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Residue Theorem:
f ( z ).dz 2i. Re s[ f ( z )]
z zi
c i 1
B
c c1 c2 ... cn
f ( z )dz f ( z )dz ... f ( z )dz 0
c c1 cn
PROBLEMS
ez
1. Evaluate
c z2 1
dz over the circular path |Z| = 2.
ez
Sol. Here f(z) = .
z2 1
Poles are z = i, -i
Both these poles lie inside the given circle.
s[ f ( z )] = Re s[ z i ]. f ( z ) = Re s e = e
z i
Case 1. r1 = Re
z i z i z i zi 2i
s[ f ( z )] = Re s[ z i ]. f ( z ) = Re s e = e
z i
Case 2. r2 = Re
z i z i z i
z i 2i
ez ei e i
Hence by cauchy’s residue theorem, we have
c z2 1
dz =2i {
2i
2i
}
Cothz 4 3z
2. Find c
z i
dz where C :|Z| = 2. 3. Find z ( z 1)( z 2) dz where c:|Z|= 3/2
c
dz ez
4. Find z where c:|z-i| = 2. 5. Find dz where c:| z – 1 | = 3.
c z 1 i
2 3
c
2
4
2z 2 3 ( 2 z 1) 2 dz
6. Evaluate
c
z ( z 1)( z 2)
dz where c : |Z| = 1.6 9. Evaluate
4z 3 z
over the unit circle c.
c
dz dz
7. Evaluate z
c
2
( z 2)
where c : | Z – 1 | = 2. 10. Evaluate Sinhz where c is the circle |Z| = 4.
c
TYPE-III
IMPROPER INTEGRAL HAVING TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
DEFINITE INTEGRALS OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS OF Cos & Sin . around the semi-circular contour.
2 The formula to find the integration is as follows:
The integration is of the form I = 0
F (cos , Sin ) d around a unit circle.
-R O R X
f ( z )dz 2i.
R
R
f ( x)dx
CR
Re s[ f ( z )] Definition (Cauchy Principal Value - P.V.). Let f(x) be a continuous real valued function for
z 3
8. Evaluate z 2
2z 5
dz where c is the circle a) |Z| = 1 b] |Z+1-i|=2
c
,
Hence by Cauchy’s residue theorem,
provided the limit exists. 2 4
f ( z ).dz 2i.r
c
1 2i.
3i
3
For Type III & Type IV, WE USE, 1 4 2
Hence I = . =
2 3 3
JORDAN’S LEMMA, d 2
2. Show that 0 a b.Sin
a b2
2
e f ( z )dz 0
imz
lim
If f(z)0 uniformly as R then R
CR
3. Prove that
2 sin 2 2
0 a b..Cos d b 2 a (a b ) where a > b > 0.
2 2
Where CR is a circular arc (with radius R and center at origin) in the first or second quadrants. 2 d 2
4. Show that 0
2 Cos 3
Supporting Lemma dx
1. Evaluate 4
x 1
If (z-a).f(z)0 uniformly as r0 then lim
r 0 f ( z )dz 0 Sol. Let f(z) = 4
1
CR
z 1
Integrate f(z) along the contour C which consists of real line from –R to R and the semi circle
Where Cr is a circular arc with radius r and with center at z = a. CR of radius R..
Clearly,
PROBLEMS f ( z ) dz
R
f ( x) dx f ( z )dz
C R
CR
d
1. Use cauchy’s residue theorem find 5 4Sin
I II
i i
Sol. Let z = e , then dz = i. e d and
1
i i z 1
Sin = e e R R R
2i 2i
z I: R
f ( z ) dz R
f ( x)dx
R x 1
4
dx
dz R 1
Hence I=
iz
dz
2
dz
dz As R ,
R
f ( z ) dz
x 14
dx
1 1 5 zi 2 z 2 c 2 z 5iz 2i
2 2
(2 z i )( z 2i )
c
5 4. z c c
2i z
1 dz II. Along CR, Take z = Rei, dz i Re i d
2
I = c z z 2i
i 1
2 Hence,
CR
f ( z )dz 0 R e 4 4 i
1
.i Re i .d
Poles are z = - i/2 & z = -2i of those z= -i/2 lies inside the unit circle
i 2
r1 Re s f ( z ) lim z . f ( z )
z
i
z
i 2 3i
2 2
ie i 1
1
d dx dx
x 1
4
x 1
4
= 4 1 4 i 2 2 2
0 0
R 4 e
R dx
2. Evaluate 0 (x2 a2 )
0 as R .
dx
R 3. Evaluate x a4
4
f ( z ) dz f ( x ) dx f ( z )dz
0
Hence C R
CR
1 Sin mx
Cos mx
=
x 1
4
dx 0 1. Evaluate 0 x
dx, m 0 and hence show that
0 x
dx 0
1
1 e imz
dx 4 dz Sol. Consider f(z)= we have to find C f ( z ) dz .
x 1 4C z 1 z
So we have to find the integrand along C by finding residues .
1 Where C consists of
f(z) = 4 i. Real axis from r to R,
z 1
z4 + 1 = 0. z4 = -1 finding the solutions by using ii. Upper half of the circle C1 with |z|=R
elementary functions. iii. Real axis from –R to –r.
iv. Upper half of the circle Cr with |z|=r.
2k 2k
Z = Cos i.Sin for k=0,1,2,3.
4 4
The only singularity of f(z) is z=0. and this has been deleted by drawing Cr
Hence f(z) is analytic within the region bounded between C1 and C.
i i 3
Let k = 0, z = e 4 k = 1, z = e 4 From, cauchy’s theorem,
R r
For k = 2, z = e
i 5
4 k=3, z = e
i 7
4
r
f ( x) dx f ( z ) dz
C1 R
f ( x )dx
Cr
f ( z ) dz 0
i i 3
These are all poles. Out of all these 4 poles, only z = e 4 &z= e 4 lie in 0 as R - i as r 0
upper half of th z-plane. (BY JORDAN’S LEMMA)
Hence
0
f ( x ) dx
3 i
f ( x ) dx i 0
i
Hence r1 = Re s f ( z ) lim z e . 1 lim 1 e
4 0
4
Hence
z 1 z e 4 4 z
4 3
i i
z e 4
i
4
z e 4 f ( x )dx .i
9 i
i 3
e imx Cosmx i Sinmx
& r2 = Re s f ( z ) lim z e 4 . 1 lim 1 e
4
dx .i dx i.
x x
z 1 z e 4 4 z
4 3
i 3
z e 4
i 3
z e 4
i 3
4 Comparing imaginary parts
Sinmx
Sinmx
3i.
9i.
x
dx i. Hence 2.0
x
dx
Hence e 4
e 4
Sinmx
C
f ( z )dz 2 i.{r1 r2 } 2i..
4
2
0 x
dx
2
Cosmx x a 1
Equating real part we get x dx 0.
0 1 x
dx
Sina
Cosmx
x a 1
dx
2. Evaluate 0 x2 1 2. Show that 0 1 x2
dx
a
2.Sin
2
x.Sinx
3. Evaluate 0 2 dx
x a2 x2
xa 1
3. Evaluate ( x 2 1)( x 2 4) dx
1. Evaluate I =
0 1 x
dx
Sin a
, where 0 a 1
z a 1 z a 1
Sol. Let f(z) =
1 z
Consider
C
f ( z )dz 1 z dz
C
Where C is the contour consisting of a large circle C1, a small concentric circle Cr, and the
two straight lines joining these two circles along the real axis from r to R. Argument Principle
a
The singular points of f(z) are given by z1- (1+z) = 0
i.e., z=0 and z=-1. It is useful to determine the number of zeros or poles of a function in a given region.
Out of these, the only pole z= -1 is of order one lies within the contour.
(1 z ).z a 1 Theorem [ 2 Times ]
Re s f ( z ) limi e ( a 1).i
z 1 z e 1 z Let f(z) be analytic on and within a simple closed curve c except for a pole z=a of order p
By cauchy’s residue theorem, we have inside c. further suppose that f(z) has only one zero z=b of order n and no other zero on c.
f ( z )dz 2i. Re s f ( z ) z 1
1 f 1 ( z)
2i C f ( z )
C
Then dz n p
R r x.e
2i a 1
r
f ( x) dx f ( z )dz
C1 1 x.e
R 2i
d ( x.e 2i ) f ( z )dz 2i. e ( a 1)i
Cr Proof : Enclose z =a and z=b by non-overlapping circles c1 and c2 respectively.
1 f 1 ( z) 1 f 1 ( z) 1 f 1 ( z)
C 1 z dz 2i.e
x a 1 z a 1 x a1 z a 1
2i C f ( z ) 2i C f ( z ) 2i C f ( z )
R R
dz dz dz
dx dz 2 ( a 1)i ai
e dx Then
r 1 x C1 1 z r 1 x.e 2i r
1 2
Since f(z) has a pole of order p at z= a, we have Since f(z) has a zero of order n at
0 as R 0 as r0 F ( z) z=b,
(BY JORDAN’S LEMMA) f(z) = -------(1) have f(z) = (z-a)n.G(z)----(2)
( z a) p
a 1
x x a 1 Where F(z) is analytic and non-vanishing on
Hence dx e 2 ai dx 2i.e ai
Taking log of (2) and
0 1 x 0 1 x.e 2i
and within c1.
Taking Log of (1) and differentiating w.r.t. z, differentiating
x a 1 w.r.t. z, we get
1 e 2 ai
0
1 x
dx 2i.e ai
we get
f 1 ( z) F 1 ( z) p
f 1 ( z) G1 ( z) n
x a 1 2i f ( z) F ( z) z a
0 1 x
dx ai
e e ai Hence
f ( z) G( z ) z b
1 f 1 ( z) 1 F 1 ( z) p dz Thus Let a be a point on the boundary c with f(z)=0. Then, Since |f(z)|<|g(z)|, we can conclude
2i C1 f ( z )
dz
2i C1 F ( z )
dz
2i C1 z a that g(z)=0. Hence f(a)=g(a), contradicting to the fact that |g(z)|<|f(z)| on c. Similarly if f(a)
+g(a)=0, then |f(a)|=|g(a)|, which is a contradiction.
f 1 ( z) Hence f(z) & f(z) +g(z) have no zeros on c.
Since f(z) is analytic, we have is 1 f 1 ( z) 1 G1 ( z )
2i C2 f ( z ) 2i C2 G ( z )
f ( z) dz dz
Step 2 :
analytic within and on a closed contour c. g ( z)
n dz Let F(z) = f ( z ) , which gives g(z) = F(z).f(z).
Hence
F 1 ( z)
is analytic within and on a + 2i z b
F ( z) C2
g ( z)
n Observe that |F(z)|<1 on c as 1 on c. There fore , it allows that g(z) & f(z) are not
closed contour c. = 0 .2i n f ( z)
F 1 ( z) 2i zero on c.
Hence dz 0
c
F ( z ) Now g(z) = F(z) .f(z) or g = F. f
g1 = F.f1 + f.F1
1
1 f 1 ( z) p dz
2i C1 f ( z )
dz 0
2i C1 z a
p. Let N1 and N2 be the number of zeros of f+g and f respectively inside c. Observe that both f+g
and f do not have any poles inside c, by the hypothesis.
2i C f ( z )
dz N P
1 f 1 (1 F ) f .F 1 1 f1
n
=
2i C f (1 F )
dz -
2i
C f
dz
j
r 1 =
2i 1 F
C
dz
and P p r total number of poles of f(z) inside c, counting multiplicites. Since |F(z)| < 1 , we have 1 + F 0 on C. Also, since the derivative of an analytic function is
1
r 1 F
analytic clearly, is analytic.
1 F
ROUCHE’S THEOREM : [ 2 TIMES ] 1 F1
2i C 1 F
Suppose f(z) & g(z) are analytic within and on a closed curve c and if |g(z)|<|f(z)| on c, then Hence N1 – N2 = dz =0
f(z) and f(z)+g(z) both have the same number of zeros inside c. Hence N1 = N2.
Proof : Step 1: f(z) and f(z)+g(z) have no zeros on the boundary LIOUVILLE’S THEOREM [ 2 TIMES ]
Theorem : If f(z) is entire and | f(z) | is bounded for all z, then f(z) is constant .
Proof : Consider the generalized cauchy’s integral formula
n! f (z)
f (n) ( z 0 )
2i C ( z z 0 ) n 1
dz ----(1)
With C chosen as a circle with center at z0 and of radius r . Since |f(z)| is bounded, |f(z)|
M.
Applying M-L inequality to (1),
n! f ( z) n! M
( z 0 ) | (z z dz .2 r
(n)
| f
2i C 0 ) n 1
2 r n 1
Since C: |z-z0| = r and L=Length of C = 2r
n! M
Or | f ( n ) ( z 0 ) | n ----(2)
r
Which is known as cauchy’s inequality.
M
From (2), for n=1, we have | f (1)
( z 0 ) | ------------(3)
r
Since f is entire [ analytic everywhere ] and |v| is bounded for all z, (3) is true for any r.
As r | f1(z0) | 0
Thus f1(z0)=0, for all z and hence f(z) is a constant.