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Description of PRIMAX DESIGN
Table of Contents
1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................................... 5
1.1. PRIMAX DESIGN BACK CALCULATION METHODS ................................................................................................... 5
1.2. RECOMMENDED EDUCATIONAL LEVEL..................................................................................................................... 6
1.3. SOFTWARE LICENSES AND LIABILITIES..................................................................................................................... 6
2. RECEIPT ................................................................................................................................................................... 7
3. SAFETY..................................................................................................................................................................... 7
4. INSTALLATION ...................................................................................................................................................... 8
5. HOW TO START PRIMAX DESIGN: ................................................................................................................ 12
5.1. HOW TO MAKE A NEW DATABASE .......................................................................................................................... 15
5.2. HOW TO ATTACH SQL DATABASES TO THE PROGRAM ........................................................................................... 16
5.3.1 How to attach database files into the path: C:\ProgramData\Grontmij\Primax\Databases ............................... 17
6. DEFAULT SETUP OF USER INTERFACE ....................................................................................................... 19
6.1. CONTROL PANELS OF USER INTERFACE: ................................................................................................................. 20
7. SELECTION OF POINTS FOR CALCULATION ............................................................................................. 21
7.1. HOW TO SELECT A PROJECT INCLUDING ALL SUB-DIRECTORIES ............................................................................. 21
7.2. ROAD IDENTIFICATION DATA ................................................................................................................................. 22
7.3. MAIN DETAILS ....................................................................................................................................................... 22
7.4. PAVEMENT STRUCTURE ........................................................................................................................................ 26
7.5. TRAFFIC DETAILS ................................................................................................................................................... 29
7.6. WIDTH DETAILS ..................................................................................................................................................... 30
8. SETTING UP CALCULATION PARAMETERS ............................................................................................... 31
8.1. REINFORCEMENT LAYER E MODULI (STRENGTH) ................................................................................................... 31
8.2. TEMPERATURE CORRECTION OF ASPHALT E MODULI (NORMALIZATION) .............................................................. 32
8.3. TRAFFIC DETAILS ................................................................................................................................................... 33
8.4. WIDTH DETAILS ..................................................................................................................................................... 34
8.5. PAVEMENT DATA ................................................................................................................................................... 35
8.6. STRESS AND STRAIN CRITERIA ............................................................................................................................... 37
8.7. SECTIONING ........................................................................................................................................................... 39
9. CALCULATING IN PRIMAX DESIGN.............................................................................................................. 40
9.1. SECTIONING DUE TO PAVEMENT CONSTRUCTION CHANGES, VARYING TRAFFIC AND VARYING WIDTH................... 40
9.2. SELECTION OF POINTS FOR CALCULATION ............................................................................................................. 42
9.3. STARTING CALCULATIONS ..................................................................................................................................... 43
9.4. SECTIONING OVERVIEW......................................................................................................................................... 48
10. SUMMARY ......................................................................................................................................................... 50
11. BACK-CALCULATION .................................................................................................................................... 50
11.1. THE METHOD OF EQUIVALENT THICKNESSES .................................................................................................... 50
11.2. PAVEMENT REACTIONS IN MET/BOUSSINESQ ANALYSIS ................................................................................... 51
11.3. SURFACE MODULUS .......................................................................................................................................... 52
11.4. NON-LINEAR SUBGRADE – DEVIATOR STRESS DEPENDENCY .............................................................................. 56
_____________________________________________________________________________________
II Sweco Danmark A/S, Pavement Consultants
www.pavement-consultants.com
E-mail: primaxsupport@sweco.dk
Description of PRIMAX DESIGN
The English version of the PRIMAX DESIGN user manual is the only authorised manual. Any other
translations of this manual are not valid and Sweco Danmark A/S cannot be held responsible for the contents
of such manuals.
PLEASE NOTE:
If you have questions or any comments to this manual you are most welcome to contact
our support team, see last page of this manual.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
IV Sweco Danmark A/S, Pavement Consultants
www.pavement-consultants.com
E-mail: primaxsupport@sweco.dk
Description of PRIMAX DESIGN
1. Introduction
The present user manual is a brief instruction in how to use PRIMAX Design. If a more detailed instruction is
requested, kindly contact Sweco Danmark A/S. The help function can be activated in PRIMAX Design by
pressing the key F1. The installation procedure to be followed, when installing PRIMAX Design, appears
from section 4.
PRIMAX Design is the software applied for processing of data collected by the PRIMAX FWD. The analyses
and calculations made with the system provide road and airport authorities with valuable information about
road and airfield pavements allowing decision-makers to make the right decisions with regard to
reinforcement needs or maintenance strategies that will ensure safe roads and airfield pavements. The
present manual deals with PRIMAX Design for roads.
Results on site
PRIMAX Design is integrated in the data collection software of PRIMAX and allows the operator to analyse
deflection and load signals of any measured point on site. Calculations can be made on site after the
measuring session and if parameters are changed, recalculations can be made. Results can be printed out
per measuring point, section and project, specifying the calculation parameters applied.
Output roads
A design part (PRIMAX DESIGN) processes an advanced design of the road pavement, while the calculation
part (RoSy PLAN) is applied for calculation of maintenance options.
PRIMAX design can use information about traffic, construction and width provided that the data file with the
information complies with the description in Section 8.
a. The basic one is based on the theory of elasticity and the method of equivalent thickness, as framed
by J. M. Kirk and N. Odemark on the basis of Boussinesq´s equations.
This method can work with up to 4 layers.
The method is described in Section 10 “Background Theory – Pavement Design based on Theory of
Elasticity”, below.
b. The second one is using the BACKFAA program (Free software provided by FAA) to back-calculate
layer E moduli. BACKFAA can work with up to 10 layers.
For detailed information please contact FAA. See section 14 of this manual
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Description of PRIMAX DESIGN
The User bears the risk and responsibility for correct use of software and documentation and any local
adjustments made in connection with the use.
The User bears the risk and responsibility for any losses and restore of data.
The User bears the risk and responsibility for any local adjustments made in connection with the use of
software and documentation.
Free of charge and without undue delay Sweco is liable to make good and correct any found defects that are
due to causes which can be related to the liability of Sweco.
Any claims shall be made in writing immediately after finding the defect and 6 months after delivery at the
latest.
Apart from the above-mentioned guarantee, Sweco does not grant any guarantees be it explicitly, implicitly,
or statutorily with regard to software, documentation or support.
Sweco is not liable for damage or loss caused by defects on or delay in delivery of software, documentation
or support, unless such damage or such a loss is due to wilful negligence and/or gross negligence on the
side of Sweco, or such damage or such loss are consequences of invariable rules of law regulating the
product liability caused by gross negligence on the side of Sweco.
Furthermore, Sweco disclaims any liability for the User’s operating loss, lost profit, loss of data or other
derived or indirect losses, irrespective of cause in connection with or as a consequence of delivery and
application of software, documentation, etc.
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Description of PRIMAX DESIGN
If Sweco should be sentenced or should admit liability, the User’s total claim towards Sweco is, irrespective
of the number or extent of damages and losses, limited to an amount, which as a maximum corresponds to
the royalty that Sweco has received from the User for the latest 12-month period.
The software operates on the basis of the background theory given in this manual. Sweco cannot be held
responsible for any unskilled use of the software.
Sweco is not liability for damage or loss caused by other software on a User’s computer or caused by virus
infections to a User’s computer. If a User has purchased a computer from Sweco, the software will be
installed and Sweco guarantees that the computer is not infected when delivered to a User.
2. Receipt
When you receive your new PRIMAX Design software, we recommend you to check that you have received
the following parts:
If you have purchased a PC from Sweco, PRIMAX Design is already installed on this computer. In that case
you can start using the software right away.
If you have only purchased the software, you will have to install the software in your PC. Follow the
procedure described in the section Installation.
Be very careful with your dongle, because Sweco does not replace dongles free of charge. If you need to
purchase a new dongle you will have to purchase a new dongle and a new license.
3. Safety
We recommend you not to use the PC on which you have installed PRIMAX Design for other purposes than
what is the intention with this PC.
Should your PC be infected with virus, the PC and PRIMAX Design will not work properly.
Sweco is not liable for any maluse of PC or any infections on your PC. Recovery of PC and PRIMAX Design
software will be for your own account. Sweco can of course assist you.
Be aware that the results calculated with PRIMAX Design are very dependent on the input data and the
settings used for the calculations. This is typically data collected with a Falling Weight Deflectometer. If the
Falling Weight Deflectometer has not been maintained and calibrated as recommended by the manufacturer,
there is a risk that your input data will not be of a sufficient quality. We recommend quality assurance of data
and settings prior to any calculations.
4. Installation
If you have purchased your PC from Sweco, the PRIMAX Design is already installed on the PC and you
need not install anything.
If you are familiar with the PRIMAX survey software you can go direct to section 6 from here.
If you have purchased a PC yourself and only received the software from Sweco, the software has to be
installed. Please follow below procedure:
Below the installation of PRIMAX Design software on a clean laptop without any programs installed is
described.
In case one or more of the required programs have already been installed on the laptop, not all below
windows will appear. Simply proceed in the manual until a window similar to the one on your laptop appears.
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Description of PRIMAX DESIGN
Figure 4: Installation
Figure 6: Installation
Click Next
Figure 7: Installation
The window Select Installation Folder
appears next:
Click Next
Figure 8: Installation
The window Confirm Installation appear:
Figure 9: Installation
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Description of PRIMAX DESIGN
Click Next
Click Install
During installation the system asks: “Would you
also like to install the Filter driver?” Click Yes
Click Yes
Upon successful installation a shortcut icon to the PRIMAX Design/data collection software will have
appeared on the desktop of your PC.
Check off (√) checkbox Default layout the first time the PRIMAX Design/ data collection software is applied.
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Description of PRIMAX DESIGN
Please note:
To restore Default layout, check
off (√)check box Default layout,
see figure 15
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Description of PRIMAX DESIGN
In order to view the data in Version 4.0.1 and newer versions, the database must be copied into a given path
and afterwards attached to the program.
Example: C:\Primax\databases
Please Note:
Database files from previous versions, if any, must be renamed as illustrated below. Structure of filename:
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Description of PRIMAX DESIGN
The Database
PrimaxDB_Copenhagen.mdf
is now shown in the list.
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Description of PRIMAX DESIGN
The user interface of PRIMAX DESIGN is flexible. The above interface is the Sweco default settings. This is
the interface you will see when opening PRIMAX DESIGN for the first time and if you are using a PRIMAX
FWD for data collection, PRIMAX DESIGN will be an integrated part of the data collection software.
The interface is flexible and a user can setup the interface as he/she likes. The features can be moved
around as you like. The setting of the layout or skin you have selected is stored, when closing the software,
and will display the next time you open the software. You can save and load default and stored layouts by
clicking Layouts in the top menu.
The above user interface forms the basis of the instructions in this manual.
Figure 32: Icons of PRIMAX Data Collection control panel (you see these if your PRIMAX Design is
integrated with the Data Collection software)
In the layout Design in the Project Navigator pane, all projects and all sub-directories can be filtered allowing
export/calculation of only one project or one of the sub-directories and not the entire database.
Prior to any processing of a calculation with the software, enter information about the FWD measured
road(s). Data needed is:
1: Thickness of layers,
2: Traffic for which to design overlay
3: Width of the roads
All this data is linked together for each road through the window Main Details.
As a standard routine, the program creates a database with the name Default but new databases can be
created by clicking the little + sign.
The easiest way to get the main details right is to copy and paste from the Job window.
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Description of PRIMAX DESIGN
NOTE : The right input can be copied from the window Job by double-clicking in the boxes to
select the full string and pressing the Ctrl+C at the same time, then the Box with the same
name is selected in the widow Main Details then press Ctrl+V.
As soon as the main details have been entered for all roads (remember to use the icon for each
Create the database by clicking the icon and enter the name.
Select the roads for which main details have to be processed as shown in below shown example.
Figure 39: Example on selection of roads for which to process main details
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Description of PRIMAX DESIGN
Now you can create one set of standard design details consisting of structure, width and traffic details.
______________________________________________________________________________________
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Description of PRIMAX DESIGN
When all inputs have been entered about pavement structure, traffic and width, click the button OK.
PRIMAX Design will now process one Main detail for each of the selected roads as well as one pavement
structure section, one width section and one traffic section per selected road and lane.
Start by selecting the road in the Main details window to enter Pavement structures for the specific road.
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Description of PRIMAX DESIGN
The software takes changes in pavement structure into consideration by checking the actual chainage
against the From and To chainages indicated in the window Pavement details.
All layers of a given section must have the same From ch. and To ch. An example of this is shown in
section 9 of this manual.
Please note:
Observe the following rules when using PRIMAX MET1 calculation method: The thickness of wearing course,
binder and bound base courses will be combined to one total thickness.
When using BAKFAA LET2 calculation method, up to 10 individual layers can be defined.
For both methods holds that the E-modulus field must be filled in with a “seed” modulus and when using the
BAKFAA LET calculation method, fill in Interface Parameter.
1. At least one of the layers Wearing Course, Binder, or Bound Base must be defined as well as one
layer of the layer types under Unbound Base.
3. When PRIMAX MET calculation method is used, the following rule applies: If several layers are
falling under the layer type Unbound Base, the thicknesses of these layers will be added up to one
total thickness for Unbound Base.
4. When PRIMAX MET calculation method is used, the following rule applies: If several layers are
falling under the layer type Subbase, the thickness of these will be added together to one total
thickness for Subbase.
As soon as all layers have been defined for a subsection, then continue with the next subsection on the
same road or mouse-click to select another section (road) from the list in “Main details”.
Having finished entering pavement details, traffic flows of the individual road sections are entered. This data
is required for calculation of reinforcement needs for the measured road sections.
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Description of PRIMAX DESIGN
Click the icon to enter data in the assigned fields. Again, remember that data in the fields from and to
relates to the reference point in the field Chainage 0 in the window Main details.
An example of traffic data is shown in chapter 9.1.
Having finished entering data for a subsection, press the disk icon . Then continue with the next
subsection on the same section or select another section from Main details.
REMARKS: If the road width entered for the actual road section is wider than the lane width entered in
the setup option (see section 8.4), then the entered traffic will be divided by 2.
Motorways having 2 lanes in each direction are measured in the slow lanes. Enter the number of ESA in
these lanes and a lane width narrower than the lane width setup under section 8.4.
Having entered pavement and traffic data, continue entering the last data needed for reinforcement
calculation for the measured road sections, which is the width of each individual road section.
Enter data in the assigned fields. Again, remember that the data in the fields from and to is related to the
reference point in Chainage 0 in the window Main detail.
An example of how to enter width data is shown in section 9.
Having finished entering data for a section, press the disk icon to save. Then continue with the next
section on the same road or select another road from Main details.
REMARKS Traffic entered will be divided by 2 if the road width entered for the actual road section is
more than the lane width entered in the setup option (see section 8.4). This means that for motorways with 2
lanes in each direction, measurement will normally be performed in the slow lanes. Enter the number of ESA
in these lanes and enter a lane width narrower than the lane width set up under section 8.4.
After having gone through all the steps from 7.1 to 7.6 and having FWD measurements which can be linked
to the road database through the same district numbers and road numbers, you can start processing back
calculation of E moduli and calculation of overlay using selected calculation parameters (see section 8).
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Description of PRIMAX DESIGN
The correction relationship can differ for different mixes, bitumen hardness or age of asphalt layers. To allow
users to take such factors into consideration and to have asphalt E moduli, which are not normalised, the
setup menu (Option window) has a feature for defining the relation between asphalt stiffness and
temperature.
Deriving a fifth-grade polynomial fitting the local conditions requires testing of asphalt stiffness related to
temperature within the temperature range in which FWD measurements are carried out.
For this a number of points with intact asphalt pavement can be selected and FWD tests carried out at
various temperatures within the temperature range. At least at 10 different temperatures.
All the measurements are then to be back-calculated using a correction factor = 1.
This will result in a table with non-corrected asphalt E modulus at different temperatures.
Select the reference temperatures and the corresponding asphalt E modulus.
For any of the temperatures at which FWD testing was performed, the ratio between the reference
asphalt E modulus and the E modulus at the given temperature can then be calculated.
This ratio is entered into a spread sheet, e.g. Excel. X is temperature and Y the ratio which must be
applied to correct the asphalt E modulus measured to E modulus at reference temperature. If a graphic
presentation is created in Excel and the Trend option is used with a fifth grade polynomial, Excel can
calculate the five values required for the design program.
The five values are entered to their assigned fields along with the reference temperature, at which the
correction factor is 1.00. Finally the temperature range is entered, for which the correction/normalisation
is valid.
The program can use the given relation even if the design temperature is different from the reference
temperature for the curve.
In order to have asphalt E modulus without normalisation, the first four values in the polynomial must be
0 and the fifth value 1.00.
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Description of PRIMAX DESIGN
Click the third tab Traffic to the right in the Click the item to open Design Options
window Design Options.
The value in the field Standard axle load tells the program the size of the design load.
The value in the field Impact factor tells the program to multiply the design load by the indicated factor to
allow for any extra deterioration caused by traffic due to uneven road surface, etc.
The value in the field Contact pres. tells the program the design standard wheel pressure on the road to be
applied for the calculation.
The value in the field Load plate radius tells the program the size of area on which the design contact is
applied.
This value should correspond to standard axle load and contact pressure.
Click the tab Width to the right in the window Click the icon to open Design options
Design Options.
EXAMPLE: Where the width is wider than 5 meter, the traffic is driving in two individual wheel paths and the
traffic is divided by 2 (left part). When the road width is less than or equal to 5 meter, the traffic applied is the
total traffic (right part).
Lane
0
Width = 4.5 meter
Lane
0
Width = 5.5 meter
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Description of PRIMAX DESIGN
Click the tab Pavement to the right in the Click the icon to open Design Options
Design option menu.
The value in the field Min. thickn. 1st layer is the minimum thickness of first layer for which an individual E
modulus can be calculated. In case the thickness of first layer is thinner than the indicated thickness, the
thickness of the first layer will be added to the thickness of the second layer and an average E modulus is
calculated.
The value in the field Design Period is the number of years of the structural life of the pavement decided by
the user. If the actual structural life is shorter than this value, then the program calculates the necessary
thickness of a new asphalt surface required to obtain the desired structural life.
Values in the column Number indicate the layer numbers from top to bottom of the pavement structure.
1st layer is the bound layer
2nd layer is the unbound base layer
3rd layer is the subbase layer
4th layer is the subgrade which is assumed to be infinite
Values in the column Thickness indicate the layer thicknesses of the layers which the program will use when
applying Default values. If no values are indicated, the thicknesses will be retrieved from the database.
This works with “PRIMAX design MET” calculation method only. For “BAKFAA LET” calculation method the
thickness of the individual layers must be defined in the database.
Values in the column E modulus indicate the layer moduli to be used as seed values for the back-calculation
from top to bottom of the pavement structure.
1st layer is the bound layer
2nd layer is the unbound base layer
3rd layer is the subbase layer
4th layer is the subgrade and the E modulus will be calculated directly from the measured deflections.
This works with “PRIMAX design MET” calculation method only. For “BAKFAA LET” calculation method the
thickness of the individual layers must be defined in the database.
The values in the column Eq. factor are correction factors applied to adjust the values to reality.
1st layer is the bound layer
2nd layer is the unbound base layer
3rd layer is the subbase layer
4th layer is the subgrade and the E modulus will be calculated directly from the measured deflections
This works with “PRIMAX design MET” calculation method only. For “BAKFAA LET” calculation method the
thickness of the individual layers must be defined in the database.
The values in the column Poisson´s ratio is the actual value assumed for the individual layers used in the
calculations.
1st layer is the bound layer
2nd layer is the unbound base layer
3rd layer is the subbase layer
4th layer is the subgrade and the E modulus will be calculated directly from the measured deflections
This works with “PRIMAX design MET” calculation method only. For “BAKFAA LET” calculation method the
thickness of the individual layers must be defined in the database.
The values in the column “Criteria” are the actual criteria applied for calculation of structural life of the layer
and for calculation of the strengthening if the structural life is shorter than the design period.
1st layer is the bound layer
2nd layer is the unbound base layer
3rd layer is the subbase layer
4th layer is the subgrade and the E modulus will be calculated directly on the basis of the measured
deflections.
The criteria can be changed by mouse-clicking in one of the boxes and clicking the three dots …
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Description of PRIMAX DESIGN
To activate the stress and strain criteria window, select one of the criteria and mouse-click on the three dots
…, the window in Figure 64 displays.
The upper part describes the relation between traffic and allowable strain in the asphalt layers. The basic
values are in accordance with the Danish design criteria. In the lower right hand box the formula for the
calculation is shown. Examples of other criteria are shown in table 1 and table 2 below.
The allowable stress on unbound layers are described the same way, when this function has been selected
in the table on the left side.
Z , PERMISSIBLE ( N ) 6 ( N / 10 6 ) C1 , or
Z , PERMISSIBLE ( N ) 6 ( E / 160MPa) B1 ( N / 10 6 ) C1
The tables below present a list of commonly used asphalt and unbound material design criteria.
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Description of PRIMAX DESIGN
8.7. Sectioning
Select the tab sectioning.
The only values to concentrate on are displayed in the last line in the table.
The extra reinforcement value indicates that for a subsection, the program will calculate the overlay as the
mean value of the subsection + the indicated percentage of standard deviation.
The reinforcement interval shows the reinforcement per subsection rounded up or down to the nearest
multiplum of 5mm.
The field Min. reinf. indicates that if the calculated reinforcement for a subsection is less than the value in the
field Min. reinf. then this is to be interpreted as the subsection does not need reinforcement.
9.1. Sectioning due to pavement structure changes, varying traffic and varying width
While processing calculations with PRIMAX Design, the program needs to know the thickness of the layers
of the pavement structure as well as the traffic load expressed as ESAL in a given point in which deflection
measurements have been performed.
Below a sketch shows a particular road structure and the input to the database.
The table below is an example of varying traffic on a particular road and belonging input in the database.
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Description of PRIMAX DESIGN
Detailed input:
Ch. 0 Ch. 1700 Ch. 2256 Ch. 3579 Ch. 4500
ESAL
per
day 159 268 300 110
The program uses either the ESAL value or, if the road or lane width exceeds a user-defined width (setup
parameter is normally 5 meters), the value is divided by two.
Below table illustrates a road with varying width and the database input.
Detailed input:
Ch. 0 Ch. 1150 Ch. 2256 Ch. 3000 Ch. 4500
From
Lane 4.5m to
width 4.5 m 6.5 m 6.5 m 5.5 m
For detailed information on Project Navigator, please refer to the PRIMAX Survey Manual.
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Description of PRIMAX DESIGN
Select points to be included in the calculation using the filter function. In the example above the filter is
set to Project “1054 1061”. If data is not filtered, the calculation process may be prolonged.
Enter pavement thickness, traffic and width details for the selected roads as described in section 7 and
9.1.
Set up the calculation parameters as described in section 8.
The check box “Fallback to lane 0” allows entering of data for Lane 0 only and reusing of this data if it is the
same for all lanes.
The back-calculation progress window displays (figure 72). When the button Restart appears, the calculation
process has finished.
Figure 74: This window displays the results of the calculation such
as surface moduli, section, overlay and reinforcement per point
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Description of PRIMAX DESIGN
Drag the lines from left and right in the window below the sectioning window to the chainage points you want
to zoom in on. A side scrollbar will appear below the graphs in the sectioning window.
The Box in the lower left side of the window shows which lane is active and how many lanes have been
calculated. In the figure the second lane of two lanes is shown.
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Description of PRIMAX DESIGN
This note describes the methodology applied for identification of uniform subsections. The identification is
made with the program UNISECT written in BASIC. The program retrieves input from comma-separated files
and produces two output files, one identifying key data of uniform sections and one presenting data required
for result plots.
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
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Background Theory
Pavement Design
based on Theory of Elasticity
10. Summary
This section describes the theoretical background and analysis methods applied in the PRIMAX Design
program.
Section 11 describes the application of the Method of Equivalent Thicknesses (MET) and Linear Elastic
Theory (LET) in the back-calculation of E-moduli and other critical pavement properties from Falling Weight
Deflectometer measurements.
Section 12 is deals with determination of residual life and design of rehabilitation overlays on flexible and
rigid pavements, both on highways and in airports.
Section 13 describes how the analysis of the officially reported Aircraft Classification Numbers (ACN) and
calculation of corresponding basic pavement reactions is developed into a comprehensive, traffic-
independent evaluation and reporting system for Pavement Classification Number (PCN)
11. Back-calculation
The transformation
equation is:
ℎ𝑒
= ℎ1
3 𝐸1 1 − 22
×√ ×
𝐸2 1 − 21
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Using the annotation of Figure 83, the Boussinesq equations for critical reactions are as follows:
Vertical deflection:
𝑃(1 + 𝜈)
𝑑𝑧 = (2(1 − 𝜈) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜑) (I)
2𝜋𝑅𝐸
Vertical strain:
𝑃(1 + 𝜈)
𝜀𝑧 = (3𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜑 − 2𝜈𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑) ( II )
2𝜋𝑅2 𝐸
Horizontal radial strain:
𝑃(1 + 𝜈) 1 − 2𝜈
𝜀𝑟 = 2
(−3𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜑 + (3 − 2𝜈)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 − ) ( III )
2𝜋𝑅 𝐸 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑
Horizontal tangential strain:
𝑃(1 + 𝜈) 1 − 2𝜈
𝜀𝑡 = 2
(−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 + ) ( IV )
2𝜋𝑅 𝐸 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑
Vertical stress:
3𝑃
𝜎𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜑 (V)
2𝜋𝑅2
Horizontal radial stress:
𝑃 1 − 2𝜈
𝜎𝑟 = 2
(3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜑 + ) ( VI )
2𝜋𝑅 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑
Horizontal tangential stress:
(1 − 2𝜈)𝑃 1
𝜎𝑡 = 2
(−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 + ) ( VII )
2𝜋𝑅 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑
The Boussinesq equations are valid for an idealized point load. In order to make them work with a load
distributed uniformly over a circular load plate with radius a, it is necessary to apply corrections to the
calculation depth, z, determined from the previously defined equivalent depth, he:
z = f × he ( VIII )
Traditionally, correction factors between 0.8 and 1.0 have been applied, the lower values being used at the
greatest depths. It has, however, been found (ref.2) that a better agreement with linear elastic theory can be
obtained if the correction factor is expressed as a function of the ratio h e/a. The functions are specific for the
different critical reactions.
The correction factors are as follows:
Vertical deflection:
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The surface modulus is the constant E modulus of an infinite half-space that under the applied load would
lead to the same deflection as measured on the actual pavement, where layers have different E moduli.
The relationship between deflection and surface modulus is defined by the following equations:
Surface Modulus Centre, radius r = 0
2 × (1 − 𝜈 2 ) × 𝑎 × 𝜎0
𝐸0 (0) = ( XIII )
𝑑0
Surface Modulus at Radius r > a
(1 − 𝜈 2 ) × 𝑎2 × 𝜎0
𝐸0 (𝑟) = ( XIV )
𝑟 × 𝑑𝑟
In these equations the following symbols are used:
Poisson’s ratio, usually fixed at 0.35
a Load plate radius
0 Load plate stress
r Radius – distance load centre to geophone
dr Deflection at radius r
When the subgrade is sandy, the surface modulus tends to become constant with increasing distance to the
load centre. For clayey subgrades the surface modulus will increase with increasing distance to the load
centre – a steep increase can be an indication of bedrock close below the subgrade surface. The bedrock
will not deflect under the loading. In combination with the overlying subgrade “layer”, the system is
interpreted as a very stiff subgrade.
300
250
Sample surface moduli
Surface modulus (MPa)
50
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Radius (mm)
The surface modulus at a given distance, r, is actually equal to the combined E moduli of the pavement
materials below a depth, z, roughly corresponding to r.
This is a result of the vertical stress distribution in the pavement, which can be described by the Boussinesq
equation for stress from a point load, P, on an infinite half-space:
3𝑃
𝜎𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜑 ( XV )
2𝜋𝑅2
Differentiation of the Boussinesq equation shows that the maximum stress occurs at a depth:
3𝑃
𝜎𝑧,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = × 0.1859 ( XVII )
2𝜋𝑟 2
Figure 86 shows that the vertical stress above the level of maximum stress decreases rapidly, as opposed to
the variation below that level.
Figure 87 illustrates both the maximum stress angle and the effect of the rapidly decreasing stress on
deflection. Deflections are calculated with Linear Elastic Theory (LET) for a 100 MPa semi-infinite halfspace
under a 50 kN circular load with radius a = 150 mm. At distances greater than 1.5×a, the deflection within the
layer above the φ=60° line actually decreases.
This can be explained as a result of the orientation of the major principal stress, which in this area is more
horizontal than vertical. The result is that there is a mainly horizontal compression strain in the material.
Through Poisson’s ratio this again leads to a vertical tensile strain, causing expansion and thereby to a
reduction in deflection.
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When it is remembered that this decreasing stress in a real pavement is located chiefly in the stiff upper
pavement layers, thereby greatly reducing the compressive/tensile strains, it can be assumed that the
deflection measured at the pavement surface is equal to the deflection in the pavement at the maximum
stress level.
Figure 87 Deflections in a semi-infinite half-space calculated with linear elastic theory, LET
A typical airport taxiway pavement, designed with the FAARFIELD program (ref.1), according to the
guidelines of FAA (ref.4), is shown in Figure 88 and the resultant vertical stress under the critical B777
aircraft loading in Figure 89.
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Normal Stress ZZ
-8.66
-8.88
-9.10
-9.33
-9.55
-9.77
-10.00
-10.22
-10.44
-10.67
-10.89
-11.11
-11.34
-11.56
-11.78
-12.01
-12.23
-12.46
-12.68
-12.90
Figure 90: Vertical stress in kPa at subgrade level under B777 loading
In pavement subgrade load analysis, the deviator stress can be replaced by the dynamic vertical stress,
since the dynamic horizontal stress components are negligible at the positions considered.
The deviator stress dependency relationship can then be transformed to the form below:
𝐵
𝐸0 = 𝐴0 × (𝜎1,𝑚𝑎𝑥 ⁄0.1 𝑀𝑃𝑎) ( XVIII )
The term 1,max is a result of the considerations explained in section 11.2 that the stress at the surface of the
subgrade may not be the maximum stress. Selection of maximum subgrade stress is made as follows:
3𝑃
× 0.1859 for he < 1.225×r
2𝜋𝑟 2
𝜎1,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ( XIX )
3𝑃
𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃 for he ≥ 1.225×r
2𝜋𝑅2
The A0 and B constants can then be determined through regression on surface moduli and maximum
stresses at measurement radii that are so far from the load centre that influence from deformation of
pavement layers is negligible.
𝜃 = 𝜎1 + 𝜎2 + 𝜎3 = 3 × 𝜎𝑜𝑐𝑡 ( XXII )
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Two models have been suggested for the description of subgrade modulus:
Witczak & Uzan
𝜃 𝑘2 𝜎𝑑 𝑘3
𝐸𝑚 = 𝑘1 𝑝𝑎 ( ) ( ) ( XXIII )
𝑝𝑎 𝑝𝑎
Witczak-MEPDG
𝜃 𝑘2 𝜏𝑜𝑐𝑡 𝑘3
𝐸𝑚 = 𝑘1 𝑝𝑎 ( ) ( + 1) ( XXIV )
𝑝𝑎 𝑝𝑎
In these expressions pa is the atmospheric pressure ~0.1 MPa, included to make the expressions correct,
dimension wise.
The constant k2 is >0, accounting for the increased E-modulus with increased confining pressure, while k 3 is
<0 for typical fine-grained soils. The constant “1” in the Witczak-MEPDG expression has been added to
ensure that the model doesn’t predict unrealistically high E-moduli for low octahedral shear values.
In practical FWD analysis, it turns out that the Witczak-MEPDG model leads to an overestimation of the
stress sensitivity for subgrade materials.
For the very low stresses at the measurement radii used for derivation of the subgrade – typically less than
0.02 MPa - the “1” term is dominant making the variation within the k 3 bracket of the Witczak-MEPDG
equation very small. To account for any variation in E modulus, the k3-value must necessarily become
numerically high typically 10 times greater than the B value determined in deviator stress dependency
analysis (cf. section 11.4).
One of the strengths of both the abovementioned Em dependency equations is the ability to take into account
the pressure applied by the weight of the pavement materials.
The models, as they are written out, are not clear as to the inclusion of dynamic stresses. This has to be
defined, when a model is applied in practical FWD analysis.
In setting up these expressions, the following assumptions are made:
The static vertical stress at depth z is calculated on the basis of an average pavement material density.
The earth pressure coefficient is 0.5. 𝜃static at depth z is therefore two times the vertical static stress.
When there is no dynamic loading, oct = 0. All octahedral shear is therefore calculated on the basis of
the dynamic loading.
Dynamic octahedral and bulk stresses are calculated on the basis of z, r and t, although these
stresses, strictly speaking, are not principal stresses except at the centreline.
The model used in the FWD analysis is then modified from the Witczak-MEPDG model to the following:
PRIMAX-MEPDG (after the PRIMAX FWD model range):
The PRIMAX constants, p1 and p2 and the exponent k2 are used as follows:
p1 accounts for the influence of the dynamic loading on an increase in E-modulus for constant octahedral
shear.
Typically a value of 0.5 is used
p2 is a constant that can be used to ensure that the model doesn’t predict unrealistically high E-moduli for
low octahedral shear values. In the FWD back-calculation analysis of subgrade modulus, the stresses
are at the lowest level that is likely to be used in modelling of the actual pavement structure, and the E-
moduli are known.
Typically p2 can therefore be set to 0.
k2 This exponent can theoretically be derived from analysis of deflections measured at different load
levels. In the automatized analyses it is a user input, typically a value of 0.5 is suggested.
If it is desired to determine parameters for the Witczak-MEPDG model, this can be done by analysing the
back calculated subgrade E-moduli near the load centre with the PRIMAX-MEPDG model, using a p2 value
of 1.
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450 0,9
400
Sample deflections and 0,8
surface moduli
350 0,7
300
Steep increase in 0,6
surface modulus for
Surface modulus (MPa)
Deflection (mm)
250 shallow bedrock 0,5
200 0,4
150 0,3
100 0,2
50 0,1
0 0,0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Radius (mm)
Figure 92 Typical deflections and surface modulus plot for shallow bedrock
It is then necessary to determine the depth to bedrock. This will be equal to the distance from the load
centre, where the measured deflection under FWD loading is zero. This could presumably be done by
analysing the outer deflections, plotted in Figure 92, but would involve user selection of regression type
(power, exponential, polynomial,…). Furthermore, actual measured deflection basins are rarely as smooth as
the Figure 92 example.
The Depth to bedrock is instead determined by plotting the measured deflections against the inverse of the
measurement radius, as shown in Figure 93.
Linear regression is then performed on the 3 points with the lowest x-value, corresponding to the outermost
measured points, and from this regression is determined the x-value where the surface deflection, y, is zero.
The zero-deflection radius is then found by inverting this x-value.
1,2
Regression determines Bedrock depth
1,0
Regression on
3 lowest-x points:
Deflection (mm)
0,8
y = 226.5x - 0.0917
0,6 y = 0 for x = 1/r =0.000405
0,4
0,2
Bedrock equivalent depth = r = 2.47 m
0,0
0,000 0,001 0,002 0,003 0,004 0,005 0,006
1/Radius (1/mm)
The methodology described above assigns all nonlinear surface modulus variation to the presence of
bedrock close to the surface.
The subgrade is consequently considered linear, and characterization of the material by any of the models
described in sections 11.4 and 11.5 is not relevant.
The subgrade modulus can be determined from the measured deflection, d MEAS, at the radius of minimum
surface modulus, in this case approximately 95 MPa at r = 600 mm.
In MET analysis, the deflections at the depth of Maximum Deflection (φ=60°) and at the Bedrock equivalent
depth are calculated for an arbitrary E-value, ECALC, in a linear halfspace. The difference is the MET-
calculated surface deflection, dCALC, when bedrock is considered. Noting that the deflections are linear
functions of 1/E (sect. 11.2), the correct subgrade modulus, Em, can be determined as:
𝑑𝐶𝐴𝐿𝐶
𝐸𝑚 = 𝐸𝐶𝐴𝐿𝐶 × ( XXVI )
𝑑𝑀𝐸𝐴𝑆
For LET analysis, the determination of depth to bedrock and subgrade modulus is an integrated iterative
process, analysing the deflection at the 3 outer points and at the radius of minimum surface modulus
simultaneously with both Em and Depth to Bedrock as independent variables.
In practice, the solution presented in Figure 93 only comes up with the correct result for large depths and thin
pavements.
In practice, it is necessary to compensate for shallow depth and the effective thickness of the pavement
layers above the subgrade “layer” with the Em E-modulus.
Linear Elastic analysis has shown that this compensation can be determined from the following values:
hDTB,APP The Apparent Depth To Bedrock from the analysis presented in Figure 93
he,LAYERS, SUB The Equivalent Thickness of the pavement Layers above the Subgrade layer relative
to that layer’s E-modulus
Since the determination of hDTB,APP involves the E-moduli of the pavement layers, which in turn can only be
calculated after the depth to bedrock has been determined, the process must be iterative, the first
approximation being made on the basis of seed moduli.
E-modulus/Deflection Iteration
Radius (mm)
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
0,0
-0,2 Measured
Deflection (mm)
-0,4 Iteration1
-0,6 150 mm Asphalt Iteration2
-0,8 Iteration3
-1,0 Iteration4
-1,2
RoSy Design and PRIMAX Design uses the form below for flexible pavement criteria:
In Primax Design the same Allowable strain criteria is expressed as shown in figure 97.
In PRIMAX Design the allowable stress on unbound layers shown in figure 90 is expressed as shown in
figure 98.
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The tables below present a list of commonly used asphalt and unbound materials design criteria.
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Table 7 Relationships between PCC design parameters. E moduli and strength parameters in MPa.
Description Symbol Relationship
Characteristic strength fck
Mean cylinder compressive strength fcm = fck + 8 MPa
Mean cube compressive strength fck,cube = 1,2 x fck + 0,7 MPa
Mean uniaxial tensile strength fctm = 0.30 x fck0.67
Mean E-modulus*) Ecm = 22.000 x (fcm/10)0,3
Modulus of Rupture MR, fctm,fl = max[(1,6-h/1000) x fctm; fctm]
for element height h h = thickness in mm
)
Note * This equation does not match the sample data from the Euro code reported in
Table 8. This is likely because it describes mean values, not characteristic values. It is, however,
parallel to the traditional square-root equation for design (characteristic) values documented in
Figure 99
35.000
E-modulus (MPa)
30.000
25.000
20.000
E = 3,940 MPa x (fcm/1 MPa)0.5
15.000
20 30 40 50 60
Mean compressive cylinder strength (MPa)
Table Eurocode Equation
Equation-8500 MPa Square Root Approx.
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Table 8
Using the equation complex of Table 7, except for the E-modulus, where the Figure 99 relationship is used, a
calibrated relationship between E-modulus and MR can be developed to match the PCA/FAARFIELD fix
point. The development of the relationship is shown in Figure 100, leading to the equation:
7,0 MR = 6.25×10-8MPa×(E/1MPa)1.776
6,0 R2=0.995
5,0
4,0
3,0
2,0
1,0
0,0
15.000 20.000 25.000 30.000 35.000
E-modulus (MPa)
Figure 100 Calibrated relationship between E-modulus and MR, satisfying MR=4,83MPa for
E=27,600MPa
This relationship can then be used in combination with the criterion equations ( XXXII ) and ( XXXIII )
presented in the beginning of the section.
𝑃 𝐵
𝑁𝐸𝑆𝐴𝐿 = 𝑁𝑃 × ( ) ( XXXV )
𝐸𝑆𝐴𝐿
The exponent B is generally set to 4, a result that emerged from the AASHO Road Test (ref.8).
This test was performed on pavements with considerable bound layer thicknesses and therefore more
influenced by the fatigue exponents of these materials, which tend to be lower than for unbound materials.
On roads where the bound layers are thin, the B-exponent may go up to 4.5.
The taxiway needs to be strengthened due to a projected increase in traffic. The future critical traffic on the
taxiway has the following composition.
Table 10 Traffic mix on taxiway
Aircraft Gear Type Gross Load Tire Pressure Strut distance Annual
Standard (MPa) (m) passages
(ton)
B-737-800 D 79 1.41 5.20 15,000
A-320 D 68 1.21 7.55 20,000
MD-83 D 73 1.34 5 10,000
B-757 2D 114 1.24 7.3 1,200
A-330 2D 209 1.38 10.55 4,800
A-340 2D 254 1.38 10.55 3,600
B-777-200 B 3D 137 1.48 11 2,400
B787-8 2D 220 1.52 10.46 4,000
B-747-400 body 2D 396 1.38 3.75 1,200
B-747-400 wing 2D 396 1.38 11 1,200
A-380 body 3D 562 1.36 12.46 1,200
A-380 wing 2D 562 1.36 5.26 1,200
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Since it is a taxiway, wander will be limited, and a transverse standard deviation of 1,8 m is assumed for all
aircraft. Fatigue analysis, using the FAA criteria (Table 9) then leads to the maximum deterioration levels in
16 strips across the taxiway, shown in Table 11.
The maximum design life consumption values shown in the bottom line of Table 11 do not match the sum of
the rows above, since the maximum deterioration effect of the different airplanes occurs at different
distances from the centreline.
The cumulative life consumption per lane strip is listed in Table 12 and illustrated together with the equivalent
number of passes of the A-330 reference airplane in Figure 101.
Figure 101 Cumulative design life consumption of projected annual traffic in terms of A-330 reference
airplane passes.
From Table 11 it is obvious that if the assumed E moduli are representative for the actual taxiway, the base
course layer (#2) will be overloaded by the projected traffic, with the design life expiring in less than 6 years.
Figure 101 indicates that HWD bearing capacity measurements should be made in four lanes, approximately
±3.25m and ±5.75m from the centreline. The number of design aircraft passes to be applied in the two lanes
can be determined by combining information from Table 12 with the layer maximum number of reference
airplane passes from figure Figure 101, as shown in Table 13.
Overlay thickness in the four lanes can then be determined by designing for a 20 year period with the annual
number of passages shown in bold, of the A-330 reference airplane without any wander (standard deviation
s = 0).
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Figure 102 Calculated asphalt and unbound layer strains during axle passage
Figure 103 and Table 14 below illustrate the overlay calculation procedure, when only asphalt and subgrade
strains are considered.
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Strain bottom AC 180 µstr 173 µstr 152 µstr 156 µstr
Strain Subgrade 273 µstr 237 µstr 190 µstr 195 µstr
Compressive
EpsilonX1 EpsilonY1
EpsilonX2 EpsilonY2
EpsilonX1+2 EpsilonY1+2
Figure 104 Calculated asphalt layer strain during design aircraft 2D bogie passage
The longitudinal (X) 1+2 strains go through two cycles of compressive-tensile-compressive variation, while
the transverse 1+2 strain remains tensile throughout the passage. On the basis of this observation, and in
analogy to the design axle passage on a road pavement it is chosen to design airport flexible pavement
asphalt layers for the two calculated peak strains (3 peaks if a 3D bogie is used as design load).
In the design process it is then simpler to compare allowable number of design loads, N AIRCRAFT, to the
equivalent allowable number of passages, NEQUIVALENT, at the actual peak strains determined according to the
selected criteria (Table 4) and the criterion equation ( XXIX ).
Denoting N1 and N2 as the allowable number of passages at Peak Strain 1 and 2, respectively, the
equivalent allowable number of bogie passages can be calculated as:
1 1 1
= + (2D bogie) ( XXXVI )
𝑁𝐸𝑄𝑈𝐼𝑉𝐴𝐿𝐸𝑁𝑇 𝑁1 𝑁2
Peak strain values and corresponding values of N1, N2 and NEQUIVALENT are then calculated for successive
increments of overlay thickness as described in section 12.2.1 until NEQUIVALENT ≥ NAIRCRAFT. For a 3D design
aircraft bogie the term for NEQUIVALENT is just extended to:
1 1 1 1 ( XXXVII
= + + (3D bogie)
𝑁𝐸𝑄𝑈𝐼𝑉𝐴𝐿𝐸𝑁𝑇 𝑁1 𝑁2 𝑁3 )
For the unbound layers and subgrade the calculation of NEQUIVALENT becomes slightly more complicated,
since the critical stress or strain in these layers does not exhibit the compressive-tensile-compressive
variation seen in the asphalt layers.
Instead a typical variation under a 2D bogie passage will look like Figure 105.
Figure 105 Calculated unbound layer strain during design aircraft 2D bogie passage
It is intuitively clear that the fatigue effect of this strain history is less than if MIN is zero. The strain history is
therefore converted to an equivalent history of two separate peaks, each reverting to zero, as shown in
Figure 106.
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Figure 106 Determining equivalent unbound layer strain during design aircraft 2D bogie passage
Denoting NMAX and N as the allowable number of passages at MAX and , respectively, the equivalent
allowable number of bogie passages can be calculated as:
1 1 1
= + (2D bogie) ( XXXVIII )
𝑁𝐸𝑄𝑈𝐼𝑉𝐴𝐿𝐸𝑁𝑇 𝑁𝜀𝑀𝐴𝑋 𝑁∆𝜀
Peak strain values and corresponding values of NMAX, N and NEQUIVALENT are then calculated for
successive increments of overlay thickness as described in section 12.2.1 until NEQUIVALENT ≥ NAIRCRAFT.
For a 3D design aircraft bogie equation ( XXXVIII ) is expanded similarly. For this load type the MAX will
typically be the middle peak, and there will then be two overlay peaks. The equation then becomes:
1 1 2
= + (3D bogie) ( XXXIX )
𝑁𝐸𝑄𝑈𝐼𝑉𝐴𝐿𝐸𝑁𝑇 𝑁𝜀𝑀𝐴𝑋 𝑁∆𝜀
are “normalized” to standard PCC E moduli, typically 27,600 MPa, and the foundation modulus of subgrade
reaction (k value) is adjusted so that the surface deflection in the load centre is kept constant.
The k value is determined from the modified Westergaard interior deflection equation (ref. 10):
𝑃 𝑎 𝑎
𝛿𝑖 = 2
× {1 + 0.159 × [ln ( ) − 0,673] × ( )2 } ( XL )
8𝑘𝑙 2𝑙 𝑙
4 𝐸ℎ3
𝑙=√ ( XLI )
12(1 − 𝜈 2 )𝑘
4 𝐸ℎ3
𝑙=√ ( XLIII )
12(1 − 𝜈 2 )𝑘
is Poisson’s ratio.
For both interior and edge loading:
2
𝑏 = √1.6𝑎2 + ℎ2 − 0.675ℎ ( XLIV )
𝑎 is load radius
For 𝑎 > 1.724ℎ use 𝑏 = 𝑎
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The Westergaard equation can only calculate the stress under the center of a wheel load. The effect of
neighboring wheels in dual or bogie gears is accounted for by an equation complex based on multiple
regression analysis of stresses calculated with the ISLAB2000 Finite Element program (ref.11).
Using the notation shown in Figure 107 the effect of the load, when moved away from an interior slab
analysis point can be determined by multiplying the maximum stress, when the load is placed at the
calculation point, with a correction factor determined by the directional angle, φ, the distance, r and the radius
of relative stiffness, l:
f = A2(φ)×(l/(r+l))2+A1(φ)×(l/(r+l))+A0(φ) ( XLV )
The constants A2, A1 and A0 are all functions of the angle, φ, on the form:
The stress at the slab edge for loads positioned away from the edge can be calculated by the same type of
correction.
The maximum stress, when the load is positioned at the edge is calculated with the modified Westergaard
edge stress equation for Poisson’s Ratio = 0.15 (ref. 10):
DSWL DSWL
t ( XLVII )
C1 CBR C2 pS
The definition has its roots back in the time when the majority of airplanes had only single-wheel main gear,
whereby the PCN value simply becomes the (approximate) weight in tons of the airplane.
The reference thickness is the actual thickness of the pavement, designed according to the FAA CBR design
methodology.
For practical purposes, the equation complex above is not operational, and unit-wise it is mathematically
incorrect. It can, however, be shown that for flexible pavements that fulfil the PCN requirements, the
permissible vertical stress on the subgrade under the DSWL load is given by the equation:
−0.07
𝐸𝑚 𝑁
𝜎𝑃𝐸𝑅𝑀 = 0.00122 × ( )×( ) ( XLVIII )
1𝑀𝑃𝑎 10,000
The term (N/10,000)-0.07 allows the user to determine PERM for traffic levels differing from the definition traffic
of 10,000 coverages.
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For a pavement point with known layer thicknesses and E moduli, the PCN value can then be determined by
adjusting a uniformly distributed single wheel load with contact pressure 1.25 MPa until the calculated stress
on the subgrade matches PERM calculated by the equation given above.
Table 15 Basic definition of PCN allowable stress, US customary and Metric units
US Metric
N 75,000 75,000
PCA
E moduli determined from FWD testing rarely come out with a value of exactly 27,600 MPa. An adjusted
Modulus of Rupture, MRADJUSTED, is then calculated by entering the actual E-modulus into equation ( XXXIV ),
and the allowable tensile stress is then calculated as 0.57 × MRADJUSTED or:
The PCN value can then be determined by adjusting a uniformly distributed single wheel load with contact
pressure 1.25 MPa until the calculated tensile stress according to equation ( XLII ) matches PERM calculated
by the equation given above.
30 ACN @ CBR 6%
20 ACN @ CBR 3%
10 Equation @ CBR 15%
0 Equation @ CBR 10%
30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Equation @ CBR 6%
Airplane Weight (ton)
Figure 108 ACN for A319 D-type gear for variation of Weight (ton) and CBR
ACN@ k 40
40
ACN@ k 20
20
Equation @ k 150
0
Equation @ k 80
150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Equation @ k 40
Airplane Weight (ton)
Figure 109 ACN for B747 2D-type gear for variation of Weight (ton) and k-value
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Characteristic allowable weight on a branch for the PCN Design Aircraft is then calculated by statistical
methods, and a PCN value for the branch is then back-calculated from this weight according to the
predominant subgrade class for the branch.
The resultant PCN value is only marginally affected by the choice of design aircraft, as shown in Table 16.
Table 16 Example of statistical PCN calculation for a rigid pavement branch and
different gear configurations, subgrade class A is the dominant class
14. References
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Description of PRIMAX DESIGN
Normally, PRIMAX DESIGN expects that the E moduli of the layers will grow lower from the top layer down
to the bottom layer of a pavement structure. However, this is not the case with semi-rigid structures, which
have cement stabilized layers below the asphalt layer.
In order to handle such cases PRIMAX DESIGN has a feature that allows fixing of the E moduli of one or
more layers in a structure, however not the subsoil E modulus. This means that the fixed layers will not
change E moduli in the calculation process.
In the above example the unbound base layer E modulus will be fixed (locked) to 450 MPa. And only the
other layers will be allowed to vary during the back-calculation processing.
Traffic details:
Enter traffic details required for calculation of overlay design. Such data is
Traffic
the number of ESA per day on the road section in question (a road can be
divided into smaller sections if the traffic changes along the road).
Width details:
Width The width is the total width of the road section in question (a road can be
divided into smaller sections if the width is changing along the road
The Design Wizard assists you in getting through all the points necessary to
start a calculation. A window will pop up with indication of how many points
Wizard
have been selected and how many drops will be used. Clicking the icon
NEXT will start the procedure and lead you through the required steps.
Enter data:
Add
Click this icon to enter data in the various windows.
Save data:
Save
Click this icon to save data
Create a job:
Job
Click this icon to create a new measuring job.
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Description of PRIMAX DESIGN
16. Support
Our design experts are ready to help you, if you have problems regarding interpretation / calculation of FWD
data. When purchasing our design software, a 6 month free support is granted and takes effect from date of
finalised training in use of the design software. Software support comprises support for entering of input data,
alteration of setups in software and how to retrieve results.
The User shall give Sweco access to the User’s staff and the User’s equipment on which the Software shall
be applied, and with the highest privileges/authorisations that the User’s employees have.
The User shall supervise and control and understand and ensure correct use of the Software and the
Documentation. Moreover, the User shall carry through procedures for the protection of information and
implementation of backup facilities including cases of defects in the Software or malfunction in the User’s
equipment.
The User shall document and immediately report any defects in the Software to Sweco.
You are welcome to contact our experts if you need assistance in applying PRIMAX Design or in using the
results on e-mail, primaxsupport@Sweco.dk.
If it is not possible to solve a problem by e-mail or over the phone, we provide the option of creating remote
access to your computer and help you in this way using the Team Viewer facility allowing our expert to take
over your computer and in collaboration with you solve the problem.
Training courses
We provide training courses in the use of PRIMAX Design and how to interpret and calculate collected data.
A training course is normally 3-5 days. The participants are introduced to the software and how to use it.
When buying PRIMAX Design, a customer is offered to purchase a basic training course in use of the
program. It is, however, also possible to purchase supplementary training courses. Courses can take place
at our premises in Kolding or at your premises.
Persons to work with PRIMAX Design and to interpret and analyse data collected, must be capable of
acquiring, receiving and understanding a standard training program so that these persons will be capable of
using the software and understanding results obtained. It is entirely the responsibility of the client to see to it
that employees pointed out for training are able to acquire, receive and understand a standard training
program. Training is conducted in the English language.
OBS! This will NOT include back ground theory witch we assume the participant(s) already have in place
Jens P. Pedersen
Pavement Design Expert
Phone: +45 8228 1490
Mobile: +45 2723 1490
Email : primaxsupport@sweco.dk
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