Exploring Children's Emotional Security As A Mediator Og The Link Between Marital Relations and Child

Exploring Children's Emotional Security as a Mediator of the Link between Marital
Relations and Child Adjustment

Author(s): Patrick T. Davies and E. Mark Cummings
Source: Child Development, Vol. 69, No. 1 (Feb., 1998), pp. 124-139
Published by: Wiley on behalf of the Society for Research in Child Development
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Child Development, February 1998, Volume 69, Number 1, Pages 124-139
Exploring Children's Emotional Security as a Mediator of the Link

between Marital Relations and Child Adjustment
Patrick T. Davies and E. Mark Cummings
Guided by the emotional security hypothesis, this study examined whether links between marital relations
and children's adjustment were mediated by children's emotional security, as evidenced by their emotional
reactivity (e.g., vigilance, distress), regulation of exposure to parent affect (avoidance, involvement), and inter-
nal representations in the context of interparental relations. Multiple methods and contexts were used to assess
6- to 9-year-olds' emotional security in response to standardized, simulated conflicts involving parents. Latent
variable path analysis supported a theoretical pathway whereby marital dysfunction was linked with adjust-
ment problems as mediated by response processes indicative of emotional insecurity in relation to parental
conflicts. Emotional reactivity and internal representations were most closely linked with marital relations and
child adjustment, especially with regard to internalizing symptoms. The importance of understanding chil-
dren's emotional security in the context of the marital subsystem is discussed.
INTRODUCTION havior. Emotion regulation is understo

tionally, with emphasis placed on unders
The significance of marital discord to children's ad-
emotion in the context of goals and the dyna
justment is well established. Externalizing (e.g., ag-
tion between person and environment (
gression, conduct problems) and internalizing (e.g.,
Mumme, Kermoian, & Campos, 1994; Davies
anxiety, depression) symptoms are common sequelae
mings, 1995). Thus, the primary tasks of funct
for children from homes with marital problems (Em-
theories consist of identifying the goals and
ery, 1982; Grych & Fincham, 1990). The direct impact
relevant to emotion regulation (Thompson,
of marital conflict has been demonstrated in longitu-
The emotional security hypothesis posits t
dinal, experimental, and child survey research (Cum-
serving and promoting their own sense of e
mings & Davies, 1994; Fincham, Grych, & Osborne,
security is a primary goal that motivates c
1994). Despite evidence for a significantactions
role and
in reactions.
chil- The attachment literature has
dren's development, little is known about "how" and
firmly established the significance of emotional secu-
"why" marital discord leads to adjustment problems.
rity to links between parent-child relations and chil-
To address this gap, Davies and Cummings (1994)
dren's developmental sequelae (Colin, 1996). The
proposed an emotional security hypothesis, which
present model differs from traditional attachment
emphasizes a mediational role of children's emo-
theory in conceptualizing the preservation of emo-
tional security in the link between marital function-
tional security as a significant goal in itself (Cum-
ing and child adjustment. According to this theory,
mings & Davies, 1995; Sroufe & Waters, 1977),
destructive marital relations compromise children's
thereby shifting some of the emphasis from an evolu-
adjustment by threatening their sense of emotional
tionary and ethological account of the origins of secu-
security. The aim of the present study is to test these
rity (Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, & Wall, 1978). This
propositions by exploring: (1) interrelations between
shift in emphasis toward a functionalist perspective
marital functioning, children's emotional security in
allows for a broader, more inclusive family-wide
reference to marital relations, and child psychological
model of the etiology of emotional security. In partic-
problems; and (2) a mediational model of the role of
ular, children may derive emotional security from the
emotional security in the link between marital and
context of the interparental relationship (Davies &
child functioning.
Cummings, 1994), as well as from the quality of their
Promising new directions afforded by the func-
personal relationships with the parents. Reflecting
tionalist perspective on emotion regulation lay a
children's sound reasons for hinging their sense of
foundation for the emotional security hypothesis
emotional security on the quality of interparental re-
(Cummings & Davies, 1996). Within this perspective,
emotions play a role as monitoring and @guidance sys- for Research in Child Development, Inc.
1998 by the Society
tems in the appraisal of events and motivation of be-
All rights reserved. 0009-3920/98/6901-0016$01.00
Davies and Cummings 125
lations, severe interparental conflict may signify the with adjustment problems within the context of the
possibility of divorce, family discord and dissolution, father-child relationship, but negatively related to
parental physical or emotional unavailability, or adjustment problems in the mother-child relation-
presage the carry-over of unresolved hostility from ship (Johnston, Gonzalez, & Campbell, 1987; see also
the marriage to parent-child interactions. Gordis, Margolin, & John, 1997; O'Brien, Margolin, &
Paralleling the tripartite definition of emotion (i.e., John, 1995). Thus, it is unclear whether regulation of
intrapsychic feelings, motivation of behavior, ap- exposure to parent affect may serve as a successful
praisals) within functionalist theory, emotional secu- way of reducing exposure to stress or, alternatively,
rity is conceptualized as a latent construct witha adysfunctional regulatory process that increases
range of prominent functions that can be represented psychological risk and burden for the child (e.g.,
as three more concrete processes (Campos et al., 1994;Cummings & Davies, 1996; Sandler, Tein, & West,
1994).
Sroufe & Waters, 1977). First, consistent with concep-
tualizations of security in attachment theory, insecu- Children's internal representations of marital and
rity may be reflected in emotional reactivity charac-family relations are posited to be a third component
terized by heightened fear, distress, vigilance, and process of emotional security. Given that representa-
covert hostility (Carlson, Cicchetti, Barnett, & Braun-
tions are theorized to be relatively accurate depic-
wald, 1989). In support of this proposition, childrentions of family life (e.g., Bretherton, 1985), children
from homes characterized by severe marital conflict from high-conflict homes would be expected to be
are more prone to exhibiting distress and preoccupa- more prone to developing insecure representations
tion in subsequent hostile contexts involving parentsof family relations than other children. Insecure ap-
(e.g., J. S. Cummings, Pellegrini, Notarius, & Cum- praisals might include fears that conflict will escalate,
mings, 1989; O'Brien, Margolin, John, & Krueger, become violent, lead to divorce, or spill over into par-
1991). Further, heightened levels of negative emo-ent-child relations. Insecure representations, in turn,
tional reactivity have been posited to be precursors are hypothesized to elevate children's risk for adjust-
of long-term psychological problems (e.g., Cum- ment problems. For example, adolescent fears of "be-
mings & Davies, 1996). ing caught" in parental conflict have been found to
Second, emotional security serves a motivationalmediate links between interparental discord and ado-
function by guiding children to regulate their expo- lescent depression and delinquency (Buchanan, Mac-
sure to stressful parental emotion (Cassidy, 1994). In-
coby, & Dornbusch, 1991).
security within this domain may be manifested in theFurthermore, although the three components of
"overregulation" of exposure to parent affect, shown emotional security are hypothesized to be interde-
by either overinvolvement in parental conflict, or, pendent
al- in reflecting a common goal of preserving
ternatively, by the avoidance of parental conflict. For
emotional security, consistent with an organizational
example, children's behavior as mediators in paren- perspective on the functioning of regulatory systems
tal conflict may reflect attempts to directly controlof emotional security (Cummings & Davies, 1996;
parental emotions, and thereby minimize negative Sroufe & Waters, 1977), each of the components is
sequelae for the family. Children's use of social with-
assumed to represent a distinct aspect of emotional
drawal (e.g., avoidance), although morphologically security. Thus, emotional security as a higher-order
different from involvement, may serve a similar func-system may be expressed in a myriad of ways (e.g.,
tion of reducing exposure to threat, thereby increas-insecurity may surface as distress, avoidance, or
ing emotional security (Cummings & Davies, 1996).hostile representations). Accordingly, rather than
Given that interparental conflict in high-conflict predicting a one-to-one correspondence among the
homes is more likely to continue for long periods, get
components, the emotional security hypothesis pos-
progressively worse, and proliferate to include othertulates that the component processes of security will
family members, children from these homes may be evidence modest to moderate interrelations (for more
motivated to restore security through avoidance or conceptual details, see Cummings & Davies, 1996).
intervention (Emery, 1989). However, this direction The emotional security hypothesis differs from
in research is just emerging, and there are indications
other conceptualizations in its emphasis on: (1) expli-
that links with child adjustment may be complex. For cating emotional processes (as opposed to cognitive
example, regulation of exposure to parent affect or modelling processes) in the very affect laden cli-
through role reversal (e.g., comforting and protecting
mate of the marriage and family, and (2) the develop-
parent, helping parent with work, acting as a confi- mental implications of marital conflict from the per-
dante) has been shown to be positively associated spective of the child (as opposed to the extension of
126 Child Development
adult conceptual models to childhood). However, functioning

be- (Davies & Cummings, 1994). Forms of
cause it is designed to complement rather than ac- marital discord marked by intense, escalating hostil-
count for the tenets in alternative theories, the ity and disagreements are hypothesized to under-
emotional security hypothesis is designed to be amine children's sense of emotional security (e.g., by
mid-level theory that conceptualizes emotional secu-increasing children's fears of parental unhappiness
rity as a partial, rather than full, mediator of maritalwith marriage and family life, divorce and family dis-
conflict. Thus, modeling and behavioral contingen- solution, and spillover of marital hostility into family
cies (i.e., negative reinforcement) within social learn-contexts such as parent-child relations), and have
ing theory (Emery, 1982, 1989), parenting practices inbeen consistent predictors of child adjustment prob-
family systems theory (Fauber, Forehand, Thomas, &lems (Grych & Fincham, 1990; Jouriles et al., 1991).
Wierson, 1990), and cognitive and coping processes Conversely, witnessing interparental conflict resolu-
in the cognitive-contextual framework (e.g., Grych &tion, warmth in the aftermath of disagreements, and
Fincham, 1990) are still considered as potentially im-general consensus may actually be constructive for
portant mediators of marital discord. children because they signify that parents are happy
The critical next step is to empirically test and re-with each other and reduce the possibility that mari-
fine the propositions of the emotional security hy- tal problems will proliferate into violence or spill
pothesis as a mediational model. Process-oriented over into other family subsystems (Cummings & Da-
advances in understanding the effects of marital con-vies, 1994; Davies, Myers, & Cummings, 1996; Easter-
flict have been made, but the bulk of the studies, bybrooks, Cummings, & Emde, 1994).
focusing on either relations between marital discord Despite the theoretical significance of understand-
and child coping, or child coping and their psycho- ing the impact of a wider continuum of specific mari-
logical adjustment, have not critically tested thetal processes on children, research has often been lim-
"chain" of links necessary to test a mediational path-ited to singular, global evaluations of marital
way (Davies & Cummings, 1994). Accordingly, thisfunctioning (e.g., marital satisfaction) or relatively
study provides the first process-oriented test of thenarrow measures of specific marital problems (e.g.,
core proposition of the emotional security hypothe-childrearing disagreements) (Davies & Cummings,
sis: Emotional security is a primary mediating pro- 1994). The present study taps a more comprehensive
cess in the link between marital conflict and child ad- range of marital processes, consisting of constructive
justment. In contrast to many previous studies that marital functioning in the form of conflict resolution,
have focused on single elements of emotional secu- intimacy in the aftermath of conflict, and general con-
rity (see Cummings & Davies, 1994), a comprehen- sensus as well as destructive conflict reflected in
sive assessment of the three components of emotional childrearing disagreements, overt hostility, and con-
security is employed using multiple methods (i.e., be- flict escalation. As part of this process approach, the
havior observation, interviews). Moreover, to better present study is also designed to assess both inter-
isolate the impact of marital conflict history on chil- nalizing and externalizing symptoms using multiple
dren from the effects of immediate situation, mea- informants (i.e., mother, child reports).
sures of security are obtained from standardized, Figure 1 summarizes the hypothesized media-
stressful contexts in the laboratory rather than highly tional pathways of emotional security. Indirect paths
variable, naturalistic contexts (Davies & Cummings, between marital functioning and child adjustment re-
1994). As an exploratory test of the emotional security flect the hypothesized mediational role of emotional
hypothesis, it is important to note at the outset that security. That is, experiences with greater marital
the concurrent, correlational data in this study do not dysfunction are expected to compromise children's
rule out alternative causal interpretations, particu- emotional security and thereby increase their risk for
larly in light of the fact that family, mediator, or out- adjustment problems. Direct paths between marital
come variables are not separated in time. relations and adjustment indicate that emotional se-
Another important tenet of the mediational model curity is hypothesized to be a partial mediator, in
is that individual differences in emotional security light of evidence of other significant mediating pro-
will be systematically related to conflict histories be- cesses (Emery, 1982; Grych & Fincham, 1990). Finally,
tween parents (Cummings & Davies, 1996). More the double arrow lines among the components of
specifically, a theoretical foundation is provided for emotional security denote that, as distinct, but inter-
conceptualizing children's emotional security as a dependent, indices of emotional security, they are hy-
pothesized to be modestly and positively interre-
by-product, in part, of the collective experience of de-
structive and constructive characteristics of marital lated.
Children's Emotional Security
" Internal
Children's
Representations
Externalizing
of Marital
Symptoms
Relations
Marital Functioning Emotional

1) Destructive
Reactivity
2) Constructive
Regulation of Children's
Exposure to Internalizing
Parent Affect Symptoms
Figure 1 A theoretical model of the mediational role of emotional security in the relation between marital functioning and child
psychological adjustment.
METHOD Simulated Conflict Involving the Mother
Participants Following a 10 min baseline period, a simulated

conflict took place between a female research assis-
Fifty-six 6- to 9-year-old children (M age = 7.5, SD
tant and the mother in the playroom. The experi-
= 1.1) and their mothers from maritally intact homes
menter who obtained consent from the parent en-
participated in the study. Separated, divorced, and
tered the playroom carrying file folders and initiated
stepparent families were excluded from this study to
a conflict with the mother. The conflict lasted approx-
provide a cleaner test of the hypotheses. The sample
imately 1 min and centered on the experimenter ac-
consisted of equal numbers of boys and girls. Ap-
cusing the mother of being late and failing to com-
proximately 95% of the families were European
plete the requested forms (Cummings, Hennessy,
American, with the remaining 5% being African
Rabideau, & Cicchetti, 1994). Precautions were taken
American. Parents had an average of 2.8 children (SD
to ensure that the characteristics of the conflict and
= 1.2). Maternal reports on the Hollingshead Four
observation session were relatively uniform across
Factor Index (Hollingshead, 1975) reflected the mid-
the sample. In simulating the conflict, both the exper-
dle-class background of the sample (M = 52.1, SD =
imenter and mother closely adhered to a standard
11.4).
script (see Cummings et al., 1994, for similar proce-
dures). Prior to obtaining consent, mothers were in-
Procedure
structed to display surprised affect during the con-
flict and withhold any laughing, arguing, negative
Children were escorted into a large playroom affect,
con- or verbal responses. Finally, they were asked
not to initiate any interactions with their children
taining a variety of toys, where they became better
acquainted with the room and the experimenter during
(in- the observation session, unless something
terviewer) who later interviewed them. After madere-them uncomfortable or fearful for the child's
safety.
viewing procedures and questionnaires with another
experimenter, mothers joined their children in the The conflict was followed by a 3 min postconflict
period when the research assistant was not present.
playroom to complete questionnaires on family rela-
tions. This period allowed for the assessment of delayed
Debriefing
responses that may have resulted from the cumula-
tive impact of the conflict or the suppression of affect
Children were fully informed about the proce-
during the conflict (J. S. Cummings et al., 1989). Vid-
dures and purposes of the study. The interviewer
eotaped records of children's overt responses during
again made sure that the child understood that the
the conflict and postconflict periods were obtained
audiotaped conflict and the angry exchange involv-
via a one-way observational mirror.
ing the mother were simulations. Mothers and chil-
dren were given the opportunity to ask questions and
Postconflict Interview provided a phone number in case of future concerns.
No mothers or children raised significant concerns at
Next, the interviewer conducted a structured in-
the time or called later.
terview with the child to assess their self-reported
emotionality and behavioral impulses in response to
the conflict. Initial interview questions indicated that
Measures
all children remembered the discussion. The vast ma-
jority (93%) remembered the woman as being angry, The key constructs of marital functioning, em
with remaining children reporting that she was eithertional security, and child adjustment were each m
okay (5%) or sad (2%). The interviewer subsequently sured by multiple manifest variables to form com
ite variables. Different methods and sources were
informed the child that the mother and female exper-
used to assess emotional security (e.g., observation,
imenter were just pretending to be angry with each
child interviews) as a means of reducing common
other. To provide more concrete evidence for the
method variance with other constructs and providin
child, the female experimenter entered the room and
a more conservative test of the mediational model.
interacted with the mother and child in a positive
manner.
Marital Functioning
Parental Conflict Story Completion Task (PCSC)
Mothers completed questionnaires to measure a
While the mother returned to complete
broad array
question-
of destructive and constructive marital
naires in another room, children listened to aFour
processes. simu-
measures were designed to assess de-
lated verbal conflict between a man and woman on structive conflict expressed in the form of marital
audiotape after being instructed to imagine that hostility,
the conflict escalation, and disagreements
conflict was taking place between their parents.about
Con-childrearing. The 10 item O'Leary-Porter Scale
sistent with other story completion measures provided
(e.g., an index of marital hostility witnessed by
Easterbrooks, Davidson, & Chazan, 1993), the conflict
children (OPS; Porter & O'Leary, 1980). Test-retest re-
stem was brief (i.e., 20 s), revolved around a trivial
liability, internal consistency, and concurrent validity
issue (i.e., taking the car to the mechanic), andofcon-
the OPS are well documented (Porter & O'Leary,
tained mild anger expression to limit the impact of The Attack and Escalation scales of the SSCR
1980).
the conflict characteristics on children's responses.
(Rands, Levinger, & Mellinger, 1981) provided fur-
ther assessments
After listening to the conflict, children answered a of destructive conflict. The six item
structured set of interview questions to assessAttack
their scale taps destructive marital hostility (e.g.,
internal representations of interparental relations.
"Says something to hurt my feelings"), whereas the
The interview focused on asking children toseven
giveitem Escalation scale assesses escalation and
their version of how parental conflict ends in prolongation
their of negative affect during marital con
home and the consequences it has for family func-
flicts (e.g., "We start out disagreeing about one thin
tioning. Videotaped records of children's interview
and end up arguing about lots of things"). In addi-
responses were obtained via the one-way observa-
tion to demonstrating internal consistency, the SSC
tional mirror. subscales predict marital dissatisfaction (e.g., Rand
et al., 1981) and child maladjustment (Kempton
Thomas, & Forehand, 1989). As the final indicator,
Children's Report of Their Psychological
the Child-Rearing Disagreements Scale measur
Adjustment
children's exposure to disagreements over childrea
The Revised Child Manifest Anxiety Scale ing (CRD; Jouriles et al., 1991). The 21 item CRD h
(RCMAS; Reynolds & Richmond, 1978) was then ad- adequate internal consistency, and the validity of th
ministered to children in interview form to assess measure is supported by its associations with marit
their self-reported trait anxiety. discord and child behavior problems.
Three maternal report scales were used to indexpanying conflict) were based on the following scale:
constructive marital relations. The Marital Adjust-(1) none; (2) mild = elicits some attention and/or
ment Test, which assesses overall marital adjustment concern of an appropriate level for the stressful con-
ditions, without substantially disrupting children's
and consensus, has excellent reliability and discrimi-
nant validity (MAT; Locke & Wallace, 1959). The overall functioning; (3) moderate = signs of vigilance
Compromise and Intimacy scales of the Spousal Style are somewhat beyond normal but do not substan-
of Conflict Resolution Questionnaire (SSCR; Rands tially
et disrupt the activities across the observation pe-
al., 1981) were used to assess constructive methodsriod; (4) intense = prolonged, intense preoccupation
of resolving marital disagreements. The Compromise ("obsession") with the conflict, substantially dis-
scale is an index of constructive processes during rupting activities throughout the observation period.
marital disagreements (e.g., "He/she does some- Ratings of distress (i.e., expressions of anxiety, ten-
thing to let me know he/she really loves me even if sion, fear, and sadness) were as follows: (1) none; (2)
we disagree"), whereas the Intimacy scale measuresmild = the quality of expression of distress is mini-
healthy outcomes of disagreements (e.g., "After- mal and within normal limits for witnessing conflict;
wards I feel closer to him/her and more loving than (3) moderate = mild overreactions of distress that are
before"). The scales, each consisting of five items, eventually regulated with some success; and (4) in-
have adequate alpha coefficients (>.70) and are posi-tense = distress of a disturbing quality that cannot
tively correlated with measures of marital satisfac- be adaptively regulated with any success. Kappa co-
tion (Rands et al., 1981). efficients, which indexed interobserver reliability on
64% of the sample, were .75 for distress and .79 for
vigilance. These values fall within the good to excel-
Children's Emotional Security
lent reliability range according to published guide-
When coding emotional security, raters were blind lines (Bakeman & Gottman, 1987). Global ratings
to the child's family history, psychological adjust-were moderately to highly correlated with their cor-
ment, and responses in other domains of emotional responding behavioral codes.
security. Different primary coders were used for each Given the emphasis on suppressed hostility within
of the three components of emotional security. In- many conceptualizations of emotional insecurity
(e.g., Cassidy, 1994; Cummings & Davies, 1995), chil-
terrater reliability coefficients for each measure were
based on independent ratings by two judges. dren's subjective reports of anger were obtained by
Emotional reactivity. Behavioral expressions of emo- asking, "Did you feel mad when the woman was
tion and subjective feelings in response to the simu-
talking to your mother?" For the 46% of children who
lated conflict involving the mother were obtained reported feeling hostility, a follow-up probe was
as indicators of children's emotional reactivity.
used to assess the felt intensity of hostility by asking,
Judges coded the presence of specific behavior codes "How much did you feel that way?" Children re-
for eight 30 s intervals during the 4 min videotaped sponded by selecting one of five correspondingly
segment of the conflict and postconflict. Specific be-larger circles representing five intensity alternatives
havioral codes reflected the target constructs of dis-from (1) "very little" to (5) "a whole lot." Thus, chil-
tress (e.g., anxiety, freezing, sadness) and vigilancedren's anger scores could potentially range from 0
(e.g., preoccupation, verbal concern) (Davies & Cum- (indicating no report) to 5 (indicating "a whole lot").
mings, 1995). After completing the coding of specific Regulation of exposure to parent affect. The same two-
behaviors, judges next made global ratings, reflectingstep procedure for the behavioral assessment of emo-
the patterning and chronicity of the behaviors. These tional reactivity was used to code regulation of expo-
ratings served as the dependent variables. The deci- sure to parent affect in the forms of avoidance and
sion to use global ratings was influenced by: (1) argu-
involvement. Judges first coded the presence of spe-
ments for organizational coding schemes that em- cific indicators of avoidance (i.e., physical with-
phasize the meaning, quality, and patterning of drawal, requests to leave) and intervention (i.e., pro-
responses (Sroufe & Waters, 1977); (2) evidence for tecting mother, helping mother, inquiring about
the superior reliability and stability of global com-
mother's feelings, comforting mother) for the eight 30
posite ratings based on smaller time units of behavior
s intervals during the conflict and postconflict period.
observation (Rushton, Brainerd, & Pressley, 1983); The frequency, quality, and organization of these
and (3) problems of skewed distributions associatedspecific codes were subsequently used as guides for
with discrete behavioral codes. global ratings of avoidance and involvement. The ob-
Ratings of vigilance (i.e., watchful attention and/
servational rating scale for avoidance consisted of:
or preoccupation to the possibility of danger accom-(1) none; (2) mild = a clear, but brief and mild, at-
tempt at avoidance; (3) moderate = multiple andand

/ discord (e.g., getting into a bigger fight, cursing
or lengthy avoidance attempts that do not appear and to yelling).
reflect chronic preoccupation with the conflict; andThe protocol for coding internal representations of
(4) intense = a lengthy preoccupation to avoid con-long-term marital relations followed a similar format:
flict that may be reflected in frequent, intense, and/ (1) intense warmth, (2) mild warmth, (3) neutral or
or multiple methods of avoidance that typically per- ambivalent relations, (4) mild discord, and (5) intense
sist well after the conflict. Intervention, which was de-discord. Intense warmth reflected appraisals of posi-
fined as direct involvement in the conflict or its con- tive affect between parents in the absence of negativ-
sequences, was rated according to the following ity, implying a full resolution of the disagreement
scale: (1) none; (2) brief = one or two brief, superficial
(e.g., express love or affection, make up). By contrast,
attempts to intervene that require little or no psycho- responses of intense discord were coded if children
logical investment or risk from the child; (3) moder- reported long-term, extreme interparental difficulties
ate = multiple and lengthy attempts to intervene that (e.g., divorce, break up, yelling).
do not persist well after the conflict or require consid- Children's internal representations of the impact
erable psychological risk; and (4) involved = multi-of the marital relations on parent-child relations were
ple persistent attempts to intervene that require acoded as follows: (1) intense warmth, (2) mild
great deal of involvement, psychological investment, warmth, (3) neutral, (4) mild negativity, and (5) in-
and potential risk to the child's well-being. Kappa co- tense negativity. Whereas intense warmth was coded
efficients, based on interobserver coding of 88% of if all comments reflected parental warmth toward the
the sample, were .93 for escape and .83 for interven- child (e.g., express their love, positive explanations
tion. Global ratings were moderately correlated with about the conflict), intense discord reflected multiple
their respective behavioral indicators. indications of negativity or some indication of in-
tense hostility (e.g., yelling, hollering, communicat-
Internal representations of parental relations. Ratings
of the security of children's internal representations ing plans of divorce) or parent-child triangulation.
of marital relations were gathered by coding chil- Coders subsequently provided ratings of the over-
dren's interview responses to the PCSC task (i.e., the all security of children's appraisals by evaluating the
audiotaped conflict stem). The structured set of inter- overall quality and pattern of responding throughout
view questions was designed to assess key dimen- the interview. Responses were coded along the fol-
sions of children's appraisals of interparental rela-lowing 5 point continuum: (1) strong security, (2)
tions: (1) short-term emotional aftermath of the moderate security, (3) mixed security, (4) moderate
conflict ("What will happen next between them insecurity, if and (5) strong insecurity. Strong security
they were your parents?"); (2) long-term quality of was coded if the pattern of responses reflected the
parental relations ("What will happen between them view that the interparental relationship is a source of
later on?"); and (3) the impact of the marital relation- happiness, stability, and joy, with conflict between
ship on parent-child relations ("Think about how you parents effectively contained to the marital subsys-
said your parents act toward each other. Okay? Now, tem (e.g., no spillover of negativity into parenting
how would your parents feel about you?"). After practices, resolved). Conversely, strong insecurity
each primary question, specific probes were used to was coded when patterns of intense threat out-
ensure that children reported rich narratives of pa- weighed sources of security along virtually every di-
rental emotions, verbalizations, and behaviors. mension of children's responding (e.g., severe inter-
Each dimension of children's internal representa- parental problems or dissolution, "spillover" of
tions was rated along 5 point scales from the video- hostility into parenting), with little or no evidence
taped interview, with higher values indicating that that children derive security from any aspect of the
interparental relations pose a greater threat to chil- marriage (e.g., few, if any, positive descriptions of
dren's emotional security. The rating guidelines for marital process). Kappas, calculated from interob-
short-term marital relations were as follows: (1) full server ratings of the 56 children, were: .79 for short-
resolution, (2) partial resolution, (3) neutral or ambiv-term marital relations, .70 for long-term marital rela-
alent interactions, (4) mild hostility, and (5) escalating
tions, .88 for parent-child relations, and .72 for overall
hostility. At one extreme, full resolution was coded insecurity.
if children reported that their parents fully resolved
the fight (e.g., apologize, make up, say sorry) with
Child Psychological Adjustment
mild or no negativity expressed in the process. At the
other extreme, escalating hostility consisted of re- Mothers also completed the Child Behavior
ports of repeated, escalating, and / or intense hostilityChecklist (CBCL; Achenbach, 1991), a widely used
and well-validated parent-report measure of chil-

Table 1 Descriptive Data for Manifest Measures of Marital
Functioning,
dren's behavior problems. Standardized scores on Emotional Security, and Child Adjustment
aggression, delinquency, and attention problem

Measure M SD Range
scales were used as indicators of externalizing symp-
toms, while standardized scores for anxiety/depres- Marital functioning:
sion and withdrawal served as indicators of inter- Child-Rearing Disagreements
nalizing symptoms. Given that parents often have (CRD) 35.00 8.86 24-66
O'Leary-Porter Scale (OPS) 19.66 5.10 12-34
difficulty accurately evaluating covert symptoms un-SSCR Attack 11.50 2.80 6-17
derlying internalizing problems, children's own re- SSCR Escalation 17.62 4.02 9-27
ports of trait anxiety were obtained using standard-Marital Adjustment Test (MAT) 109.36 26.33 32-158
ized scores from the three scales (i.e., psychological
SSCR Compromise 15.04 2.31 9-20
SSCR Intimacy 17.21 3.14 10-25
anxiety, worry, concentration anxiety) of the Revised
Insecurity: Emotional reactivity:
Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale (RCMAS; Reyn-
Vigilance 2.93 .91 1-4
olds & Richmond, 1978). The RCMAS has adequateDistress 2.93 .93 1-4
internal consistency and concurrent and constructHostility 1.63 1.95 0-5
validity (Reynolds & Richmond, 1979). Thus, both
Insecurity: Regulation of expo-
child and parent reports provided a more reliable as-
sure:
Intervention 1.71 1.02 1-4

sessment of internalizing problems. Avoidance 2.57 1.17 1-4
Insecurity: Internal repres

tions:
RESULTS Short-term marital relations 3.13 1.61 1-5
Long-term marital relations 2.02 1.42 1-5
Descriptive Statistics Parent-child relations 2.38 1.47 1-5
Overall
Table 1 displays the means and standard devia- insecurity 2.46 1.35 1-5
Child externalizing symptoms:
tions for the specific measures of marital relations,
CBCL Aggression 52.54 4.31 50-67
children's emotional security, and child psychologi-
CBCL Delinquency 53.09 4.88 50-67
cal adjustment. High scores on the MAT (M
CBCL>100)
Attention 53.63 5.30 50-69
and low scores on CBCL (mean T scores <70) and
Child internalizing symptoms:
CBCL Withdrawal 54.36 5.26 50-66
RCMAS reflect that marital adjustment and chil-
CBCL Anxiety/depression 53.88 5.77 50-74
dren's psychological problems generally fell within
RCMAS Psychological anxiety 46.51 12.21 27-74
the nonclinical range. As intended, children's
RCMAS re-Worry 46.40 10.59 29-69
sponses to the simulated conflict involving the
RCMAS Concentration anxiety 44.92 9.55 33-67
mother reflected, on average, a moderate degree of
distress and arousal. For example, mean observer rat-
ings for distress (M = 2.93), vigilance (M =multiple
2.93), and
regression techniques (Falk & Miller, 1992;
escape (M = 2.57) were between "mild" and Miller,
"moder- Cowan, Cowan, Hetherington, & Clingem-
ate" on the rating scales. Furthermore, among theThrough an iterative process, LVPLS
peel, 1993).
46% of children who reported feeling hostility in re-
maximizes both the shared variance between the
sponse to the conflict, the mean felt intensity rating
manifest variables and their respective latent com-
fell between "Some" and "A lot" (M = 3.50, SDvariables
posite = (measurement model) and the linear
1.24). relations between latent composite variables speci-
fied in the model (structural model) (see Falk &
Miller, 1992; Lohmoeller, 1989).
Analysis Plan
In comparison to multiple regression analyses
Latent variable path analysis with partial least with manifest variables, deriving latent variables
squares estimation (LVPLS; Falk & Miller, 1992; Loh- from multiple manifest variables in soft modeling
moeller, 1989; Wold, 1982) was used to examine the yields a smaller set of theoretical constructs and thus
relations between marital relationships, emotional provides a more parsimonious test of hypotheses.
security, and child adjustment. LVPLS, or "soft mod- Use of latent variables from the shared variance of
eling," is a form of structural equation modeling that multiple indicators also maximizes stability, reliabil-
(1) computes composites for each theoretical con- ity, and variance of each construct while minimizing
struct using weights of manifest variables based on the unreliability and measurement error of the indi-
principal components analysis and (2) examines vidual manifest variables. Unlike the stringent as-
structural relations between the composites using sumptions underlying structural equation modeling
with maximum likelihood estimation (e.g., LISREL,Table 2 The Measurement Model: Component Loadings of
Manifest Variables onto Their Respective Latent Composit
EQS), LVPLS solutions are robust with relatively
Variables
small sample sizes, sizable numbers of manifest and
latent variables, data from nonnormal or unknown
Variable Loading
distributions, and other conditions found in the pres-
ent study and psychological research in generalMarital functioning:
(Falk & Miller, 1992). Given that soft modeling is de- Child-Rearing Disagreements .73
O'Leary-Porter Scale .78
signed for use in initial stages of theory testing SSCR Attack .80
(Falk & Miller, 1992; Roberts & Strayer, 1996), it is SSCR Escalation .89
particularly appropriate for exploratory tests of the Marital Adjustment Test -.79
emotional security hypothesis. SSCR Compromise -.69
SSCR Intimacy -.72
Insecurity: Emotional reactiv
Measurement Model Vigilance .56
Distress .77
Guided by the model in Figure 1, we used multiple
Hostility .68
measures to form the following six latent composite
Insecurity: Regulat
Intervention .99
variables: marital discord, the three components of
Avoidance .68
children's emotional insecurity, and children's inter-
Insecurity: Inter
nalizing and externalizing symptoms. For ease of
Short-term marital relations .58
communication, "marital discord" replaced "marital Long-term marital relations .78
Parent-child relations .72
functioning" for the report of these results, reflecting
that positive signs were assigned to destructive Overall
con- insecurity .96
Child externalizing symptoms:
flict variables. Table 2 shows the factor loadings of
CBCL Aggression .87
the manifest variables onto their respective latent
CBCL Delinquency .84
variables. The loadings most closely approximate
CBCL Attention .78
first component loadings and are adjusted Child
during internalizing sym
CBCL Withdrawal .67
subsequent iterations to optimize linear relations
CBCL Anxiety/depression .60
among the latent constructs. The loadings for the fi-
RCMAS Psychological anxiety .51
nal measurement model all easily meet the bare RCMAS
mini- Worry .54
mum criterion of >.30 for inclusion as indicators (Ar- Concentration anxiety .60
RCMAS
mistead, Forehand, Beach, & Brody, 1995). As
predicted, the latent composite of marital discord
consisted of negative loadings of the constructive
marital measures and positive loadings of securitythe de- revealed significant positive cor
structive marital measures. The final measurement tween emotional reactivity and (1) regul
model has a mean communality coefficient (h2) of .55.
posure to parent affect, and (2) hostile int
sentations, respectively. Associations betw
Structural Model internal representations and regulation
to parent affect were positive, but nonsig
The path model testing the mediatio
Initial empirical support for the structural model
can be evaluated on the basis of correlations among
emotional security is presented in Figure
the latent composites. Table 3 presents the zero-order
tween theoretical constructs are standar
correlations between marital discord, emotionalcoefficients
se- or beta weights. Because LVP
curity, and children's adjustment. Marital discord
calculate standard errors, the adequacy of
predicted children's (1) emotional insecurity as mani-
parts of the structural model cannot be e
fested in emotional reactivity and hostile internal
means of significance testing. Rather, p
representations of interparental relations, and (2)
model are evaluated primarily on the bas
psychological maladjustment in the form of higherunique variance accounted by the indiv
levels of externalizing and internalizing symptoms.
(r2) and (2) total amount of variance expl
endogenous
In turn, children's insecurity, as manifested by variables (multiple R2)
Miller, 1992). Although some researche
heightened emotional reactivity and hostile internal
representations, was linked with adjustment prob-scribed individual paths accounting f
amounts of variance (i.e., 1.5%) as n
lems, particularly with regard to internalizing symp-
(Brody, Stoneman, & Flor, 1996; Brody e
toms. Interrelations among components of emotional
Table 3 Correlations among Latent Composites of Marital Discord, Emotional

Security, and Child Adjustment
Constructs 1 2 3 4 5
1. Marital discord
2. Emotional reactivity .34**
3. Regulation of exposure -.06 .31*
4. Internal representations .29* .33** .17
5. Externalizing symptoms .26* .25+ -.16 .11
6. Internalizing symptoms .47** .38** -.17 .39** .46**
p =.06; * p- .05; ** p - .01; two-tailed.
Falk & Miller, 1992), we assumed a moreport conserva-

for the mediational role of children's regulation
tive approach of only evaluating paths that account to parent affect, as it was unrelated to
of exposure
for -6% in unique variance, due to our bothrelatively
marital functioning and child maladjustment.
small sample size. Paths meeting this criteria are un-
Marital discord continued to explain noteworthy
derscored in bold for purposes of presentation.
amounts of variance in children's adjustment prob-
Figure 2 reveals an indirect effect of marital dis-
lems, particularly with regard to internalizing symp-
cord on child maladjustment through two of the
toms. Together, marital discord and emotional inse-
three components of emotional insecurity. curity
First, explained
mar- nearly three times more variance in
ital discord predicted greater emotional reactivity,
internalizing problems (R2 = .40), F(4, 51) = 8.47,
which in turn was associated with higher plevels
< .001,ofthan externalizing problems (R2 = .15),
internalizing and externalizing symptomatology.
F(4, 51) = 2.25, p < .08.
Second, children's hostile representations of The coefficient RMS COV (E,U), defined as the
interpa-
rental relations mediated the link between marital root mean square of the covariance between manifest
discord and children's internalizing symptoms. Con-variable residuals and latent variable residuals, pro-
vides an index of overall fit of the model (i.e., both
trary to hypotheses, the path model provided no sup-
.15
r2-.04
Internal Children's
Representations .02 Externalizing
of Marital r2-.00 Symptoms
Relations R2=.15
.17 .33
Marital .34 Emotional

Discord r2=.12 Reactivity .46
Regulation of -.29 Children's

Exposure to Internalizing
Parent Affect r2-.05 Symptoms
R2-.40
.28
r2-.13 RMS
r COV (E U).06COV
.13RMS (E, U)=.06
Figure 2 The structural model testing the mediational role of emotional security in the link between ma
psychological adjustment.
measurement and structural) with the data. A value ever, although links between marital discord and in-
greater than .20 reflects a poor model, whereasternalizing
a symptoms have been relatively weak and
value of .02 indicates a superior model. The presentinconsistent in past work (Grych & Fincham, 1990),
model achieved an RMS COV (E,U) of .06, indicating the present findings demonstrated that destructive
a good to very good fit between the model and themarital discord predicted internalizing as well as ex-
data. ternalizing symptoms. Because the internalizing
To better evaluate the significance of emotional se- symptoms construct was derived from shared vari-
curity as a mediator, we compared the explanatory ance from parent and child reports, increased preci-
power of the mediational model with an unmediated sion in forecasting internalizing symptoms cannot
model. In this model, we deleted all paths except for simply be attributed to capitalizing on common
those between marital functioning and child adjust- source biases (i.e., mother) for marital and child as-
ment. In comparison with the mediational model, sessments (Grych & Fincham, 1990). Moreover, repli-
this alternative model explained 53% less variance in cation of these results in correlational analyses using
the externalizing symptoms (from an R2 = .15 to .07) the single, broad-band measures of child internaliz-
and 43% less variance in internalizing symptoms ing, externalizing, and anxiety symptoms suggests
(from an R2 = .40 to .23). Thus, the mediational model that the better prediction of internalizing symptoms
accounted for more variance in the outcome variables is not due solely to the greater range and variability
than the unmediated alternative. in internalizing symptoms (i.e., more manifest vari-
As another way of testing the adequacy of the me- ables) relative to externalizing symptoms (Davies,
diational model, we examined the magnitude 1995). of Thus, the findings are consistent with observa-
changes in the variance accounted for by marital
tions that more precise and comprehensive opera-
functioning across the mediated and unmediated
tionalizations of marital functioning may increase
models (Baron & Kenny, 1986). Whereas marital
understanding of the etiology of a wider range of
child behavior problems (Fincham & Osborne, 1993).
functioning accounted for 23% of internalizing symp-
toms and 7% of the variance in externalizing symp- The link between marital functioning and child ad-
toms in the unmediated models, these values were justment problems was mediated, in part, by chil-
reduced to 13% and 4%, respectively, after incorpo- dren's emotional reactivity. In keeping with observa-
rating emotional security into the mediational model. tions that children who witness destructive marital
These findings indicate that emotional security ac- relations are sensitized, not desensitized, to conflict
counts for nearly half (i.e., 43%) of the linkage (Cummings & Davies, 1994), marital discord pre-
between marital functioning and children's inter- dicted greater negative emotional reactivity to con-
nalizing and externalizing problems. Thus, as hy- flict. According to the emotional security hypothesis,
pothesized, the evidence suggests that emotional in- the sensitization of emotional arousal may actually
security, as reflected in high levels of emotional be adaptive for children in high-conflict homes. By
reactivity and hostile internal representations, is a highlighting the potential threat and energizing their
partial, but robust, mediator of destructive marital re- physical and psychological resources, emotional sen-
lations. sitization may prepare children to quickly cope with
possible stress and thus may aid in preserving emo-
DISCUSSION tional security. However, despite the possible adap-
tive function of emotional reactivity in the short term,
Guided by propositions of the emotional the accompanying
security hy- difficulties of regulating intense
pothesis (Davies & Cummings, 1994), vigilance
this study
and distress reflect underlying insecurity
tested whether children's emotional security in children
that places the at risk for disturbances in more
context of marital relations mediated the link be- pervasive domains of psychological functioning
(Cummings
tween marital functioning and child adjustment. The & Davies, 1996; Davies & Cummings,
results supported a pathway whereby the quality
1994;
ofHarold & Conger, 1997; Thompson & Calkins,
marital relations led to differences in children's emo- 1996; Wilson & Gottman, 1995). Extending previ-
tional security as evidenced by emotional reactivityously demonstrated links between children's emo-
and internal representations of parental relations. tional arousal in social contexts and their risk for
These indices of emotional security, in turn, pre- psychological maladjustment (e.g., Zahn-Waxler
dicted their adjustment, especially in terms of inter-
Iannotti, Cummings, & Denham, 1990), the present
nalizing symptoms. findings indicated that negative emotional reactivity
Replicating previous research (Emery, 1982; in turn, was associated with higher levels of both in
Grych & Fincham, 1990), marital discord was associ- ternalizing and externalizing symptoms.
ated with children's externalizing problems. How- Children's internal representations of marital rela-
tions also served as a mediator of the effects of mari-

(Cummings & Davies, 1996; Davies & Cummings,
tal discord. Children exposed to greater histories1994; of Emery, 1989; Grych & Fincham, 1990).
marital discord were more likely to appraise interpa- Nonetheless, even a higher-order construct of
rental conflict as a threat to their own well-beingemotional
and security provided only a partial explana-
tion
the quality of family relations. This suggests that chil- for links between marital functioning and child
dren may actively process information about interpa- adjustment. As a whole, emotional security ac-
counted
rental relationships in relation to the meaning it holds for slightly less than half of the variance in
for themselves and family life (see also Grych & Fin-pathways between destructive marital functioning
cham, 1990; Harold & Conger, 1997; Stein & Tra- and child internalizing and externalizing symptoms.
Furthermore,
basso, 1992). In the context of empirical links between marital functioning continued to exert
marital discord and wider disturbances in parenting appreciable direct effects on children's internalizing
and family relations (e.g., Belsky, Youngblade, Rov- symptoms within the mediational models (Figure 2).
ine, & Volling, 1991), these findings are in keeping These findings are in accordance with the theoretical
with the predictions of attachment theory that chil- caveat that the emotional security hypothesis, like
dren's representations are relatively accurate barom- mid-level theories, cannot, and is not intended
other
to, fully explain all aspects of family functioning
eters of the impact of conflict on family life (Bowlby,
1973; Bretherton, 1985). (Cummings & Davies, 1996). Accordingly, cognitive,
Insecure internal representations of interparental social learning (e.g., modeling), and family systems
theories (e.g., parenting practices; Fauber et al., 1990)
relations specifically predicted children's internaliz-
may also provide viable mechanisms that help ac-
ing symptoms, consistent with results of other recent
studies showing that appraisals, in particular,countare for links between marital discord and child ad-
more robust predictors of internalizing symptoms justment. In fact, the present findings may also be in-
than externalizing symptoms (Cummings, Davies, terpreted
& in the context of other theories like the
Simpson, 1994; Grych, Seid, & Fincham, 1992; Har- cognitive-contextual framework (Grych & Fincham,
old, Fincham, Osborne, & Conger, 1997; Osborne & For example, this theory postulates that chil-
1990).
Fincham, 1996). Worry and preoccupation underly- dren who witness greater discord between their par-
ents are prone to exhibit negative expectations about
ing children's appraisals of the threat of their parents'
marriages on family life may be a factor, in them- the course of conflict and negative affect, which over
selves, for the development of internalizing symp- time may develop into more general psychological
toms. Further, various models have stressed that chil-problems (e.g., anxiety). Thus, notions of internal
dren's appraisals of the destructiveness of marital representations and emotional reactivity bear rela-
conflict increase risk for behavior problems by inten- tions to concepts such as expectations and negative
sifying emotional reactivity and dysregulation (Da- affect in the cognitive-contextual framework.
vies & Cummings, 1994; Emery, 1989; Grych & Fin- Contrary to expectations, a mediational model for
cham, 1990; Wilson & Gottman, 1995). The moderate regulation of exposure to parent affect was not sup-
association between children's internal representa- ported. Although there is some evidence that avoid-
tions and emotional reactivity in this study leaves ance or involvement in family stress place children at
room for the possibility that appraisals could risk alsofor psychopathology (see Cummings & Davies,
have effects on children's adjustment problems 1996; Sandler et al., 1994), the present findings are
through these emotional mechanisms (see also Har- consistent with a growing number of studies that
old & Conger, 1997). have reported mixed or complex results (Jenkins,
The modest to moderate interdependency found Smith, & Graham, 1989; Johnston et al., 1987; O'Brien
among the components of emotional security is in etac-
al., 1995). However, an alternative explanation is
cordance with an organizational view that they regu- that measuring regulation of exposure to parent af-
late and are regulated by emotional security (Cum- fect in the context of a parent-stranger conflict may
mings & Davies, 1996). By the same token, the lack have failed to elicit the powerful loyalty dilemmas
of a perfect one-to-one correspondence is consistent and threats to family stability that may motivate chil-
with the notion that they are also distinct subsystems dren's regulation of parent affect. More naturalistic
that may operate separately, or in combination, incontextsthe of assessment may thus yield more robust
expression of emotional security. These relations,measures
and of this component of emotional security.
the overall pattern of findings, thus underscore Furthermore,
the in moving toward a more complex con-
importance of delineating multifactor modelsceptualization
and of the function of children's regulation
differentiating between different profiles or styles of of exposure to parental affect, future research may
emotional security in understanding relationsbenefit be- from developing more fine-grained distinc-
tween marital functioning and child adjustment tions between maladaptive and adaptive ways of reg-
ulating exposure to parent affect (e.g., O'Brien, Baha-

modeling remains a significant task for studies in this
dur, Gee, Balto, & Erber, 1997) and distinguishing
area.
between different histories of family relations as pre- Due to the early stage in the formula
dictors of coping responses. For example, children's ing of the emotional security hypothes
attempts to regulate exposure to parent affect may be opment of procedures and measures to
qualitatively different, and more extreme, in the face tional security is not definitive. Given
of severe family adversity (e.g., family violence, par- reactions were assessed in response t
ent depression), and may be more closely, or com- conflict involving the mother, or analo
plexly, linked with vulnerability to psychological tations of marital conflict, care should
problems (e.g., Cummings, Hennessy, Rabideau, generalizing
& these results to naturalistic
Cicchetti, 1994; Emery, 1989; Gordis et al., 1997; conflict. However, limitations accrue wi
Zahn-Waxler et al., 1990). methodologies used to study relations b
Several caveats should be noted. Satisfying all sta-tal and child functioning (see discuss
tistical criteria for supporting the path model doesmings, 1995; Cummings & Davies, 1994
not necessarily rule out other possible pathways. The ple, there are serious ethical cons
concurrent, correlational nature of the present data, prohibitions to presenting children wit
even within the context of testing theory, is not terparental conflicts, and methodologic
equivalent to demonstrating causal relations. For ex- well prove impossible to disentangle ele
ample, a plausible alternative interpretation is dren's a security that are a by-product
"child" effects model whereby children's emotionalmarital relations from the proximal cha
insecurity strains their parents' marriages, causingthe immediate conflict. Furthermore,
heightened marital discord. Nonetheless, these cross- of field and analogue studies provide
sectional analyses provide a necessary first step and the present methodologies, including e
foundation toward more definitive tests using rela- similar reactions and relations among
tively costly longitudinal designs. observed in children's experiences with
The significance of a process-oriented approach tocurring marital conflicts in the home; i
the particular ordering of variables (e.g., mediators, flicts not involving both parents elicit
outcomes) merits discussion. Process-oriented ap- less intense, emotional reactions to inte
proaches (e.g., Cummings & Cummings, 1988), or, flicts; and numerous reports that simil
more broadly, the discipline of developmental psy-in analogue or simulated situations are
chopathology (Cicchetti, Ackerman, & Izard, 1995; correlated with both histories of marital conflict and
Sroufe & Rutter, 1984), aim, as a primary goal, to child adjustment (see Cummings, 1995; Cummings &
identify the specific processes and process-relations- Davies, 1994). Guided by the emphasis that the emo-
in-context that, over time, underlie what is classifiedtional security hypothesis places on differentiating
diagnostically as normal development or psychopa-proximal (i.e., immediate) and distal (i.e., history)
thology. A distinction is drawn between process vari- characteristics of conflict (Davies & Cummings,
ables (e.g., indices of emotional security assessed in1994), the present approach of isolating history of
the specific context of adults' conflict) and outcome marital relations allows for an appropriately conser-
variables (e.g., scores on instruments designed to as- vative test of critical propositions. Nonetheless, al-
sess general adjustment), based both on theory andthough various conflictual situations may "activate"
the specificity and level of assessment. For example, emotional security as a "system," and children ap-
the large body of research on relations between emo- pear quite able to imagine analogue conflicts as in-
tional security in close interpersonal relationships volving the parents or issues pertaining to the par-
and adjustment problems classifies emotional insecu- ents, the loyalty pulls, actual concerns about divorce,
and realistic fear of parental reprisals are undoubt-
rity at a different (i.e., process) level of analysis in
relation to measures of diagnostic symptoms or out- edly less intense in controlled, ethical presentations
comes, reflecting that the constructs are distinct do- of conflict stimuli.
mains of functioning in models of developmental In conclusion, although questions require follow-
psychopathology (e.g., Cummings & Davies, 1994; up and further study, this exploratory investigation
Greenberg, Cicchetti, & Cummings, 1990; Shaver &provides a beginning empirical foundation for emo-
Brennan, 1992; Sroufe & Waters, 1977). Nonetheless, tional security as a mediating mechanism for the im-
the prediction would be more cogent if the measure- pact of marital relations on children's adjustment. Ex-
ment of the mediator and outcome were separatedposure to marital functioning characterized by high
more in time, and the justification among alterna-levels of hostility, conflict escalation, and childrear-
tive causal orderings of variables in multivariate ing disagreements and low levels of compromise and
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Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations.
with child maladjustment, particularly in the form of
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173-
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Patterns of marital change and parent-child interaction.
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New York: Basic.
West Virginia University Office of Academic Affairs
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and Research and a grant-in-aid of research from
prospect. In I. Bretherton & E. Waters (Eds.), Growing
Sigma Xi. This article is based on a doctoral disserta-
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tion submitted by the first author to West Virginia
Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Develop-
University. Portions of this article were prepared
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while the first author was at the Research Institute
Brody, G. H., Stoneman, Z., & Flor, D. (1996). Parental reli-
on Addictions, Buffalo, NY. We are grateful to Martygiosity, family processes, and youth competence in rural
Boone, Kevin Larkin, Tracy Morris, and Hayne Reese two-parent African American families. Developmental
for their valuable advice on the project. We are in-Psychology, 32, 696-706.
debted to Drew Huffman and Robin Myers for their Brody, G. H., Stoneman, Z., Flor, D., McCrary, C., Hastings,
L., & Conyers, 0. (1994). Financial resources, parent psy-
assistance in numerous stages of the study and to the
chological functioning, parent co-caregiving, and early
students who assisted in data collection, including
adolescent competence in rural two-parent African-
Helen Bruzda, Michelle Dunn, Chris Farley, Kathy
American families. Child Development, 65, 590-605.
Ferguson, Jennifer Inzano, Jill Meredith, and Mar-
Buchanan, C. M., Maccoby, E. E., & Dornbusch, S. M.
quita Wilkins. Our gratitude is expressed to the par-
(1991). Caught between parents: Adolescents' experi-
ents and children who participated in the project. We
ence in divorced homes. Child Development, 62, 1008-
also thank Jack McArdle for generously providing us 1029.
with access to the LVPLS 1.8 statistical software via Campos, J. J., Mumme, D. L., Kermoian, R., & Campos, R.
his internet site, Ernest Jouriles for supplying valu-
(1994). Commentary: A functionalist perspective on the
able information on the Child-Rearing Disagree-
nature of emotion. In N. A. Fox (Ed.), The development
of emotion regulation: Biological and behavioral consid-
ments Scale, and the anonymous reviewers for their
very constructive comments. erations (pp. 284-303). Monographs of the Society for Re-
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Exploring Children's Emotional Security as a Mediator of the Link between Marital

Relations and Child Adjustment

Exploring Children's Emotional Security as a Mediator of the Link

INTRODUCTION havior. Emotion regulation is understo

adult conceptual models to childhood). However, functioning

Children's Emotional Security

Marital Functioning Emotional

METHOD Simulated Conflict Involving the Mother

Participants Following a 10 min baseline period, a simulated

tempt at avoidance; (3) moderate = multiple andand

and well-validated parent-report measure of chil-

aggression, delinquency, and attention problem

Intervention 1.71 1.02 1-4

Insecurity: Internal repres

Table 3 Correlations among Latent Composites of Marital Discord, Emotional

p =.06; * p- .05; ** p - .01; two-tailed.

Falk & Miller, 1992), we assumed a moreport conserva-

Marital .34 Emotional

Regulation of -.29 Children's

tions also served as a mediator of the effects of mari-

ulating exposure to parent affect (e.g., O'Brien, Baha-

Belsky, J., Youngblade, L., Rovine, M., & Volling, B. (1991).

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