Dimensional Analysis

15-03-2018
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS – AM250
Dr. DEBABRATA KARMAKAR

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED MECHANICS AND HYDRAULICS
Department of Applied Mechanics and Hydraulics, NITK Surathkal 1
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
Dimensional analysis is a means of simplifying a physical problem by appealing
to dimensional homogeneity to reduce the number of relevant variables. It is
particularly useful for:
 presenting and interpreting experimental data;
 attacking problems not amenable to a direct theoretical solution;
 checking equations;
 establishing the relative importance of particular physical phenomena;
 physical modelling.
Primary Dimensions: The primary or fundamental dimensions, together with

their SI units are:
 Mass M (kilogram, kg)
 Length L (metre, m)
 Time T (second, s)
 Temperature Θ (kelvin, K)
Department of Applied Mechanics and Hydraulics, NITK Surathkal Dr. Debabrata Karmakar 2
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DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS CONTD….
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Dimensional Homogeneity: The dimensional homogeneity means the dimensions

of each term on both sides are equal. Thus if the dimensions of each term on both
sides of an equation are the same, the equation is known as dimensionally
homogeneous.
Let us consider the equation

V  2 gH
Dimension of LHS = Dimension of RHS = LT-1
Therefore the equation is dimensionally homogeneous and it can be used in any

system of units.
METHODS OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

If the number of variables involved in a physical phenomenon are known, then the
relation among the variables can be determined by the following two methods:
 Rayleigh’s Method
 Buckingham’s π-theorem
Rayleigh’s Method: This method is used for determining the expression for a
variable which depends upon maximum three or four variables only. If the number
of independent variables becomes more than four, then it is very difficult to find the
expression for the dependent variable.
Let X is a variable, which depends on X1, X2 and X3 variables. Then according to

Rayleigh’s method, X is function of X1, X2 and X3 and mathematically it is written as
X  f  X1, X 2 , X 3 
This can be written as X  KX1a X 2b X 3c
The values of a, b and c are obtained by comparing the powers of the fundamental
dimensions on both sides. Thus the expression is obtained for dependent variable.
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TUTORIALS
Problem 1: The time period (t) of a pendulum depends upon the length (L) of the
pendulum and acceleration due to gravity (g). Derive an expression for the time
period.
Problem 2: Find an expression for the drag force on smooth sphere of diameter D,
moving with a uniform velocity V in a fluid of density ρ and dynamic viscosity µ.
Problem 3: Find the expression for the power P, developed by a pump when P
depends upon the head H, the discharge Q and specific weight w of the fluid.
Problem 4: The efficiency η of a fan depends on the density ρ, the dynamic

viscosity µ of the fluid, the angular velocity ω, diameter D of the rotor and the
discharge Q. Express η in terms of dimensionless parameters.
METHODS OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS CONTD….
Buckingham’s π-theorem: The Rayleigh’s method of dimensional analysis

becomes more laborious if the variables are more than the number of fundamental
dimensions (M,L,T). This can be done by using Buckingham’s π-theorem.
Buckingham’s π-theorem states that if there are n variables in the physical

phenomenon and if these variables contain m fundamental dimensions (M,L,T),
then the variables are arranged into (n-m) dimensionless terms. Each term is
called π-term.
Step 1: Let X1, X2, X3,…., Xn are the variables involved in the physical problem.
Let X1 be the dependent variable and X2, X3,…., Xn are the independent variables
on which X1 depends. Then X1 is a function of X2, X3,…., Xn and mathematically it
is expressed as
X 1  f  X 2 , X 3 ,.... X n 
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The equation can also be written as
f  X 1 , X 2 , X 3 ,.... X n   0
The equation f  X 1 , X 2 , X 3 ,.... X n   0 is dimensionally homogeneous equation.
The equation contains n variables. If there are m fundamental dimensions then

according to Buckingham’s π theorem, the equation can be written in terms of
number of dimensionless groups or π-terms in which number of π-terms is equal
to (n-m). Hence the equation becomes
f  1 ,  2 ,  3 ,.... n  m   0
Step 2: Each of the π-terms is dimensionless and is independent of the system.

Division or multiplication by a constant does not change the character of the π-
term. Each π-term contains m+1 variables, where m is the number of fundamental
dimensions and is also called repeating variables.
Step 3: Let in the above case X2, X3 and X4 are repeating variables if the
fundamental dimension (M,L,T) = 3. Then each π-term is written as
1  X 2 a X 3b X 4c X1
1 1 1
 2  X 2 a X 3b X 4c X 5
2 2 2
 nm  X 2 a X 3b X 4c X n
m m n m n m
Step 4: Each equation is solved by the principle of dimensional homogeneity and

the values of a1, b1, c1 etc., are obtained. The values are substituted in the π-term
equation and the values of π1, π2, …., πm-m are obtained. The final equation for
the phenomenon is obtained by expressing any one of the π-terms as a function
of others as
 1    2 ,  3 ,....,  n  m 
 2    1 ,  3 ,....,  n  m 
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TUTORIALS
Problem 1: The resisting force R of a supersonic plane during flight can be
considered as dependent upon the length of the aircraft (l), velocity (V), air
viscosity (µ), air density (ρ) and bulk modulus of air K. Express the functional
relationship between these variables and the resisting force.
Problem 2: The efficiency η of a fan depends on density ρ, dynamic viscosity µ of

the fluid, angular velocity ω, diameter D of the rotor and the discharge Q. Express
η in terms of dimensionless parameters.
Problem 3: Using Buckingham π theorem show that the velocity through a circular
orifice is given by
D  
V  2 gH   , 
 H VH 
where H is the head causing flow, D is the diameter of orifice.
TYPES OF FORCES ACTING IN MOVING FLUID

For the fluid flow problems, the forces acting on a fluid may be any one, or a
combination of the several of the following forces:
 Inertia Force (Fi)
 Viscous Force (Fv)
 Gravity Force (Fg)
 Pressure Force (Fp)
 Surface tension force (Fs)
 Elastic Force (Fe)
Inertia Force (Fi): Inertia force is equal to the product of mass and acceleration of
the flowing fluid and acts in the direction opposite to the direction of acceleration.
Viscous Force (Fv): Viscous force is equal to the product of shear stress (ς) due
to viscosity and surface area of flow.
Gravity Force (Fg): Gravity force is equal to the product of mass and acceleration
due to gravity of the flowing fluid.
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TYPES OF FORCES ACTING IN MOVING FLUID CONTD….
Pressure Force (Fp): Pressure force is equal to the product of pressure intensity
and cross-sectional area of the flowing fluid.
Surface Tension Force (Fs): Surface tension force is equal to the product of
surface tension and length of surface of the flowing fluid.
Elastic Force (Fe): Elastic force is equal to the product of elastic stress and area
of the flowing fluid.
DIMENSIONLESS NUMBERS
 Dimensionless numbers are those numbers which are obtained from the ratio of
one force to another force. These dimensionless numbers are also called non-
dimensional parameters. The following are the important dimensionless
numbers:
 Reynold’s number (Re)
 Froude’s number (Fr)
 Euler’s number (Eu)
 Weber’s number (We)
 Mach number (M)
Reynold’s number (Re): Reynold’s is defined as the ratio of inertia force of the
flowing fluid and viscous force of the fluid.
Inertia Force (Fi ) = (Mass)  (Acceleration of flowing fluid)
v
= ( Volume)      Av 2  Volume/t = Av 
t
du  Av
Viscous Force (Fv ) = (Shear stress)  (Area) =  A =  A
dy L
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DIMENSIONLESS NUMBERS CONTD….

 
Fi   Av 2   vL
Reynold's number (R e ) =  
Fv    Av   
 
  L  
Froude’s number (Fe): The Froude’s number is defined as the square root of the
ratio of inertia force of a flowing fluid to the gravity force.
Fi
Froude's number (Fe ) =
Fg
Inertia Force (Fi ) = (Mass)  (Acceleration of flowing fluid)

v
= ( Volume)      Av 2  Volume/t = Av 
t
Gravity Force (Fg ) = (Mass)  (g) =  L3 g   ALg
Fi v
Froude's number (Fe ) = 
Fg Lg
Euler’s number (Eu): The Euler’s number is defined as the square root of the
ratio of inertia force of a flowing fluid to the pressure force.
Fi
Euler's number (E u ) =
Fp
Pressure Force (Fp ) = (Intensity of pressure)  (Area) = pA
Fi v
Euler's number (E u ) = 
Fp p/
Weber’s number (We): The Weber’s number is defined as the square root of the
ratio of inertia force of a flowing fluid to the surface tension force.
Fi
Weber's number (We ) =
Fs
Surface tension Force (Fs ) = (Surface tension per unit length)  (Length) =  L
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Fi  Av 2  L2v 2 v
Weber's number (We ) =   
Fs L L  / L
Mach’s number (M): The Mach’s number is defined as the square root of the ratio
of inertia force of a flowing fluid to the elastic force.
Fi
Mach's number (M ) =
Fe
Elastic Force (Fe ) = (Elastic Stress)  (Area) = KL2
Fi  L2v 2 v
Mach's number (M ) =  
Fe KL2 C
K
C = Velocity of sound in the fluid =

MODEL LAWS OR SIMILARITY LAWS

 For the dynamic similarity between the model and the prototype, the ratio of the
corresponding forces acting at the corresponding points in the model and
prototype should be equal.
 The ratio of the forces are dimensionless numbers. It means for dynamic
similarity between the model and prototype, the dimensionless numbers should
be same for model and prototype.
 But it is difficult to satisfy the condition that all the dimensionless number are
the same for model and prototype. Hence the models are designed on the
basis of ratio of the force, which is dominating in the phenomenon. The laws on
which the models are designed for dynamic similarity are called model laws.
The following are the model laws:
 Reynold’s model law
 Froude’s model law
 Euler’s model law
 Weber’s model law
 Mach model law
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REYNOLDS MODEL LAW

 Reynold’s model law is the law in which models are based on Reynold’s number.
Models based on Reynold’s number includes:
 Pipe flow
 Resistance experience by sub-marines, airplanes, fully immersed bodies etc.
 As defined earlier that Reynold’s number is the ratio of inertia force and viscous
force, and hence fluid flow problems where viscous forces alone are
predominant, the models are designed for dynamic similarity on Reynolds Law,
which states that the Reynolds number for the model must be equal to the
Reynold’s number for the prototype
Let Vm = Velocity of fluid in model

ρm = Density of fluid in model
Lm = Length or linear dimension of the model
µm = Viscosity of fluid in model
v p ,  p , Lp and  p are the corresponding values of velocity, density, linear deformation
and viscosity of fluid in prototype.
REYNOLDS MODEL LAW CONTD….
According to Reynold’s model law
 Rem   Re p
mVm Lm  pVp Lp

m p
 pV p L p 1
1
 mVm Lm   p / m 
 rVr Lr
1
r
Vr , r , Lr and r are called the scale ratios for velocity, density, linear deformation
and viscosity of fluid.
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REYNOLDS MODEL LAW CONTD….
The scale ratios for time, acceleration, force and discharge for Reynold’s model law
are obtained as
Lr
tr  Time scale ratio 
Vr
Vr
ar  Acceleration scale ratio 
tr
Fr  Force scale ratio  mr ar  r AV

r r ar   r r 
r LV
2
ar
Qr  Discharge scale ratio  r AV

r r  r LV
2
r r
TUTORIALS
Problem 1: A pipe of diameter 1.5 m is required to transport an oil of sp. Dr. 0.90
and viscosity 3 x 10-2 poise at the rate of 3000 litre/s. Tests were conducted on a 15
cm diameter pipe using water at 200C. Find the velocity and rate of flow in the
model. Viscosity of water at 200C = 0.01 poise.
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FROUDE MODEL LAW

 Froude model law is the law in which the models are based on Froude number
which means for dynamic similarity between the model and prototype, the
Froude number for both of them should be equal.
 Froude model law is applicable when the gravity force is only predominant force
which controls the flow in addition to the force of inertia.
 Froude model law is applied in the following fluid flow problems:
 Free surface flows such as flow over spillways, weirs, sluices, channels etc.
 Flow of jet from an orifice or nozzle
 Waves formed on the surface
 Fluids of different densities flow over one another

Lm = Length or linear dimension of the model
gm = Acceleration due to gravity at a place where model is tested
FROUDE MODEL LAW CONTD….
VP, LP and gp are the corresponding values of the velocity, length and acceleration
due to gravity for the prototype. Then according to Froude model law
 Fe mod el   Fe  prototype
Vm Vp

g m Lm g p Lp
If the tests on the model are performed on the same place where prototype is to
operate, then gm = gp
Vm V
 p
Lm Lp
Vp Lp
  Lr
Vm Lm
Vp
Lr  Scale ratio for length,  Vr  Scale ratio for velocity
Vm
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Scale ratios for various physical quantities based on Froude model law are:
(a) Scale ratio for time:

The ratio of time for prototype and model is:
Tp L /V p Lr
Tr     Lr
Tm  L / V m Lr
(b) Scale ratio for acceleration:
ap V / T  p Lr
ar    1
am V / T m Lr
(c) Scale ratio for discharge:
Qp L /T 3
L3r  L
Qr     L2.5  Q  A V  L  
p 2
Qm L /T 3
m
Lr
r
 T

(d) Scale ratio for force:
 p  Lp   V p 
2 2
Fp  3 V 2 2
Fr        F  ma   L    L V 
Fm m  Lm   Vm   T 
If the fluid used in model and prototype is same, then

p
1   p  m
m
2 2
 L  V 
 
2
Fr   p    p   L2r Lr  L3r
 Lm   Vm 
(e) Scale ratio for pressure intensity:
 p  Vp 
2
 F  L2V 2 
 
pp 2
pr      Lr  Lr  p   V 2 
m  Vm 
2
pm  A L 
If the fluid used in model and prototype is same, then ρp = ρm.
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(f) Scale ratio for work, energy, torque, moment etc:
Tp  F  L p
Tr    Fr  Lr  Lr 3  Lr  Lr 4  T  F  L
Tm  F  L m
(g) Scale ratio for power:
Pp 1 1  FL
Pr   Fr Lr  Lr 3 Lr  L3.5  P 
Pm Tr Lr  T 
TUTORIALS
Problem 1: In 1 in 40 model of a spillway, the velocity and discharge are 2 m/s and
2.5 m3/s. Find the corresponding velocity and discharge in the prototype.
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EULER’S MODEL LAW

 Euler model law is the law in which the models are designed on Euler’s number
which means for dynamic similarity between the model and prototype, the Euler
number for model and prototype should be equal.
 Euler’s model law is applicable when the pressure force are alone predominant
in addition to the inertia force. According to this law
 Eu mod el   Eu  prototype

pm = Pressure of fluid in model
VP, pp and ρp are the corresponding values of the velocity, pressure and density for
the prototype. Then according to Euler model law
Vm Vp

pm /  m pp /  p
EULER MODEL LAW CONTD….
If fluid is same in model and prototype, then
Vm V
 p
pm pp
 Euler model law is applied for fluid flow problems where flow is taking place in a
closed pipe and turbulence is fully developed so that viscous forces are
negligible and gravity force and surface tension force is absent.
 This law is also used where the phenomenon of cavitation takes place.
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WEBER MODEL LAW

 Weber model law is the law in which the models are designed on Weber’s
number which is the ratio of the square root of inertia force to surface tension
force.
 When surface tension effects predominate in addition to inertia force, the
dynamic similarity between the model and prototype is obtained by equating the
Weber number of the model and its prototype. According to this law
 
We mod el  We  prototype We 
V

  /  L 
σm = Surface tension force in model
Lm = Length of surface in model
VP, σp, ρp, and Lp and are the corresponding values of the velocity, surface tension
pressure, density and length for the prototype. Then according to Weber model
law
WEBER MODEL LAW CONTD….
Vm Vp

 m /  m Lm  p /  p Lp
 Weber model is applied in following cases:

 Capillary rise in narrow passages
 Capillary movement of water in soil
 Capillary waves in channels
 Flow over weirs for small heads.
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MACH MODEL LAW

 Mach model law is the law in which the models are designed on Mach number,
which is the ratio of the square root of inertia force to elastic force of a fluid.
 When forces due to elastic compression predominate in addition to inertia force,
the dynamic similarity between the model and prototype is obtained by equating
the Mach number of the model and its prototype. According to this law
 V 
 M mod el   M e  prototype M  
 K /  

Km = Elastic stress for model
VP, Kp and ρp are the corresponding values of the velocity, elastic stress and
density for the prototype. Then according to Mach model law
MACH MODEL LAW CONTD….
Vm Vp

K m / m Kp / p
 Mach model is applied in following cases:

 Flow of aeroplane and projectile through air at supersonic speed
 Aerodynamic testing
 Under-water testing of torpedoes
 Water-hammer problem.
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TUTORIALS
Problem 1: The pressure drop in an aeroplane model of size 1/10th of its prototype
is 80N/cm2. The model is tested in water. Find the corresponding pressure drop in
the prototype. Take density of air = 1.24 kg/m3. The viscosity of water is 0.01 poise
while the viscosity of air is 0.00018 poise.
Thank you
18

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15-03-2018

MECHANICS OF FLUIDS – AM250

Dr. DEBABRATA KARMAKAR

Department of Applied Mechanics and Hydraulics, NITK Surathkal 1

Primary Dimensions: The primary or fundamental dimensions, together with

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS CONTD….

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS CONTD….

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS CONTD….

Dimensional Homogeneity: The dimensional homogeneity means the dimensions

Let us consider the equation

Dimension of LHS = Dimension of RHS = LT-1

Therefore the equation is dimensionally homogeneous and it can be used in any

METHODS OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

Let X is a variable, which depends on X1, X2 and X3 variables. Then according to

This can be written as X  KX1a X 2b X 3c

Problem 4: The efficiency η of a fan depends on the density ρ, the dynamic

METHODS OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS CONTD….

Buckingham’s π-theorem: The Rayleigh’s method of dimensional analysis

Buckingham’s π-theorem states that if there are n variables in the physical

METHODS OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS CONTD….

The equation f  X 1 , X 2 , X 3 ,.... X n   0 is dimensionally homogeneous equation.

The equation contains n variables. If there are m fundamental dimensions then

Step 2: Each of the π-terms is dimensionless and is independent of the system.

METHODS OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS CONTD….

Step 4: Each equation is solved by the principle of dimensional homogeneity and

Problem 2: The efficiency η of a fan depends on density ρ, dynamic viscosity µ of

where H is the head causing flow, D is the diameter of orifice.

TYPES OF FORCES ACTING IN MOVING FLUID

TYPES OF FORCES ACTING IN MOVING FLUID CONTD….

DIMENSIONLESS NUMBERS CONTD….

Inertia Force (Fi ) = (Mass)  (Acceleration of flowing fluid)

DIMENSIONLESS NUMBERS CONTD….

Pressure Force (Fp ) = (Intensity of pressure)  (Area) = pA

DIMENSIONLESS NUMBERS CONTD….

Elastic Force (Fe ) = (Elastic Stress)  (Area) = KL2

MODEL LAWS OR SIMILARITY LAWS

REYNOLDS MODEL LAW

Let Vm = Velocity of fluid in model

REYNOLDS MODEL LAW CONTD….

According to Reynold’s model law

REYNOLDS MODEL LAW CONTD….

Fr  Force scale ratio  mr ar  r AV

Qr  Discharge scale ratio  r AV

FROUDE MODEL LAW

Let Vm = Velocity of fluid in model

FROUDE MODEL LAW CONTD….

FROUDE MODEL LAW CONTD….

(a) Scale ratio for time:

(b) Scale ratio for acceleration:

(c) Scale ratio for discharge:

FROUDE MODEL LAW CONTD….

If the fluid used in model and prototype is same, then

(e) Scale ratio for pressure intensity:

FROUDE MODEL LAW CONTD….

(g) Scale ratio for power:

EULER’S MODEL LAW

Let Vm = Velocity of fluid in model

EULER MODEL LAW CONTD….

If fluid is same in model and prototype, then

WEBER MODEL LAW

WEBER MODEL LAW CONTD….

 Weber model is applied in following cases:

MACH MODEL LAW

Let Vm = Velocity of fluid in model