRIBUTION
DISTRIBUTION UNIFORM RADIAL TAPER RADIAL TAPER
SQUARED
0 2
  ρ ' 2    ρ'  2 1
   ρ ' 2 
Distribution I 0 1 −    I1 1 −    I 2 1 −   
(analytical)   a     a     a  

I0 I1 I2
Distribution
(graphical) 2a 2a 2a

Space factor(SF)
J1 (u ) J 2 (u ) J 3 (u )
u=(2πa/λ)sinθ I 0 2π a 2 I1 4π a 2 I 216π a 2
u u u

Half Power
beamwidth 29.2 36.4 42.1
(degrees) (a / λ) (a / λ) (a / λ)
a >λ
N-Elements Linear Array with Non-uniform
Amplitude Distribution
Uniform spacing: non-uniform amplitude
N=2M: even no. of elements

M
AF2 M = ∑ a n cos  ( 2 n − 1) u 
n =1

ψ kd cos θ π d cos θ
u= = =
2 2 λ
Uniform spacing: non-uniform amplitude
n= 2M+1: odd no. of elements

d
θ

M
A F2 M = ∑a
n =1
n co s  2 ( n − 1 ) u 

ψ kd cos θ π d cos θ
u= = =
2 2 λ
 Binomial Array

No side lobe level or very small, if any, SLL

η decreases G decreases Beam width increases

Co-efficient an are determined from following expression

( m − 1) x ( m − 1)( m − 2) x 2
(1 + x ) m −1 = 1+ + + ...
1! 2!

m=1 1
m=2 1 1
m=3 1 2 1
m=4 1 3 3 1

1.06 1.06
HPBW (d=λ/2) = =
N −1 L
2
λ

Directivity = 1.77 N = 1 . 7 7 1 + 2 L
λ
 Dolph-Tschebyscheff Array

• It is a compromise between uniform and Binomial amplitude

distribution. This with no SLL implies Binomial distribution.
Equal SLL suppression
High Efficiency, Gain
 Dolph-Tschebyscheff Array
• Array Factor (AF) is nothing but summation of M or M+1 cosine terms.
The largest (number) harmonic of the cosine term is one less than the total
number of antenna elements. Each cosine term can be written as a series of
cosine functions with the fundamental frequency as argument.
• m=0 cos(mu) = τ0(z)
• m=1 cos(mu)= cos u = τ1(z)
• m=2 cos(mu)= 2cos2(u)-1 = τ2(z)
• m=3 cos(mu)= 4cos3(u) - 3cos(u) = τ3(z)
• m=4 cos(mu)= 8cos4(u) - 8cos2(u) +1 = τ4(z)
• m=5 cos(mu)= 16cos5(u) - 20cos3(u) + 5cos(u) = τ5(z)
• m=6 cos(mu)= 32cos6(u) - 48cos4(u) + 18cos2(u) – 1 = τ6(z)
• m=7 cos(mu)= 64cos7(u) - 112cos5(u) + 56cos3(u) – 7cos(u) = τ7(z)
 Procedure

1] First appropriate AF should be chosen

2] AF should be expanded replacing cos(mu) series (m= 0,1,2,3)

3] z=zo such that τm(z) = Ro (voltage ratio); order m = total no. of elements – 1
-1 < z < z1, nearest null close to z = +1, SLL
Major lobe at z0 (z1 ≤ z ≤ zo)

4] Substitute cos (u)= z/zo in [2]

It will be valid for |z| ≤ |zo|, at |z| = |zo| => main lobe

5] Equate [2] to τm(z) m= n – 1 to determine ans

6] Finally write array factor

 Example: Number of elements 10, FSLL=26 dBd
5

AF2m= AF10 = ∑an cos ( 2n −1) u ;

π d cosφ
u=
n=1 λ

AF10 = a1cos(u) + a2cos(3u) + a3cos(5u) + a4cos(7u) + a5cos(9u)

Substitute the expression for cos (mu) from previous slides
AF10 = a1cos(u) + a2{4cos3u-3cosu}+ a3{16cos5(u) - 20cos3(u) + 5cos(u) }+
a4{64cos7(u) - 112cos5(u) + 56cos3(u) – 7cos(u) }+ a5{256cos9(u) - 576cos7(u) +
432cos5(u) – 120cos3(u)+ 9 cos(u)}
Where Cos(9u) = 256cos9(u) - 576cos7(u) + 432cos5(u) – 120cos3(u) + 9cos(u)
Ro(dB)=26= 20log10(Ro) , Ro (voltage ratio)= 20
Ro=τ’o(zo)= cosh[9 cosh-1(zo)]
zo = cosh [1/9*cosh-1(20)= 1.0851

Putting cos (u) = z/zo = z/ 1.0851

AF10 = z [(a1- 3a2 + 5a3 - 7a4 + 9a5)/zo] + z3 [(4a2 - 20a3 + 56a4 - 120a5)/ zo3] +
z5 [(16a3-112a4 + 432a5)/ zo5]+ z7 [(64a4 – 576a5)/ zo7] + z9 [(256a5)/ zo9]

AF10 = 256z9 – 576z7 + 432z5 -120z3 +9z

 Continuation..

Equating coefficients ,
256a5 / zo9= 256 ; a5 = 2.0860
(64a4 – 576a5)/ zo7= - 576 ; a4 = 2.8308
(16a3-112a4 + 432a5)/ zo5 = 432 ; a3 = 4.1184
(4a2 - 20a3 + 56a4 - 120a5)/ zo3 = - 120 ; a2 = 5.2073
(a1- 3a2 + 5a3 - 7a4 + 9a5)/zo = 9 ; a1 = 5.8377

a5 = 1; a4 = 1.357; a3 = 1.974; a2 = 2.496; a1 = 2.796

AF10 = 2.798 cos(u) + 2.496 cos (3u) + 1.974 cos (5u) + 1.357 cos (7u)
+ cos (9u)