American Journal of Civil Engineering

2017; 5(4): 212-219

http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/j/ajce
doi: 10.11648/j.ajce.20170504.13
ISSN: 2330-8729 (Print); ISSN: 2330-8737 (Online)

Comparative Study of Labor-Based Method and

Machine-Based Method at Rural Road Construction and
Maintenance in Jimma Zone, Oromia Region, Ethiopia
Anwar Kassahun Dunffa1, Emer Tucay Quezon2, Elmer De Castro Agon3
1
Construction Engineering and Management, Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Jimma Institute of Technology, Jimma
University, Jimma, Ethiopia
2
Construction Engineering and Management Stream, Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Jimma Institute of Technology, Jimma
University, Jimma, Ethiopia
3
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Jimma Institute of Technology, Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia

Email address:
anwarkassahun@yahoo.com (A. K. Dunffa), quezonet09@gmail.com (E. T. Quezon), quezonet09@yahoo.com (E. T. Quezon),
elmer_c_agon@yahoo.com (E. De C. Agon)

To cite this article:

Anwar Kassahun Dunffa, Emer Tucay Quezon, Elmer De Castro Agon. Comparative Study of Labor-Based Method and Machine-Based
Method at Rural Road Construction and Maintenance in Jimma Zone, Oromia Region, Ethiopia. American Journal of Civil Engineering.
Vol. 5, No. 4, 2017, pp. 212-219. doi: 10.11648/j.ajce.20170504.13

Received: April 11, 2017; Accepted: April 20, 2017; Published: June 21, 2017

Abstract: The construction of physical infrastructure is contributory for poverty alleviation in every country. The road is one
of the major components which is very significant in Ethiopia due to lack of highly developed infrastructure, particularly in the
rural road sector. Selection of the appropriate road construction and maintenance methods such as labor-based method or
machine-based method is necessary to be financially viable. Most rural road construction projects usually suffer from the
problem of selecting the appropriate technology for the proposed project and implementation of the chosen technology. In
Ethiopia, Universal Rural Road Access Program (URRAP) is an employment-intensive program for employment purpose as a
first step, out of poverty using labor-based road construction. However, there are problems, constraints, and challenges
encountered when implementing labor-based method leading to enforce the mobilization of machines. The aim of this research
study is to carry out the comparative analysis of ongoing and finished rural road projects in Jimma Zone and to establish a
qualitative and quantitative merit of various technologies used in rural road construction and maintenance. Results showed from
financial cost comparison, the labor - based method was 47% cheaper than a machine-based method to carry out the same tasks.
On the other hand, the share of unskilled average direct labor cost comprised of an astounding 65% more of the total direct cost of
a labor-based method. Also, labor-based method directly employed 300 unskilled laborers per workday for a month to complete
1.0 km section of a rural road.
Keywords: Poverty Alleviation, Labor-Based and Machine-Based Methods, Rural Road Construction and Maintenance,
Universal Rural Road Access Program (URRAP)

using both labor-based and machine-based methods of rural

1. Introduction
The past commencements of Rural Roads Rehabilitation in
Ethiopia traced back from the late 1970s onwards, and have
been an important delivery mechanism for restoring access for
the rural population to markets, social and other services to
reduce transportation time and cost. Since the beginning of
rehabilitating rural roads up to June 2010 different highway
and road sector development programs were implemented
road construction and maintenance to own a total of 127,328
kilometers of rural roads in Ethiopia.
Historically, implementation approach for construction and
maintenance of rural road started since the actual
commencement of rural road rehabilitation in Ethiopia. In
1980, the international labor organization (ILO) introduced
labor-based approaches for the construction of roads to the
Ethiopian Road Authority (ERA) and led the country to be the
213 Anwar Kassahun Dunffa et al.: Comparative Study of Labor-Based Method and Machine-Based Method at Rural Road
Construction and Maintenance in Jimma Zone, Oromia Region, Ethiopia
first in Africa to introduce labor-based mechanisms along with
Kenya and Lesotho [1]. In Ethiopia, road transportation
development plays a vital role in economic activity, poverty
alleviation, employment creation and access to markets.
Approximately 64 percent of the land area in Ethiopia lies
more than 5 kilometers from an all-weather road. Some 48
million people in the rural areas of Ethiopia live further than 2
kilometers away from the nearest all-weather roads. On
average, households are often more than 10 kilometers away
from a dry-weather road, and 18 kilometers away from public
transport services [2]. Road construction projects perceived as
a means through which development strategies of the
government are primarily intended to achieve by agricultural
activities, investment projects and industrial development of
the country. This scenario can only realize if there are
adequate and efficient transportation networks available in
every locality. In recognition of this crucial role of the road
sector, various programs have been implemented to develop it.
One of the programs that are being initiated by the
government, specifically Ethiopian Road Authority (ERA) is
the Road Sector Development Program Four (RSDP IV).
Most rural road construction and maintenance projects
usually experience with the problem of selecting the
appropriate technology for implementation of the road project
and applying the chosen technology. In Ethiopia, the
Universal Rural Road Access program (URRAP) is an
employment intensive program of the government, and it will,
where possible, used by the job as a first step out of the
poverty of the local community by using labor-based road
construction and maintenance [3].
However, the researcher perceives that challenges are
confronting the actual implementation of the labor-based
method and machine-based method. The research study would
seek to determine the impacts and to comparisons between the
use of labor-based and machine-based methods for the
construction and maintenance of rural road projects. It will
concentrate on the cost aspect to show how one of these
methods work efficiently rather than the technical ones. This
study, conducted by assessing the socioeconomic and
financial impacts for one of low-income Regional States
working for the development of economic activity, poverty
reduction, employment creation and access to markets like in
Jimma Zone.
The overall aim of the research study is to carry out the
comparative analysis of ongoing and completed rural road
projects in Jimma Zone and to establish qualitative and
quantitative benefits of different technologies used in road
construction and maintenance. To do this, the specific
objectives are addressed: a) To set a financial cost comparison
between the used of the Labor-based method and
Machine-based method per kilometer length for the building
and maintenance of rural road projects in Jimma Zone; b) To
determine the impact of using the labor-based method and
machine-based method for rural road construction and
maintenance regarding socioeconomic cost; c) To show which
labor force constitutes a more efficient in utilizing these two
approaches for project implementation of rural road
construction and maintenance; and d) To identify problems or
constraints as well as challenges that will be encountered
when using a labor-based method or machine-based method
for Universal Rural Road Access Program (URRAP) and to
come up with the corresponding scope of works to be done
using the appropriate method.
In addition, the research study attempted to compare the
labor-based method and machine-based method of rural road
construction and maintenance in Jimma Zone. Furthermore,
the research study sought to answer the following questions:
1. What type of rural road project that will be best suited for
a financial cost comparison between the used of the
labor-based method and machine-based method per
kilometer length for construction and maintenance of the
rural road in Jimma Zone?
2. What are the direct and indirect impacts of using
labor-based method over the machine-based method for
use in rural road construction and maintenance?
3. Which is more efficient to use labor force; labor-based
method or equipment-based method?
4. What are the problems or constraints as well as
challenges to be encountered when one of these two
approaches used for implementation of rural road
construction and maintenance?
2. Research Methodology
2.1. Study Area
From nine regional states and two city administrations
assigned in the constitution of Ethiopia, all are implementing
rural road construction and upgrading projects except the
Capital City of Addis Ababa. Hence, the study is carried out at
Jimma Zone from Oromia regional states of Ethiopia.
Figure 1. Map of the research study area (Source: Google map; 2016).
2.2. Population of the Research Study
The respondents of the survey include three parties, i.e.
Client, Contractors and Consultants involved in the
rehabilitation of rural road projects; and professionals who
included in the URRAP program of Jimma zone. Currently,
there are 29 established Contractors and eight established
Consultants in all 17 Weredas participating in the
rehabilitation of total target 2,260 km or 84 projects within
five years' time (2011 to 2015).
 American Journal of Civil Engineering 2017; 5(4): 212-219
2.3. Sampling Technique and Sample Size
The objective of sampling is to provide a data collection and
processing of the research to be carried out and ensuring that
the samples provide a good representation of the population;
Table 1. Population of the study- All Weredas in Jimma Zone.
All 17 Wereda of Jimma Zone
No Wereda No Wereda
1 Chora-Botor 6 Limu Kosa
2 Dedo 7 Limu Saqa
3 Gera 8 Mana
4 Goma 9 Nono Benja
5 Gumayi 10 Omo Nada
The systematic sampling method used, wherein the
following 5 Weredas extracted as a sample from a total 17
Weredas of Jimma zone.
Table 2. Sampled Weredas.
Sample weredas
1. Dedo 2. Gumayi 3. Mana 4. Qarsa 5. Shebe-Sombo
In this sample, 5 Weredas: 9 established contractor and four
established consultant firms are engaged in 44 construction
and maintenance, rural road projects for a total kilometer of
506.56 kilometers from 2011 to 2013 budget year, 36 projects
or 409.56 kilometers completed, and eight projects or 92
kilometers are on-going. The established contractors and
consultants constitute a General Manager, Material Engineer,
Surveyor, and an additional Forman for the established
contractor. While the clients also employ Engineers,
Surveyors, and Technicians for the execution of these projects,
hence all professionals of the three parties and projects in 5
Weredas are taken as a sample.
Table 3. All Projects at 5 Weredas.
Wereda/Client Contractor Consultant Projects
Total 9 4 44
2.4. Research Strategy and Design
Quantitative research strategy type followed since
theoretical propositions developed for reviewing literature,
observations, and experience of the researcher and inductive
approach were used to provide a theory contribution through
the initiated problems and explanation for variation in
research questions as well. Two different methods for
comparing the cost of road works by labor-based, and
machine-based methods considered for this research study.
First, the cost of some similar projects carried out by
labor-based and machine-based methods compared but the
biggest problem with this comparing the means was the
availability of sufficient projects conducted by the labor-based
method and identifying sufficient appropriate data. This data
makes the use of this kind of comparison deficient for cost
214
i.e. The sample is representative. For complete information
about the population of the survey, systematic sampling was
used as the sampling technique of the research to extract the
sample efficiently and to ensure each case spread across the
population.
No Wereda No Wereda
11 Qarsa 16 Sokoru
12 Saqa Choqorsa 17 Xiro Afata
13 Saxama
14 Shebe Sombo
15 Sigmo
comparison. For this reason, this method rejected from the study.
Second, to come up with a meaningful comparison with
available data, the actual direct cost of carrying out average 1
kilometer of the project by the labor-based method can be
compared with the cost of carrying out the same works by the
equipment-based method, or vice versa. For this reason, this
approach selected for this study.
2.5. Research Study Approach
To achieve the objectives of the research study and
adequately answer the research questions, information
gathered through a review of the literature, questionnaire, site
observation, and reviewing the project's archival documents of
projects in general. The study attended through the following
phases of research approach:
(a) In phase one: The literature review carried out mainly to
examine and understand the concept, the problem associated
and the methodologies used from previous studies on
comparative studies of labor-based and machine-based
methods on rural road construction and maintenance. After an
extensive literature review, standard formats used for data
collection cost comparison and questionnaires organized to
Length
form which it distributed to three parties (clients, consultants,
(km)
501.56 and contractors) involved in rural road construction and
maintenance. The second and third phase includes the
collection of data based on both desk review and field work.
(b) Desk review: Data collection started by collecting
quantities (volume) of work executed from the bill of quantity
of payments for completed and on-going rural road projects,
while the completed projects have a finalized, actual amount
of work, on-going projects have constraints for the remaining
or total estimated quantities of works. The type and standard
requirement are needed to execute activities using labor-based
and machine-based methods. These are direct hiring, hand
tools, equipment, and machinery collected from payrolls,
reports, agreements and documents based on their mode of
recruitment, and also each of productivity rates per standard
units per hour or day are collected from ERA construction
management systems: Construction performance standard and
URRAP break down productivity rates.
(c) Field data collection:the structured questionnaire based
215 Anwar Kassahun Dunffa et al.: Comparative Study of Labor-Based Method and Machine-Based Method at Rural Road
Construction and Maintenance in Jimma Zone, Oromia Region, Ethiopia
on giving ranking approach from the respondents for the
problem or constraints as well as challenges encountered
when using the labor-based method or machine-based method
for URRAP and also the corresponding scope of works to be
done using the appropriate method. The respondents rated an
entire list of 67 possible problems, constraints, challenges and
30 possible scopes of work to be done using the right method
for both approaches in general.
(d) In the fourth phase, the data and information that
collected in previous stages analyzed to make direct cost
comparisons per kilometer using the two methods and identify
the most ranked problems, constraints, challenges, and scope
of work to be done using the appropriate method.
(e) Finally, the findings also analyzed about the objectives
of the study and synthesized in the recommendations,
including the possible solutions, suggestions as well were
given based on results.
2.6. Data Processing and Analysis
Based on the data available and the output required from the
research; descriptive statistics were employed to process and
analyze the data using computer programs through Microsoft
Excel and Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS).
2.6.1. Direct Cost per Kilometer
Direct cost per kilometer are those costs which are
associated directly and unambiguously with the product or
activity in question. It encompasses the direct cost of material
(including transportation), labor and equipment used to
produce an average one kilometer of rural road in the Jimma
zone using the two methods.
In establishing a financial cost comparison, the average
quantities (volumes) of work per kilometer determined by
summarizing the projects collected numbers and dividing it to
the total kilometer of the projects. The direct unit costs of each
of the work items for labor-based and machine-based methods
calculated in standard Microsoft Excel sheet based on their
standard unit of measurement. Finally, the quantities and the
direct unit costs are brought together to produce the actual
direct costs of one kilometer by both methods.
KAPSEL (May 2004) explains the model parameters in the
comparative study on the impact of labor-based methods in
road works in Tanzania through sub-topics including
economic cost comparison, the estimation of the employment
creation and implication for poverty reduction [4].
2.6.2. Economic Cost Comparison
The economic analysis calculated from the viewpoint of the
entire society. It answers the question: Is the project
profitability to the organization or a target population as a
whole? What is its impact (regarding job creation and linkages
with the other sectors) on the overall economy?
2.6.3. Estimation of the Employment Creation
The employment creation is one among many variables,
which could explain the effects of investment in the
rehabilitation of feeder roads by employing LBT and EBT
approaches. It computed by dividing total output by labor
productivity ratio and the number of working days per annum.
2.6.4. Implications for Poverty Reduction
Poverty alleviation addressed through job creation in the
respective communities. However, through their impacts on
GDP, government revenue, and employment it is clear that LBT
is more consistent with pro-poor growth, which is expected to
have the greatest impact on poverty reduction and raising the
standards of living of the rural communities and households.
2.6.5. Relative Importance Index
The Relative Importance Index (RII) was used to rank the
different problems or constraints as well as challenges
encountered and the different scope of work to be done using
the appropriate methods. It made possible to cross-compare
the most relative severity and importance from the list as
perceived by the three groups of respondents (i.e. Clients,
consultants, and contractors) perceptions for ranking
relatively the factors. The Relative Importance Index is
computed [5].
RII = (1)
∗
Where:
W = weighting given to each case in a list by the
respondents (ranging from 1 to 4)
A = the highest weight provided (4 in this case)
N = total number of those surveyed (44 in this case)
3. Results and Discussion
This part of the study addresses and discusses the findings
from analysis of the cost comparison and problem
identification with the corresponding scope of work to be done
when using one of the two methods. Financial and
socioeconomic cost comparison resulted from 5 sampled
Weredas which extracted from a total population size of 17
Weredas in Jimma zone. A total of 44 projects or a total of
501.56 km was analyzed, and a total population assumed in
these five sampled Weredas.
3.1. Response Rate
The structured questionnaires distributed towards zone and
Wereda level client, consultants and contractors from which a
total of 44 responses used for a total of 51. The estimated
response rate indicated 86.27%, and these respondents include
professionals who are working as Project Coordinator,
General Managers, Material engineers, Forman's and
Surveyors and Technician in their job title with educational
status from diploma to master's degree level.
 American Journal of Civil Engineering 2017; 5(4): 212-219 216

Table 4. Questionnaires Distributed and Response Rate.

Questionnaires Distributed Questionnaires Returned

Respondents Response Rate in (%)
In No. In (%) In No. In (%)
1. Client 7 13.73 6 11.76 85.71
2. Consultants 11 21.57 9 17.65 81.82
3. Contractors 33 64.71 29 56.86 87.88
Total 51 100 44 86.27 86.27

The above table shows all the population at sampled
Weredas which satisfactorily responded from the three
parties.However, there were substantial difficulties to
overcome the distribution and collection of the questionnaires.
3.2. Financial Cost Comparison
The overall average cost per kilometer for similar road
construction and maintenance using labor-based method
compared to the machine-based method was 47% cheaper in
financial terms.
because of its compiled activities of work in one item. Due to its
simple analysis of direct unit cost and its small amount of
laborers and equipment utilized to produce a particular event.
Average direct cost per kilometer for similar rural road
construction and maintenance using labor-based method
revealed that 47% cheaper in financial terms. These results,
based on the average financial direct costs for every 1
kilometers built using a machine-based method, an equivalent
1.9 kilometers constructed using the labor-based method.
3.3. Socioeconomic Cost

The socioeconomic value represented by the share of

average unskilled direct labor cost. It has an incredible
65.97% of the total average cost per kilometer of the
labor-based method, while the machine-based method
comprised of about 1%. This figure showed a significant
discrepancy when compared with the labor-based method.
Also, the labor-based method directly employed more than
300 unskilled laborers per month to produce an average
1-kilometer section of rural road.
On the other hand, the share of average Machinery direct cost
was 60.29%, and 32.18% of the direct cost goes to fuel for
machine-based rural road construction and maintenance. While,
the share of standard equipment, hand tools, and fuel direct cost
Figure 2. Cost Comparison per Kilometer between LBM & MBM.
was 22% of labor-based road building and maintenance.

Based on the average project costs for every 1 kilometers

built using a machine-based method, 1.9 kilometers could be
constructed using a labor-based method.

Figure 4. Average Cost Shares per Kilometer.

Figure 3. Cost Comparison based on the same Budget between LBM and
MBM.

A rural road project used the machine-based method in Figure 5. Average Cost Shares per Kilometer.
construction and maintenance in the Jimma zone, was best suited
for the financial cost comparison for the labor-based method From the above results, it demonstrated that the labor-based
217 Anwar Kassahun Dunffa et al.: Comparative Study of Labor-Based Method and Machine-Based Method at Rural Road
Construction and Maintenance in Jimma Zone, Oromia Region, Ethiopia

method was more efficient when using a labor force for
project implementation of rural road construction and
maintenance.
Using labor-based method was relatively cheap in financial
terms, creates more employment, an inflow of cash to the local
community than over machine-based method. The resulted
direct impacts from the labor-based method for rural road
construction and maintenance would indirectly transfer
knowledge about road construction, improved living standard
among rural households, creates own sense at local
communities, decreases rural to urban migration and poverty
alleviation over machine-based method.
Table 5. High Ranked Problems, Constraints and Challenges.
3.4. Identification of Problems, Constraints and Challenges
Encountered to Implement Labor-Based and
Machine-Based Methods in Jimma Zone for URRAP
The identification of the most problems, constraints, and
challenges faced based on their degree of severity are
presented, according to their category relation including
contractor, client, and consultant related to both labor and
machine-based methods. The same fashion is followed to offer
the most, identify the scope of work to be done with the
appropriate method on their relative importance.

Respondents Rank Problems, limitations, and challenges encountered RII (%)

1. Labor-based method
1 Difficulty in mobilizing labor 86.93
2. Machine-based method
Contractors 1 Cash required to mobilize machines at the beginning 91.48
2 Fuel consumption and cost 87.50
3 Too much rental cost of machinery 82.95
4 Fuel availability 82.39
1. Labor-based method
1 Budget or payment constraints 92.05
2 Lack of continuous training given time to time on Labor-based method 88.07
3 Insufficient funding 81.25
Client
4 Delays in payments 80.68
5 Performance of supply equipment by government to supplement LBM against the requirement of standards 80.11
2. Machine-based method
1 Delays in payments 88.07
1. Labor-based method
1 Delays in payments 85.23
Consultants
2. Machine-based method
1 Delays in payments & inspection 82.95

Table 5 shows the high ranked problems, constraints, and
challenges identified based on the highly rated degree of
severity when using a labor-based method. These were budget
or payment constraints with Relative Importance Index of
92.05% under the client, difficulty in mobilizing labor with
Relative Importance Index of 86.93% under the contractors,
and delay in payments with Relative Importance Index of
85.23%under the consultants.
Also, the highest ranked problems, constraints, and
challenges identified based on the highly rated degree of
severity when using a Machine-based method. These are the
Cash required to mobilize machines at the beginning with
Relative Importance Index of 91.48% under the contractors,
and Delays in payments with Relative Importance Index of
Table 6. High Ranked the Corresponding Scope of Works to be done.
88.07% under the client. Again, a delay on payments and
inspection with Relative Importance Index of 82.95%
revealed under the consultants.
3.5. Identification of the Corresponding Scope of Works to
Be Done by Using Labor-Based and Machine-Based
Methods in Jimma Zone for Urrap
Table 6 indicates the results of the high ranked
corresponding scope of works to be done as identified based
on high rated relative importance index when using a
labor-based method and machine-based method as perceived
by the three groups of respondents.

RII
Respondents Rank The corresponding scope of works to be done
(%)
1. Labor-based method
Training must be provided to professionals at the beginning, as well as regular undertakings until sufficient
1 89.20
knowledge obtained about an implementation of LBM.
Contractors need to have enough knowledge about LBM before making agreements to have flexible management
2 87.50
Contractor systems that give due consideration to the awareness, culture, tradition and other factors.
The contract document shall be prepared for both LBM & MBM individually for proposed locations of projects to
3 pre-consider the nature of the project area which includes the availability of labor, wage rate for unskilled labor, the 86.93
productivity of labor, the supply of machines & the character of the works to be executed.
2. Machine-based method
 American Journal of Civil Engineering 2017; 5(4): 212-219 218

RII
Respondents Rank The corresponding scope of works to be done
(%)
The labor-based program, a machine based program should be initiated to have a flexible choice of technology
1 89.20
practical for the proposed locations of the project.
Priorities must be given to the implementation of LBM in locations where it is feasible to use, which helps in
2 avoiding too much fuel consumptions, the burden of mechanical failures, the cash required to mobilize machines at 86.93
the beginning, transportation cost of machinery and access to project areas.
1. Labor-based method
Training must be provided to professionals at the beginning, as well as regular undertakings until sufficient
1 97.73
knowledge obtained about an implementation of LBM.
Consultants
2. Machine-based method
Totally avoid waiting's to certify payments to contractors on completing activities to secure safe cash flows and fees
1 93.18
for laborers on time.
1. Labor-based method
The pre-technological study should be made in different locations of the country to be feasible before selection of
1 97.73
methodology to be implemented.
2 To meet the target of LBM sufficient funding/budget must be on hand ahead of beginning projects. 89.77
Projects need to be handed over on time in the program budget year to avoid overlapping of last year project of this
3 87.50
Client year and to use the safest climatic condition for road works.
2. Machine-based method
Projects need to be handed over on time in the program budget year to avoid overlapping of last year project of this
1 87.50
year and also to use the safest climatic condition for road works.
Sufficient study needs to be done on the availability of the required materials for the possible shortest distance to be
2 cost efficient and look for additional options like stabilization of the nearest available materials with chemicals to 81.25
fulfill the required standards.

The highest Relative Importance Index of 97.73% of the
labor-based method under the client, showed that there is a
need for the pre-technological study to be undertaken for
different locations of the country before selecting the
methodology to be implemented. In a similar manner, under
the consultant’s point of view concerning the labor-based
method, training must be provided to professionals at the
beginning, as well as regular undertakings until sufficient
knowledge obtained about an implementation of LBM with
Relative Importance Index of 97.73%. The same factor
mentioned, rated with 89.20% Relative Importance Index
from the contractor.
The highest-ranked corresponding scope of works to be
done based on high ranked Relative Importance Index when
using the Machine-based method which entirely avoids
waiting time to certify payments to contractors on completing
activities to secure safe cash flows and fees for laborers on
time with Relative Importance Index of 93.18% under the
consultants. Likewise, under the contract for the labor-based
program and a machine-based program should be initiated to
have a flexible choice of technology practical for the proposed
locations of the project with Relative Importance Index of
89.20%. The client responded that projects need to be hands
on time in a program budget year to avoid overlapping of the
previous project. Also to use the safest climatic condition for
road works with Relative Importance Index of 87.50%.
4. Conclusion
Based on the findings of this research study, using the
labor-based method is cheaper in financial terms per average
kilometer than using the machine-based method. The
labor-based method can generate more employment in the
community living nearby in the project area. Following from
these direct impacts of the labor-based method, rural road
construction and maintenance are indirectly transferred
knowledge about road construction methods and techniques,
improved living standard among rural households, creates
own sense at local communities, decreases rural to urban
migration and poverty alleviation over machine-based
method.
The share of unskilled average direct labor cost was an
incredible 66% of the average direct cost per kilometer of a
labor-based method, while only 1% for the machine-based
method. The labor-based method directly employs more than
300 unskilled laborers per workday for a month in producing
an average 1-kilometer section of a rural road project. All of
these results demonstrated the labor-based method is more
viable when using a labor force for project implementation of
rural road construction and maintenance.
The research study identified the main problems or
constraints related to both labor and machine-based methods
during the implementation phase, which are budget
constraints, delay of payments and inspection commonly from
clients and consultants. While the challenges encountered by
the contractors are a difficulty of mobilizing labor and cash
required to mobilize machines at the beginning of the project
for labor and machine-based methods, respectively.
Recommendation
The following recommendations are forwarded on the
corresponding scope of work to be done using the
methodologies as follows:
General:
a. The pre-technological study should be made in different
219 Anwar Kassahun Dunffa et al.: Comparative Study of Labor-Based Method and Machine-Based Method at Rural Road
Construction and Maintenance in Jimma Zone, Oromia Region, Ethiopia
locations of the country to be feasible before selection of
the method to be implemented. Sufficient research needs
to be done on the availability of the required materials
for the possible shortest distance to be cost efficient and
look for additional options like stabilization of the
nearest available materials with chemicals to fulfill the
required standards.
b. Projects need to be hands on time in the program budget
year to avoid overlapping of the previous year’s project
and to use the safest climatic condition for road works.
c. Avoid long waiting time to certify payments due to
contractors on completing works to secure reliable cash
flows and fees for laborers on time.
For Labor-Based:
a. To meet the target of LBM, sufficient funding allocation
must be on hand ahead of the beginning of projects.
b. Training must be given to professionals as well as the
local community to obtain sufficient knowledge about
the implementation of LBM.
c. Contractors need to have enough knowledge about LBM
before making contract agreements with the client to
have flexible management systems that give due
consideration to the awareness, culture, tradition and
other factors affecting the smooth flow of project works.
For Machine-Based Method:
a. The machine-based program should be initiated to have a
flexible choice of technology useful for the proposed
location of the project.
b. Priorities must be given to the implementation of LBM
in places where it is feasible to use. It will help the
contractor to avoid too much fuel consumptions, the
burden of mechanical failures, the cash required to
mobilize machines at the beginning, and transportation
cost of machinery to access project areas.
References
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